the coppy of a certain large act (obligatory) of tonker lovis de bils, lord of koppensdamme, bonen, &c. touching the skill of a better way of anatomy of mans body. kopye van zekere ampele acte. english. bils, lodewijk de, - . this text is an enriched version of the tcp digital transcription a of text r in the english short title catalog (wing b ). textual changes and metadata enrichments aim at making the text more computationally tractable, easier to read, and suitable for network-based collaborative curation by amateur and professional end users from many walks of life. the text has been tokenized and linguistically annotated with morphadorner. the annotation includes standard spellings that support the display of a text in a standardized format that preserves archaic forms ('loveth', 'seekest'). textual changes aim at restoring the text the author or stationer meant to publish. this text has not been fully proofread approx. kb of xml-encoded text transcribed from -bit group-iv tiff page images. earlyprint project evanston,il, notre dame, in, st. louis, mo a wing b estc r ocm this keyboarded and encoded edition of the work described above is co-owned by the institutions providing financial support to the early english books online text creation partnership. this phase i text is available for reuse, according to the terms of creative commons . universal . the text can be copied, modified, distributed and performed, even for commercial purposes, all without asking permission. early english books online. (eebo-tcp ; phase , no. a ) transcribed from: (early english books online ; image set ) images scanned from microfilm: (early english books, - ; : ) the coppy of a certain large act (obligatory) of tonker lovis de bils, lord of koppensdamme, bonen, &c. touching the skill of a better way of anatomy of mans body. kopye van zekere ampele acte. english. bils, lodewijk de, - . [ ], p. [s.n.], london : translation of author's kopye van zekere ampele acte. reproduction of original in the bodleian library. eng human anatomy -- early works to . a r (wing b ). civilwar no the coppy of a certain large act obligatory of yonker lovis de bils, lord of koppensdamme, bonen, &c. touching the skill of a better way of bils, lodewijk de c the rate of defects per , words puts this text in the c category of texts with between and defects per , words. - tcp assigned for keying and markup - apex covantage keyed and coded from proquest page images - judith siefring sampled and proofread - judith siefring text and markup reviewed and edited - pfs batch review (qc) and xml conversion the coppy of a certain large act [ obligatory ] of yonker lovis de bils , lord of koppensdamme , bonen , &c. touching the skill of a better way of anatomy of mans body . printed [ in low dutch ] at rotterdam , in the printing-house of john naeranus a book-seller , at the sign of the book-binder in the street called het steiger . london , . to my much esteemed friend samuel hartlib the elder , esq sir , your desires were wont to tend so much to the publick good , that your virtuosi would think i wanted philanthropy as well as civility , if i should refuse to comply with such as your letter brings me . i send you therefore the propositions of monsieur de bils englishéd out of low dutch , at my request , by such a person as you will readily think can translate very well , though he can better write things worthy to be translated ; when i shall have told you that his name is mr. pell . the design avow'd to be aim'd at in the propositions , and much more the matter of fact , without which they might appeare extravagant , made the print ( i confesse ) very welcome to me . for though in some papers i formerly told you of , i had mentioned divers things i had intended to try , and some that i had already observ'd , in order to the preservation of animal substances , and the making some of them more durable subjects for the anatomist to deal with : yet besides that most of the ways i proposed to my self were as yet little more then bare designes , i never aim'd at , ( and scarce so much as hop'd for , ) such strange things as in this paper the ingenuous publisher of it tells us he hath already actually performed . and therefore i suppose that it will not be unwelcome to you , if not having had the opportunity to see the effect of this gentleman's skill my self , and being sufficiently indisposed to believe or affirme any strange thing that i have not seen ; i annex the other paper you lately desir'd of me . i mean that wherein the proposers dutch print came inclos ▪ d to me from the hague . for besides that it containes something of particular ; it comes from a french gentleman whose testimonie may well be considerable in matters of this nature ; for he is one of that select society of parisian philosophers of which you and i have sometimes discoursed , and you will finde a celebrating mention made of him in the life of gassendus , ( whose friend and disciple he was . ) and his curiosity leading him to imitate divers of the old greek philosophers , who travail'd through many countreys only to enrich themselves with what knowledge they could meet with in them , he went purposely to visit monsieur de bils , soon after he had left england ; which he lately travers'd , and in his passage honour'd me with severall of his visits . i am so willing that you should be as wary as i in admitting unlikely things into your belief , that in putting the french i received into english , i have been ( purposely to avoid straining his expressions ) more careful to do right to his words then to his style . and as for those things that appear to have been left out by me , they are some of them such matters as concern not our proposer and others but such complements as require rather my blushes then my translating . the consent you desire of me to publish the proposalls in our language i must not refuse you . for 't is the least we owe to a person that hath endeavour'd to oblige mankinde , and to those that are willing to encourage such endeavours , by acquainting the ingenuous here with his propositions , to strive to procure him subscribers , and to afford them the opportunity of encouraging and assisting so useful a work as this ( supposing the truth of the historical part of the paper ) is like to prove . it may also be hop'd that the noise of such discoveries abroad will rouse up our ingenuous men at home , and excite them to endeavour to emulate if not surpasse them : and to keep up that reputation for anatomical discoveries and skill that this nation hath of late deservedly enjoy'd . nor will it be amiss by the same means to give as many of those in authority as may happen to read what the states of holland have done in favour of a stranger , occasion to take notice what countenance neighbouring magistrates , that are not thought unpolitick neither , are forward to give to those designs that aime at the advancement of reall learning . which may perhaps invite those that can do it , to give encouragement to the english wits ; which i am groundedly confident want nothing but encouragement , to perform things in this kinde that would really advantage the publick , as well as highly gratifie such persons as mr. hartlib and his affectionate humble servant r. b. octob. the . . the copy of a certain large act of yonker l. de bils , lord of koppensdam , bonen , &c. touching the skill of a better way of anatomy of mans body . this day being the . day of may , . before the witnesses here-under named ; and me leonard van zyl , a publick notary admitted by the court of holland , and residing in rotterdam , there appeared yonker louiis de bils , lord of koppensdamme , bonen , &c. bailliu of the city and territory of aardenburg . and he declared , as he also doth further declare uprightly by this writing , that , although he , the said gentleman , having given , to the famous university of leiden , divers anatomical pieces of his own work , had resolved to trouble himselfe no more with anatomy , and accordingly had done nothing in it for , fourteen years together ; yet he hath now taken up the contrary resolution , because of the earnest intreaties of divers famous , learned and judicious men both of this countrey and of forraigne parts ; as also because of that favourable permission and granut , whereby the high-mighty lords , the states generall of the united netherlands have given him power to take all the bodies of those that shall be executed by the hand of justice , whether military or civil , as also of those strangers that shall die in the hospitals , in ill parts belonging to the said states general ; and to dissect the said carkases in such manner as himself shall think good for the satisfying his own curiosity , and the promoting of knowledge for the common good . being also further incouraged by the convenient place for an anatomical theater in that house which was lately the court of the english merchants in this city ; which house the honourable lords the governours of rotterdam have favourably granted him to that end , he , the said gentleman , hath now at last resolved and begun to set up a meerly new anatomy of the body of man , by many dead bodies dissected and embalmed in an extraordinary manner , in which bodies shall be shewn all the veins , arteries , sinews and fibres severed from one another , but remaining fast , both where they first arise , and where they end . also the heart , liver , lungs , and entrals , eyes and brains shall remain manifest in the said bodies ; and shall be so ordered that lectures may be made upon them , as well in summer as vvinter , with discovery and demonstration of mistakes both of ancient and modern anatomists , who in their dissections are hindred , by the spilling of blood , from seeing to the bottome of their work : but these new anatomies shall be completed without spilling any blood at all . in these the anatomy-reader shall be able to shew the true ground of the circulation of the blood , first found out by doctor hervey ; as also to give further demonstration to that doctrine , by causing the veines to swell , so that they shall stand full of blood , which can hardly be seen otherwise . by which means men may see all the valvas venarum and the manner of the opening and and shutting of all those trap-doors within the veines ; some of which doors are semilunular , some of other shapes ; as may be seen described in a little book published [ in dutch ] by the aforesaid undertaker , bearing this title the true use of the gall-bladder , &c. whereby may be understood the office of that passage commonly called ductus chyliferus with its branches and adjoyned little pipes : as also how the chylils comes to the heart and its little bag ; how the tears come into the eyes ; how the spittle comes into the mouth , how the water-courses come to the liver , and how the whole body is moistened . but because the foresaid undertaker plainly sees it impossible to compleat so great and costly a work as this , at his own charge , it having cost him already some thousands of pounds flemish ; and he having alwayes refused all offers of those that would oblige him to serve any other soveraigne , therefore , by these presents he makes known this his intention to all those who regard the good of mankinde , and this useful knowledge : and he invites them to be helpful to his designe , whereto divers famous learned men have perswaded him ; namely , to provide almost fifty bodies differently dissected and embalmed ; according to which , pictures may be drawn and engraven in copper , and books may be written . more-over , this his new manner of dissecting and embalming he promiseth to reveale to every one of those who shall contribute a small sum , which by many hands may quickly arise to the desired sum of twenty thousand pounds cursiv . for so much will be necessary , considering that so many bodies , before they be anatomized and embalmed as is desired , will stand him in some thousands of guldens , besides other expenses , which he hath already been at , and more he must yet be at . whosoever , therefore , desires the aforesaid skill or the furtherance of it , let him bring or send his name with the summe of five and twenty carolus guldens at one payment ( he that desires to hasten this designe , may send in as much more as he pleaseth ) to the foresaid undertaker , who will bind himself to every one of those contributors by a solemn obligation under his hand and seal , to satisfie every one of them , by a compleat revealing of his skill in a writing subscribed by the said undertaker , and deliver'd to each of them within a year and an half after the first of iuly . and if any of the contributors , dwelling in forrain countries , shall conceive the said writing not clear enough to give them full knowledge of the said skill , they may then either come themselves to him or send some country-man of theirs to rotterdam to be present at his dissections , where the said undertaker will shew them the true manner of working ; as also to all those contributors that dwell in these countreys , if they desire to see the way of handling , that they may so much the better perceive and understand the way , which he by long experience and much practice hath found out for the dissecting of a whole body without spilling any blood , and for the embalming it for whole ages in such manner as aforesaid : so that the said contributors from that time ●●rward shall be able to do all those things as well as he , the said undertaker , can do them , namely to dissect and embalme a whole body with its blood , bowels , braines , and whatsoever is in it , without being subject to any putrefaction in the least . and if any man be curious to see beforehand some effects of these promises , he may come to the undertaker at rotterdam ; and giving one reiks daler , he shall see four pieces of his work , which shall be there shewed unto him before he layes down the foresaid twenty five guldens . those pieces are four anatomized humane bodies thus prepared & embalmed , but dissected each of them in a different manner , wherein any man according to his desire , may view the veines , arteries , sinews , membranes and fibres in their order . but , if at the end of the eighteen moneths abovesaid , the abovesaid summe should not be made up , and so his foresaid designe be hindred ; he then promiseth , to all and every one of those that brought or sent him money , upon condition that he should teach them his skill , that upon their returns of his obligations , he will readily repay their five and twenty guldens , ( or more , to those that contributed more ) detaining no part of their mony , save the reiks-daler which they gave for the sight of the aforesaid four anatomized bodies , towards the charges which he hath already been at , or must yet lay out , to satisfie the curiosity of those that shall come to view his foresaid pieces . and that all may be done without fraud or deceit , the said gentleman , the undertaker , shall by his delivered obligation binde his person and goods both movable and unmovable , to each of the contributors , either to teach them his skill , or to restore their money . if this undertaker come to dye before the said terme be expired , then shall his wife be bound , by the same obligation , either to deliver every man his five and twenty guldens ( or more , to those that contributed more ) or else to give every such contributor a copy of the description of the said skill ; in which description he the said undertaker protesteth seriously that he hath expressed his uttermost knowledge of his skill , so as may content any learner . a faire copy of this description shewed to me the notary , and put up in a latton box , and sealed with the seale of my notaries office , shall be kept by the wife of the said undertaker . of all which above-written declarations , the aforesaid gentleman , the undertaker , required me the notary to make an act in due forme . thus done in rotterdam , in the presence of justus riikwaart and laurence jordaan , both doctors of physick , intreated to come on purpose to be witnesses of this writing . underneath stood quod attestor and was signed below l. van ziil , notar . publ. under the printed copy was written thus , it agrees with the original act , dated and subscribed as above l. van . ziil , notar . publ. the dutch coine above-mentioned , reduced to english mony . . thousand pounds flemish . thousand pounds sterling . . carolus guldens shillings english . . reiks-daler . shillings , . pence . the fore-mentioned translation of the french gentlemans letter i went into zealand , partly to see there monsieur de bils ; but being inform'd at middelburg that the lords states had invited him to roterdam , to erect there his anatomicall theatre ; i presently resorted thi●ther , and made a weeks stay there , to visit him . i shall not tell y●● sir that i entertain'd him concerning you , and that , &c. — i shall content my selfe to acqua●●● you , that i desir'd him to give me the inclosed print to send you that you might know what he is upon — his two secrets are that of embalming , and the opening of dead body's without spilling of blood , which he pretends to teach those onely that shall have contributed to the sum of sixscore thousand pound , when it shall have been made up . if his experiments be true he revives the title of the liver to sanguification , and believes himself to have discover'd the original of teares , and spittle , of the serosity's contain'd in the pericardium , and the passage of those which serve for the making of urine , without traversing 〈◊〉 heart . he holds forth also many other propositions , very ingenious , if the things be such as he delivers . i have seen his foure embalmed bodies , which are extreamly fine ; and divers smaller parts of the body by themselves . one of those is embalmed with all the excrements in the guts , and a little faetus ( that he hath ) is embalm'd whole . — postscript . an abortive faetus so preserv'd together with an intimation of the way by which it is preserv'd i have seene and mention'd in the papers i lately told you off . a extract of a letter written by the learned dr. horne publick professor of history in the university of leyden to s. h. billii anatomia sanè admiratione dignissima est : eam vobis dudum innotuisse non dubitabam . tria corpora jam olim spectaculo praeparaverat , quae etiamnum visuntur . corpora quasi in lapideam durittem congelat : ita sine sanguinis aut partium perturbatione singula naturalibus locis spectantur . ex anatomico nostro , datâ occasione , inquiram quae toius rei sit ratio . in english . de bils his anatomy is indeed admirable , i made no question but you had heard of it long since . he had formerly prepared three bodies after his new fashion , and they are yet to be seen . they are become almost as hard as stone , so that every part may be seene in its proper place without any removal either of the blood or other parts . the next time i meet with our professor of anatomy , i will get a particular accompt of the whole businesse from him . finis . notes, typically marginal, from the original text notes for div a e- what this amounts to in english mony the print will informe you . the anatomy of human bodies, comprehending the most modern discoveries and curiosities in that art to which is added a particular treatise of the small-pox & measles : together with several practical observations and experienced cures ... / written in latin by ijsbrand de diemerbroeck ... ; translated from the last and most correct and full edition of the same, by william salmon ... anatome corporis humani. english diemerbroeck, ysbrand van, - . approx. kb of xml-encoded text transcribed from -bit group-iv tiff page images. text creation partnership, ann arbor, mi ; oxford (uk) : - (eebo-tcp phase ). a wing d estc r ocm this keyboarded and encoded edition of the work described above is co-owned by the institutions providing financial support to the early english books online text creation partnership. this phase i text is available for reuse, according to the terms of creative commons . universal . the text can be copied, modified, distributed and performed, even for commercial purposes, all without asking permission. early english books online. (eebo-tcp ; phase , no. a ) transcribed from: (early english books online ; image set ) images scanned from microfilm: (early english books, - ; : ) the anatomy of human bodies, comprehending the most modern discoveries and curiosities in that art to which is added a particular treatise of the small-pox & measles : together with several practical observations and experienced cures ... / written in latin by ijsbrand de diemerbroeck ... ; translated from the last and most correct and full edition of the same, by william salmon ... anatome corporis humani. english diemerbroeck, ysbrand van, - . salmon, william, - . [ ], , [ ], , [ ] p. : ill. printed for w. whitwood..., london : . reproduction of original in cambridge universtiy library. created by converting tcp files to tei p using tcp tei.xsl, tei @ oxford. re-processed by university of nebraska-lincoln and northwestern, with changes to facilitate morpho-syntactic tagging. gap elements of known extent have been transformed into placeholder characters or elements to simplify the filling in of gaps by user contributors. eebo-tcp is a partnership between the universities of michigan and oxford and the publisher proquest to create accurately transcribed and encoded texts based on the image sets published by proquest via their early english books online (eebo) database (http://eebo.chadwyck.com). the general aim of eebo-tcp is to encode one copy (usually the first edition) of every monographic english-language title published between and available in eebo. eebo-tcp aimed to produce large quantities of textual data within the usual project 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the period. in general, first editions of a works in english were prioritized, although there are a number of works in other languages, notably latin and welsh, included and sometimes a second or later edition of a work was chosen if there was a compelling reason to do so. image sets were sent to external keying companies for transcription and basic encoding. quality assurance was then carried out by editorial teams in oxford and michigan. % (or pages, whichever is the greater) of each text was proofread for accuracy and those which did not meet qa standards were returned to the keyers to be redone. after proofreading, the encoding was enhanced and/or corrected and characters marked as illegible were corrected where possible up to a limit of instances per text. any remaining illegibles were encoded as <gap>s. understanding these processes should make clear that, while the overall quality of tcp data is very good, some errors will remain and some readable characters will be marked as illegible. users should bear in mind that in all likelihood such instances will never have been looked at by a tcp editor. the texts were encoded and linked to page images in accordance with level of the tei in libraries guidelines. copies of the texts have been issued variously as sgml (tcp schema; ascii text with mnemonic sdata character entities); displayable xml (tcp schema; characters represented either as utf- unicode or text strings within braces); or lossless xml (tei p , characters represented either as utf- unicode or tei g elements). keying and markup guidelines are available at the text creation partnership web site . eng human anatomy -- early works to . measles -- early works to . smallpox -- early works to . - tcp assigned for keying and markup - apex covantage keyed and coded from proquest page images - judith siefring sampled and proofread - judith siefring text and markup reviewed and edited - pfs batch review (qc) and xml conversion the anatomy of human bodies ; comprehending the most modern discoveries and curiosities in that art . to which is added a particular treatise of the small-pox & measles . together with several practical observations and experienced cures . with figures curiously cut in copper , representing the several parts and operations . written in latin by isbrand de diemerbroeck , professor of physick and anatomy in utrecht . translated from the last and most correct and full edition of the same , by william salmon , professor of physick . london printed for w. whitwood at the angel and bible in little-britain , . at which place all dr. salmons works are sold the preface . how beneficial the exact knowledge of the fabrick of humane bodies is , and how difficult the same skill is to attain , the continual improvements in anatomy one age after another , notwithstanding the utmost diligence of the last , do sufficiently evince . were it not beneficial , so many philophers and physicians in all ages had not employ'd their pains about it ; and were it not difficult , some or other of these great men had compleated it . of which number we may reckon democritus and hippocrates , the two parents of solid philosophy and physic , one of which great men was by the city of abdera invited to take a journey to cure the other of madness ; but the physician finding the philosopher intent upon his anatomical scrutiny for the seat of the bile , and receiving wise answers to all his other enquiries , returned satisfied that the multitude of that place laboured of the very disease , which they were so mad to have cured in democritus . many more great men among the antients , such as aristotle , diocles , erasistratus , praxagoras , herophilus , asclepiades , euripho and others cultivated this province ; but none in former ages excelled galen . nor was anatomy in esteem only among phisophers and physicians ; but even kings and emperors were both spectators of , and actors in it . alexander the greatest of emperors , employ'd both himself and his master aristotle sometimes in dissections , notwithstanding his conquests and great affairs , which took up so much of his time and care . also the best of emperors , marcus antoninus , who was so prudent and wise a man , gave himself to the search of nature and to cutting up of humane bodies , that he might the better understand his own frame and constitution . nor did several aegyptian kings disdain to manage the anatomical knife with their own royal hand . certain also it is , that boethus and paulus sergius the roman consuls , and other great personages , both learned and warlike , honored galen with their presence at his anatomical administrations ▪ where they might see and admire the skill and workmanship of the divine hand in building a tabernacle for the soul of man. and indeed among all the advantages of learning , none is greater than to have skill in nature ; and yet above all , the highest pitch of knowledge is to know our selves . be he philosopher , orator , lawyer or divine , that thinks he knows so much , to what purpose is it , if he is wise abroad and a fool at home , if he knows not the habitation of his soul , the seat of his reason , whereby he is willing to distinguish himself specifically from brutes , and signally from the most of men ? what an exquisite piece of folly would it appear to be , if a man skill'd in minerals and plants , and in most other subjects of natural enquiry , yet should not know the animal oeconomy at all ? certainly he would to judicious eyes appear no less impertinent , than the man that should mind every mans business but his own , and in balancing accounts would be found as rich in knowledge , as the foresaid impertinent would be in estate . for anatomy is not a knowledge only honorable and pleasant ; but profitable and highly useful , especially to a physician ; so necessary , that the ancients thought it the very foundation upon which the celebrated art of physic is built , which being once taken away , the whole art must fall to ruine . as an architect , when he goes to repair a decay'd house , must of necessity know all the parts of the house , of what substance they must be , of what figure , how many in number , and how they must one be joyned to another . so he that professes physic , can never cure the diseased parts aright , unless he has an exact idea of their substance , figure , bulk , number , and mutual connexion one to another , which can only be attained by anatomy . if a philosopher ask a reason of any action either natural or animal , it is only the knowledge of the parts of a humane body , that can furnish a man with an answer . and if you are to cut out a thorn , or the point of any weapon , or if you are to open a fistula or an abscess , you can perform nothing aright without anatomy . it is through want of skill in this , that sometimes sense , sometimes motion , sometimes both are violated , or wholly abolished , and ( which is worst of all ) a contemptuous neglect hereof by some physicians has been the cause of present death to some persons . of such moment is the knowledge of anatomy , both in cure of diseases , and in presaging the event . but unskilfulness makes men bold where there is reason to fear , and timorous where all is safe , and no occasion of fear is . yet now adays how many medical rabbies are there pretending themselves to be either chymists or galenists , and not inferior to the master of their sect , who do not understand books of anatomy : so far are they from ever having seen or shown to others any dissections . and divest but these fellows of their titles , you 'll find them mere syrrup-mongers , endeavouring more to please the palate than to cure diseases . which indeed is the reason we have so many circumforaneous impostors , who promise boldly every thing to the unlearned multitude , relying upon receits for medicines composed without reason . hence it is come to pass , that he who knows but how to make up a medicine , dares pronounce his judgment of diseases , and give his medicines without any regard had to an able and learned physician . and so fellows play with mens lives , who have skill in nothing , much less in so abstruse an art as physick is . wisely therefore have our laws provided , that none but such as are recommended by their learning and probity should be admitted to take care of the health of men , none i say , but such as are approved of by the learned . we have not in england wanted our cato's , boethus's and paulus's , who by law have kept sycophants and knaves from practising of physick ; who have obliged every one to practise that art and trade he has been brought up to , and who have restored learning to its place and honor . for only the learned in anatomy know , what part a disease does primarily affect , and what by sympathy , of what nature things are , and what remedies ought to be applied to each part , since the method of cure varies according to the nature of several parts . only men skill'd in anatomy can give true judgment upon a wound , whether it be mortal or no , which is of no small moment to a judge or magistrate for their conduct and procedure upon criminals in that particular . such likewise they must be , who by dissecting a diseased body , can procure any advantage to the living , by finding out more proper remedies , according as by dissection they have found in others the cause and seat of the disease . though by what has already been said , you see the credit and reputation anatomy has in former ages been , yet the study of it never flourished more than in this last age , wherein so many are so strenuously industrious , that one would think in our age it might be brought to perfection ▪ who can ever forget the learned asellius , for finding out the lacteal veins ? no less than immortal glory can be due to the renown'd harvey , our country-man , for finding out the circulation of the blood. he that cannot acknowledge the excellency of our willis for his anatomy of the brain , must never pretend to the subject discourse . the curious researches of our wharton on the glands surpass what has been said in former times . the scholastic and learned glisson has performed his share in trasing the meanders of the liver-vessels . the acute lower has shown in sensible terms , how the prime mover of the humane machine exerts its power . the renowned bartholinus in denmark , the swammerdam's , bilsius's , de graaf's , and others in the low-countries ; but especially the learned and laborious diemerbroeck , in utrecht , have raised to themselves immortal monuments of their learning and industry about this subject . and upon diemerbroecks labours principally , what i have here to say , shall be employed . he says , he had for several years been conversant in anatomical studies ; that in teaching others , he had learned many things himself that were new , and till his time altogether unknown ; upon which he resolved to write a book of particular observations , and make them publick , as he saw several others had done before him . but abundance of his friends disswaded him from this , and urged him rather to write a whole body of anatomy , and to put into it ( besides what galen , eustachius , vesalius , and others had written , who had been most excellent in works of this nature ) not only his own , but all the modern inventions of all learned men whatsoever . this advice was not unwelcome to him , because none had attempted this before him . but the attendance upon his practice , the greatness of the undertaking , and the criticalness and censoriousness of this curious age , to say nothing of the malice and envy of some , did a little deterr him . however , these difficulties being surmounted , he undertook the business , finished it , and made it publick . all the new things , which either he could find out , or were hitherto found out by the best of anatomists , he has here brought upon the stage . he further , in his first edition , engaged , that whatever hereafter he should find lying hid in obscurity , he would bring to light , and when he died , that he would bequeath all to posterity . for as long as the desire of advancing anatomical knowledge should continue in the world ; he knew innumerable other things would be produced , which we cannot now so much as dream of , such things he recommends to posterity , and that out of love to the common welfare , men would not hereafter scruple to undertake this province . in this anatomy of his , he tells you , he is not so ambitious as to arrogate to himself the excellent sayings , or the new inventions of others ; but desiring to give every one his due honour ; he sets down the names of the authors , of whom he borrowed any thing ; for , as pliny says , he ever reckoned it a piece of good nature and modesty , to acknowledge his benefactors , but that it was an argument of guilt and ill nature , to chuse rather to be catched in theft , than to restore another his own , when he at the same time is in debt upon interest . and so he gives to all their due . for , he professes , he would not be accounted one of these , that by writing of books , would procure themselves a name , who by raking and scraping all they can from others , get a great deal together , and vaunt it all for their own , concealing the authors names from whence they stole , when in the mean time they mis-apprehend perhaps the authors meaning , and what they have thence transcribed , neither they themselves well understand , nor are they able to express it to others . nevertheless , in quoting of authors , he uses not many flatteries and complements , but avoids all fulsome and adulatory blandishments , wherewith abundance of books now adays are rather blotted than adorned , while they style the authors , whom they cite , the most eminent , never enough to be commended , the most acute , the most famous , the most learned , the most noble , the most celebrated , &c , and adorn themselves , especially such as are yet alive , with i know not what epithetes ( it may be to avoid and prevent some shrowd objections , which haply they might otherwise fear ; or that they themselves being ambitious and delighted with such empty applause , desire the same favour , at one time or other , to be returned upon themselves ) he reckons , all he quotes , to be learned men , nor does he doubt of it , though he thinks some more learned than others . therefore he would have no man take it ill , that he lards not his name with many such epithets ; because , as complements now pass indifferently upon all men , they rather fully the illustrious worth of the deserving , than add any splendor to it . in this book he studies not so much politeness of style , as the truth , which has no occasion for bombast and rhetoric . but that he may the better discover what the truth is , in several places he opposes other mens opinions , but in a friendly way ; some he refutes , and wholly rejects , but without any malice ; here and there he ushers in his own , but without ambition ; and whereas he has observed , that in most authors , several things are wanting about the true use of the parts , many things , either written or judged amiss , in several places he treats more fully concerning it , but without disparagement or reproach to others . for he never reckoned it ▪ any fault in a learned man , that all other mens writings do not please him alike , nor that he corrects many things , and contradicts many , provided it be done civilly , and without virulence and calumny ; which alass ! is now the practice of too many supercilious scriblers , who , the better to defend their darling opinions , and these often taken , and stolen from others , and vouched for their own , had rather attack their adversaries with foul words and scurrilous writings ( which does not at all become learned men ) then concert the difference in friendly reasonings . in the seventh book of this work , and other where , in describing the ducts of the veins , he takes a new and unusual method ; for whereas other anatomists heretofore derived the branchings of the veins from the vena cava and other great veins , to all the parts of the body , he on the contrary prosecutes them from the parts to the great veins , and so to the vena cava , that so the continual progress of the blood , according to the order of circulation , might the better be demonstrated . thus much he published in his life time : but before he died , he had made several fresh collections , and somewhere alterations . these in this last edition , from whence this translation was made , are added by his learned son. wherein we may modestly aver , that the most material things , found either in ancient or modern anatomists , are comprehended , and far more opinions and discoveries , than ever were contained in any one anatomical treatise yet extant . now it being agreed by all skilful physicians , that anatomy is the solid basis of physic ; and ( as has before been said ) the learned diemerbroeck having excelled in laying the corner stone , how can it reasonably be suggested , that the same learned hand cannot build a superstructure correspondent ? the author therefore having not rested in theory alone , but having put in practice what he so well knew in the art of saving men ; and moreover , having given , not only his own , but other mens practice in the most epidemic diseases , the small-pox and measles , which were never till this edition made publick ; we thonght we could not do better , than give our country-men , in their own tongue , what he so advantagiously has written in the learned , and only to such as understand that . in these acute and violent diseases , we find the best methods yet invented , scarce sufficient to rescue the major part of patients from them ; how requisite therefore is it , that the skill of so learned and successful a physician as ours should not dye with him ? but he rests not here , his worthy son has likewise communicated in this edition , some of his fathers observations upon various diseases , wherein consists the life and soul of physic ; for in them , as in a piece of workmanship , you may see the authors skill , better than in any precepts , inasmuch as it is much easier to prescribe rules how to act , than to put those same rules in practice . so that in this volume you may have a summary of the excellencies in the art of physick , which so many learned men in all ages , since physic was an art , have by their utmost diligence and ingenuity been able to accomplish . tab. i. the explanation of the sixteen plates . the explanation of the first table . in folio . this table exhibits the delineations of the chyle-bearing channels , the pectoral chyle-bearing channel , and of the lymphatic vessels of the liver ; cut in brass by their first discoverers . figure i. all the said vessels , as they occur in a dog. a. the ventricle . b. the pylocus . cc. the duodene gut. ddd . the iejune gut. eee . the ilion gut. f. the blind gut. h. the beginning of the right gut. iiiii . the five lobes of the liver . k. the vesicle of the gall. ll. the kidneys . mm. the emulgent veins . nn. the hollow vein . o. the gate vein . r. the vesicle of the chylus . ss . the mesentery . tt . the broken part of the mesentery , that the ligature of the lymphatic vessels of the liver might be conveniently adapted . aa . the glandulous sweet-bread . bb . the fleshy sweet-bread , annexed to the duodenum , and lying under the ventricle . ccccc . the milkie veins lying between the intestines and the glandulous sweet-bread . ddd . the milkie veins issuing out of the glandulous sweet-bread . eeeee . the exits of the lymphatic vessels from the liver . fff . the progress of them to the kernel . m. and from thence into the chylus-bag . gg . two branches of the choller-receiving channel . h. the insertion of this channel into the duoclenum . iiiii . the 〈◊〉 veins . m. a k●…rnel seated under the porta vein , receiving the lymphatic vessels of the liver . nn . one of these channels cree●…ng through the vesicle of the gal●… . oooo . the ramification of the porta vein , and its ingress into the liver . tt . the veins of the vesicle of the gall. xxxx . the places of the valves in those channels . figure ii. pppp . the places of the same valves . figure iii. t. the bifurcation of the chyle-bearing channel in the thorax , under the heart , as it is frequently found . figure iv. z. the various ramification of the chyle-bearing channel less common . figure v. x. the axillary vein , with the left iugular i. n. the threefold insertion of the chyle-bearing channel , less common ; for it is more frequently single . figure vi. aaa . the same insertion in a mans head. bb. the axillary vein entire . c. the external iugular vein . d. the clavicle . figure vii . a. the heart removed to the side . bb. the lungs turned back . cc. the hollow vein . d. the right axillary vein . e. the left axillary vein . f. a part of the same vein opened to shew the insertion of the chyle-bearing channel . g. the sternon delineated only with points . h. the left iugular vein . ii. the aorta arteria . kk . the little chylus-bag . l. the hepatic branches of the hollow vein . aa . the emulgent veins . bb . the lumbar veins . dd . the crural veins . eeee . the lymphatic vessels under the right gut , tending upwards to the chylus-bag , fffff . the kernels placed by the crural veins , out of which those lymphatic vessels rise . ggg . the said lymphatic vessels rising out of the kernels . hhh . the lymphatic vessels proceeding between the muscles of the abdomen to the chylus-bag . iiii . the milkie veins creeping between the glandulous sweet-bread and the chylus-bag . kkk . the glandulous sweet-bread . ll . the milkie mesenteric veins between the glandulous sweet-bread , and the chylus-bag . mm. the chyle-bearing channel in the thorax . n. the insertion of it into the axillary vein . oo . the kernels of the ster non . pp. their lymphatic vessel discharging it self into the channel of the chylus in the thorax . q. a little branch of it proceeding toward the ribs . rr. the glandules of the heart . s. their lymphatic vessels inserted into the chyle-bearing channel under the heart . figure viii . xx . the gullet . β. the kernel annexed to it . γγ . the lymphatic vessel arising out of it , and inserted into the chyle-bearing channel . δδ . the chyle-bearing channel . figure ix . the chyle-bearing channel in a dog , as first discovered by pecquetus , and by him delineated . . the trunk of the hollow vein ascending . . the receptacle of the chylus . . the kidneys . . . the diaphragma dissected . . . the lumbar psoa muscles . . the several meetings of the chyle-bearing channels . figure x. the same chyle-bearing channel , together with the chyle-bag , taken out of a dog. a. the trunk of the hollow vein ascending , open'd upwards in length . bb. the meeting of the iugular and axillary veins ; where the springs of the chylus are marked out by points . cc. the valves of the iugular veins looking downwards . dd. the distribution of the milkie vessels to the springs , as described by pacquetus . eee . various meetings of the milkie vessels . f. the ampulla , or upper part of the chyle-bearing bag , conspicuous in the thorax , near the untouched diaphragma , toward the left side . g. a little channel appearing on the right-hand by the diaphragma . hh . the remaining portion of the diaphragma . i. the receptacle of the chylus . lll . the milkie mesaraics entring the chyle-bag , cut off . mmm . several valves of the chyle-bearing channel . ooo . valves preventing the return of the ascending chylus . figure xi . the chyle . bearing channel in a man , as discovered and described by bartholinus . a. the upper chyle-bag rare and seldom seen . bb . two chyle bags mutually joyned to the milkie vessels , seldom seen , for generally there is but one . ccc . the milkie branches ascending from the bags . d. the single thoracic branch . e. the right emulgent artery . ff . the kidneys . gg . the descending trunk of the great artery , cut off below the heart . h. the spine of the back . k. the gullet turned back to the side . ll. the kernels of the thymas . m. the thoracic channel tending to the subclavial rib. n. the insertion of the chyle-bearing channel into the subclavium . o. the valves . p. the inner form of the axillary vein , expanded and slit the full length . r. the external form of the iugular vein . ttt . the ribs of each side . v. the bladders in their proper holes . xx . the diaphragma laid open on each side . the explanation of the second table . in fol. . this table shews the lymphatic vessels seated in the neck , as they are describ'd one way by lewis de bills , and another way by iacob henry pauli . figure i. the lymphatic channels of the neck described by lewis de bills , and by him call'd the dew-bearing channels . a. the dew-bearing channel ascending upwards from the cistern . b. the fissure of the said channel about the fifth and sixth vertebre of the thorax . e. the winding receptacle which that channel makes above the small twigs of the iugular vein . f. the windings which that receptacle makes about the writh'd receptacle . . part of the hollow vein under that receptacle . . the kernels of the thorax . g. a branch of the dew-bearing channel , running forth to the kernels of the breast . h. the branch that grows to the thoratic kerhels under the winding of that channel . i. a branch of the dew-bearing channel , ascending to the upper kernel of the neck . k. a little twig of the first branch ascending upwards . l. a branch of the same ascending to the lower kernel of the neck . m. the division of the branch l. . the lowermost kernel of the neck . n. the gullet . o. the iugular vein . p. a little sprig of the iugular vein . r. a trunk of the great artery . v. the guts distorted . x. the dew-bearing , by us called milkie veins . yyy . the great kernel of the mesentery , or asselius's sweetbread ▪ with the kernels adjoyning to it . z. the little pipes from the mesenteric glandules toward the cistern . . the duodene gut cut off . . the right gut cut off . . the hollow part of the liver with its lobes . figure . ii. the lymphatic channels of the neck , described by iacob henry pauli . aa . the hyoides muscles in the sternon out of place . b. the sheild resembling gristle . c. the pipe of the aspera arteria . dd. the gullet lying under the aspera arteria . ee . the muscles of the neck cut athwart . g. the hollow vein ascending . hhh . the axillary veins . ii. the external iugulars out of place . kk . a sprig of the external iugular near the neck . ll. the external iugulars . m. the single channel of the iugular lymphatics , coming from the long kernel , and partly spread upon the gullet , out of place . nn. oo . two lymphatic vessels proceeding from the cervical kernels . tab : iii p. the common hole like a viol. qq . two appendixes , one entring the axillary , the other the iugular veins . ss . pecquetus's and hornius's thoracic channel ▪ ascending from the chyle-bag . tt . the upper ribs . v v. the lower ribs . . the lower conglobated parotic . . a small kernel seated outwardly above the iaws . . the maxillary kernels , round . the oblong maxillary kernel . the lesser kernel sometimes wanting . . the fleshy tyroidaean kernels discovered by wharton . . the cervical kernels compacted like a bunch of grapes . . the kernels of the neck , sometimes placed outwardly next the external iugular , but seldom . . the under axillary kernel . the explanation of the third table . in fol. . this table shews the urinary bladder , and the testicles in men , with their dependencies acurately describ'd by regner de graef . figure . i. the urinary bladder with 〈◊〉 parts annexed . a. that part of the urinary bladder to which the urachus was annexed . b. the fore-part of the urinary bladder open'd . cc. the ureters . dd. the exit of the ureters into the bladder . e. the neck of the bladder . ff . the parts of the seminary vessels cut off . gg . the vessels running forth to the seminary vessels . hh . the seminary bladders blown up . i. the caruncles with two holes through which the seed breaks forth into the ureter ▪ kk . the glandulous body , or the prostate open'd in the forepart . ll. the small mouths of the channels of the glandulous body , opening into the sides of the caruncle , and unless they be blown up , conspicuous only by certain points . m. the beak of the caruncle . n. the ureter open'd in the upper part . figure ii. the testicles of a man with its coverings . a. the parts of the preparing vessels cut off . b. the vaginal tunicle containing all the vessels of the tunicle . c. the beginning of the cremaster muscle . d. the fleshy fibres of the same , annex'd to the vaginal tunicle , and running out the whole length of it . ee . the fleshy fibres of the same , ending obscurely in the vaginal tunicle . f. the vaginal tunicle containing the testicle . figure . iii. the testicle with its coverings annex'd laid bare . a. the preparing vessels cut and turn'd back . b. the same vessels annex'd one to another by slender membranes . cc. the artery preparing the seed , carry through the belly to the stones . dd. the ramifications of the veins preparing the seed through the sides of the stone . e. the albugenious tunicle containing the substance of the testicle . f. the vaginal tunicle thrown back . g. the bigger globe of the epididymis . h. the middle part of the epididymis . i. the lesser globe of the same . k. the end of the same , or the beginning of the vessel carrying the seed . l. the different vessel cut away . figure iv. the testicle inverted . a. the artery preparing the seed . b. the division of it into two branches . cc. the bigger branch carry'd to the testicle . dd. the lesser branch hastening to the epididymis . e. the bigger globe of the epididymis adhering to the testicle . ff . the epididymis inverted , to shew how the artery runs under it . g. the end of the epididymis . h. the vessel carrying the seed cut away . figure v. a. the beginning of the epididymis , where the seminary vessels perforate the albugineous tunicle . bbb . the bigger globe of the epididymis drawn upward , to shew the ramificatious of the vessels , and their entrance into the testicle . c. the preparing vessels cut off . d. the divarications of the preparing vessels through the albug●…eous tunicle . e. the albugineous tunicle . figure vi. a. the body of the testicle , the albugineous tunicle being taken off . bb. the albugineous tunicle inverted . ccc . the portions of the preparing vessels preforating this tunicle cut away . d. the albugineous tunicle sticking close , to the back of the testicle , by reason of the membranes of the testicle there meeting . figure vii . a. the substance of the testicle , separated from the albugineous tunicle . bbb . the solutions of the substance ; by which it appears not to be a glandulous body , as at first sight it seems to be , but a body compos'd of vessels . c. the albugineous tunicle stretch'd upward . figure viii . aaa . the seminary vessels of the testicles placed in a certain order between the thin membranes . bb. the seminary vessels running out through the membranous substance sticking to the back of the testicle . c. certain small portions of the seminary vessels perforating the albugineous tunicle , cut off . dddd . the albugineous tunicle opened , and drawn to the sides . tab iv figure ix . a. the testicle cut athwart . bbb . the disposition of the seminary vessels . c. the concourse of the membranes detaining the seminary vessels , least they should be jumbled together , sticking close to the back of the testicle . figure x. the prostate or glandulous body . aa . the glandulous body opened in the fore-part . b. the ureter opened in the upper part. c. the passages of the glandulous body laid bare . o. the place of the caruncle , through which the seed breaks forth into the ureter . figure xi . the vessel of the testicle of a dormouse . a. the spermatic artery descending to the testicle . bb. the whole testicle , with admirable dexterity , cleared so as to shew the vessels . the explanation of the fourth table in fol. . this table shews the yard , with the seminary vessels , and other parts annexed to it , exactly delineated by regner de graef . figure i. the hinder part of the yard a. the urinary vessel . bb. portions of the ureters . cc. portions of the vessels carrying the seed . dd. the deferent vessels dilated like little boxes . ee . the vessels running forth to the seminary vessels . ffff . the seminary vessels distended with wind. gg . the hinder prospect of the prostatae . h. the ureter . i. the meeting of the deferent vessels , with the seminary vessels . k. the muscle dilating the ureter . l. the same muscle drawn back to the side . m. the spungy part of the yard under the ureter . nn. the ureter . oo . the spungy bodies of the yard . p. the nut. qq . the muscles extending the yard . figure ii. the forepart of the genital parts . a. the urinary bladder . b. the neck of the bladder . cc. portions of the ureters . dd. portions of the vessels carrying the seed . ee . vessels running forth to the seminary vessels . ff . the seminary vessels . gg . the prostatae . h. the ureter adjoyning to its spongy part. ii. the spungy part of the ureter . kk . the muscles erecting the yard . ll. the beginning of the nervous bodies separated from the share-bones . mm. the skin of the yard drawn to the sides . nn. the doubling of the skin which constitutes the preputium . oo . the skin which was annexed behind the nut. p. the back of the yard . q. the nut of the yard . r. the urinary passage . ss . the nerve running forth above the back of the yard . v. the nervous bodies meeting together . ww . two veins meeting together , and running along the back of the yard with one remarkable branch . x. the vein opened to shew the valves . figure iii. the yard divided to the ureter . aa . the nut of the yard , together with the nervous bodies divided through the middle . bb. the membranes of the nervous body of the yard divided one from the other . cc. an artery creeping through the spungy substance of the nervous body . dd. the spungy substance of the yard . ee . the intervening fence . ff . the fibrous shoots of the intervening fences , ascending like a comb. g. the ureter cut off about the glandulous body . h. the middle of the ureter . i. the end of the ureter perforating the nut. kk ▪ the spungy substance of the ureter . ll. the beginnings of the nervous bodies dilated like little bellows . mm. the muscles erecting the yard . figure iv. the yard opened at the side . aa . the nut laid bare . b. the bridle . cc. a portion of the skin , from which the other part covering the yard , is separated . dd. the ureter lying under the nervous bodies . ee . the membranes of the nervous bodies of the yard divided . ff . an artery shooting out through the spungy substance of the nervous body . gg . the spungy substance of the nervous body . hh . the orifices of the arteries cut off . i. the ureter . k. the spungy substance of the ureter . ll. the intervening fence of the nervous bodies . figure v. the yard dissected athwart . aa . the spungy substance of the nervous bodies . bb. two arteries perambulating the nervous bodies . c. the urinary passage of the ureter . d. the spungy substance of the ureter . e. the intervening fence . ff . the strongest membrane of the nervous bodies . g. the thinnest membrane containing the spungy substance of the ureter . a. a remarkable vein creeping along the back of the ureter . tab. v. figure vi. the communication of the different vessels , with the seminary vessels in the body of man. aa . the thick parts of the different vessels endued with substance and a small cavity . bb. the parts of the different vessels , endued with a thin substance and a large cavity . cc. the extremities of the different vessels , streightned again together , and gaping with a small hole into the neck of the seminary vessels . dd. the neck of the seminary vessels divided into two parts , by means of a certain intervening membrane , to the end the seed of the one side should not mix with the seed of the other , before it comes to the ureter . ee . the seminary vesicles distended with wind. ff . the vessels running through them . ggg . the membranes by which the vesicles and different vessels are detained in their situation . hh . the blood-bearing vessels runing out to the sides of the different vessels , and embracing them with their small branches . i. the caruncle through the pores of which the seed bursts forth into the ureter . kk . the channels of the glandulous body gaping into the ureter , at the sides of the caruncle . ll. the glandulous body divided in the fore-part . mm. the ureter opened . figure vii . the same letters with those of the preceding figure , as the one shewed the external , so these shew the internal substance of the seminal vessels . the explanation of the fifth table , in folio . this table shews the constitution of the womb , and the female privities , and the parts adjoyning , as well in women with child , as in empty women . figure i. the womb containing an embryo almost two months gone . a. the womb. b. the greatest vein among those which are in the superficies of the womb. cc. the pendulous testicles . dddd . the membrane of the womb , to which the shootings forth of the vessels adhere . e. the nympha . ff . the hair of the privities . gg . the horns of the womb , in the superficies of which , appear little veins , according to the delineation of aquapendens . but these we do not reckon to be the true horns . h. the urinary passage . ii. the privity . kk . the wings . figure ii. the entrance of the vvomb divided according to its length . a. the orifice of the womb. b. the neck of the womb. c. the orifice of the bladder . d. the neck or sheath divided . figure iii , the substance of the vvomb of a vvoman with child divided , to shew the cheescake . aaaa . the four triangular parts of the womb reflexed outward . bbb . the cheescake of a tuberous and unequal form. c. the membranous substance of the cheescake , thicker than the other membranes which is annexed to the womb , but here torn off to shew the chorion . a. the chorion . d. the neck of the womb divided . figure iv. the genital parts of an empty vvoman . a. the right kidney kernel . b. the left kidney kernel . cc. the kidneys on both sides . dd. the right emulgent veins . ee . the right emulgent arteries . ff . the trunk of the hollow vein divided into two iliac branches , the right and left. g. the left emulgent vein . hh . the left emulgent arteries . ii. the right spermatic vein . k. the right spermatic artery . l. the left spermatic arterie . m. the left spermatic vein . nn. the trunk of the great artery divided into the right and left iliac branch . oo . the female testicles . pp . a portion of the broad ligament . qqqq . the tubes of the womb on each side . r. the bottom of the womb. ss . the round ligaments of the womb cut off below . t. the neck of the womb. v. the hypogastric vein on the right side . v. the hypogastric artery on the left side . x. the hypogastric artery on the right side . x. the hypogastric vein in the left side , extended to the womb. y. the sheath of the womb. z. the urinary bladder depressed above the privity . aa . a portion of the ureters cut off about the bladder . bb . a portion of the ureters cut off about the kidneys . cc. the vessels preparing the seed , dilated about the testicles . c. d. the channel of the testicles , or the different vessel . figure v. a. the right testicle . bb. the right tube depressed . c. the left testicle . dd. the left tube of the womb. e. the bottom of the womb. ff . the round ligaments of the womb. g. the urinary bladder inserted into the sheath of the womb. hh . portions of the ureters . ii. the two musculous supporters of the clitoris . k. the body of the clitoris it self . figure vi. aa . the bottom of the womb dissected athwart . tabula vi. bb. the cavity of the bottom . c. the neck of the womb. d. the little mouth in the neck of a womans womb which has born a child . ee . the wrinkl'd prospect of the sheath of the womb dissected . ff . the round ligaments of the womb cut off underneath . figure vii . the womans yard . a. the nut of the yard . b. the prepuce . cc. the two supporters . d. the chink not manifestly pervious . figure . viii . aa . the two spongie bodys of the yard dissected athwart . b. the nut of the yard . c. the prepuce . dd. the two supporters . figure ix . a. the head of the clitoris prominent under the skin . bb. the outward lips of the privity sundred one from the other . cc. the nymphae sundred also . d. the caruncle plac'd about the urinary passage ( a ) ee . two myrtle-shap'd fleshy productions . ff . two membranous expansions containing the chink . figure x. a. membrane spread athwart the privity , taken for the hymen . figure xi . this shews the privities of a female infant , where the the parts are the same as in fig. . the explanation of the sixth table in fol. . this shews the genitals of women taken out of the body , and placed in their natural situation , accurately delineated by regner de graef . aa . the trunk of the great artery . bb. the trunk of the hollow vein . c. the right emulgent vein . d. the left emulgent vein . e. the right emulgent artery . f. the left emulgent artery . gg . the kidneys . hhh . the ureters cut off . i. the right spermatic artery . k. the left spermatic artery . l. the right spermatic vein . m. the left spermatic vein . nn. the iliac arteries . oo . the iliac veins . pp . the internal branches of the iliac artery . qq . the external branches of the iliac artery . rr. the internal branches of the iliac vein . ss . the external branches of the iliac vein . tt . the hypogastric arteries carried to the womb and sheath . vv. the hypogastric veins accompaning the said arteries . xx. branches of the hypogastric artery shooting to the piss-bladder . yy . branches of the hypogastric vein carry'd to the bladder . zz . portions of the umbilical arteries . a the bottom of the womb wrapt about with its common tunicle . bb . the round ligaments of the womb , as they are joyn'd to the bottom of it . cc. the follopian tubes in their natural situation . dd the rims of the tubes . ee . the holes of the tubes . ff . the stones in their natural places . g. a portion of the right gut. h. the neck of the womb , the common tunicle taken off to shew the vessels more conspicuously . i. the fore-part of the sheath freed from the piss-bladder . k. the piss-bladder contracted . ll . bloody vessels running through , the bladder . mm. the sphincter muscle girding the neck of the bladder . n. the clitoris . oo . the nymphae . p. the urinary passage . qq . the lips of the privity . r. the orifice of the sheath . the explanation of the seventh table in fol. . this table shews the secondines with the umbilical vessels , in a human embryo , and the parts differing from those of ripe age exactly describ'd by casp. bauhinus , bartholine and h. fab. ab aquapendente . figure . i. aaaa . the flesh of the cheescake , or the uterine liver . bb. the amnios membrane . c. the umbilical vessels . d. the umbilical vein , and the two umbilical arteries . figure ii. aaa . the amnios membrane . b. the umbilical vein and two umbilical arteries . cc. the chorion membrane . dd. the branches of the veins and arteries dispeirs'd through the chorion . e. the conjunction of the vessels of the navel , as they are wrapt about with a little tunicle resembling a little gut. figure iii. the skeleton of a dissected birth , differing in many things from a man of grown years , as may be seen in the text. figure iv. shews the length of the umbilical vessels from the cheesecake to the liver of the infant , and the progress of the umbilical vein from the navel to the liver ; also the liver of the birth and the gall-bladder . a. the cheesecake wrapt about with the chorion . bbbb . the umbilical vessels . tabula vii cc. the liver of the infant . dd. the two larger branches of the umbilical vein s●…itting themselves into lesser . ee . the branches of the umbilical arteries . g. the trunk of the hollow vein ascending to the gibbious part of the liver . h. the gate-veine . i. the umbilical vein boaring the porta and the hollow vein . k. the gall-bladder . llll . the vessels of the chorion , or branches of the umbilical veins and arteries dispeirsed through the chorion . figure . v. aaa . the outermost enfolding of the birth call'd the chorion . bbb . the flesh growing to the outermost folding , or the uterine cheese-cake or uterine liver . ccc . the vessels distributed . figure vi. aaaa . the bottom of the womb dissected into four parts . b. part of the neck of the womb. cc. the veins and arteries embracing the neck of the womb. d. the utrine cheesecake . ee . the outermost enfolding of the birth . figure vii . aa . the substituted kidneys . bb. the true kidneys distinguished with several kernels ill expressed by the error of the graver . c. the great artery , whence branches to the capsulas and kidneys . d. the hollow vein from whence the emulgents , and little veins of the capsulas . the explanation of the eight table in fol. . this table shews the birth of the womb describ'd by h. fab. ab aquapend . and g. bartholinus . figure i. shewing the situation of the birth , swimming upon the moisture , together with the cheesecake , and the chorion annex'd to it . a. the cheesecake with the chorion annex'd . b. the umbilical vessels . c. the moisture upon which the birth swims . dddd . the four parts of the womb. e. the neck of the womb. f. the sheath open'd . g. the most remarkable trunks of the vessels of the chorion . figure ii. shewing the situation of the birth in the womb ; which however varies in others . a. the head prone with the nose hid between the knees . bb. the buttocks to which the heels are joyn'd . cc. the arms. d. the line drawn about the neck , and reflex'd above the forehead , and continuous to the cheesecake . figure iii. shews the situation of the birth now endeavouring to come forth . a. the head of the infant . b. the privity . cccc . the upper parts of the abdomen taken away with a pen-knife . the explanation of the ninth table in fol. . shewing the heart with its vessels in its situation , with the ventricles and valves belonging to the same : together with the lungs in their situation , the rough artery and diaphragma . figure i. a. the pericardium enfolding the heart . bb. the lungs embracing the heart in their natural situation . c. the hollow vein ascending above the heart . d. the original of the azygos vein . e. the right subclavial vein . f. the right iugular vein . g. the left iugular vein . h. the left subclavial vein . ii. the right and left carotis artery . kk . the right and left subclavial artery . ll. the nerves of the sixth pair descending to the lungs . m. the original of the great artery descending . figure ii. a. the pericardium taken from the heart . b. the heart spread over with the coronarie veins and arteries . c. the trunk of the great artery shooting out of the heart . d. the descending portion of it turned upward . ee . the arterious vein distributed toward the left hand to the lungs . f. the channel between the arterious vein and the great artery , conspicuous only in the new born birth but dry'd up in those of riper age. g. the right branch of the arterious vein . hh . the right and left branch of the veiny artery . i. the auricle of the heart . kk . the lungs adjoyning to the heart . l. the proper tunicle of the lungs separated . figure iii. shewing the heart of an infant entire . a. the proper membrane of the heart separated . b. the parenchyma of the heart bare . cc. the right and left auricle of the heart . d. the great artery issuing out of the heart . e. a portion of the hollow vein standing without the heart . tab. ix . figure iv. a. part of the heart cut athwart . b. the left ventricle . cc. the right ventricle . dd. the fence of the heart . figure v. the inside of the heart . a. the orifice of the coronary vein . b. an anastomosis between the hollow vein and the veiny artery , conspicuous only in new born insants , in ripe years consolidated . ccc . the treble pointed valves . ddd . the right ventricle of the heart open'd . aa . passages terminating in the fence . figure vi. a. the arterious vein dissected in the right ventricle . bbb . the semilunary or sigmoides valves , in the orifice of the said vein . ccc . the right ventricle of the heart open'd . figure . vii . a. the arterious vein dissected . b. a mark of the anastomosis between the veiny artery and the hollow vein , as being only to be seen in the birth . bb . passages terminating in the fence within the membranes . cc. two miter-like valves seated in the left ventricle at the entrance of the arterious vein . dd. the left ventricle of the heart open'd . figure . viii . a. the great artery dissected near the heart . bbb . the semilunar valves belonging to it . cc. the left ventricle of the heart . d. part of the left ventricle reflexed . figure ix . ab . a right and left nerve of the sixth pair , to the lungs . c. a middle branch between each nerve . d. an excursion of the same to the pericardium . ee . two larger branches of the rough artery , membranous behind . ff . the hinder part of the lungs . g. the proper membrane of the lungs separated . hh . a remainder of the pericardium . i. the heart in its place , with the coronary vessels . figure x. aaa . the inner superficies of the sternon , and gristles connex'd . bb. the mammary veins and arteries descending under the sternon . c. the glandulous body called the thymus . dddd . the sides of the mediastinum pull'd off . ee . a hollowness caused by a vulsion of the sternon , between the membranes of the mediastinum . f. the protuberancy of the mediastinum , where the heart is seated . gg . the lungs hh . the diaphragma . i. the sword resembling gristle . figure xi . the diaphragma . ab . the right and left nerve of the diaphragma . c. the upper membrane of it separated . d. the fleshy substance of it bare . f. the hole for the hollow vein . ggg . the membranous part or center of the diaphragma . hhh . the appendixes of the same between which the great artery descends . figure xii . the glandulous body seated by the larynx . aaa . the kernels growing to the larinx . b. a portion of the iugular vein , two branches of which pass forward through the said kernels . figure . xiii . the aspera arteria taken out of the lungs . a. the rough artery cut off below the larynx . b. the right branch of it , divided first twofold ; afterward into several bronchia . c. the left branch divided in like manner . dddd . the extream parts of the branches terminating in little membranous channels . the explanation of the tenth table in fol. . shewing the bronchial artery discover'd by frederic ruysch ; together with the substance of the lungs as it was observed by malpigius . figure i. the ramification of the bronchial artery . a. the hinder part of the aspera arteria , of a calf cut off from the larynx . b. the right branch . c. the left branch . d. the bronchial artery , the little branches of which accompany the bronchia to the end . e. the hinder part of the descending artery , from whence the intercostals proceed . f. the uppermost branch , to be found in calves and cows only . figure ii. this and the following shew the substance of the lungs . the outermost piece of the lungs dry'd containing the net as it is delineated . figure iii. the inner vesicles and hollownesses shaddow'd , with a particle of the space in the upper part annex'd . but the original and entire propagation could not be expos'd to the eye by the graver's art. figure iv. the various concinnation of the lobes , above the trachea and pulmonary vessels , which are shewn as taken out from their natural situation . figure v. the lungs of frogs , with the trachea annex'd . a. the larynx , which is half gristly . tab. xi . b. a little chink , which is exactly closed at the will of the animal , and being closed , keeps the lungs swelled with air. c. the seat of the heart . d. part of the exterior lungs . e. the propagated net of the cells f. the propagation of the pulm●…y artery . g. the hollow part of the lung cut in the middle . h. the propagation of the pulmonary vein , shooting forth to the tops of the sides . figure vi. shews the meer cell , without the intervening sides , encreased in magnitude . a. the inner area of the little cell . b. the sides torn away and stopped . c. the trunk of the pulmonary artery , with the branches appendent , terminating as it were in net-work . d. the trunk of the pulmonary vein , wandring with its running branches over the tops of the sides . e. a vessel at the bottom , common as well to the lateral angles of the sides , as to the continued ramifications of the net. the explanation of the eleventh table in folio . shewing the larynx with its muscles ; as also the aspera arteria , the gullet , the recurring nerves , and the upper part of the throat , with its muscles . figure i. the prospect of the larynx before . a. the hyoides bone covered with certain little membranes . b. the lower side of the hyoides bone. d. the upper side . f. the second pair of muscles , common to the larynx . g. the second pair of common muscles , ill described about the original being so narrow . n. the first pair of muscles proper to the larynx . i. part of the shield-resembling gristle . figure ii. the hinder part of the larynx . l. the epiglotis . h. the guttal gristle . v. the ninth muscle of the larynx . k. the hinder part of the annular gristle . figure iii. the hinder lateral prospect of the larynx . v. the ninth muscle of the larynx . p. the second pair of the muscles of the larynx . r. the third pair of the muscles proper to the larynx . a. the right muscle of the fourth pair of muscles , proper to the larynx . b. the upper part of the same left muscle . h. the prospect of the shield-resembling muscle behind . i. the prospect of the annular muscle before . k. the hinder prospect of the same . l. the guttal gristle . figure iv. a. the inner face of the epiglottis . aa . the prominences of the arytenoides gristles . bb. the arytenoides muscles every way loose . cc. the hinder crycoartenoides muscles . d. the broader part of the annular gristle . ee . the hinder membranous part of the aspera arteria . figure v. a. the external face of the epiglottis joyned to the larynx . bb. the thyroartenoides muscles . cc. the lateral crycoartenoides muscles . d. the crycoides gristle . ee . the fore-part of the aspera arteria . figure vi. the lateral face of the larynx . a. the hyoides bone still covered with certain small gristles . b. the lower side of the hyoides bone. c. the upper process of the scutiform gristle . f. the second pair of common muscles to the larynx . g. the first pair of common muscles . h. the throat . i. the swallowing muscle , which others call the third pair . k. the place of the muscles of the epiglottis in brutes that chew the cud , which is wanting in men. l. the guttal gristle . g. the fore-part of the scutiform gristle . m. the kernels of the larynx , annexed to the root , at the sides of the aspera arteria . figure vii . a. the hyoides bone still covered with little membranes . b. the lower side of it . c. the upper side of the scutiform gristle . d. the upper side of the hyoides bone. k. the place of the muscles of the epiglottis in brutes . l. the epiglottis . h. the fore-part of the scutiform gristle . l. the epiglottis . m. the kernels fastned to the root of the larynx . h. the throat . figure viii . the aspera arteria and gullet , with the recurring nerves , on the hinder part. aa . the muscle drawing the gullet together . bbb . the gullet . ccc . the aspera arteria under the throat . d. the membranous part of it . eeee . the nerves of the sixth conjugation . ff . nerves inserted into the tongue behind . gg . the right recurring nerve turned back to the humeral artery . hh . the left recurring nerve wound about the descending trunk of the great artery . ii. a nerve tending to the sinister orifice of the ventricle , and the diaphragma . kk . a nerve descending to the diaphragma . ll. the iugular arteries , of each side one . m. the left humeral artery . n. the right humeral artery . o. the great artery . pp . stumps of the pulmonary arteries . figure ix . the upper part of the throat , with its muscles . aa . the cephalopharyngean muscles . bb. the sphaenopharyngean muscles . cc. the stylopharyngean muscles . dd. the sphincter of the throat divided . e. the inner face of the throat . f. the outer face of the throat . the explanation of the twelfth table , in folio . this table , delineated by willis , shews the originals of the nerves of the fifth and sixth pair ( according as he numbers them ) and the roots of the intercostal nerve , proceeding from them : also the originals of the same intercostal nerve , and the vagous pair , and of the nerve proceeding from the spine to the vagous pair , carried along to the region of the ventricle . moreover , it represents the originals and distributions of the nerves of the seventh , ninth , and tenth pair , and of the nerve of the diaphragma . in the same also are described the originals of the vertebral nerves , and their communications with the former , as they are to be found in men. but it is to be observed , that willis , in this table , does not follow the ancient ( which we observe in our description ) but his own new computation of the number of the nerves . vvhence it comes to pass , that what we in our text call the third , he calls the fifth ; what we the fifth , he calls the seventh ; what we the seventh , he calls the eight pair . aaa . a nerve of the fifth pair , with the two branches of it : aa . of which the uppermost tending up-right before , distributes several sprigs to the muscles of the eyes and face , to the nose , pallate , and upper part of the whole mouth . besides , two little branches , aa . which are the two roots of the intercostal nerve . the other lower branch of the fifth pair , tending downward , is dispiersed into the lower iaw and all the parts of it . aa . the two sprigs sent from the upper branch of the fifth pair , which together with the other little sprig , b. closing with the nerve of the sixth pair , constitute the trunk , d. of the intercostal nerve . b. a nerve of the sixth pair , tending streight forward before to the muscles of the eye ; from the trunk of which , the sprig b. which is the third root of the intercostal nerve , is reflexed . bbb . the third root of the intercostal nerve . c. the original of the auditory nerve , or of the seventh pair , with its double process , soft and hard . c. the softer branch of it , which is entirely distributed into the inner part of the ear , into the muscle which elevates the hammer , and into the cochlea . c. the harder branch , which rising whole out of the cranium , and slightly touching the slip e. of the eighth pair , together with that makes a particular nerve , which is presently divided into several branches , of which , the . terminates in the muscles of the tongue and hyoides bone. . is again divided into several slips ; of which the uppermost xii . ends in the muscles of the face and mouth . . in the muscles of the eye-lids and fore-head . . in the muscles of the ear. d. the trunk of the intercostal nerve , consisting of the three foresaid roots , being about to pass the ganglio-form'd fold . which fold seems to be the uppermost node of the intercostal nerve , produced without the cranium . e. the original of the nerves of the vagous pair , consisting of many fibres , to which a nerve rising from the spine joyns it self , and inoculated with them , passes the cranium ; which being crossed , it goes away , and after communication with some of the adjoyning nerves , ends in the muscles of the scapula and back . e. a little sprig of the eight pair , meeting the auditory branch . fff . other slips of the vagous pair , tending to the muscles of the neck . g. the principal branch of the same pair , terminating in the proper ganglio-form'd fold . h. the upper ganglio-form'd fold of the vagous pair , i add which admits the little sprig k. from the other adjoyning fold of the intercostal nerve . hh . a branch from the foresaid fold of the vagous pair , into the muscles of the larynx , a remarkable branch of which passing under the scutiform gristle , meets the recurrent nerve , and is united to it . i. a small twig from the cervical fold of the intercostal nerve , inserted into the trunk of the vagous pair . kk . the lower fold of the vagous pair , from which several nerves proceed to the heart and its appendix . l. a remarkable sprig sent to the cardiac fold . m. nervous fibres distributed into the heart and cardiac fold . n. the left recurrent nerve , which being wound about the descending trunk of the aorta , and reflex'd upwards towards the scutiform gristle in its ascent , imparts many slips xxxx . to the aspera arteria ; and lastly , meets the small ●…wig h. sent from the ganglio form'd fold . this recurrent , by moans of its being reflected , sends certain branches also to the heart . l. the recurrent nerve in the right side , which being reflected much higher , twines about the axillary artery . o. a remarkable branch sent from the trunk of the vagous pair in the left side ; which being presently divided , one sprig of it winds about the trunk of the pneumonic vein ; the other touching the hinder region of the heart , is scattered into several slips , which cover the superficies of it . this is also met by the cardiac branch , sent from the trunk of the other . p. a sprig of the foresaid branch encompasing the pneumonic vein . q. the other branch of the same , imparting many shoots to the heart , which shoots cover the hinder superficies of it . rrrr . small shoots sent forth from the trunk of the vagous pair , which after a long course , are inserted into the oesophagus ; reflexed beyond their proper situation . ssss . many little reflexed sprigs , whose ramifications being distributed into the substance of the lungs variously bind and tye the blood-bearing vessels . ttt . the trunk of the vagous pair is divided into two branches , the outer and inner , both which bending toward the like branches of the other side , are united to them , and after mutual communication , constitute the two stomachic branches , and upper and lowermost vv. inner branches , which being united into x. constitute the original of the lower stomachie branch . ww . the external branches , which constitute the upper stomach ▪ branch . x. the closing of the inner branches . f. the original of the ninth pair , with many fibres which united , make a trunk that is carried toward the tongue ; nevertheless , in its progress , sending forth two sprigs . ΘΘ . the first tending downwards , and united to the branch of the tenth pair , terminates in the sternothyroides muscle . φφ . the second sprig , ending in the muscles of the hyoides bone. . a trunk of this nerve passing into the body of the tongue . g. the upper ganglio-form'd fold of the intercostal nerve , which is the uppermost node of this nerve , when it is got out of the brain . a. a sprig sent forth from this fold into the neighbouring fold of the vagous pair . bb . two nervous processes , by means of which , this nerve communicates with the nerve of the tenth pair . γ. a sprig sent to the sphincter of the throat . l. the cervical or middle fold proper to man , which is placed in the middle of the neck in the trunk of the intercostal nerve . δ. a remarkable branch from the second vertebral pair into this fold , by means of which , this branch communicates with the nerve of the diaphragma , in its first root . εε . two branches from the same fold into the trunk of the nerve of the diaphragma . . several nervous fibres from the cervical fold to the recurrent nerve . θ. a twig from the same to the trunk of the vagous pair . χ. another remarkable sprig into the recurrent nerve . χχ . two remarkable branches sent toward the heart , which the other λ. rising a little below , overtakes : these being carried downward , between the aorta , and the pneumonic artery , meeting the parallel branches of the other side , make the cardiac fold Δ. from which the principal nerves that terminate in the heart proceed . λ. a branch proceeding somewhat beneath from the intercostal trunk , which with the former is designed to the cardiac fold . Δ. the foresaid cardiac fold . μ. a little lappet proceeding from the same which winds about the pneumonic artery . γ. the lower lappet binding the pneumonic vein . z. the intercostal nerve that sinks into the cavity of the breast , where it binds the axillary artery . ηηη . four vertebral nerves sen●… to the thoracic fold , of which , the uppermost binds the vertebral artery . ooo . three remarkable nerves sent from the cardiac fold , which overspread the fore-region of the heart , as the nerves p. q. proceeding from the trunk of the vagous pair , impart their ramifications to the hinder part of it . ●… . the vertebral artery bound about by the vertebral nerves . sss . nervous shoots covering the fore-region of the heart . ttt . nervous shoots and fibres distributed to the hinder part of it . Θ. the lower fold , properly called the intercostal or thoracic ; into which , besides the intercoctal nerve , four vertebrals are inserted , of which , the uppermost in its . descent , winds about the vertebral artery . i. the intercostal nerve descending through the cavity of the breast , near the roots of the ribs , where in its whole progress , it admits ●… branch from the particular middle vertebres . h. a nerve of the tenth pair , consisting ▪ in its original , of many fibres , and springing forth between the first and second vertebre , where it presently sends forth two nervous processes bb . into the upper fold of the intercostal nerve . x. a branch of the same , which being united to a little twig of the ninth pair , terminates in the muscle sternothyroides , immediately resting upon the aspera arteria . . a small twig reversed into the hinder muscles of the neck . . a small twig into the pathetic spinal nerve . x. shoots from the principal branch of the same nerve into the sternothyroides muscle . i. the original of the first vertebral nerve , which in this as in all other vertebral nerves , consists of many fibres , of which , the one bunch proceeds from the upper , the other from the lower brim of the spinal ▪ marrow , when they are met close into the same trunk , which is presently shattered into nerves distributed several ways . θ. a small sprig from this nerve into a branch of the tenth pair . θ. another small sprig into the pathetic spinal . c. a signal branch sent upwards to the muscles of the neck and ears . t. a small sprig from the bowed nerve to the fore-muscles of the neck . . a nerve from this pair to the first brachial nerve , from whence the nerve of the diaphragma takes its uppermost root . m. the original of the second vertebral nerve , from which the uppermost brachial branch proceeds , and into which the nerve of the diaphragma is first radicated . this brachial nerve , in four-footed beasts , rises near the fourth and fifth vertebre , and so the root of the diaphragma lies beneath . v. the vertebral branch designed to the arm. y. the nerve of the diaphragma , to the root of which , the sprig δ. from the cervical fold , joyns it self , and a little lower , from the same fold , two other branches εε . extend themselves to the trunk of it . this communication is only proper to men. φ. the other root of the diaphragma from the second and third brachial nerve . χ. the lower trunk of the nerve of the diaphragma , removed out of its place , which in its natural situation , crossing the cavity of the breast without any communication , runs directly to the diaphragma ; where spreading into three sprigs , it is inserted into the musculous part of it . ψψψ . the rest of the brachial nerves . ωωω . the originals of the brachial nerves . . the farthest original of the spinal nerve that comes to the vagous pair . . the beginning trunk of the same nerve , which in its whole assent , running through the side of the spinal pith , passes through the middle originals of the vertebral nerves , and from the stalk of the pith , receives its fibres . . the descending trunk of the same nerve , which parting from the vagous pair , is reflexed outward , and after communication with the nerves of the ninth and tenth pair , terminates altogether in the muscles of the scapula . . the lower process of the same nerve . the explanation of the thirteenth table in fol. . this table shews the lower ramifications of the vagous and intercostal pair distributed to the ventricle and the bowels of the whole abdomen : as also the originals of the vertebral nerves , which lye opposite to the former , and are inoculated into some of them . a. the lower stomachic branch , which consists of the inner branches of the vagous pair of each side united together , and which being spread over the bottom of the stomach , dispeirses it's shoots and rivolets all along every way . bb. the upper stomachic branch which consists of the external branches of the vagous pair united together , and creeps through the upper part of the ventricle . c. the coalition of the outer branches . d. a nervous fold compos'd of the fibres of each stomachic nerve , united together near the orifice , and as it were woven into a kind of small net. aa . the extremities of each stomachic nerve , which there meet the hepatic nerves and communicate with them . ee . the intercostal nerve in each side , descending near the roots of the ribs , and all along from the several vertebral nerves εε . receiing a branch . f. a branch proceeding from the intercostal nerve of the left side , and sent toward the mesenteric folds . g. the same mesenteric nerve biforked , sends a larger branch to the fold which is both the stomachic and spleenary and a lesser into the kidney fold . h. a parallel mesenteric branch proceeding from the intercostal nerve of the right side , and bending toward the mesenteric folds . . the bigger branch of this nerve in like manner bifork'd , runs to the hepatic fold , and the lesser to the kidney fold . h. the first mesenteric fold of the left side , which is also the stomachic and spleenary , from which several little bundles of nerves , or numerous conjugations run several and several ways . . the mesenteric kidney fold of the left side , into which besides the mesenteric sprig , ββ. two other nerves are immediately inserted from the intercostal nerve . γγγ . from this fold seated near the capsula of the gall , several nerves and fibres , are sent to the kidneys . δδ . the nerves and fibres by means of which this fold chiefly communicates with the mesenteric fold . η. the first little bundle of nerves tending from the former fold h. to the spleen , where being arriv'd , it turns back certain fibres to the bottom of the ventricle . n. the second conjugation of nerves , from the foresaid fold to the bottom of the stomach , whose fibres communicate with the small sprigs of the lower stomachic nerve . θ. the third conjugation of nerves between this fold and the hepatic adjoyning . ψ. the fourth assemblage of nerves between this and the largest mesenteric fold . . the kidney mesenteric fold , into which as in its parallel , besides the mesenteric branch . kk . two nerves are produc'd from the intercostal nerve . 〈◊〉 ▪ xiii λ. the nerves and fibres between this fold and the largest of the mesentery . μ a signal branch between this fold , and the adjoyning hepatic . γ a signal assemblage of nerves and fibres from this fold to the kidneys , which climb the emulgent vessels , and variously bind them . . the upper mesenteric fold of the right side , called the hepatic . oo . a numerous assemblage of nerves from this fold to the liver and gall-bladder , from whence several sprigs are distributed to the pylorus and sweet-bread . these nerves and fibres ascending toward the liver , cover the hepatic artery with a kind of net , and almost hide its trunk . these sprigs meet together with the tops of the stomachic nerves aa . π. sprigs distributed about the pylorus . ρρ other sprigs dispeirs'd into the sweet-bread . cc. the nerves extended between the fold and the largest of the mesentery , o. the largest mesenteric fold , from which a vast assemblage of nerves ** . arising under the large kernel of the mesentery , is dispeirs'd every way into several shoots and branches , and distributed to all the intestines besides the right gut. nerves and fibres extended every way rest all along upon the arteries and veins , and bind and tye them after various manners . tt . nervous shoots from this fold into the female testicles , or uterine kernels , which meet the branches of the vertebral nerves of the twentieth and one and twentieth pair sent to the same parts , and are knit together . vv. the vertebral branches into the female stones . . the lowermost fold of the mesentery , seated much beneath the former , and having for their original three nerves on each side , arising somewhat lower from the intercostals . ΦΦΦ . three nerves on each side sent from the intercostal nerve to the lowermost mesenteric fold . χχ . a nerve extended directly from that fold to the largest mesenteric fold , which in its passage receives certain branches from the intercostal nerve on each side , viz. . . . . . and sends it self two sprigs to the female testicles . φφ two nerves from the foresaid nerve to the female testicles . . another little fold somewhat above this lowermost . ω. a nervous process extended from the foresaid lowermost fold into the adjoyning small one . a. a signal nerve from the least fold . carry'd to the largest fold of the mesentery , which during its whole ascent , stretches it self under the right gut and part of the colon , and furnishes them with numerous shoots . bb . the other branch sent downwards from the same fold , which stretches it self under the lower part of the said right gut , and affords it numerous shoots . cc. two nerves sent downward from the lowermost mesenteric fold . which being dismissed about the lowermost cavity of the belly into the basin , in that place sink under the two folds kk . viz. one seated in each side . kk . the double folds seated within the basin , the nerves of which are assign'd for the excretions of urine , dung and seed , and so they send forth the nerves d. d. toward the lowermost mesenteric fold . dd . a nerve which ascending from the foresaid fold on each side , near the sides of the right gut , inserts several shoots into it : with which being double the other nerve b. ●… . descending from the smallest fold , meets . ee . the nerves from the same fold to the womb. f. a nerve from the same fold to the blader . g. a nerve to the prostates . h. a nerve from the root of the twenty eighth vertebral pair to the muscle of the podex . i. the twenty ninth vertebral pair , from whence , k. a nerve to the sphincter and the rest of the muscles of the podex . ll . a signal nerve on both sides from the same pair to the yard . m. another shorter branch to the muscles of the yard . ll. the intercostal nerve below the kidneys . m. a little nerve from the vertebral branch to the cremaster muscle of the testicle in men. n. the . vertebral pair , the original of which lyes hid near the kidneys . from this nerve several shoots are sent on both sides to the female testicles , which meet with other mesenteric sprigs distributed to the same part. o. a nerve from the . vertebral pair , from whence also certain sprigs to the female stones . pppp . nerves designed for the thigh , of which those that rise above , in their descent receive branches from those that rise beneath . q. the intercostal nerves bending each to other near the beginning of the holy-bone , communicating by the transvers process r. rr . the other transvers process within the curvature of the os sacrum connecting the two intercostal nerves . s. both intercostal nerves terminate into minute fibres , which fibres are distributed into the sphincter of the podex . t. a nerve from the . vertebral pair , which is carry'd to the kernels of the groin . vvv . shoots on each side sent from the intercostal nerves to the body of the ureter . x. a nerve design'd to the testicle and cremaster muscle ; cut off where it goes forth from the abdomen . the explanation of the fourteenth table in fol. . figure i. the exterior parts of the eye . aaaa . the skin turn'd back , bb. the bigger muscle of the orbicular eye-lid . c. the tendon of the same in the wider corner of the eye . dd. the lesser muscles of the eye-lyds . ee . the brows of the eye-lids . g. h. the upper and lower eye-lid . i. the larger corner . k. the lesser corner . l. the conjunctive tunicle . m. the corneous tunicle . figure ii. the muscles and nerves of the eye . aaaa . the cranium cut open . bb. a portion of the dissected brain . cc. the cerebel . d. the meeting of the optic nerves . ee . their progress to both eyes . gg . the first muscle of the eye , called the attollent . h. the second muscle of the left eye , called the depressor . tab. xiv . ii. the streight inner muscles , or drawers to , in each eye . kk . the external streight muscles or drawers from each eye . l. the fifth muscle of the left eye , or the external oblique . mm. the sixth muscle or internal oblique , the tendon of which passes through the trochlia , n. o. the optic nerve of the right eye . p. the corneous tunicle in the midst of which is the apple . figure iii. aa . the cranium resected . bb. the cerebel . cccc . the dura mater . d. a portion of the dissected brain . ee . the sprig of the optics . f. their concourse . gg . their separation . h. the general original of the muscles . ii. the muscle of the eyelid in its place . k. the streight muscle drawing the eye outward . l. the streight muscle moving the eye upward . m. the third right muscle moving the eye-downward . n. the last right muscle drawing the eye to the inner parts . oo . branches of the motory nerve inserted into the muscles . pp . the globeous body of the eye it self prominent under the muscle of the eye-lid . q. the upper eye-lid with its hairs . r. the bone broken off . s. the body of the left eye . t. the muscle of the upper eye-lid , out of its place turn'd back . figure iv. the eye-brow and eye-lids . aa . the hairy eye-brow . bb. the fat of the eye-brow . cccc . the inner superficies of the eye brows . ddd . the gristle of the eye-brows . e. the upper edging of hair. f. the lower edging of hair. figure v. aa . the muscle of the upper eye-lid in it's place bb. the gristle of the eye-brow . c. the place of the eye-lid cut off . d. the hairy edging of the upper eye-brow . figur vi. aa . the muscle of the upper eye-lid . bb. the gristle of the same eye-brow . c. the hairs . figure vii . a. the nerve of optic . b. the motory nerve . c. the rise of all the muscles . d. the trochlear muscle . e. the trochlea or wheel . f. the string of the trochlear muscle . g. the internal streight muscle . h. the external streight muscle . i. the muscle of the upper eye-lid . kk . the remainder of the eye-lids cut off . l. the hairy edgings . figure viii . aaa . the gristle of the eye-lids taken out . b. the hairs of the upper eye-brow . c. the hairs of the lower eye-brow . figure ix . a. the corneous tunicle , with the transparent apple . b. the streight muscle attollent . c. the streight muscle depressing . d. the inner muscle bringing to . e. the external muscle drawing from . f. the inner oblique , or trochlear . g. the outter oblique , or lower . figure x. a. the optic nerve . b. the seventh muscle proper to many brutes surrounding the eye . cccc . the streight muscles . d. the trochlear muscle . e. the lower oblique muscle . figure xi . a. the optic nerve . b. the original of the muscles . c. the streight lateral muscle . d. the upper streight muscle . e. the other streight muscle . ff . the fat of the eye hiding the muscles and the optic nerve . g. part of the skin of the upper eye-lid cut off . hh . the sclerotic tunicle of the eye . i. the corneous tunicle . k. the apple of the eye . l. the hair of the lower eye-brow . mm. the lower eye-brow . figure xii . the annate tunicle separated and out of place , furnished with several minute veins and arteries . figure xiii . the christalline tunicle . figure xiv . the chrystalline humour and its figure . figure xv. the watry humour . figure xvi . the vitreous humour receiving the chrystalline in the middle . figure xvii . a. the optic nerve . bb. the choroides tunicle laid bare from the sclerotic . cccc . veins depressed through the sclerotic . dd. the sclerotic inverted . e. the rupture of the sclerotic . figure xviii . a. the optic nerve . bb. the dura mater surrounding the optic . cc. the sclerotic opened , shewing the nerves through the fissure . figure xix . a. the optic nerve . bb. the uveous folded back , and partly separated from the net-like . c. part of the net-like separated from the uveous . figure xx. a. the net of the tunicle bare . b. the conjunctive tunicle , or the white of the eye . c. the corneous . d. the apple of the eye . tab. xv. the explanation of the fifteenth table , in folio . shewing the parts of the ear , especially the inner parts . figure i. the external ear whole with the muscles and concavities . aa . the helix of the ear. bb. the anthelix . c. the tragus or bunching of the ear. d. the anti-tragus . e. the lobe of the outer ear. ff . the shell or hollow of the outer ear. gg . the nameless cavity between the helix's . h. the muscle moving the ear directly upward . iii. the three-fold muscle drawing it upwards . figure ii. aa . the skin with the membrane drawn upward and downward . bb. the gristle constituting the ear. c. the hole pervious to the auditory passage . d. part of the ligament of the outer ear. e. part of the lobe of the ear. figure iii. the fore-part of the inside ear. a. part of the bone of the temples , containing the stony bone. b. the auditory passage . c. the threshold of the auditory passage , or bee-hive . d. the mammi-form process . e. the style-resembling process torn off . figure iv. a. a portion of the auditory passage . bb. the membrane of the drum. c. the little foot of the hammer transparent through the menbrane . d. the teat-like process . e. the bodkin-like process . figure v. the muscles of the inside ear. a. the muscle moving the membrane with the hammer outward . b. the membrane of the drum. cc. the muscle moving the membrane with the hammer inward . e. the head of the hammer . figure vi. a. part of the auditory passage . b c. the cavity of the drum , wherein . b. the oval hole , conspicuous when the stirrup is removed . c. the round hole . figure vii . the stony bone , with the small bones of the tympanum , in place . a. the small hammer . b. the small bone called the anvil . c. the upper part of the stirrup . dd. the windings of the cochlea discovered according to their natural bigness . figure viii . four little bones out of place . a. the little hammer , with its two processes . b. the anvil applied to the hammer . c. the stirrup . d. the orbicular bone fastned with the ligament of the stirrup . figure ix . the lower face of the bone of the temples . a. the goos-quills transmitted into the auditory passage , through the passage which leads to the palate . bb. shews the same passage next at hand , though broken in part. figure x. aa . the hollowness of the cochlea , the broader part of which , runs to the labyrinth . bb. the hollowness of the labirinth , wherein the oval hole appears , by reason of the bone dissected from the side . four other holes opening themselves in circles , are shadowed with black. the fifth , in the extream largest turning of the cochlea , is broken , figure xi . aa . the first hole of the bones of the temples , into which the auditory nerve is admitted . bb. the stony process of the bone of the temples , in which the demonstrated cavities are contained . figure xii . ab . cd . the end of the passage discover'd . into which the auditory nerve enters , the bone being fil'd away . b. the hollowness wherein the softer part of the auditory nerve , rests at the center of the chochlea . ca. an apophysis between each portion of the nerve , prominent like a bridge . ee . the footsteps of two circles , tending to the labyrinth . figure xiii . a. part of the bone of the temples in which the tympanum being removed , together with the passage receiving the auditory nerve , appears . aa . the softer part of the auditory nerve . bbb . the harder part of the auditory nerve , obliquely descending under the drum , thicker at the exit . cc. a small nerve from the fourth pair , joyning it self to the descending harder portion of the auditory nerve . figure xiv . aa . the shell . b. the drum. c. the hammer . d. the stirrup . figure xv. e. the stirrup . f. the orbicular bone fasten'd with the ligament of the stirrup . g. the oval hole . figure xvi . h. the hammer . i. the staple . k. the stirrup . l. the orbicular bone. tab. xvi . the explanation of the sixteenth table , in folio . shewing the salavary channels , and the lymphatic channels of the eyes in a calves head , as they are acurately delineated by n. stenonis and wharton . figure i. aaaa . the parotis conglomerated . bb . the parotis conglobated . c. the lymphatic vessel tending downward from the conglobated parotis . dddd . the roots of the outer salival channel . eee . the trunk of the salival channel . fff . the outermost branches of the iugular vein . ggg . the nerves which are between the kernel and the head , so are they knit one to another , as in h. ii. little strings of the nerve accompanying the salival channel . figure ii. aa . the orifices of the vessels proceeding from the lower kernel of the cheeks into some of which a bristle may be thrust . b. the opening of the outermost salival channel in the uppermost and extream part of the little teats . the other points mark out the other holes , through which the viscous humor upon squeezing issues forth . figure iii. aa . the kernel under the tongue . bb . the vessels belonging to it . cc. the orifices of the vessels for excretion . d. a hollowness observ'd at the side of the tongue . figure iv. a. the holes of the palate through which the slimy humor is squeezed out . bb . the tonsils . figure v. one vessel among the rest of those that proceed from the kernel in the lower part of the cheeks . figure vi. a. the hinder part of the maxillary kernel . aa . the hindermost roots of the salival channel . c. the hindermost trunk of the same channel , ascending the tendon of the double belly'd muscle . dd. the return of it and uniting with the foremost channel . e. the common trunk of the salival channel . f. g. the double belly'd muscle . h. the progress of the said trunk to the fore-teeth , of the lower iaw . i. the opening of the channel under the tongue . k. the round kernel next to the maxillary . figure . vii . a. the hinder part of the maxillary glandule . bb. the former part of the same , with the foremost roots of the spittle-channel . c. the hinder trunk of the same channel ascending a tendon of the double-belly'd muscle . d. the return of the same and union with the foremost channel . ee . the common trunk of the salival channel . f. g. the double-muscl'd muscle . h. the progress of the trunk toward the fore-teeth of the lower iaw . i. the salival channel open'd under the tongue . k. a round little kernel nextto the maxillary . l. a row of asperities under the side of the tongue . m. the tongue out of its place . figure viii . the conglobated kernels . a. the conglobated parotis . b. the conglobated kernel next the lower maxillary kernel . c. another conglobated kernel seated above the chaps . d. the common kernel . e. the lymphatic vessel tending to the confines of the jugulary and maxillary kernel . fff . three lymphatic vessels , carry'd from the three glandules a. b. c. to the common glandule d. figure ix . the left eye of a calf . a. the upper nameless glandule of the eye . b. the larger corner of the eye . c. the lesser corner of the eyes . ddd . the lobes into which the foremost border of the kernels is divided through the lymphatic spaces of which eee . they make their exit . figure x. a. the inner superficies of the eye-lid . bbb . the nameless kernel which together with the small vessels ccc . appears through the slender tunicle of the eye-lid . dd . the orifices of the lachrymal vessels . figure xi . a. the lachrymal kernel seated in the inner corner . b. the gristle proceeding from the kernel it self . bbb . the gristly border . cc. the membrane . dd . two entrances , one of each side the gristle . figure xii . aa . the continuation of the lachrymal points to the extremities of the nostrils . bb . the vessel for excretion proper to the nostrils . anatomy book i. of the lowest cavity . the preamble . i am undertaking to write a book of anatomy ; but am doubtful whether i should term it the art and exercise of physicians , or of philosophers . for though formerly it was first instituted for their sakes ; yet now these are so much taken up with it , that it can scarce be determined , to which faculty it is more obliged , or to which it is of nearer affinity : since in this our age both the one and the other are as industrious in this affair , as if the wellfare of each faculty lay in anatomy , and as if both borrowed all their light from it , as from another sun ; so that they who are destitute of skill in this one art , are reckoned to walk in darkeness and to know nothing in a manner : since several others also , who areof neither faculty , nor indeed professedly of any , are so sollicitous about the knowledge of man's body , that may strive how they may bring anatomy to greater perfection ; and most of these men are desirous not only to equalize others in this exercise , but to signalize themselves above the rest . so that anatomy , which formerly was undertaken for the sake of physick , appears now to be the common practice of all men , and as it were the eye of all solid knowledge whatever . to whose further advancement , since i also would contribute my talent , when i have examined first what anatomy is , and what its subject , i shall in succinct order take a view of all the parts of the humane body . chap. i. of anatomy , and man's body , its division and parts in general . i. anatomy is an art which teaches the artificial dissection of the parts of the body of man , that what things in them can be known by sense , may truly appear . the primary subject of anatomy is the body of man , partly because it is the perfectest ; partly because the knowledge of a man's self is very necessary , a great share whereof consists in the knowledge of his own body . besides , anatomical exercises are very necessary for physicians , and were chiefly instituted for their sakes , whose studies are directed to the cure of diseases only in humane bodies , and not to the cure of brutes , as being unworthy of their noble speculations , and therefore left to ●…arriers and other plebeians . so that in this regard the artificial dissection of humane bodies must be preferred before the dissection of any brute whatever ; since physicians may this way far better attain the perfect knowledge of the subject of their art , than if they should search the bodies of brutes . in the mean time , however , because humane bodies cannot always conveniently be had , neither will law nor piety at any time allow the cutting of them up alive , yet nevertheless it is necessary that we should get the perfect knowledge , of the site , connexion , shape , use , &c. of the parts by many dissections and inspections ; for which purpose men use , in defect of humane bodies , to dissect several brutes , sometimes alive , but usually dead , especially such , whose inwards and most of their parts are likest in form , site , and use to the humane body ; that by the knowledge of them the parts of a humane body may the easilier be known , when afterwards they are once or twice shown in a humane body . ii. a humane body is considered generally or particularly . iii. considered generally , or in the whole , the chief differences are observed in relation both to the shape , stature and colour . what the shape is in the known world , every one knows , and dayly sees . but they that have seen the east and west indies , and that have travelled other strange and remote countries , describe many uncouth and unknown shapes to us . for some tell , how they have found men without heads , whose eyes were in their breasts : others , men with square heads : others , men all hairy : others , salvages , whose shoulders were higher than their heads ; they write , such were found in guajana : others , men with tails : and others , men otherwise shaped . difference of stature consists herein , that some are thick , others slender ; some short , others tall . upper france breeds short and slender men , and very few tall people are found there . northern countries breed tall and strong men : and the germans come nigh them . england and holland breed a middle sort . nevertheless , some very tall people , though few , are found in the low countries . ten years agone at utrecht i saw a maid seventeen years of age , so tall , that a proper man could scarce reach to the top of her head with his fingers ends . neer schoonhoven , in the village leckerkerck , a few years agone , there lived a country fellow , a fisher , commonly called the great clown , a very strong man , i have often seen him , when he stretched out his arm , the tallest of ordinary men might go under it and not touch it . anno . at utrecht-fair , in the month of iuly , i saw a very strong man , and very tall , and witty enough , ( which is a rarity in such great bodies ) above eight feet and an half high , all his limbs were proportionable , and he was married to a very little woman , whom , when he travelled , he could without any trouble carry in a pouch along with him : he was born at schoonhoven of parents of an ordinary size . at the same time a country wench was shewn , eighteen years of age , who was nigh as tall as the said man , her whole body was well shaped , but she was of a dull capacity . yet these rare instances of a vast stature which i have seen ( like unto which platerus observat. l. . describes four more ) are nothing , compared with some , which are described by historians . the body of orestes , which by command of the oracle was dug out of the earth , is said to have been seven cubits long : which cubits , according to aulus gellius , among the romans amounted to twelve feet and a quarter . william schouten in his journal reports , that in the port , called desire , neer the straits of magellan , he found men of ten and eleven cubits . fazellus , decad . . lib. . cap. . mentions several bodies , found in divers places , some of which were seventeen , others eighteen , others twenty , others two and twenty cubits long , and one of their teeth weighed five ounces . pliny writes , that in crete a mountain was broke by an earthquake , and on that occasion a body of forty seven cubits was found , which some thought orion's , others oetius's . so likewise camerarius relates divers stories of such giants , meditat. histor. cent . . cap. . and on the other hand likewise sometimes men are ●…ound of a very low stature , viz. three or four feet long . we call such dwarfs . formerly i have seen three or four of them . platerus observ. l. . in principio , describes three such , which he saw . aristotle lib. . histor . animal . cap. . writes for a certain truth , that pigmies dwell about those place , where the nile runs into egypt , and they are such short dwergens , that they are not above an ell high . but this people could never yet be found by the modern seamen , who have sailed the world over ( perhaps , because they could not get with their ships to that peoples country ) and therefore one might very well question the truth of the story , had not aristotle , who ought to be trusted a great way , writ it . nevertheless spigelius does not believe aristotle , but reckons his story of the pigmies a fable , being so perswaded , . from the authority of strabo , lib. . geograph . . from the experience of francis alvarez a portugueze , who himself travelled those parts , whereabout aristotle writes , the pigmies are , namely where the nile runs into egypt ; yet he could no where see or find that little nation , but says , that those parts were inhabited by middle statured people . the difference of colour is great , according to the difference of countries : for in europe and christendom people are white , in aethiopia and brasile black , in divers parts of india tawny , in some places almost red , in others brown , in others whitish . iv. a humane body considered particularly , or according to each part , affords for consideration the neat figure of each part , the most convenient connexion , the admirable structure , the necessary action , and lastly , the great , yet harmonous diversity of all and each function and use . v. the part of the body is any bodily substance joyned to the whole in continuity , having its own proper circumscription , and with other parts making up the whole , is fitted for some function or use . this is an exquisite definition . for first , the part of a humane body must be a bodily substance , and such as is joyned to the whole in continuity ( a thing is said to be continued , whose least particles stick one to another in rest ) not in contiguity : for contiguous bodies must of necessity be diverse , and one may be separated from the other without hurting either , both remaining entire . for as wine contained in a vessel cannot be called a part of the vessel , nor the vessel a part of the wine , because there is no continuity between them two ; so likewise blood contained in an artery , cannot he called a part of the artery , nor of a humane body , since it is not joyned thereto in any continuity . secondly , a part must with others make up the whole ; for whatever things are above the complement , are not reckoned parts of one body , but are bodies subsisting by themselves , which often adhere to the whole , that they may be nourished by the whole . thus a child or mole in the womb are not parts of a womans body , but subsist by themselves , and yet by means of the placenta uterina and umbilical vessels , they are joyned to the womb , that they may receive nourishment from it ; nevertheless the woman , when she is delivered , remains entire . so likewise sarcomata or fleshy excrescences , and such things , are not reckoned among the parts of a humane body , because they neither make up the complement of the whole , nor are designed for requisite functions and uses , but adhere to the whole , that thereby they may be nourished . vi. thirdly , a part must be made for some function or use , vii . a function , or action , is a certain effective motion made by an organ , through its own proper disposition to it . this is either private , whereby the parts provide for themselves ; or publick whereby the whole is provided for ; for instance ; the stomach by a private action , or coction , converts the blood brought to it by the arteries into a substance like it self , and so is nourished : but it performs another action besides , whereby it provides for the whole animal , to wit , chylification . viii . the use of a part is a certain aptiude to some proper intention of nature , to wit. such as not only turns to the benefit of the part , whence it proceeds , but also respects the good of some other part , or of the whole . it is doubly distinguished from action . first , because action is only competible to parts that operate , but use is often competible to things that do nothing at all , that is to such as help an acting part , so that it may act better . thus the cuticle acts nothing ; but its use is to moderate the sense of the skin , to cover it and the extremities of the vessels , and to defend it from external injuries : fat acts nothing , it only cherishes and moistens the parts and makes their motion easier : hair acts nothing ; but its use is to cover and adorn the head , and to defend it from external cold . secondly , because action is competible to the whole operating organ , but use to every part of the organ ; for instance ; the action of a muscle is to contract ; but the use of the musculous membrane is to contain its fibres , and to seperate it from other muscles ; of the artery , to bring blood to it ; as of the nerves , animal spirits , to support the fibres of the flesh . yet oftentimes use , action and function are promiscously used by anatomists : and the action of a part , because it tends to some end or other , is often called use : and also use , because it excludes not action , is called action . but use is of greater latitude then action . hippocrates divided things that make up the whole into things containing , things contained , and things that move or have in themselves the power of motion . galen calls these three things solid parts humors and spirits . in this division the threefold parts of the body are not comprehended , but only three things , without which a man cannot continue entire , that is , alive . for only the containing or solid parts are true parts of the body . yet these parts cannot continue alive , except they be continually nourished by the humors . not that humors are parts of the body , but the proximate matter , which by coction is changed into the substance of the parts , into which till they are changed , they cannot be called parts ; and when they are changed , they cannot be called humors : for a bone is not blood , and blood is not bone , though the one be bred of the other . the same must be understood of spirits , which being made of the subtilest and hottest part of the blood , do very much contribute to the nutrition of the body . therefore though a man cannot continue alive without these three , yet it does not follow , that all these three must necessarily be parts of the body . a vine consists of solid woody parts , and a juyce whereby it is nourished , and yet it is evident , this juice is no part of the vine , because if a vine be unseasonably cut , abundance of it runs out , the vine remaining entire : wherefore a blind man may see , that it is no part if the vine , but only liqour , which by further coction would be turned into a vine . thus also when there is a flux of blood by the haemorrhoids , menses or any other part ; or when one makes water or sweats , no man in his wits will say , that then the parts of a mans body are voided , although a man cannot live without blood and serum . but if pieces of the lungs be brought up in coughing , or if pieces●… of the kidneys be voided in urine , as it sometimes happens in their exculceration , then it is certain that the true parts of the body are voided . besides , these are parts of the body , whence actions immediately proceed , and they proceed not from the humors and spirits , but from solids . for the humors and spirits move not the heart , brain , and other parts , but they both breed and move the humors and spirits : for when the heart , brain , and other parts are quiet , humors and spirits are neither bred nor moved ( this appears in a deep swoon ) and though there is abundance of them in the body , and those very hot and fit for motion , as in such as dye of a burning fever ; yet as soon as the heart is quiet , they neither move through the arteries , veins and nerves , nor are able to move the heart , or any part else , which is a certain argument that they are passive , and that no action can proceed from them . and that the humors and spirits are moved by the heart , and bred in it and other parts , will more plainly appear , lib. . cap. . and lib. . cap. , . and in several other places . and now though solids cannot act without the humors and spirits , and by them their actions ( in as much as by their quantity , or quality , as their heat , cold , &c. they are able to cause this or that mutation or temper in solids ) are made quicker , slower , stronger , weaker , better or worse ; yet they are without air ; yet air is no part of the body , neither does the action of respiration proceed from it , but from the muscles of the breast forcing it out , though in the mean time air by giving way to the motion of the muscles , and passing in and out through the aspera arteria , affords such an aptitude for respiration , as without it no respiration could be performed ; though also by its heat or cold it may make respiration quicker , slower , longer or rarer , according as by these mutations the heat of the parts is augmented or diminished , and thereupon necessity obliges one to breath quicker or slower . so the heart and other solid parts are not mov'd by the humors and spirits , but act upon the humors and spirits , they move , attenuate and concoct them till at length they turn their apt particles into a substance like themselves , and so apply and unite them to themselves , and make them parts of the body , which they were not before they were applied and assimilated . for one part of the body is not nourished with another part of its whole , a bone is not nourished with flesh , nor a vein with a nerve , &c. neither can that which nourishes the parts , by any means be called a part , for otherwise there would be no difference between a part and its nutriment : with which nourishment , unless the parts be daily cherished , and their consumed particles restored , their strength and substance would quickly waste and fail , and by that failure at length their action would be lost . so that man of necessity must have both blood and spirits for the support of life ( hence saith the text in levit. . . the soul ( that is the life ) of the flesh is in its blood ) as being the nearest support of the body , without which neither the parts of the body can act , nor the man himself live . yet it does not follow from thence that the blood and spirits are part of the body : for the same might be said of the external air , without which no man can live . for take away from a man the use of external air either by suffocation or drowning , or any other way , you presently deprive him of life , as surely as if you took from him his blood and spirits . yet no man of judgment will say that the external air is a part of the body : seeing that most certainly , if that without which life cannot subsist were to be accounted a part , the external air must of necessity be said to be a part of our body , as well as the blood and spirits . moreover it is to be considered , that if the humors and spirits have contracted any foulness or distemper , they are by the physicians numbred among the causes of diseases , not among the diseased parts . besides , that if they were parts , they ought to be similar , yet never any anatomist that i ever yet heard of , recken'd 'em among similar parts . for most of the organic parts are composed out of the similar . and yet among those similar parts which compose the organic , never did any one reck'n the blood or spirits , as similar parts . for all the organs ought to derive their composition from those things which are proper and fixed , not from those things which are common to all , and fluid , continually wasted and continually renewed . ix . therefore the body of man may exist intire in its parts without blood , spirits , and air ; but it cannot act , nor live without ' em . and thus a man cannot be said to live without a rational soul , and to be a perfect and entire man ; yet every one knows that the soul is not to be reck'n'd among the parts of the corruptible body , as being incorruptible , subsisting of it self , and separable from the rest of the body ; since , that being incorruptible , it cannot proceed from any incorruptible body , but derives it self from a divine and heavenly original , and is infused from above into the corruptible body , to the end it may act therein so long as the health and strength of those corruptible instruments will permit actions to be perform'd . to which we may add , that an anatomist , when he enquires into the parts of human body , considers 'em as such , not as endu'd with life , nor as the parts of a rational creature . neither does he accompt the causes of life and actions , by any manner of continuity or unity adhering to the body , to be parts ; nor is it possible for him so to do . and thus it is manifest from what has been said , that the spirits and blood , and other humors neither are nor can be said to be parts of our body . yet all these arguments will not satisfy the most eminent i. c. scaliger , who in his book , de subtil . exercit. . sect. . pretends with one argument , as with a strong battering ram , to have ruin'd all the foundations of our opinion . if the spirit ( saith he , and he concludes the same thing of the blood and spirits ) be the instrument of the soul , and the soul is the beginning of motion , and the body be the thing moved , there must of necessity be a difference between the thing moved , and that which moves the instrument . therefore if the spirits are not animated , there will be something between the thing enlivening and enliven'd , forming and form'd ; which is neither form'd nor enliven'd . but the body is mov'd because it is enliven'd . yet is it not mov'd by an external but an internal principle . now it is manifest , that the spirits are also internal , and that the internal principle of motion is in them , therefore it follows that they must be part of the member . but this argument of the most acute scaliger , tho' it seems fair to the eye at first sight , yet ( thoroughly considered ) will appear to be without force , as not concluding any thing of solidity against our opinion . for the spirit is no more an instrument that moves the body , than the air is the instrument that moves the sight or hearing . so neither are the spirits the instrument of the soul , but only the necessary medium , by which the active soul moves the instrumental body ; and also perceives and judges of that motion so made in that body . so that it is no such absurditie ( as scaliger would have it to be ) but a necessity , that there should be something inanimate between the enlivening soul , and the instrumental body enliven'd , which is part of neither , but the medium , by which the action of the enliven'd instrumental body may be perform'd by the enlivening soul. but , saies scaliger , the body is moved , because it is enlivened , and that not by an external , but an internal principle . we grant the whole ; yet we deny the spirits to be the internal principle , when it is most apparent that the soul is the internal principle which operates by the assistance of the spirits . so that it cannot from hence be proved that the spirits live or are parts of the body , but only that they are the medium , by which the soul moves the body . but because that scaliger spy'd at a distance a most difficult objection , viz. how the spirits could be a part of any corporeal body , when they are always flowing and never in any constant rest , but continually in motion through all the parts of the body indifferently , to avoid this stroak , he says that the spirit 's a quarter of that part of the body where they are at the present time , and when they flow out of that part then they become a part of that body into which they next infuse themselves ; and so onward . but this way of concluding of arguments is certainly very insipid , and unbeseeming so great a man , when it is plain from the definition of a part , that a part of our body , is not any fluid and transient substance but as it is joyned to the body by continuity and rest. x. the parts of the body are twofold . . in respect of their substance . . in respect of their functions . xi . in respect of their substance , they are divided into similar , and dissimilar . xii . similar parts are those which are divided into parts like themselves . so that all the particles are of the same nature and substance . and thus every part of a bone is a bone ; of a fiber , a fiber . which spigelius calls consimiles , or altogether alike : the greeks 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , or of like parts . they are commonly reckoned to be ten : bones , gristles , ligaments , membranes , fibers , nerves , arteries , veins , flesh , and skin . to these by others are added the scarf-skin , tendons and fat. by others , the two humors in the eyes , the glassie and the crystalline ; by others the marrow , the brain , and back-bone : and lastly by others , the hair , and nails . of these some are simply similar , as the bones , gristles , fibres , &c. wherein there is no difference of particles to the sight . i say , manifest to the sight , for that in respect of the several smallest elements , not to be perceived by the eyes , but by the mind , of which they are composed , no part of 'em can be said to be really and simply similar . others are only similar as to the senses , wherein there is a difference of particles manifest to the sight , as a vein , arterie , nerve , &c. for a vein consists of the most subtile fibers , and a membrane : an arterie of fibers , and a double different tunicle . a nerve consists of the dura and pia mater , or membrane , little fibers and marrow . nevertheless to a slight and careless sight they seem to be similar , because they are every where composed after the same manner , and so are like to themselves , as not having any other substance or composition in the brain , than in the foot or any other parts . of the several similar parts we shall afterwards discourse in their proper places . now all the similar and solid parts , in the first forming of the birth are drawn like the lines of a rough draught in painting , out of the seed ; to which the blood and milkie juice contain ▪ d in the amnion , and membrane that wraps about the birth soon after joyning , nourish the parts delineated , and encrease and enlarge their bulk . 'till of late , it was believed that the blood of the mother in the first forming of the parts did concur with the seed , not only as a material but effective principle ( which opinion was afterwards exploded by all the most eminent philosophers ) and that some parts shared of more seed , others of more blood , and others received an equal share of both . and hence proceeded that old division , which divided the parts , in respect of this principle of generation into spermatic , which in their forming were thought to partake of more seed than blood , as the former eight similar parts . others , into sanguine , in the forming of which the blood seemed to predominate , as in the flesh. others mixt , which were thought to be form'd of equal parts of blood and seed , as the skin . but this diversity of the parts , does not proceed from the first forming , but from the nourishment , in respect of which some receiv'd more , others less blood for the increase of their substance : also others are more and more swiftly , others less , and more slowly encreased in their bulk . those parts which are called spermatic being cut off , never grow again , or being broken or separated , never grow again but by the assistance of a heterogeneous body . thus a bone cut off can never be restored ; but it being broken , it unites together again by means of the callus , or glutinous substance , that gathers about the fracture ; but parts made of blood are soon restored , as is apparent when the flesh is wounded or cut off . those that are mixed , are in the middle , between both . nevertheless as to the spermatic parts , when broken or separated , some question whether they may not be united again without the help of a heterogeneous medium : and they believe that in infants and children , whose spermatic parts , as the bones , are very tender may be united again by vertue of a homogeneous medium . but seeing we find that even in children and infants , wounds of the skin never unite without a scar , nor fractures of the bone without the assistance of the callous matter , 't is most probable that in no age the spermatic parts unite without a heterogeneous medium ; though it be not so conspicuous by reason of the extraordinary moisture of the parts in new born children , and young people . xiii . dissimilar parts are those which are divided into parts , unlike in nature and substance , but not into parts like themselves . thus a hand is not divided into several hands , but into bones , flesh , nerves and arteries , &c. xiv . in respect of their functions , the parts are distinguished two ways . . into organic , and not organic ; . into principal and subservient . xv. organical parts are such as are design'd for the performing of actions , and to that end have received a certain , determinate and sensible conformation and fashion . now that they may have an aptness for the duties imposed , there are required in these parts , continuity , fit situation and number , proper figure , and magnitude . which parts are not only dissimilar , as was formerly thought , but also similar . for example , a nerve , tho' it be a similar part , yet because it is entrusted with the office of conveighing and distributing the animal spirits ; for this reason it is no less an organical part than a muscle , or a hand : and the same thing is also to be understood of a bone , an arterie , and a vein . so that it is a frivolous distinction of caspar bauhinus , and some others , who while they endeavour to exclude similar parts , out of the number of organic , distinguish between instruments , and instrumental parts ; whereas indeed there is no more difference between 'em , than between an old woman , and a very old woman . xvi . parts not organic are those which have a bare use , but perform no action , as the gristles , the fat , the hair. xvii . principal parts are those which perform the noblest and principal action . by these the motions of several other parts are promoted , and from them proceed . and they are reckoned to be three in number ; two , in respect of the individual ; and one in respect of the species . . the heart , the fountain of vivific heat , and the primum mobile of our body , from whence the vital and natural actions proceed . . the brain , the immediate organ of sense , motion , and cogitation in man , by means of which all the animal actions are perform'd . . the parts of generation ; upon which the preservation of the species depends . xviii . subservient parts , are all those that are useful and subservient to the principal : as the stomach , liver , spleen , lungs , kidneys , hands , &c. and these , as necessary to life , are to be called either noble , without which a man cannot live , as the lungs , stomach , guts , liver , and the like . others as not being necessary for life , but are proper for some use or action , which renders life more comfortable , are to be called ignoble , as an arm , a finger , a foot , a hand , ear , nose , teeth , &c. which we may want and yet live. to these may be added , those whose office is more mean and hardly manifest , as fat , hair , nails , and the like . now that the demonstration of these parts may be the more conveniently made plain , and described in their order , we shall divide the body of man , according to the modern anatomists into the three ventricles , and limbs . xix . the venters are certain remarkable cavities , containing one or more of the noble bowels . in this place the words cavity and venter are not to be strictly taken for the cavities themselves only , but lest the members of this division should be too numerous , we would have comprehended under 'em at large , as well the containing parts that form those cavities , as also the parts contain'd within 'em : together with the neck , or if there be any other parts annexed to 'em , which may be reckoned to the members . afterwards in the following chapters , when we come to discourse particularly of the several venters , we shall more at large subdivide 'em into parts containing , contained , and such as are adjoining to them . xx. these three venters are the uppermost , the middle , and the lowermost . xxi . the uppermost venter or cavity is the head , wherein are contained the brain , the eyes , the ears , and other parts . now there was a necessity that this same tower of the principal faculties should be seated in the highest place , to the end that being at a further distance from the places where the nourishment is drest , the most noble animal functions should not be disturb'd by its steams and thick exhalations : partly for the convenience of the senses of hearing , seeing and smelling , whose objects more easily dart themselves from a higher than a lower place into the organs of the senses , and by that means become more perceptible . xxii . the second or middle venter or cavity is the breast , the mansion of the heart , lungs , rough arterie or windpipe , and the oesophagus or gullet . this the great creator placed in the middle , that as a king resides in the mid'st of his kingdom , so the heart the most noble and principal habitaculum of life should inhabit this middlemost palace of the microcosmical kingdom , and there sit as in its throne , from thence with more convenience to water the several regions of the little world with its rivulets of enlivening nectar and heat . xxiii . the third venter which is generally called the lowermost , and concludes with the abdomen or paunch , as the seat of the liver , stomach , guts , reins , womb , and many other parts , serving for the concoction of nourishment , evacuation of excrements , and generation of off-spring : therefore necessarily to be placed lowermost , lest the manifold disturbances and abominable filth of this kitchin should annoy the superiour principal viscera in their functions . xxiv . limbs are the members adjoyning to the venters , and distinguish'd with ioynts . these being granted to man for the better accommodation of life , are twofold , arms and legs . xxv . the arms in man , are divided into the shoulders , elbows , and hands : the legg is divided into the thigh , the shin , and foot. according to which division we have divided this our anatomy into ten books . in the first four of which shall be explain'd the history of those things which are contain'd in the several cavities and limbs . in the six latter we shall discourse of those things which are common to the whole body , the muscles , membranes , fibers , arteries , veins , nerves , bones , gristles , and ligaments . chap. ii. of the lowermost venter in general . i. in regard the lowermost venter contains in it several moist parts which are liable to putrefaction , the sink of many dregs , therefore anatomists begin their dissections from thence , to avoid the effects of swift putrefaction , and to remove those bowels first out of the way , which might soonest infect the whole body , and so prevent a requisite consideration of the rest . ii. this venter aristotle ( hist. anim. lib. . c. . ) properly calls 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 : the common people simply the belly , in a more reserved signification : which celsus willing to distinguish from the superiour venter , calls imum ventrem , the lower belly . iii. the lower venter is all that cavity , bounded above by the sword-like cartilage and the diaphragma or transverse muscle ; on each side by the lower ribs , behind by the ioynts of the loyns ; and below , by the bones of the hip , the os sacrum and share-bone , or os pubis . iv. the fore parts of this cavity adjoyning to the lower cartilages of the ribs , and comprehended under 'em , were by the ancients call'd hypochondria and praecordia ; being two , a right and a left. v. all that which falls upon the middle ventricle of the hypochondria , and the gutts next to it , for more clear distinctions sake , with veslingius , is call'd epigastrium , tho' riolanus will have it to be the region of the stomach : but the ancients gave the name of epigastrium to the whole paunch ; which the arabians call'd myrach . in the upper part of this epigastrium is a certain cavity , by the greeks call'd 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 and 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 ; by the latins scrobiculus cordis . vi. the middle region is the region of the navel , lying equally from the navel three fingers above and below , whose sideling parts are by the greeks call'd 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , by the latins ilia , because the gut ilium lies chiefly conceal'd under those places . vii . that part which is comprehended between this region and the space of the share , is call'd the hypogastrium , imus venter , and aqualiculus . whose lateral parts from the bending of the hip to the share , are call'd inguina , or the groyns . viii . the share ▪ by the greeks 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , is that part next above the privities covered with hair in persons grown to full age. of each side of which are the 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , which the latins call inguina , or the groyns . ix . the lower part between the root of the yard and the fundament , is call'd the perinaeum . x. the hinder parts of the paunch or abdomen above , are fill'd up by the loyns or lumbi , below by the buttocks or clunes , which the greeks call 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 and 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 . the cleft dividing the buttocks by hierophilus is call'd 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , where the hole of the right intestine breaks forth , vulgarly call'd the podex or fundament . xi . this venter consists of parts containing or external , or of parts contain'd or internal . xii . the containing , which they properly call the abdomen or paunch , are either common or proper . xiii . the parts contain'd are adapted either for nourishment , evacuation of excrements , or generation . the physiognomists affirm that notable conjectures may be made concerning the disposition of men from the form and bigness of this belly . thus aristotle affirms that a little belly is one of the principal parts from whence wisdom appears in man. among others , a ●…lat and hollow belly denotes a man envious and covetous . a round belly betokens sobriety . a swag-belly marks out a sleepy , slothful , stupid fellow . a navel swelling out very much , is a sign of a person given to venery . chap. iii. of the common containing parts ; and first of the cuticle and skin . i. those are said to be the common containing parts , that infold not only this belly , but cover all the rest of the body except the yard , the scrotum , or cod , the eye-lids , and some other parts that want fat. ii. these are , the cuticle , the skin , the fat , the fleshy pannicle , the membrane common to the muscles . iii. the cuticle , or scarf-skin , which the greeks call 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 ( as it were a thing spread over the skin ) is a thin , fast , insensible little skin spread over the cutis , and so closely sticking to it , that it cannot be parted from it , but by the raising of little blisters by the force of fire or vesicatories . aquapendens observed it sometimes double under the vesicatory , divided into two very thin skins , an outermost somewhat closer , and an innermost much thinner , and sticking so close to the skin , that it cannot be taken off with a pen-knife ; which was so provided by nature , that seeing the skin is subject to outward violence , that if one skin should perish , the other might remain entire , and supply the uses to which the other was design'd . iv. it is said to grow from the moisture of the flesh condens'd by the dryness of the ambient air ; but erroneously , in regard it appears to have a seminal principle as well as the skin , or any solid parts . it covers the skin , and shuts up the mouths of the vessels that extend to the skin , and moderates its exquisite sense , and prevents the overmuch running out of the moisture . iulius castor of placentia , and several other anatomists , will not allow it to be a part of human body , for four reasons . . because it was not produc'd out of the seed in the first forming of the parts ; but afterwards arises from the excrements of the third concoction condens'd and dry'd by the cold , like the film that grows upon porridge . which they say is apparent from hence , that when it is taken away or scrap'd off , it easily grows again , which the spermatic parts never do . . because it is void of sense ; nor is it wasted , as the other parts are , by diseases . . because it does not live . . because it performs no action . but all these arguments are of no force , as being full of manifest contradiction . for by the unanimous consent of all anatomists , even of those that propose these arguments ; it is allow'd to be the first and outermost of all the containing parts ; in which particular they had all very grosly err'd , were it not a part of human body . but let us see what weight their arguments carry . to the first we say , that the smallest threds or fibres of it were form'd out of the seed , in the first delineation of the parts . which is apparent in all abortions covered with a skin , where there is always a scarf-skin to be seen ; which could not be generated by the external cold , for there can be no such thing in the clos'd womb ; nor by the driness of any ambient substance , there being no such thing that can touch the birth swimming in a moist milkie liquor ; and therefore proceeds from some small portion of the seed . which is apparent in ethiopian infants , as well brought forth in due season , as ejected by abortion , who bring the external blackness along with 'em out of the womb. which colour only dyes the scarf-skin , and not the skin ( as riolanus observ'd in the dissection of an ethiopian , whose scarf-skin or cuticle was only black , the skin it self being whiter than snow . ) if now they receive that blackness from their first formation in the womb , then the cuticle into which that colour is incorporated in the very first forming of the body , had its original with the rest of the parts out of the seed ; not from any excrements , or viscous exhalations , in regard that no such things can be at the beginning of formation . as for its growing again when cut away or rub'd off , it has that quality common also to the teeth , which are daily worn by mastication , yet grow again ( concerning which see lib. . cap. . following . ) nay we find , that in the change of teeth , the greatest part of 'em shed themselves , and afterwards come again . the same quality also is common to the sanguin parts ; which are not excluded however out of the number of parts , because they grow again when taken away : seeing they have such a copious nourishment of blood , that easily admits of such a restoration . and thus from the ends of the vessels of the skin , which it covers and shuts , certain exhalations breath continually forth like a kind of dew from the blood to the cuticle , for its nourishment , which is sufficient easi●…y to restore its decay'd and wasted particles . then if it be generated , as they say , like a film growing over milk thickned with flower , that prove ; it to be a part of the body , proceeding from the same principle with the rest . for that same cream or film in milk , is not the excrement of the milk condens'd , nor any thing extraneous to the milk , but the thicker part of the milk , and therefore the milk. to the second , we say , that though it be not sensible , nor wasted manifestly in diseases , yet is it no less a part of the body than the bone , which is neither sensible , nor does seem to be wasted . to the third , we say , 't is a false assertion , that it does not live ; for it increases and grows with the rest of the body , ( which parts not living never do ) and is nourished with alimentary juices , like the rest of the parts . which juices , though they cannot be manifestly perceived by the sight , that signifies nothing , for that happens to those juices that nourish many bones , and the periostea or membranes that enclose the bones , the teeth and many other parts . besides , it is subject to its diseases proceeding from bad humours and blood , as is apparent in the leprosie , the meazles , and many other disaffections . in some it is thinner and softer , in others thicker and harder . but such differences deprive the cuticle of life , no more than the skin , which is subject to the same variety . lastly , who can be so sottish to believe that our whole living bodies should be covered and born with a dead substance or matter round about it . to the fourth we say , that though it do not act , yet the use of it is absolutely necessary ; and consequently that it is no less a part of the body than a cartilage or gristle , the fat , many membranes , flesh , and other parts which are very useful , but perform no action at all . therefore we must conclude it a true part of human body : . because it is one of those things that fill up the space ; for a man without a cuticle is not a compleat whole man : . because it adheres in continuity to the body : . because it is appropriated as aforesaid to a certain necessary use . v. the skin , cutis , 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , as it were 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , a band tying together the parts of the body ; in brutes p●…llis and corium , the pelt or hide is a covering membranous , thick , generated act of the seed , and cloathing the external body , as well to measure the excesses and differences of tactible qualities , as to preserve it against the assaults of accidental violences . vi. it consists of a substance proper to it self , being of a middle nature , between a nerve , a membrane , and flesh. for it is not without blood , nor so quick of feeling as a nerve ; not so thin as a membrane ; nor so full of blood as the flesh ; but it is indued with blood , and as it were a membrane somewhat sinewy and somewhat fleshy , which by vertue of its fleshiness , enjoys a greater thickness than any membrane ; and by vertue of its nervosity has an acute and quick sense . aristotle seems to allow it a substance plainly fleshy ; for ( in the th problem , & l. . de generat . animal . c. . ) he affirms the cutis or skin to be produced of the flesh growing dry . in which sence also columbus ( l. de spir. c. . & . ) calls the skin the exiccation or drying up of the flesh. with whom galen , . method , and ferne●…ius l. . pathog . c. . ) seem to consent , saying , that the skin is the dryer part of the flesh that lyes underneath it . but seeing there is so great a difference between the substance of the skin , and the flesh that lies under it ; and for that the skin is almost every where separated from the flesh by the fat that runs between , and the fleshy pannicle , it is apparent that the skin can be no part of the dry'd up flesh. i say almost every where , for in the forehead it sticks so fast to the muscles under it , that it follows their motion , and seems to be united to 'em , though in truth it be a part subsisting of it self , and not generated by the flesh of the muscles , but only most closely fixed to it . whence we must conclude that the skin owes its original to no other part ; but that it was produced in the first forming the parts no less immediately from the seed , and obtained a nature no less proper to it self , than any other of the parts . lindanus affirms the substance of it to be twofold ; the outward part , nervous ; the inward part fleshy . for he likens the skin to the rind or peel of an orange ; whose exterior yellow substance is thinner , harder , thicker , and more porous . the inner white part thicker , softer , looser and more spungy : and so he believes the skin to be . and massa is of the same opinion , who writes that the skin consists of two little skins , and that they may be divided by the edge of a razor . vii . in respect of the substaace the skin differs in thickness , fineness , thinness , and hardness , according to the variety of temperament , age , sex , regions , and parts . here spigelius proposes a question , whether the skin be the instrument of feeling ? which aristotle and avicen seem to deny , but galen and his disciples affirm to be true . for the solution of the question , this is briefly to be said : that the membrane is properly the instrument of feeling ; and hence the skin , as it is a membrane , may be said to feel . but because that other thicker parts not feeling of themselves are intermixed with the sensitive particles , hence it comes to pass , that its feeling faculty is in some measure moderated , that it might be neither too dull , nor too quick . viii . it is temperate in the first qualities , and enjoys a moderate sense of feeling . for in regard it is subservient to the sense of feeling , to the end it may be able the sooner , and with less detriment , to feel external injuries , before the inward parts receive any dammage , it ought to have a mean temper between the tactible qualities ; by means of which it might be able to perceive all extremities . and because the constitution of tactible qualities is generally felt and examined by the hands , therefore the innermost skin of the hands is most exactly temperate , and of a moderate sensibility , so it be not become brawny by laborious exercise . viii . the figure of it is plain and flat ; nor has it any other properties peculiar to it self , but such as it borrows from the parts subjected to it ; according to whose shape it is either level or unequal , prominent on ex●…uberant , contracted or depressed . in many parts it has various lines and wrinkles according to the variety of its motions ; from the inspection of which in the hand the art of chiromancy promises wonders . ix . it never moves of it self b●…t when it is mov'd , and then it is mov'd either by the part which it invests , or by the muscles annexed to it , as in the forehead and hinder part of the head. x. it is nourished by the blood infused into it through innumerable little arteries . it has innumerable little ▪ veins , of which several discharge themselves into the iugulars , the axillars , or armhole-veins , the epigastric's , veins of the loynes , and saphaenae or crural veins . innumerable other veins also return their blood to the heart invincibly through some other greater veins . it receives the animal spirits through the nerves , of which the numberless small branches , and little fibers terminate in the skin from the parts beneath it ; and contribute to the quickness of its feeling . xi . it is of a continuous or connexed substance , except only in those places where there is a necessary perforation for the entrance and egress of things necessary , as the mouth , the nostrils , the eyes , the fundament , the womb , the pores , &c. xii . in many places it is hairie , as upon the head , the share , the chin , the lips , the armpits ; moreover , but especially in men , upon the breast , the armes , thighs , and leggs . but as for the quantity , colour , length , thickness , and fineness of hair , there is a very great variety according to the temperament and constitution of the body . xiii . the colour of the skin is various . . according to the diversity of regions . hence some are deep yellow , like the scythians : others bright yellow , as the persians , according to hippocrates . others black , as the ethiopians , brasilians , and nigrites . others between yellow and black , as many of the indians . others between a deep yellow , red , and black , as the mauritanians . others white , as the europeans . . according to the variety of temperaments and humors therein contained . hence the flegmatick are pale , the choleric yellow , the melancholy swarthy , and the sanguine fresh and lively . . according to the variety of the parts of the body : for if it stick to the flesh , as in the cheeks , it is more ruddy , if too much fat , it looks pale ; if to a dry and wrinkled part , brown and dull ; if it lye over great veins , it looks blue . xiv . whether action or use be to be attributed to the skin is disputed . galen will allow it no action . li. de caus. morb. c. . and therefore affirms it to be form'd by nature particularly for use. on the other side iulius casser of placentia l. de tact . org . sect . . c. . besides use ascribes to it a certain publick action , so far as it performs the act of touching or feeling , and discerns and judges of qualities . aristotle agrees with galen ; and many arguments uphold casser , which he rehearses and weighs in a long discourse . l. citat . à cap. . ad . and there also at the same time disputes of the organ of feeling , from chap. the . to the . of the book even now cited . chap. iv. of the fat , the fleshy pannicle and membrane of the muscles . i. fat , is an unctuous or oylie substance , condens'd by cold to the thinnest membrane lying upon the fleshy pannicle , and closely joyn'd to it , produced out of an oylie and sulphureous part of the blood , which b●…ing spread under the skin , excludes no less the penetrating injuries of cold , than it hinders the immoderate dissipation of the natural heat , moistning the inward parts , and facilitating their motion . when i say it is condensed by cold , then by cold i mean a lesser heat , not an absolute frigidity void of all heat . which is explain'd at large by andr. laurentius ▪ anat. l. . c. . where by many reasons and similitudes he clearly demonstrates , how a lesser heat may make a condensation . valesius also weighs and decides all the arguments brought to and agen upon this subject . controvers . med. & philos. l. . c. . ii. the matter of fat is blood : hence it comes to pass that where blood is wanting , there is never any fat or grease . and that not every sort of blood , but such as is prefectly concocted , oyly and sulphureous , made by concoction out of the most airie and best part of the nourishment . hence it comes to pass , that such persons whose blood is not oyly ( tho' plentiful ) but hot , melancholic , choleric , ill concocted , serous , salt , or which way soever sharp as in scorbutics and hypochondriacs , never become fat. for that through the vehement and sharp fermentation , occasioned by the acrimonious particles , the oylie sulphureous particles in the blood either are not generated in sufficient quantity ; or being generated or consum'd , before they can be separated from the sanguine mass , and grow to the membranes . hence it is manifest wherefore children are tenderly plump , but never fat , because their blood is very serous , and the more thick and oyly parts of it , are wasted in the nourishment and growth . therefore aristotle in his history of animals l. . c. . writes , that all creatures of riper age sooner grow fat than such as are young and tender , especially when they are arrived at their full growth of length and breadth , then they come to augment in profundity . iii. the primarie efficient cause is moderate heat ( not too fierce , as that which dissipates overmuch , nor too little , which neither concocts well , nor dissolves the concurring vapors ) the secondary cause is the condensation of those vapors raised by that heat to the colder membranes . nor is it a wonder that condensation should be made , when those vapors light upon the membranes not absolutely cold ( tho' they are said to be cold in respect of other parts that are hotter ) but moderately hot as is before said . as we see melted lead , when it is remov'd from the fire condenses again tho' the place be very warm , however not so hot as the fire . nevertheless those oyly sulphureous vapors do not only light upon , neither are they always condensed upon the superficies of the membranes , but if the members are sufficiently porous , they insinuate themselves into their pores , and spread over the whole membranes , where they embody together , and become a part of 'em ; and by that means the fat is dispersed through those universal membranes , as it is done in that membrane which lyes next under the skin . but if the membranes are more firm and thicker , then the fat adheres only to their superficies , as we find in the intestines , the heart and some other parts that are fortify'd with a firmer and more compacted membrane . iv. the learned malpighius ( exercit . de om. ping. & adip . ) makes an enquiry what that is , by means of which , the oyly and fat particles are separated from the sanguine mass , seeing that heat alone ( which can raise indifferently any vapors from the blood , but not particularly separate the oyly vapors from the rest ) is not sufficient to do it . whence he conjectures 〈◊〉 that separation is made by the means of certain kernels , appropriated only to that duty , and that by others the oy●…y particles are infused into certain channels or passages , which he calls ductus adiposos , or channels for the fat , and through which they are spread up and down upon the membranes . in which place he brings several arguments to support this new speculation of his . which new discovery of so great a man , is not to be despised , nor to be rashly rejected ; but to be more seriously considered ; in regard the following reasons render it somewhat doubtful . . because the kernels never appear to sight , nor can be any where demonstrated . . because the certainty of the passages of the fat and their cavity , is a thing as much to be disputed . . because the fat or oyly matter is somewhat viscous , and therefore not so lvable to be separated from the blood by invisible kernels ; or to pass through the imaginary cavities of invisible channels , when the most subtle animal spirits which are liquid and not viscous at all , cannot pass through the invisible pores of the nerves , but that they are stopp'd by every slight obstacle , more especially by the least quantity of viscous humor , as we find in palsies . . for that a fat sweat breaths forth from the bodies of many people , when it is a thing not to be believed , that these sort of kernels are every where inwardly annexed to the skin of the whole body . v. whence it is apparent , what is to be thought of the temperament ; that is to say , that fat is moderately hot , tho' it condense in the cold , and be less hot than blood. which temperament appears , . from the matter of it , which is blood concocted , airie and sulphu●…ie . . from the efficient cause , which is heat . . from the form , which is ovliness . . from the end , which is to help the concoction of the parts ; and by its temperate heat to defend against the external cold. . for that it is easy to be set in a flame . of which galen thus writes , l. . de usu part . c. . that fat is hot , is known to the sense it self , by those that use it instead of oyle . and this also more especially manifests it to be true , because it 's easily set on a light flame , as approaching nearest the nature of flame ; for nothing cold is suddenly kindl'd . vi. picolominus has asserted that fat grows to a proper solid but most thin membrane ( as we have already affirm'd ) for that in living creatures the oylie vapors of the refin'd blood , would breath out in great quantitie through the pores of the skin , unless some thick and cold membrane ( which malpigius calls the adipous membrane ) should restrain and curdle 'em together . but riolanus in his anthropogr ▪ believes there is no need of any particular membrane for that work , in regard that condensation may be well enough performed between the thickness of the skin , and the fleshy membrane ( perhaps as it grows outwardly to the intestines and membranes of the kidneys : which he proves from hence , for that in fat bodies , especially in women , the fleshie membrane lyes wrapt up in fat , as it were in the middle of it . and the same thing is prov'd by others by this experiment , that if fat be melted at the fire , there does not remain any membrane proper to it but only the fleshie membrane . hence riolanus believes that fat is not to be taken for any peculiar part , since it seems to constitute but one only part with the fleshie membrane . yet the same riolanus ( in enchirid. anatom . l. . c. . ) reclaiming his former opinion , attributes a peculiar membrane to fat. and this is that which we also believe . for if the fat which lies under the skin be pull'd off with the fingers , you may easily perceive its more close and fast sticking by means of the membrane ; and tho the fleshie membrane be sometimes overspread with fat , as sometimes it happens to the intestines and other membranous parts , this does not prove , but that the fat it self , which is extended over the whole body under the skin , has its own proper membrane . vii . but here some will object , this membrane then at the first forming of the birth ought to have been form'd out of the seed with the rest of the solid parts . but neither in abortives , nor in infants newly born , any flesh is observ'd to lie under the skin , therefore there can be no such membrane there as that to which the fat is said to adhere . i answer , that that membrane in all new born infants is most certainly form'd , but by reason of its extraordinary close sticking to the fleshy pannicle , it is not so easily to be discovered . i remember once that in a certain large and fleshy infant , that was still-born , i found something of a small peice of fat , like a kind of froth , sticking to the membrane , and as a rarity not usually to be seen so soon , i shew'd it to all the lovers of physick that were by . peter laurembergius also seems to agree with us in this particular ; as he , who in his anat. l. . c. demonstrates , that the fat ( he should have said , rather , the membrane to which the fat will afterwards grow ) is form'd in the womb , and that there never was any child born without fat ( that is , without the membrane ) surrounding the body and the caul . viii . as the fat which incompasses the body grows to its own membrane , so the same thing happens in the fat of other parts . for whereever fat is to be found , as in the intervals of the muscles , the heart , the kidneys and other parts , there are to be found many thin membranes , like little baggs or hollow lappets , hanging at the ends of the vessels , which adhere to another thicker membrane spread underneath as it were a base and foundation . in these the fat or oyly matters of the little bagg being separated from the blood are condensed and collected ; and so out of several little baggs filled with oyly matter , being mutually clapt together , at length are made huge portions of fat. malpighius also , by the help of his microscopes , has observ'd that the said little sacks are variously formed , some being flat , others oval , others of another shape , and that they are knit together partly by the membranes of which they are formed , partly by the little net of the vessels . nevertheless it is to be observed , that these little membranous baggs do not grow to all the thick membranes , which is the reason that fat does not grow to all membranes ; as in the lights , bladder , the meninges , or membranes of the brain , the liver and spleen , &c. in regard that no such membranous baggs do grow or hang to the membranes that cloath and invest ' em . then , as for the bones it may be questioned in some measure , whether their own cavities do not supply the place of membranous baggs , ( which cavities in the larger bones are bigger , in the lesser bones lesser and spungy ) or whether any membranous baggs may be contained in those cavities , in which the fat marrow is collected . which latter seems to be therefore so much the more probable , for that the marrowy fat seems to be in a manner interwoven with little fibres and membranes . ix . others there are who farther extend the foresaid doubt concerning the membrane of the fat , and do not put the question , whether the fat encompassing the body , either alone , or together with the membrane to which it sticks , be a part of the body it constitutes ; but whether it be any manner of way to be reckoned among the parts of the body ? they who maintain the negative affirm , . that it is not a spermatic part engendered out of the seed . . that it is not endued with life like the rest of the parts , because it sometimes grows and sometimes wastes insensibly . . for that in case of hunger and famine it turns into the nourishment of the other parts , whereas one part cannot nourish another . . because it performs no action . . because it is not restrain'd within any peculiar circumscription . but because the affirmative seems to me the more fit to be embraced as the truer , i answer , to the first ; that the first and least delineaments of the spermatic parts , are only engendered out of the seed , which at the first are so thin , that they can hardly be discern'd by the eye , or else lye hid , as in the teeth and several other parts , which do not appear till long after , when enlarged and encreased by the nourishment which is daily afforded 'em : and so also it is with fat. to the second , that as the muscles through diseases insensibly decay , and yet it cannot be said that they are not endued like the rest of the vessels with life , thus also the increase or decrease of the fat is no proof that the fat is not also endued with life like the rest of the parts . to the third , i answer , that it is not true , that the fat turns to the nourishment of the rest of the parts in case of famine ; but rather that is most certain , that the fat is wasted also by long abstinence , like the other parts , when depriv'd of its nourishment . to the fourth , i say , that galen ( l. . de placit . c. . ) allows action to fat , by understanding use , as he also in many other places confounds action and use , tho' in reality there be a great difference between ' em . besides that the cuticle , the spungy bones of the nostrils , the various membranes , the hair and other parts , tho' they perform no action , but only serve to several uses , are therefore not excluded out of the number of the parts ; for which reason there is as little cause for the exclusion of fat from the same number . to the fifth , i affirm , that it is restrain'd within its own circumscription , tho' not contracted to a point , in like manner as the flesh , which has no circumscription exactly determined ; besides we know that the figure makes nothing to the essence of the part. x. the colour of fat in men , as well as in brute beasts , differs something according to age. for in youth it is of a yellowish , or rather rosie kind of colour ; in elderly people somewhat enclining to white ; but in decrepit people altogether white . tho' these rules are not so general in any age , but that there may be sometimes an exception , and the sport of nature may be observ'd . laurembergius attributes this diversity of colours to the qualities of the blood : not without reason . others would rather deduce it from external causes . but these will agree with laurembergius , if we will allow the qualities of the blood to be changed by external causes : and so the blood may be said to be changed by the variety of causes . xi . fat is either internally thickened in the internal parts or external , spread next under the skin , of which we chiefly speak in this place . this is circumfused over all the body , except the lips , upper part of the ear , the eye-brows , the cods , and the yard , to which it would be but a burthen . xii . it differs also in quantity several ways . . in respect of age : for in florid age , it is more plentiful than in childhood and old-age . . in respect of sex : for in women it is more plentiful than in men. . in respect of the temperament , region , and time of the year : for it less abounds in hot and dry than in cold and moist tempers . . in respect of motion and rest : for sedentary and lazy people are more subject to be fat , than they who are given to exercise , or constrained to hard labor . . in respect of dyet : for they that feed upon costly dyet , and indulge their appetites , and make use of nourishment of plentiful and good iuice , are more subject to be fat , than they that live sparingly . . in respect of the parts themselves : for it is more plentiful in those parts where it is of most use , as the abdomen , breasts , buttocks ; more sparing in those parts where it is of little use , as the hands and feet ; but none at all where it is unprofitable and burthensome . . in respect of health : for healthy people are fuller than sickly and diseased . xiii . suet grows to the internal parts , being the same with pinguedo or fat in a large sense . but to speak specifically , it differs from fat , for that this is softer and more moist , easily melted , and being melted , does not so easily congeal . whereas suet is harder and dryer , is much longer in melting , and being melted , more difficultly hardens again . this is certain however , that several physicians use the word promiscuously , and call any oily substance of any creature fat , grease , or suet , as they please themselves ; which is also to be found in galen : who is frequently carelesly neglectful of making any distinction or property between these words ; and l. . sympt . de pingued . thus writes ; if thou wilt call every oily and fat substance in animals grease ; but fat may be taken for the whole genus of that sort of substance . xiv . the fleshy pannicle , fleshy membrane , and membranous muscle , by the greeks 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , is a strong membrane full of fleshy fibres , especially about the forehead , neck , hinder part of the head , and region of the ears , spread over the whole body , as well for covering as defence , endued with an exquisite sence , so that being assail'd with sharp rapers , it causes a quivering and shaking over the whole body . xv. this pannicle in man lyes next under the fat , and extends it self to those parts that want fat , as the eye-lids , the lips , the cods and yard . in most brutes it is spread under the skin , to which it sticks very close , and has the fat lying under it . by the benefit of which , many creatures have a skin that is easily moveable , by means whereof they shake off flies and other troublesome insects , as we find in cows , harts , and elephants . xvi . it sticks most closely to the back , and is there thickest , and therefore is vulgarly said to derive its original from thence . in the neck , the forehead , and the hairy part of the head it can hardly be separated from the muscles that ly under it , and it is so firmly knit to the broad muscle , that it seems to compose it . xvii . it is somewhat of a ruddy colour in new-born infants , in people of riper years it is somewhat white . which colour however varies somewhat according to the fat , the vessels and fibres annexed to it ; so that it is sometimes more pale , and sometimes between both . xviii . the inner part is smear'd over with a slimy humour , to make the muscles slippery , and render their motion more easie . n. zas in his little dutch treatise of the dew of animals , ascribes a most unheard of use to this membrane . for he affirms that it attracts to it self the serous humours from all parts , and that it is the real receptacle or common seat of the serum or dew . which serous humour flows from thence into all the spermatic parts , and washes away all their impurities . that it is the spring and source of all our sweat ; and that in all distempers of the joynts , it poures forth an incredible quantity of gravelly water , vulgarly call'd aqua articularis , or joynt-water , with many other fantastical dreams ( as he was taught by his illiterate master lodowic de bils ) concerning this membrane , which he frivolously indeavours to impose upon others ; altogether ignorant that there is no attractive virtue in this membrane at all , nor any receptacle or place where such a manifest quantity of the serous humour or dew , much less any great quantity , sufficient to be sent to all the spermatic vessels , and to be emitted by sweat ; neither are there pores sufficient to receive so great a quantity in so compact and thin a membrane : moreover , in the dissections of bodies , as well living as dead , that membrane never is to be seen turgid or swelling with any serous or other dewy humour , as he calls it . xix . the membrane common to the muscles , is a thin membrane cloathing all and every one of the muscles , and separating them from themselves , and the adjacent parts . riolanus , animadvert . in bauhin . finds fault with bauhinus for reckoning this part in the number of the common containing parts ; and yet in the mean time calls it a membrane proper to the muscles . but bauhinus's meaning may be easily interpreted for the best ; that he reckon'd that membrane among the common containing coverings , as it is proper only to the muscles , but common nevertheless to all the muscles , that is to say such a one as infolds , covers , and contains such and such muscles only , but in the mean time is common to all the muscles . chap. v. of the proper containing parts . i. the containing parts proper to the lower belly , are the bones , muscles of the abdomen , and peritonaeum , or membrane of the paunch . ii. the bones are few and large , that is , the vertebers of the loyns , the os sacrum , with the crupper-bone adjoyn'd , the huckle-bone , hip-bone , and share-bone ; of which more l. . c. . iii. the muscles of the paunch or abdomen are ten , ( sometimes eight , seldom nine ) distinguish'd by their proper membranes , and the running along or situation of the fibres ; on both sides equally opposite one to another . iv. the first pair , which is external , is fram'd by the oblique descending muscles , full of obliquely descending fibres also . these arise from the lower part of the sixth , seventh , eighth , ninth , tenth and eleventh ribs , before they end in gristles folded among the spires of the greater saw-shap'd muscle , and the transverse processes of the vertebers of the loyns ; sticking also to the side of the hip-bone , and end with a broad tendon in the middle of the paunch at the linea alba. which tendon sticks so close to the tendon of the next ascending muscle , that it is almost inseparable from it , nor can be parted from it without being torn and dilacerated . now its membranous tendon begins at the linea alba , which spigelius calls the similunar or halfmoon line . these tendons in men ( which also happens to the two other lower pairs , the ascending and transverse ) are crossed on both sides by the processes of the peritonaeum , extending themselves to the testicles ; but in women by the vermiform ligaments of the womb ; which passage being overmuch widen'd or broken , if the call or intestines fall upon the groin or cod , it is the cause of burstenness . they derive nerves , arteries and veins from the intercostal branches at the upper part : v. the linea alba is a whitish part running from the cartilago mucronata through the middle of the paunch and navil , to the os pubis , or share-bone . it has the firm substance of a tendon , through the concourse of the ends of the tendons of the descending , ascending , transverse , and pyramidical muscles of the abdomen . it is broader above the navil , narrower below it ; and in women with child many times it appears of a blewish colour ; which colour it has been known to keep till the third month after delivery . riolanus animad . in bauhin . seems to believe it to be a peculiar membrane running out from the cartilago mucronata of the breast , through the navil , to the commissure or joyning of the share-bone , and receiving the tendons of the share-bone . in the same animad . in bauhin . he affirms the linea alba to be imaginary ; perhaps because that being blind through age , he could no longer discern it . vi. the second pair is constituted by the muscles obliquely ascending , furnish'd with ascending fibres , which as they ascend , cross the descending in form of a letter x. they arise from the transverse processes of the vertebers of the loyns ( from whence they receive the nerves ) and the apophyses or going forth of the os sacrum , ( but membranous both , ) and the outward fleshy part of the hip-bone ▪ hence the fleshy ascending are joyn'd at the top to the cartilages of the eighth , ninth , tenth and eleventh ribs , and terminate in the linea alba with a broad nervous tendon crossing the right muscles ; and are nourish'd by the little branches of the arteries growing from the musculous artery near the loyns , and casting forth veins to the musculous vein . some anatomists vulgarly hold , that these muscles with a double tendon enfold the right muscles . which is not very probable . for above , the tendons of the ascending muscles rest upon the right muscles , and are so fast interwoven with their tendony intersections , that they can hardly be separated whole from ' em . but in the lower or inner part of the muscles those tendons cannot be discover'd , and therefore they are deservedly rejected by vesalius , and riolanus ; and lawrentius is justly blam'd by riolanus , for taking notice of 'em in his sculptures . vii . the third pair is that of the musculi recti , so call'd because of the streight course of the fibres . they are very strong , three or four fingers broad , and about a finger thick . they arise fleshy from each side of the cartilago macronata , the breast-bone , and the cartilages of the ribs , ( where they receive three or four nerves from the intercostal parts ) and so descending directly down ; and being united almost near the navil , and distinguish'd with two , three , sometimes four impressions , as it were into several muscles , end at length with a strong , thick tendon in the share-bones . some anatomists describe their beginning from the share-bones , and make 'em to end in the cartilages of the ribs . others believe that they consist of several muscles , and place their beginnings partly in the cartilages of the ribs , partly in the share-bones , and make 'em to end at their intersections , and affirm the several parts contained between the tendon-like inscriptions to be so many muscles . to which opinion , not improbable , spigelius gives his consent , induc'd thereto by this argument , because they not only receive nerves from the intercostals above , but also below from the first pair of the loyns . for it is a perpetual rule , that every muscle moves toward its beginning . but where the nerve is inserted , there , as galen testifies , is the beginning of the muscle , ( see the reason l. . c. . ) but here several nerves are inserted into their parts , not only above and below , but also those which are interspac'd with separate interfections ; and therefore there are many beginnings of these muscles ; which in regard they cannot be many in one muscle , therefore all the musculi recti do not consist of one , but of several muscles . moreover if we consider their primary use , which is strongly to press down the belly for the expulsion of ordure and the birth ; which compression and expulsion does not require that either the breast-bone should be drawn downward , or the os pubis upward ; but that those bones should remain in their places , and that all and every the parts of these muscles should swell together ; that so the upper parts of every one should draw upward some parts that are nearest to 'em at the first intersections ; the lower parts other parts which are nearest to 'em , downwards ; and that the middle parts , lying between the intersections , should draw to themselves the parts that are next 'em on both sides . which contractions being made by distinct and several parts to several parts , ( which cannot be done in one muscle ) it follows that every single musculus rectus must consist not of one , but of several muscles . viii . as they receive large arteries from the epigastrics ascending , and the mammillary arteries descending , so they send forth a larger sort of veins to the epigastric and mammillary veins . ix . these arteries and veins at their ends in the inner part , are vulgarly said to joyn together about the middle by anastomoses one into another . so that the ends of the epigastricks open into the ends of the mammillary veins , whence many derive the consent and sympathy of the dugs ▪ with the womb. but i have always observed these anastomoses or openings of one vein into another , to be wanting ; nor did i ever yet meet with any body wherein these ends were not distant one from another , the breadth either of a thumb or a little finger , so that i am certain the cause of that consent can by no means proceed from hence . thus vesalius likwise , in exam. obs. fallop . writes ; that he has observed that those vessels are never so united , that it may be said , there is any communication between ' em . bartholin also in dub . anat . de lact . thorac . c. . writes that he sought for these anastomoses in a sound young woman , kill'd six weeks after her delivery , but could find none : rather that the branches ascending and descending were about a fingers breadth distant one from another : yet riolanus defends those anastomoses most stiffly , anthropog . l. . c. . and asserts that he had shewn 'em to a hundred of his scholars . but for all that , i do not give so much credit to his words , as i do to my own eyes . perhaps old riolanus might be dimm-sighted at that time , and so perhaps might think he saw what was not to be seen . of these anastomoses see more l. . c. . & l. . c. . x. the fourth pair resting in the lower place upon the musculi recti , are the pyramidal muscles , so call'd from their figure which is pyramidal ; but from their use succenturiati , because they are thought to assist the musculi recti in their duty . they arise small and fleshy from the share-bones , where they also receive the nerves . from this larger foundation they rise smaller and smaller , and scarce four fingers bread , ascending the ends of the musculi recti , yet somewhat unequal in length , the left being both shorter and narrower , they thrust their sharp tendon into the linea alba , and sometimes extend it to the navel with a slender end. vesalius ▪ andern●…cus , and columbus describe those ends erroneously for the beginning of the musc li recti , seeing that the interceding membrane , and also the separation which may be made without any prejudice to the musculi recti , also the obliquity of the fibres quite different from the strait muscles , and lastly a peculiar way of thrusting themselves into the linea alba , clearly demonstrate that they are several and distinct muscles . xi . fallopius and riolanus ascribe to these muscles the office or action of compressing the bladder , and promoting the excretion of urine , or the act of making water . nevertheless sometimes ' both these muscles are wanting ; sometimes the one , and sometimes the other , is lacking ; but more frequently the left than the right , and then the broader and more fleshy end of the right supplies their place . we have several times shewn as well when they have been both to be seen , as when they have been defective , both in publick and private exercises . xii . the fifth pair consists of the transverse muscles , fasten'd to the peritonaeum underneath , and full of transverse fibres . they begin from the ligament rising from the transverse processes of the vertebers of the loyns , the huckle-bone , and the cartilaginous neighbourhood of the six inferiour ribs . and being furnish'd with arteries , veins and nerves obliquely ascending , they end with a large tendon in the linea alba. to these the peritonaeum sticks so close , that it cannot be separated from 'em without dilacerati●…n . xiii . the common opinion is , that all the foremention'd muscles compress the lower belly , and by that means promote the dispersing of the nourishment through the vessels and bowels , as also the expulsion of super abundant excrements , and the mature birth , also that they assist the breast in strong respiration , and expectoration , or forcible throwing off what is offensive to the lungs , fasten the contain'd bowels , and defend 'em from external injuries , and cherish 'em with their heat . but i think this , that it is convenient to discourse somewhat more particularly of their actions . for if generally they all serve to compress the belly ; which are they that raise the containing parts of this belly ? for their elevation and depression is alternate , and both are equally necessary to the pushing and squeezing forward of the nourishment and humours through the contain'd parts , which i admire no person has hitherto taken notice of . and therefore there is a notable distinction to be made of the operations of these muscles . xiv . in the first place the two oblique pair raise the abdomen . for in regard they swell at their beginnings or fleshy part , then the tendons with the linea alba draw outward and raise upward ; and that same swelling usually concurs with the swelling of the dilating muscles of the breast ; and therefore in breathing , the abdomen is also elevated together with the breast ▪ which every man may find in himself . then again that elevation may be made without breathing , when the animal spirits , especially more copious , are determin'd to these oblique muscles , and very few flow into the dilating muscles of the breast . this operation also , among other things , their oblique situation teaches us ; ( which is not so convenient for pressing forth ; ) as also their original , and the length of their tendous . but the other three pairs manifestly serve for compression . for the musculi . recti , with the pyramidal , when they swell , cannot but very forcibly depress the belly ; and the transverse muscles swelling , because they rise from the loyns , cannot but very strongly contract the belly , by drawing the linea alba backward . spigelius l. . anat . c. . ascribes another use to the muscles of the abdomen , that is , to move the trunk of the body at the sides circularly and obliquely , and to bend the body forward . of which two offices , the one is to be ascribed to the oblique , the other to the streight muscles . besides the foresaid muscles , those muscles seated in the region of the loyns and ossa sacra , may be reckon'd among the muscles of the inferiour belly : but because that they are chiefly serviceable to the action of other parts , they are not muster'd in the order of the muscles of this belly . xv. the most inward containing part of the abdomen is the peritonaeum , by the arabians call'd ziphach , because it is spread over all the bowels of this belly , and not only contains and restrains 'em , but clothes them with a common tunicle . vesalius and bauhinus , following the opinion of galen , de ●…su part . lib. . cap. . ascribe to it the office of compressing the intestines , and to the exclusion of the birth . but in regard that action or compression is voluntary , it is necessarily perform'd by the muscles , the instruments of voluntary motion , by which means the compress'd peritonae●…m pushes forward , and so presses forth only by accident . xvi . it is a thin and soft membrane , interwoven with spermatic fibres , smooth within-side , and as it were besmear'd over with moisture , without fibrous and somewhat rough . xvii . it is improperly said to derive its original from the first and second vertebrae of the loyns , because the thickness of it is more in that place , and its connexion firmer . i say improperly , because no one spermatic part derives it self from another , but all take their original from the seed . fallopius is of opinion that it has its beginning from the beginning of the mesentery . lindan , agreeing with riolanus , deduces its beginning from the membrane outwardly infolding the vessels and the bowels . but in regard this membrane is rather to be taken from the peritonaeum that spreads it self over all the lower belly , the peritoneum can never derive its beginning from that . xviii . jacobus sylvius observes it in men , to be thicker and stronger in the upper part of the belly , in women toward the lower part of the belly . which bauhinus believes so order'd by nature in the one , as being more addicted to gluttony ; in the other , for the sake of the womb , and the birth to be therein conceived . but spigelius affirms it to be thicker in both sexes always in the lower part , and never in the upper . which he believes was so ordain'd by nature with great prudence , as being the part which is most obnoxious to ruptures ; in regard that whether we sit , walk , or stand , the bowels always weigh downwards ; and therefore that the peritonaeum may be better enabled to sustain their weight , she thought it necessary to strengthen and fortifie that part . xix . it has very small nerves that arise from the vertebra's of the breast and loyns . arteries and veins that spring from the diaphragmatic , mammary , and epigastric vessels . xxi . it is bor'd thorough at the passage of the gullet and vessels above and below , and proceeding outward in the birth , as also of the vermiform ligaments of the womb. moreover , its outward membrane forms in men , two oblong processes , like more loose sort of chanels descending toward the scrotum , for the defence of the testicles and spermatic vessels descending and turning again . xxii . this membrane is call'd vaginalis , the sheath-membrane , because it comprehends the stones as it were in a sheath . but in women , whose stones are not pendulous without , it extends it self on both sides to the end of the round ligaments of the womb ; and proceeding forward , together with it , without the abdomen , extends it self above the share-bones to the clitores . but it s inner membrane sticks fast , and grows to the spermatic vessels , or the foresaid ligaments of the womb , passing forward , and together with the vaginal membrane , extending without the cavity of the abdomen . for that membrane being either dilated or broken in that place causes bitterness ; so that the intestine and caul in men falls into the scrotum ; in women down upon their groyns . which rupture or dilation of the peritonaeum , if it happen in the navel , is call'd hernia umbilicalis , or the navel-rupture . chap. vi. of the parts contain'd ; and first of the caul . i. the parts contain'd in the abdomen , either perform the publick concoctions ; or serve for the distribution of the nourishment and blood ; or expel the exerements , or serve for generation . the stomach , small guts , sweet-bread , liver , spleen , and caul ( which is serviceable to them ) perform the publick duties of concoction . the arteries , veins , milky and lymphatic vessels serve for the distribution of the nourishment and blood. the thick intestine , the gall-bladder , the porus biliarius , the kidneys , and the urinary bladder , expell the excrements . the spermatic vessels , the stones , the parastatae or crooked vessels at the back of the testicles ; the prostatae or glandules under the seminal bladders , the seminary vessels , the womans privities , her womb and neck of the womb contribute to generation . but tho' in men the yard and testicles are excluded out of the abdomen , yet are they by anatomists reckon'd among the parts contain'd ▪ because the spermatic vessels go forth toward the testicles from the internal parts , and the different vessels proceed from the testicles toward the inner vessels ; and for that the seed which is collected together in the inner prostatae and seminary vessels , flows out of the yard . of all which we are to treat in the following chapters according to their order . ii. the peritonaeum being open'd , presently appear the navel vessels . of which in the . chapter . iii. those being remov'd , the caul offers it self ; in latin omentum , as it were operimentum , because it covers the bowels . the greeks call it epiploon , for that it does , as it were , swim over the guts ; sometime gargamon , sometimes sagena , that is , a net , or little net ; for that by reason of the stragling course of its vessels , it resembles a fisher-man's net : the arabians call it zirbus . it covers all the sanguineous parts ; tho' it appears fatter over some , and more membranous over others . iv. it is a thin and double membrane rumpled like a purse , arising from the peritonaeum that infolds the outside of the stomach and colon. riolanus derives its original from the mesentery : which opinion differs not from the first , when the mesentery has its membranes from the peritonaeum ; of which it is a certain sort of production . v. it consists of a thin membrane interwoven with several folds , and small thred-like fibres , growing in the forepart to the bottom of the stomach and the spleen , and sometime also to the round lobb of the liver , at the hinder part growing to the colon , and so folded like a sack ; as also of several vessels , and a soft kind of fat , which is chiefly spread about the vessels , and is very plentiful in fat people . vi. it has a world of veins , which it transmits to those which run toward the liver from the stomach and spleen , and so to the vena porta , or great vein of the abdomen . with which are intermix'd several arteries from the branches of the ramus coeliacus and mesenterick artery , and some few nerves that proceed from the plexures of the intercostal nerves of the sixth pair . vii . the roots of the blood-conveighing vessels , meet one another here and there with an anastomoses , leaving conspicuous spaces between each other , which are also fill'd themselves with smaller branches ; springing sidelong from the larger roots , by means of whose frequent conjunction an apparent net is form'd , whose middle spaces exhibit various figures fram'd with wonderful art and workmanship . many of these lesser branches also run out into the fat , and not only thrust themselves slightly into the outermost lumps , but also penetrate farther in , and are fasten'd to the lumps or little globes of fat : and sometimes they are hid with a small thin membrane spread over 'em , so that they are imperceptible . malpigius exercit. de oment . ping . & adip . exactly describes the structure of the caul , in an ox , a sheep , a hart , a dog , and some other animals . viii . veslingius asserts , that several little kernels , plain to be seen , sometimes more , sometimes fewer , are scattered up and down in the said vessels . but riolanus animad . in vesling . & barthol . affirms that he never observed any such kernels . but through age he seems to have forgot a truer assertion in anthropogr . where he acknowledges some few . and indeed they are very few , and those only under the lower and deeper part , under the pylorus , or right orifice of the ventricle , and the spleen . in like manner wharton , in his adenographia makes mention of but very few . for c. . he writes , that he only found two little kernels , but those always in the caul . one bigger in the place where it joyns with the pylorus ; which he observ'd receiv'd some few milkie vessels running from the bottom of the stomach toward the length of the caul ( but he is in an error , for there are not any milkie veins that derive themselves from the bottom of the stomach , but as far as i could find by three or four observations , these vessels do not seem to be milkie , and advancing to the kernel , but rather lymphatic , and proceeding out of the kernel . ) these vessels , the same author says that afterwards , viz. from the length of the caul they run with an oblique course toward the right extremitie of the sweetbread , which they partly seem to creep under , and partly glide by , tending toward the common receptacle of the chylus , into which they disburthen themselves . the other kernel he asserts to be a little less , which he affirms to have found sometimes double , sometimes treble , sometimes consisting of more bodies . but if many kernels are found in any body that was sickly , at his death , he calls those kernels adventitious , because they are not to be found in healthy bodys . ix . the learned malpigius , besides the aforesaid vessels , observes other very thin and slender bodies , extended like small threads , among the vessels that shoot sorth , which he calls corpora adiposa , or fat bodys : and he believes 'em to be certain peculiar hollow vessels , carrying the materials of fat for the generation of fat , tho' it be impossible to observe their original , by reason of their extream slenderness . in the mean time he is of opinion that these materials of fat are separated from the blood by the means of certain invisible adipous kernels , and are so sent to these vessels , and thro' those conveighed into the membranes , rhere to be coagulated into fat. for as there are certain peculiar kernels appointed for the separation of acid , salt , bitter , lympid , &c. humors , from the blood ( for this shall be made out in the following chapter ) so he believes that there must be certain peculiar kernels ( which he calls a lipous ) of necessity appointed of oily and fat particles from the blood ; and that those oily particles being separated , are to be carried through certain peculiar adipous vessels , in the same manner as the blood , the animal spirits , the chylus , and lympid humor , called lympha , are carryed through peculiar vessels ; upon which he introduces many ingenious and probable conjectures . but what it is that makes me question the truth of these kernels and adipous vessels , i have already set down in the fourth chapter preceding ; where i have made mention of these kernels . x. the caul is seated about the intestines , into whose windings and turnings it insinuates it self , and spreads a great part of its self between the spleen and the stomach . xi . in many persons it scarcely extends it self below the region of the navel , in some farther , reaching even to the bladder , and sometimes in fat women compressing the mouth of the womb ( to the bottom of which it rarely grows ) it occasions barrenness , as hippocrates testifies : and in men if it fall down through the torn peritonaeum into the scrotum , it causes that rupture which is called epiploce , when the caul falls into the outward skin of the cods . it appears in more folds and doubles toward the spleen than in any other parts . sometimes in women after delivery ; remaining all rumpled about the middle of the belly , it occasions terrible and frequently returning pains . xii . for the most part , in men grown up , it hardly exceeds the weight of half a pound ; and yet sometimes it has bin known to weigh several pounds . thus it is found to be wonderfully encreased in some diseases : and wharton relates that in a virgin that dy'd of a cachexie , he saw a caul that was fleshy , or rather glandulous ; about half a thumb thick . sometimes also in fat and tun belly'd people that are sound , it is covered over with a great quantity of fat , which encreases its weight . thus vesalius l. . c. . saw a caul , which being augmented to the weight of four or five pounds , drew down the stomach with its ponderosity , and was the occasion of the parties death by its weight . xiii . by cherishing the heat of the stomach and guts , it causes more successful and speedier concoctions . it supports the splenick branch , and other vessels tending to the stomach , colon , and duodenum . moreover it many times receives the impurities and dreggs of the liver , as appears out of hippocrates , l. . . also out of his . lib. de morb. & lib. . de morb. mulier . as also from the observations of riolanus , rossetus , and other physicians . chap. vii . of the ventricle , hunger , and the chylus . i. take off the caul , and presently the ventricle or stomach appears ; as it were a little belly , call'd by the greeks 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , as also gaster . ii. it is an organic part of the lower belly , seated in the epigastrion , next under the diaphragma , which receives the nourishment taken , prepared by mastication , and let down through the gullet , and there concocts it ; and dissolving the best part of the nutritive substance , converts it into a chylus or whitish kind of substance , like to cream . iii. it consists of a triple membrane ; the outermost thick and common , springing from the peritonaeum , the middle , fleshy , the innermost , full of wrinkles , and covered over with a viscous crustiness , to preserve it from the injuries of acid iuices . iv. in the middle and innermost membrane , in the first place , there is to be seen great variety of fibres extended , some obliquely , some streight , and some circular : for the strengthning of the bowels , and more easy retention and expulsion . v. the innermost tunicle is vulgarly said to be common to the gullet and oesophagus ; whereas it is of a far different nature and structure , and in regard of its temper and composition , contains a most admirable fermenting quality , which the membrane of the mouth of the stomach and oesophagus is not indued withal ; and hence it engenders and stores up within it self a peculiar fermentative humor ; which being in a sound condition , the concoctions of the stomach are rightly perform'd , but being vitiated by the mixture of choler , or any other depraved humors , occasion a bad concoction . and therefore it would be better to say that this tunicle is not common with , but continuous to the oesophagus and mouth of the stomach . for there is a great difference between continuitie and communitie . for the one denotes only the inseparable adhesion of the substance alone ; but the other signifys the equality both of faculties and uses . for example , the great arterie , is continuous to the heart , but not common , as not having such qualities and actions as the heart has . vi. the temperament of the stomach is moderately hot , not so hot as the heart , liver , and many other parts . which moderate heat is augmented and cherished by the heat of the parts that lie round about it : to the end the concoction of the chylus may be the better accomplished ; which otherwise is greatly endammaged by the excesses of these parts either in heat or cold. vii . in a man there is but one stomach : it being a rare thing to find two stomachs in any body : of which i never read but three observations ; of which one concerning a stomach divided into two , is cited out of ioselinus by theod schenkius , in anat. the other is cited by the same person out of the observations of salmuthus : and the third is set down by riolanus , anthropogr . l. . c. . in these words . once i saw a double stomach continu'd , but distinguished with a narrow mouth in a woman publickly dissected in the year . in this woman the stomach was oblong , narrow in the middle , equalling the gut colon in breadth and largeness . which being dissected , i found that narrow part , being like the pylorus , to end in another large cavity , which afterwards terminated in a thicker orifice , which was the real pylorus , from whence , as an ecphysis , the first intestine took its beginning . beside these three examples , i do not remember that ever i read any thing farther upon this subject . but there are two stomachs in animals that chew the cud , and many other animals , that feed upon harder and raw nourishment ; also in birds that cast up their meat out of their stomachs to feed their young ones . and then the first by the latins was called ingluvies , or the crap : which is more membrany and thinner , the other more thick and fleshy . and in the first the matter seems to be prepared for concocting , the second to be perfectly concocted . it is said that in some creatures three stomachs have bin found ; and riolanus testifys , that four have bin found in those creatures , which chewing the cud have teeth only in one jaw . viii . the shape of the stomach is oblong , gibbous toward the right part , and slenderer toward the right . ix . it rests upon the back-bone near the first verteber of the loyns , and with the left part , which is rounder and bigger , giving way to the liver , it hangs forward toward the left side : the left side being the slenderer , and covered with the left lobe of the liver , and supported by the sweetbread , is joyned to the duodenum , or first of the small guts . x. the bigness varies according to the diversity of ages and bigness of bodys ; to the proportion of which it ought to answer ; tho' that be no certain and perpetual rule . for i have dissected several tall men , who have had very small stomachs , and several men of a short stature , that have had large ventricles . gluttons , voracious , or greedy people , have generally large stomachs . such was that , which schenkius anat . l. . sect. . c. . affirms that he saw in a great glutton that held ten quarts of wine . that was also a large one , mentioned by spigelius anat. l. . c. . that contain'd fourteen pints of liquor : which was found in a man that had a large mouth . whence bauhinus anat. l. . c. . believes that a man may judge of the bigness of the stomach from the largeness of the mouth : and that such as have a wide mouth ▪ have a large stomach , and are voracious : which is also the opinion of spigelius . but neither is that rule without exception : for i remember that falcoburgi●…s , a certain famous anatomist of leiden , cut up before us , in the publick theater , the body of a very tall strong man , who in his life time had bin a stout drinker , and a great eater , and always healthy until he came to be hanged against his will , in whom we saw so small a stomach , that it hardly amounted to half the bigness of an ordinary mans stomach : but trebly exceeded other ventricles in thickness . xi . it is distinguished into the bottom or cavity ( the one the lower or greatest part , inclining to the left side , with its chiefest and largest part , where the first concoction is finished ) and two orifices , the right and left. xii . the left orifice , commonly called the upper orifice , is that which is properly the stomach , and continuous to the gullet and diaphragma , about the eleventh verteber of the breast , over against the cartilago mucronata , admits the swallowed nourishment . this , exceeding the other in bigness , thickness , and largeness , is interwoven with many orbicular fibres , somewhat fleshy ( which cause its more firm contraction , and in the various postures of the body lying down , hinders the nourishment from falling back into the mouth ) and nerves from the sixth pair ; and in that is the natural heat of the appetite , according to the vulgar opinion : not that the act of desiring is there performed , which is only in the brain , but that through the intervals there is such a cause in it , the trouble of which being perceiv'd in the brain , stirs up such an act of desiring . xiii . the other orisice , which is the lower , properly called pylorus , or the door-keeper , is narrower than the other , somewhat bow'd toward the back bone , on the left side , full of fibres thwarting one another , having a thicker circle , and shap'd like an orbicular muscle ( by means of which it detains the nourishment for some time , lest it should slip away too soon , and undigested ) and continuous to the duodenum gut , send the concocted nourishment to the bowels . which nourishment does not pass by a steep fall , as lying equally high with the stomach , but ascends before expulsion . xiv . the ventricle receives nerves , arteries , and veins . xv. it receives nerves from the sixth pair . for that both the trunks of the wandering pair , below the ramus pneumonicus , descending along the sides of the oesophagus , is divided into two branches , the external and internal . of these , the external by and by joyn together again , and embody into one nerve , and spreads it self over the upper part of the ventricle with many shoots . the internal also running together , make one nerve , which descending along the oesophagus , and the external part of the stomach , encompass the bottom of the ventricle , and sends into it a great number of fibres . through these nerves the animal spirits flow in great quantity into the ventricle , contributing to it a quick sense of feeling : which because of the larger quantity of nerves dispersed into the stomach , becomes more sensible in the upper part than the lower , which is thought to be the cause of hunger . through these nerves of the wandering pair is infused into the fibres of the ventricle , a natural power of contracting themselves , in all expulsions , of what ever is contained in the ventricle : and by means of them also is that great consent between the ventricle and the brain . xvi . it receives its arteries from the coeliac arterie , which serve to carry the alimentary blood with which it is nourished . xvii . it is sprinkl'd with several branches of small veins sculking among its tunicles , many of which meeting here and there , and closing together , they form at length four more remarkable veins , which run to the porta vein , that is the . gastrick , which is bigger than the rest , . and . the right and left gastroëpiploid , . and the pyloric branch : also another vein , called the vas breve , or vas venosum ( which issues forth from the ventricle sometimes with one , sometimes with two , sometimes three , and sometimes more branches , to be inserted into the spleen branch . by these the remainder of the blood , which is left after the nourishment of the stomach is conveighed to the liver . xviii . formerly physicians asserted that there was a certain acid iuice or blood , which ascended into the ventricle through the vas breve , for the nourishment of it , as also to create an appetite , and stir up hunger in the ventricle . but the very sight it self demonstrates the falsehood of this doctrine in the dissections of living animals , in which it is apparent that there is nothing flows from the spleen to the ventricle ; but that the blood continually flows from the ventricle to the splenic branch : for upon tying the vas breve , there will presently appear a swelling between the ventricle and the ligature ; but a shrinking of the vessels between the ligature and the splenetic branch . which is a certain sign that the blood flows as we have said ; and that it hardly reaches the spleen ( for the entrance of the vas breve into the splenetic vein , for the most part , is somwhat distant from the spleen ) nor does it enter into the spleen , but is poured forth into the splenetic branch , and flows from thence directly to the porta . more of this matter may be seen in the following . chapter . xix . here we are to note by the way , that some learned men are very trivial in their exposition of the . aphorism of hippocrates l. . where he says , they who have any flegm included between the ventricle and diaphragma , are troubled with pain , because the flegm has no passage to either belly , &c. induc'd by these words , they assert , that between the lest sde of the ventricle and the diaphragma , there is a large triangular cavitie , fenc'd about with membranes proceeding as well from the ventricle , as from the diaphragma and caul , which nevertheless is a gross mistake : for that there are no membranes sent from those parts that meet in that place , neither is there any such cavity form'd there . indeed sometimes a portion of the caul insinuates it self between the diaphragma and the hinder part of the ventricle , so that sometimes it counterfeits the swelling of the spleen . and this is that without all doubt , which has deceived the patrons of the said opinion , not being well versed in anatomie . xx. the ventricle , tho' it be not a principal part , yet is it an assistant and serviceable part ; to which we are c●…iefly beholding for the preparation of the nourishment ( whence quintus serenus , a sammic poet , calls it the king of the body . they on truths royal basis seem to stand , who give the stomach the supreme command : if it be strong , it gives strength , vigor too , to other parts : if weak , their overthrow . and therefore all diseases that assault it are to be accounted very dangerous ; and the wounds which it receives are by hippocrates , . aphor. . deservedly accounted mortal ; because the membranous vessels are hard to be cur'd in that part : and if they happen about the stomach , by reason of the great number of nerves intermingled in those places , they kill the patient with continual convulsions and hichups : but if they light upon the lower part , the swallow'd nourishment presently falls through the holes into the cavity of the abdomen , where in a short time they rot the other bowels with their corruption and putrefaction . however tho' use and reason confirms that saying of hippocrates , yet this rule sometimes , tho' not frequently , admits an exception ; for it has been known that some wounds of the ventricle have been cur'd . and of such cures we find examples set down by fallopius de cap. vuln. c. . cornax in epist. iulius alexandrinus annot. ad l. . c. . therapeut . galen . schenkius also collects other stories from others , observat . l. . such a cure i observ'd in the month of december . in a country ●…ad , who in upper holland was wounded with the stab of a penknife in the right side of the ventricle ; the wound being of an indifferent size , so that for eight days together we saw all his meat and drink came out again at the orifice , especially if you did but press the lower part of the ventricle with your hand : which efflux of his nourishment stopped for seven days , but then return'd again for three days , and no more ; nor did the nourishment discharge it self so much as it did before . afterwards being ordered to lye upon his right side day and night , nothing more flow'd out ; so that no other disease happening , and the surgeon following his cure , the patient , beyond mine and the expectation of all men , within six or seven weeks was perfectly cur'd . nor did he afterwards feel the effect of any detriment which the wound had left behind , nor any hurt done to his stomach . but , more miraculous are those accidents concerning two knife-swallowers , of which the first is related by bernard . suev●…s , tract . de inspect . vulner . crollius in praefat. basilic . sennertus prax. lib. . part . . sect. . c. . and several others , of a bohemian country-man , who in the year . at prague , swallowed a knife nine inches long ; which knife , after it had lain seven weeks , was at length cut out of his stomach , and the patient perfectly cur'd . the other accident george lothus and roger hempsing relate , as seen by themselves , in a particular part of germany , of a young man of two and twenty years of age , who at regiomont in prussia , in the month of may . swallowed a knife by chance , the breadth of two hands in length , the smooth haft slipping down unawares . which knife was cut out of his stomach six weeks after , and the patient perfectly cur'd in a month. this knife was afterwards given by daniel becker , a physician of dantzick , to otho heurnius then professor of physic and anatomy at leyden , where it is still preserved among other rarities in the anatomy-theatre . xxi . that stones do grow in the kidneys and bladder , is a thing frequently known , and sadly experienced ; and that stones have been also found in the liver , lungs , and several other parts , is that which the observations of physicians testifie : but that they should breed in the stomach , is a thing hardly ever heard of ; and yet bauschius gives us four examples of it . ephemerid . med. phys. tom. . observ. . the first out of iames dobie zen●…ki , who reports , that a certain woman , after long pains in her stomach , vomited up two stones about the bigness each of an almond , and was presently freed from her gripes . the second out of laurentius scholtzius , who writes , that a certain person , long tormented with cruel pain in his stomach , at length vomited up a very large , oblong , and hard stone , upon which his pain ceased . the third out of the same author , of a woman who at forty years of age was troubled with a pain and swelling of her stomach , want of appetite , and continual reaching ; in whose stomach , after she was dead , were found as many stones as a man could well hold in the hollow of his hand , which being long kept , moulder'd away , and crumbl'd into a kind of yellow salt : he adds a fourth example of count george of oppendorf , in whose stomach were also found several little stones . xxii . the action of the stomach is to make the chylus , that is , to extract a milkie iuice by peculiar concoction out of the several nourishments , which is call'd the chyle . xxiii . the chyle is a milkie iuice like the cream of a ptisan , prepar'd and concocted out of the nourishment received into the stomach . xxiv . the nourishment or food is concocted in the stomach by way of fermentation ; by which means they dissolve , and so the iuice is extracted out of ' em . xxv . fermentation is twofold . one whereby the particles of the mixture are stirr'd about of themselves , grow warm , and are rarify'd ; and by dissolving the salt which binds 'em together , they are so separated , that they become more full of spirits : and are then for the greatest part mixed together again , and tho' more full of spirits , yet remain mix'd . the other , which is by many call'd effervescency , is that by which the acid particles of the salt , for the greatest part , boyling together with some watry and tartarous matter , are concenter'd by coagulation , and so are separated from other particles of the mixture , that they never return to an exact union and mixture with 'em again . xxvi . after the first manner fermentation causes chylification : tho' in our following discourses , when we design to express a vehement fermentation , we shall make use of the word effervescency . xxvii . this fermentation is made when the salt parts of the swallow'd food , are by the heat of the stomach , and the acid iuice , dissolv'd , melted , and become full of spirits , and withal corrode and move about the sulphurous particles , and so after a kind of combat forsaking the strict chains of their mixture , are expanded and shaken somewhat sowre and sharper as they are , through the thicker mass , together with the sulphury spiritous particles jogg'd together in like manner , and because of their passage deny'd , and mixture of the thicker matter not yet fully dissolv'd , being driven back again , they assail that mass with motion upon motion , and divide and expand the smallest particles of it one from another , and dispose 'em to a more easie separation , and to receive the form of another pap-like and milkie mixture . but as for what particles cannot be sufficiently dissolv'd by this fermentation , or reduc'd to a milkie substance , they become excrement , whose separation from the milkie juice is wrought in the guts . xxviii . this fermentative concoction ( which is finish'd without any vehement motion upward or downward , or any tumultuous agitation through the cavity of the ventricle , as happens in water boyling over the fire ) is so violent , that by the force of it the hardest meats , which can hardly be mollified with a whole days boyling over a kitchin-fire , in a few hours are not only soften'd , but so dissolv'd and melted , that the particles being forc'd from their friendly union , and torn one from another , and mix'd with the liquor either inherent or infus'd into the stomach , they are turn'd into a pap-like consistency , not unlike to the cream of a ptisan . xxix . now that the food is rather turn'd into chyle , than into choler , blood , or any other humour , that is to be attributed to the peculiar quality of the substance of the ventricle , or to the specific temper and peculiar structure , and consequently to the specific ferment and manner of fermentation ; as the peculiar quality of the liver and spleen produces another ferment , and as blood is made in the heart . however it is not done by the fermentative particles alive , which are mix'd with the swallow'd food , nor by a moderate heat , as some are of opinion . for they only conduce to the dissolution of the nourishment , but the moderate heat to promote the said concoction or fermentation , and excite the absconding power to action . but why that concoction and dissolution produces the chylus , rather than any other humour , that is to be attributed to the peculiar quality of the substance , there is no other reason to be given for that , but only the peculiar quality of the substance , in respect of which , the heat operates otherwise in the stomach , than in the heart or any other part ; and there disposes of the ferment after another manner than in any other bowel . thus as the kitchin-fire mollifies one way by boyling , another way by roasting , another way , that which is fry'd in butter , or otherwise , that which is prepar'd in vinegar or pickle , and that by reason of the substances by which , and upon which that soft'ning is to be brought to pass : thus the heat of our body , by reason of the proper disposition of the ventricle , and the juices therein contain'd and bred , therefore otherwise soften and dissolve the nourishment in the stomach than the other parts , and disposes the ferment after another manner , to inable that ferment to dissolve and concoct the swallow'd nourishment , in a distinct manner from the reconcoction in other parts of the nourishment already melted and dissolv'd for second concoction . so that by reason of this peculiar quality , while the stomach is sane , and acts according to nature , there can be no other juice there made than a white chyle . xxx . paracelsus writes that archaeus with his mechanic spirits could perfect chylification in the stomach : but by archaeus he means the innate heat . to this opinion riolanus seems to adhere in not. ad epist. wallaei . nevertheless he admits something of a shadow of a peculiar quality , in these words : i attribute the cause to the diversity of the innate heat , in the manner of the substance , that is , saith he , the property of the innate heat . not that the innate heat differs of it self in substance . but when it cannot subsist without a body or substance without it self , it must operate variously according to the diversity of that substance in the several parts . xxxi . hence it is apparent , how frivolous that is which some assert , that the ventricle does not make the chyle , but is only an instrument and receptacle where the chyle is made ; and that it no otherwise makes the chyle than the pot wherein the meat is boyl'd makes the broth. but i would fain know who is so blind as not to see , that when chylification is attributed to the stomach , we do not mean the bare membranes of the ventricle , but a live and sound ventricle that is furnish'd with its own spirit and heat , and a convenient proper ferment generated out of the peculiar quality of its own substance , with none of which things a porridge pot can be said to be endued . xxxii . the colour of the chyle is milkie and somewhat white , by reason of the sulphury particles , dissolv'd with the salt ones , and mix'd with the acid ferment of the stomach . for every liquor impregnated with sulphur and a volatile salt , or a salt admirably well dissolv'd , presently turns to a kind of milk , if any thing of acid moisture be pour'd upon it . which is prov'd sufficiently by the preparations of sulphur , and the extracts of vegetable rosins . also spirit of hartshorn or soot , being sprinkled with any liquid juice , or only fair water , presently turns to a kind of milk. xxxiii . plempius and walaeus are of opinion that the chylus is not always white ; but that from red nourishment it becomes red , from green , green . but herein they mistake ; for were it not white of it self , it never would be found always white in the milky vessels of the mesentery and breast ; but we should also meet with red , green , or any other colour , which was never yet observ'd by any person . true it is , that frequently it appears sometimes more , sometimes less serous and thin , in the pectoral chanel of the chylus , according as there is more or less of the lymphatic juice , which flows in great quantity from all parts into the chyle-bearing bag ; which limpid juice , when there is no chyle , continually and leisurely flows alone through that chanel ; nevertheless the chyle that appears in those milky ways , is never seen to be of any other colour than white . xxxiv . therefore tho' the whitish colour of it may be something darken'd in the ventricle and intestins by many other thick particles of the nourishment tinctur'd with green , red , or any other colour , and intermix'd with it , in such a manner that the mixture cannot be discern'd , it does not thence follow , that the chylus of it self has any other colour than white . for tho' in green herbs the white , or rather pellucid colour of the spirituous and watery parts be not apparent to the sight , it follows not from thence , that the spiritous and watry part of those herbs is of a green colour ; for if the separation be made by distillation , it presently appears pellucid . and so it is with the chylus , for being separated from the mass which is tinctur'd with any more cloudy colour , mix'd with the acid ferment of the pancr●…as or sweetbread , it never appears of an●… other colour than white . xxxv . but because chylification cannot go forward unless the nourishment be swallowed into the stomach , it will not be amiss , before we prosecute any farther the history of chylification , first to inquire into the cause of hunger , that so we may more easily attain to the more perfect knowledge of chylification . xxxvi . what hunger is there is no man but can readily give an account , that is to say , a desire of food . but what it is that provokes that desire , and is the occasion of it , has been variously disputed among the philosophers . xxxvii . anciently they held that it proceeded from the attraction or sucking of the emptied parts ; and that the first emptied parts suck'd it from the veins , the veins from the liver , the liver from the stomach endu'd with a peculiar sucking quality ; which act of sucking they thought occasioned that trouble which we call hunger . but this opinion is now adays utterly exploded . first , for that according to this opinion plethoric persons would never be hungry : secondly , because there can be no such att●…action by the emptied parts through the veins from the liver , by reason of the little lappets or folding-doors that hinder it . xxxviii . others observing that acid things create hunger , believ'd it to be occasion'd by the acid iuices , carried from the spleen through the vas breve to the ventricle . but this opinion modern anatomy more curious has utterly destroy'd , demonstrating in living animals , that the blood descends through that vessel from the stomach toward the spleen , and so empties it self into the splenic branch , but that nothing flows a contrary course from the spleen to the stomach . xxxix . many there are , of which number regius , who affirms that hunger is occasion'd by the biting of the emptied ventricle , by certain sharp and hot iuices , continually forc'd through the arteries into the ventricle or its tunicles , which after the expulsion of the chylus , not knowing what to gnaw upon , prick the ventricle , whereby the nerve of the sixth pair , being mov'd within it after a certain manner , excites an imagination of taking nourishment for the relief of that pricking . but this opinion is from hence confuted , for that the blood of the arteries , by reason of the dominion of the sulphury particles , is by no means sowre , but smooth , soft and sweet ; so that it neither does , nor can cause any troublesome pricking or corrosion , neither in the tunicles of the ventricle , nor of any other parts , tho' of most exquisite sense ( as the adnate or conjunctive tunicle of the eye , the nut of the yard , &c. ) besides , it would hence follow , that by how much the more of this arterious blood is thrust forward to the emptied stomach , so much the more hungry a man would be : but the contrary is apparent in burning fevers , that such as in health have fasted two days together , are no more a hungry , whereas their stomach is clearly emptied , and the blood continually flowing through the arteries into the stomach . then if hunger should be provok'd by that corrosion , why does not that hungry corrosion happen in such people ? we were about forty of us one time travelling together , in our return out of france , at what time being becalm'd at sea , so that there was a necessity for us to tarry longer than we expected , all our provision , water and other drink being near spent , so that at length we were constrain'd to fast the third day , not having a crumb of bread nor a draught of drink to help our selves : but after we had fasted half a day , or a little more , there was not one that perceiv'd himself a hungry ; so that the third day was no other way troublesome to us , but that it weak'ned us , and made us faint : neither did the arterious . blood occasion any hungry corrosion in our empty stomachs . and thus not only reason , but also experience , utterly overthrows the aforesaid opinion . and therefore ludovicus de la forge vainly invents a way for this arterious fermentative liquor from the arteries to the stomach , in annot. ad cartesii lib. de hom ▪ where , saith he , it may be here question'd , why that liquor ( i. e. the fermentative ) is carried through the arteries to the stomach and ventricle , rather than to other parts . to which i answer , that the arteries conveigh it equally to all parts , but the pores of all the membranes are not so convenient to give it passage , as the pores of the ventricle . now that this feign'd subterfuge is of no moment , appears from hence , that in the membrances of the brain , and many others , whose pores are so convenient , that the blood may be able to flow in greater quantity through them , than is convey'd to the stomach ; yet there is neither any corrosion or vellication of the part. some , that they may defend this corrosion the better , say that the blood which is conveighed , or flows to the stomach , is sharper than that which is conveighed to any other part. but this no way coheres with truth , because all the blood is one and the same which is sent out of the heart to all the parts of the whole body ; nor is there any thing to separate the sharp from the milder particles , or thrusts 'em forward to these , rather than to those parts . xl. others lastly , to whose opinion we think fit to subscribe , assert that hunger is occasioned by certain acid fermentative particles , bred out of the spittle swallowed down , and some others somewhat salt or indigested acids , adhering to the tunicles of the ventricle , and by that drawn to some kind of acidity ; or remaining in it after the expulsion of the chylus , stitching to the inner wrinkl'd membrane ( especially about the upper orifice ) and a vellication , troublesome to the stomach , which being communicated by the nerves of the sixth pair to the brain , thereby an imagination of eating is excited , to appease the troublesom corrosion . xli . this acrimonie is infused into those fermentative particles by the stomach , when the sulphurous parts are jumbl'd in the iuices that stick to the inner tunicle , and the salts are melted by the convenient heat of the ventricle to a degree of fusion , and so they turn acid after a specific manner . to which purpose the swallowed spittle descending to the stomach may be very prevalent ( for this hath a fermentative quality in it self , as we shall shew ye l. . c. . ) and to the same effect may also conduce the subacid pancreatic , or sweetbread juice being infused into the duodenum , if any part of it shall rise toward the stomach , or shall transmit any acid vapors or exhalations from the intestin to it . xlii . here some object , and say , if this be the cause of hunger , then when the stomach is full , and concoction and fermentation are both busily employ'd , men would be most hungry ; for then many more acid and fermentaceous particles are called forth to their work , which must of necessity pull and tear the ventricle much more than the few before mentioned . 't is deny'd . for the particles to be fermented and fermented , that is dissolv'd , will be more ; but not the fermentaceous , or particles dissolving . of which we have an example in leven'd bread , whose single parts have no power to ferment another mass of flower ; because the acid particles are no longer predominant , but the sulphureous , as appears by the sweetness of the tast : and so long as that prevalency of the sulphury particles continues in the dissolv'd particles , so long they cannot become acid or fermentaceous ( for sulphur is sweet . ) as appears in fevers , wherein acid medicins are generally most plentifully prescrib'd , for the subduing of the sulphury predominancy : and restoring the convenient fermentaceous quality . for when the prevalency of the sulphureous particles is overpowered by the force of the salt acids , then comes the fermentaceous acidity to be introdu●…d . so that there are not more acid , sharp , and corroding particles in the full ventricle concocting the food ▪ or if there be , they are so stain'd by the copious liquor intermixt , so that they can occasion no troublesom vellication to the stomach ; by which means the hunger cannot be greater at that time , but rather ceases altogether . but when the ghylus , and with that the dissolv'd sulphureous particles intermixt with the salt are gone off to the intestins , then the remainder that sticks to the inner tunicle of the ventricle , or is carried thither with the spittly juice , as being freed for the most part from the redundancy of sulphurous particles , grows sowre through the heat of the ventricle , and so begins to tear again , and renews the appetite , which ceases again , when that acidity comes to be retemper'd by the meat and drink thrown into the stomach , and its acrimony comes to be mitigated and blunted . xliii . but if these fermentaceous iuices are not only not moderated in the stomach , but that through some defect of the liver , sweetbread , or other parts , over sharp humors are too abundantly bred in the body ; or flow from the head , or some inferior parts , into the stomach , in so great a quantity , that their acrimonie cannot be sufficiently tam'd and temper'd by the swallowed food , then happens that preternatural hunger which we call canine ; with which they who are troubl'd , often vomit up undigested meat together with sowre iuices like the iuice of limon ( as they themselves confess ) and by reason of the gnawing acrimony , occasioned by the extream viscousness of the humors remaining in the ventricle , presently become hungry again and fall to eat . but if the fermentaceous particles are in themselves very viscous , or thicker , and of a slower motion , then they require a longer time to elevate themselves and excite hunger ; which chiefly happens when the acid spirits less abound in the whole body , and consequently in the spittle , and that viscous humor that sticks to the inner tunicle of the stomach . xliv . sometimes also it happens that hunger is frequently diminished , when bitter choler ascends in too great quantity into the stomach ( as in cholerick men , in the iaundise , and several sorts of fevers ) and therein by its mixture corrupts not only the fermentaceous relicks of the nourishment remaining in the stomach after the expulsion of the chyle , but also the spittle that flows to it . the more remote causes of lessening the appetite are various , as excess of sleep and laziness , excess of care , and looseness of the belly , &c. overmuch sleep , and too much sitting still , for that for want of sufficient exercise of the body , the humors also are not sufficiently stirr'd ; nor are the acid particles conveniently separated from the viscous , so that they cannot be sufficiently roused up to action . in extraordinary cares of the mind hunger is not perceiv'd , because the thoughts are otherwise employ'd . and as for loosness of the belly , 't is a certain truth that the ferment is vitiated . xlv . now these fermentaceous particles that excite hunger , as appears by what has bin said , are acid , or somewhat acid , and are the same that promote the conoction of the stomach , and ferment and dissolve the swallowed nourishment . hence it is , that acids moderately taken increase the appetite , and cause a better concoction of the stomach . of which we have an experiment ( besides our daily experience in our seamen , who make long voyages to the indies . for having fed upon thick and hard meats for a long time , hence it comes to pass that their appetites are deprav'd , and their concoctions but weak ; which breeds a scorbutic ill habit of body . but when they come to islands or countries where they meet with plenty of limons , and other acid fruits , presently their appetite is restored , and all the concoctive faculties , that languished before , are renewed , together with their strength , through the said acidity , and so in a short time they recover their former health . therefore to keep the seamen in health in those long and tedious voyages , the masters of vessels are wont to carry along with 'em a certain quantity of citron juice , which they distribute now and then among the mariners , when they find their stomachs begin to fail ' em . xlvi . acid therefore are those fermentaceous particles which excite hunger ; which if they be wanting in the stomach , the appetite fails , nor can the chylification be perfected , but the meat is thrown off into the bowels raw and unconcocted as when it was first swallowed down : but they being again restored to the stomach , the concoction returns , and the appetite is restored . hence says hippocrates . aph. . in long fluxes of the belly , if sowre belches happen , it is a good sign . xlvii . now how it comes to pass that the fermentaceous particles obtain that embased acrimony , has bin already said , by an apt heat melting those salt particles to a degree of being liquid and ready to flow . i say , apt. for as bread becomes well leavened in a luke warm place by the ferment mixed with it , in a cold place in great difficulty , but in a hot oven can never be fermented : so this acidity which will not be excited but by a moderate heat of the stomach , will not be stirr'd by too small a heat , and is scattered and dispelled by too great a heat ; and thereby those juices that should make the ferment will be quite consum'd . hence flegmatic people that are troubled with a cold distemper of the stomach , have neither good appetites nor good concoctions ; and choleric persons , who are infested with an over-hot temper of the stomach , have none at all . however it does not follow from this , that the greater the heat of the stomach is , the quicker must be the appetite , and the stronger and better the concoction : for the contrary appears in burning feavers , and an inflammation of the stomach : as also in a lyon , whether he be accounted the hottest of all creatures , yet can he not digest iron , gold , brass , or the like ; which however are easily digested in the stomach of an estriche , as being endued with a sharper ferment , tho' not with so fervent a heat . as langius relates that he saw at the duke of ferrara's court an estriche both swallow and digest those metals , l. . epist. . xlviii . therefore it is not the heat but the ferment , which in some is more sharp and acid , in others more moderate , which is the next cause of the appetite and digestion of the stomach : but moderate heat is the cause which disposes the matter which begets that ferment that elevates and excites to action . xlix . but whereas this power and vertue in the stomach of making this ferment , and of chylifying by its assistance , cannot be excited into action but by an apt and moderate heat , some there are who question what , or rather where this heat lies that produces this action . whether it be the heat of the membranes of the ventricle , or the parts that ly round it , or of any humor , or any spirits . certainly there is no difference of this heat in the diversity of subjects , in relation to self ; for all heat is excited by the motion and agitation of the least particles and subtil matter ( for because the heat is fiercer in red hot iron , slacker in the flame of straw ; this does not argue the difference of the heat it self , but of the quantity , proceeding from the diversity of the subject to which it is inherent ) but the diversity of operations proceeds from the diversity of the things themselves , upon which , and by virtue of which the heat acts . for the same heat melts wax , hardens clay , wasts the meat upon the spit , bakes it in the oven , and boyls in the pot , putrifys in a dunghil , and hatches eggs in a stove , without the assistance of a hen. in like manner to promote the act of chylification , it is required that the moderate heat ( which is no more than one and the same , should be proportionably adapted in the stomach ; that is , both in its membranes , its humours and spirits , and that it should be cherished and foster'd in like manner by the heat of the parts that lie round about it ; for so being truly and aptly proportion'd , it is impossible but the ventricle must act properly and naturally toward the chylification of proper matter , by dissolving and extracting a chylus out of it . l. the preparation of nourishment for chylification proceeds gradually after a certain kind of method . for first the spittle is mixed with the meat which is chewed and masticated in the mouth , not only softning them , but infusing into them , a fermentative quality ( of which quality see l. . c. . & . ) then comes drink , ale , wine , or any other liquor , which for the most part contains in it self acid particles and fermentaceous spirits . this nourishment the stomach strictly embraces , and squeezes it self round about it by the help of its fibres , and mingles with it the specific fermentaceous juices , as well those bred in the interior tunicle , as those that are affused upon the spittle . then by an apt and proper heat there is a mixture and liquation or melting of the whole substance of the nourishment together . for that the fermentaceous particles sliding into the pores of the nourishment , withal get into their very particles themselves , stir about , melt and dissolve the more pure from the thick , and render 'em more fluid , to the end they may be able to endure another form of mixture ; and be united among themselves into the form of a milky cream . which being done , by the squeezing of the ventricle they fall down to the intestins together with the thicker mass with which they are intermixt ; in them to be separated by the mixture of choler and the pancreatick or juice , after another manner of fermentation , and so to be thrust down to the milky vessels . li. the certain time for the finishing of chylification cannot be determined . for here is great variety observed proceeding from the variety of the temperament of the stomach , age , sex , position , and disposition of the parts adjoyning , and the nature of the nourishment themselves . lii . but why some meats are digested sooner , some later ; the reason is to be given from the variety of the meats themselves in substance , hardness , solidness , thickness , thinness , heat , cold , &c. for which reason some are dissolved with more case and sooner , some with more difficulty and later in the stomach . but then again , why the same meats are in others sooner in others later concocted ; and wherefore some stomachs will easily concoct raw fish , hard flesh , half boyl'd , or tho' it be raw , but the stomachs of others will with great difficulty the tenderest and best prepared dyet ; this proceeds from the various constitution of the stomach , the ferment , and the proportion of heat . liii . what i speak of meats , the same is to be understood of drinks : which for the same reasons , and because of the same varieties , are digested in others well , in others ill , in others sooner , in others later ; and render the digestions of the stomach , in others better , in others worse . for example , if wine or any other liquor be drank plentifully , that is either quickly digested , by reason of the great plenty , thinness , and spirituosity of acid particles , and so flows down to the intestines ; or else by reason of the extraordinary quantity , being very heavy and troublesome to the stomach , is thrust forth raw and undigested ; of which crudity the signs are sowre belches , vomiting , rumbling in the guts , and crude urines . liv. if fair water be drank which contains no acid particles , in a hotter stomach , or where sharp and hot humours abound , there it uses to temper , and somewhat to suppress an excessive and stinking fermentation : but in a colder stomach , and full of cold iuices , it hinders digestion . for that by its cold moisture it dulls the sharp fermentaceous particles contain'd in the stomach , and the meat receiv'd ; that is , by its intermix'd and plentiful aquosity it breaks to pieces and separates the least particles of the active principles at too great a distance one from another , so that they cannot act with a mutual and sufficient activity one upon another , so that then there happens a lesser motion , and for want of that the more cold arises , so that the fermentaceous particles cannot be sufficiently attenuated by the heat of the stomach , nor elevated to a just degree of effervescency ; and then they become unable to act upon the particles that are to be fermented . lv. note also that fat meats too plentifully eaten abate hunger , and render the chylifying concoction more difficult ; because they dull the acrimony of the fermentaceous particles : or rather because they so involve the chiefest part of the particles of the nourishment receiv'd , that the sharp fermentaceous particles cannot act with conveniency upon 'em ; which efficacy of fat is to be seen in external things . for silver or pewter vessels being smear'd over with fat , are not to be corroded by sharp vinegar infus'd , tho' the vinegar retain all its acrimony . neither will aqua fortis corrode the skin if well greas'd over . thus the sharp fermentaceous matter acts with very great difficulty upon meats that are over fat ; which is the reason that the eating of too much fat occasions vomiting . see more of ferment , c. . & l. . c. . lvi . ludovicus de bills ; a kind of a paradoxical anatomist is said to have observ'd the time of chylification in the dissection of dogs , after this manner , according to the report of n. zas . if a dog be fed with only sweet milk , then the chylification will be perfected about two hours after : mix white bread with that milk , it will be three hours , or somewhat less , before the chylification will be perfected . if the milk be thicken'd with barly meal , and so eaten by the dog , it will be four hours before the chylus will appear in the stomach : but feed the dog with white bread only , and it will require six hours to perfect the chylus . but these observations of bills are very uncertain ; for that all the stomachs of dogs are not of the same constitution , nor in the same condition of sanity , nor digest their meat in an equal space of time ; thence it will come to pass , that digestion which shall be accomplish'd in the ventricle of one within an hour , shall not be finish'd in another in two or three hours , though it be of the same meat . moreover , unless these observations be meant of all sorts of concoctions of nourishment received by the stomach , they will contradict both reason and experience , which will teach us that neither in men nor dogs , all meats that are swallow'd into the stomach , are digested together , nor are all their apt and agreeing particles turn'd into chyle ; all at a time , the thinner first , the thicker afterwards , so that there can be no certain time prefix'd for chylification . for milk being eaten with bread , tho' perhaps it requires three hours , before all the apt particles shall be turn'd into chylus ; yet will it not be three hours before some chyle be produced out of it ; for the thinner particles of the milk will be sooner turn'd into chyle , which will be conspicuous after one , sometimes in half an hour , and sometimes sooner , while the bread and thicker particles of the milk shall remain to the third hour in the ventricle . he then who affirms that the chylification is not perfected before the end of the third hour , is in an errour , for the very first hour a good part of it was perfected and finish'd . lvii . bernard swalve in querel . & opprob . ventric . elegantly describes the time of chylification , and the obstacles that may happen to hinder it . where he introduces the stomach thus speaking : all things that are receiv'd do not equally resist my labour . one gives way sooner than another . upon milk meats i spend but an hour ; not full two upon pot-herbs : nor does the softness of fish require that time . food made of flower , as bread and crust , i can hardly dissolve into cream in four hours ; and the harder the flesh is , the longer and more diligently must i labour . mutton and beef require seven hours to tame their contumacy . here i stand in need of a greater quantity of acids , and a greater resort and assistance of spirits . now my substance operates more strongly , and then all these things are frequently weaken'd and dispoil'd of their force . i omit to mention many things that disturb my office , and hinder me in my duty , now this , now that , which puts me into a languishing condition . for this is my misery , hence my tears , that i cannot resist the invasion of external injuries , and that i am expos'd to so many and so great errours and mistakes that obstruct me in my employment . these mischiefs are so fruitful , that i cannot always obtain my end in digestion . lviii . assuredly these things are very well and succinctly described by swalve , for that many and several sorts of food being eaten at one meal , do not all together , and at one equal distance of time , suddenly part with their milkie iuice ; but according to the greater or lesser force of the stomach , and the fermenting acid iuice , and the difference of food in substance , quantity , quality , hardness , viscosity , thinness , solidity , &c. the more spirituous and thinner parts in some are sooner , in others later dissolv'd , and turn into chyle ; and they which are first digested , pass first through the pylore or orifice , the other remaining a longer time in the stomach , till a more accurate dissolution . this proceeding is manifest from the refreshment after the meal ; for the strength of nature is soon repair'd , whereas the meat is easily perceiv'd to remain in the stomach . which first refreshment is caused by the thinner particles of the nourishment first dissolv'd and concocted , and already discharg'd by the stomach . which , should they remain in the stomach till the absolute concoction of the harder masses , by that over-long stay they would be too much digested , and so become corrupted , or vitiated at least . and this method is evident in the dissection of dogs , kill'd presently after they have fill'd their bellies . for generally in their bowels and chyliferous or milkie vessels , there is found a thinner sort of chyle , which we have many times shewn to the spectators in a sufficient quantity , scarce an hour or two after they had eaten : especially if they fed upon a more juicy fort of meats , when the chiefest part of the food , not being yet turn'd into chyle , still remain'd in the ventricle . lix . hence appears the mistake of many physicians , who thought that the nourishment which was first eaten was first discharg'd out of the stomach ; those things which were last eaten were last parted with . and hence they have been very careful to prescribe an order in feeding ; as , to eat those things which are of easie concoction first , and those things which are hard of digestion last , for fear of begetting crudities through a preposterous order in feeding ; according to the admonitions of fernelius . de sympt . caus. c. . . pathol. c. . mercurialis . prax. c. . sennertus . prax. part . . sect. . c. . and of many others . certainly whatever variety is received into the stomach is confus'd , mix'd , and jumbled together , and that by fermentation , by which the spiritous and thin particles spread themselves , and free themselves from the dissolv'd thicker substances , and so the thick being stirr'd and agitated together with the thin ; by that motion there is made a mixture of all together ; of all which mass , that which is sufficiently digested passes through the pylorus , that which requires farther concoction , remains of a harder substance in the stomach . lx. here three hard questions are to be examined in their order . first , whether if hunger be occasion'd by the acid fermentaceous particles , creating a troublesome vellication in the stomach , what is the cause of that which is call'd pica , or a deprav'd appetite ( as when people long for chalk , oatmeal , lime , and the like . ) secondly , whether in a dyspepsie ( or difficulty of digestion and fermentation in the guts ) choler can be bred in the stomach , such as is evacuated upward and downward in the disease call'd cholera . thirdly , whether the whole chyle , when concocted on the stomach , fall into the intestines . lxi . as to the first , the cause of a deprav'd appetite ( call'd pica and malacia ) seems to us not to have been by any person sufficiently explain'd ; when as the affect it self is a thing to be admir'd , in regard the force of it is such , especially in virgins and women ( for men are seldom troubled with it ) that they will often with a wonderful desire covet meal , chalk , tobacco-pipes , dirt , coals , lime , tarr , raw flesh , fruits , and other strange things altogether unfit for nourishment ; as live fish , the fleshy and brawny part of the members of a living man , and stones , ( as sennertus reports that he knew a woman that swallowed every day two pound of a grindstone , till she had at length devour'd it all ) besides several other precedents cited by physicians , and what daily occurs to our observation . now they generally affirm the cause of this mischief to be the deprav'd humours contain'd in the ventricle , which , according to their various natures , excite in some a various appetite to this , in others to that , whether bad or good : in some , to dissimilar noxious things , in others to similar , as the vitious humours according to their different qualifications variously tear & move the little fibres of the nerves of the ventritle , by the peculiar motion of which communicated to the brain , there arises the same motion in an instant in the brain , by which a peculiar appetite is stirred up to this or that thing . francis de le boe sylvius prax. l. . c. . as also in the dictates of the private colledge assembled in the year . going about to explain this thing more particularly , asserts that the cause of this deprav'd appetite is a vitious ferment of the stomach , corrupted either by the vitious nourishment , physic , or poyson , swallow'd down ; or by several diseases , especially such as are incident to women , infecting the whole mass of blood , then the spittle , and lastly the ferment of the ventricle , and disposing 'em to an ill habit . but if this formal reason be of any force , let us from thence also ask this question , why such an appetite , coveting this unusual dyet , is also to be found in those who are troubled with no vitious humours in the stomach , as i have sometimes found by experience ; tho' i cannot deny but that there may be now and then for all that some ill humours in the stomach ? wherefore in a man , whose ferment and ventricle are without fault , meerly upon the wistful looking upon some picture , sometimes of fish , sometimes of fruits , or other things not fit for dyet , shall find himself to have a strong stomach for these things ? in the same manner as the looking upon the picture of a naked venus excites many men to venery ? what , and of what sort must be the nature and admirable quality that must so move the little fibres of the nerves and the brain , that by reason of that special motion there must be an appetite to grindstones , tobacco-pipes , coals , &c. which there is no body but knows can never be desir'd as a remedy against that troublesome gnawing , or as necessary for nourishment . lxii . and therefore these things must proceed from some other cause , that is to say , from the mistake of the imagination , and thence a deprav'd iudgment arising from an ill habit of the brain , and a vitious motion of the spirits ; and not from the pravity of the humours in the stomach . for according as the vitious humours augment or diminish the vellication of the fibres more or less intensly , it may increase or abate the appetite , but not direct it to a particular choice of dyet , especially such a one as is unnatural . for hunger is a natural ●…nstinct , by which nature is barely excited to receive nourishment , as a remedy for the gnawing , but not more especially to this o●… that food , or to this or that dyet , if it may be so call'd , as being altogether unnatural . lxiii . then as for that which is said , that sound healthy people being a hungry , covet sometimes fish , sometimes flesh , sometimes fruit , now roasted , now boyl'd , &c. this proceeds not from any peculiar vellication or gnawing , but from an animal appetite , which judges that sometimes such sort of meats , sometimes another , sometimes sweet , sometimes sowre , will be more grateful and proper for the stomach ; and therefore sometimes they covet more eagerly wormwood-wine , raw herrings , and several other things of themselves ungrateful , than others more pleasing to the palate , and more wholesome . lxiv . now since the choice or refusal of meat , or of any thing else , depends upon the iudgment , and iudgment proceeds from the brain , certainly the cause of coveting this or that peculiar thing , is not to be sought for in the stomach but in the brain ; which if it be out of order , through bad humours , and ill vapours arising from any filth gathered together in the womb , spleen , or sweetbread , and hence asscending up to the brain , easily occasions deprav'd imaginations , whence follows a deep deprav'd ●… judgment , and through the mistake of that judgment , noxious and absurd things are covered , rather than the best and most wholsome , as chalk , coals , & c. ( a thing well known to happen to melancholly people , who many times doat upon one particular thing , tho' in other things their judgment is sound enough . ) for how far intent and frequent cogitation upon a thing avails to increase such a deprav'd appetite , is apparent in women with child , who many times long to that degree , that if they cannot get what they desire , the child shall carry the mark of the thing long'd for . which impression cannot be said to preceed from any deprav'd humours of the stomach , but from the brain ; for that the imagination being intense upon those things , and judgment made upon their use , and benefit proceeds from thence , and the ideas of those things are conveigh'd from thence , and imprinted upon the birth by the animal spirits . besides , they that are troubled with a deprav'd appetite , do not always long for one and the same thing , but sometimes for one thing , sometimes another , as their fancies are fix'd more upon one thing than another , which cannot be imputed to any ill humour adhering to the ventricle ; for that then the longing for variety of things must proceed from the variety of humours . besides , these sort of patients are troubled with a deprav'd appetite when they are a hungry , and then they most eagerly long for those things which they have thought of before , whether good or bad ; and believe 'em then not to be bad or hurtful , but pleasing and wholesom . which depravation of the appetite i have cur'd more by cunning than by physic ; enjoyning the people of the house never to mention in the hearing of the patients those hurtful things , and to remove all sorts of pictures out of their sight ; and in the mean time to feed 'em with wholesom dyet , and that often in the day , to prevent their being much an hungry . lxv . there is one objection re-mains , that is to say , if a deprav'd appetite were not caus'd by the ill habit of the stomach , the patients would be sick upon the eating such kind of noxious dyet , neither would such things be digested in the stomach ; but on the other side , it appears that few or none suffer any harm by it , without doubt because there are those deprav'd iuices in the stomach , which are able to digest that preternatural dyet , which the stomach seems to have particularly requir'd , as a remedy for that peculiar vellication or twitching of the nerves . but the force of this objection is easily answer'd , when it is consider'd that it is not absolutely true , that such patients receive no dammage from such incongruous and preternatural dyet , and that it is only true in very few , and that only once , twice , or thrice , but that afterwards they are cruelly afflicted by it , contracting oppilations of the bowels , the dropsie , the wild scab or maunge , call'd psora ; and several other distempers . but the reason why they receive no dammage at first , is twofold . first , because upon the eager devouring of these things the animal spirits flow in great plenty to the stomach ( as upon venereal thoughts they flow in great abundance to the generating parts ; together with a great quantity of arterious blood. now how effectually these natural spirits operate in nourishing the body , we shall explain more at large , l. . c. . and how far they conduce to the concoctions of the stomach , if they flow into it more plentifully than is usual , is apparent in those slaves to their bellies , that waste whole days and nights in thinking what they shall eat , and are always stuffing their guts . for they , by reason of the plentiful spirits design'd for the stomach , have much swifter and better concoctions , than such as are always busi'd at their studies , whose animal spirits are call'd another way ; and therefore are frequently troubled with crudities , and hardly are able to digest the lightest food . secondly , because they that are troubled with a deprav'd appetite , are for the most part melancholy ; or such as breed more sowre fermentaceous juices , are more sharp and copious than usual , in the spleen , sweatbread and ventricle ; whence when they begin to be a hungry , they have a sharper stomach , and far more easily digest whatever they eat , than others ; nay , than they themselves can do at another time . thus i have known a woman with child , that longing for ripe cherries , has at one time eaten up six or seven pound together ; another that has eaten thirty cheesecakes ; and another that would eat raw salt herrings and digest 'em well , when at other times they did not use to be so greedy . and hence it comes to pass , that at sueh a time they will digest a large quantity of meat , or those preternatural things ( as oatemeal , chalk , and coals ) or at least the stomach discharges 'em without any harm . but if they continue that immoderate course of dyet , that sharper juice at length failing , it becomes such a disturbance to the bowels and stomach , that their concoctions are thereby plainly interrupted and deprav'd , to the breeding of copious bad juices , that increase a great quantity of ill humors , which is the cause of several distempers . from all which i think it is sufficiently manifest , that a deprav'd appetite does not primarily proceed from any deprav'd humors bred in the stomach , or sticking to it , but from some defect of the brain , and mistake of the imagination . lxvi . the second problem is affirm'd by regius , and several other physicians , altho' it be far from being true . for in a crazy condition of health , the humors in the stomach may be corrupted several ways , and many bad ones may be gathered together , and yet never any choler bred therein . and for that which is exonerated upwards and downwards in the disease called cholera , that is not bred in the stomach but in the liver , collected and amassed together in the bladder of the gall , the porus biliarius , and other places adjoyning ; from whence , sharply or sowerly fermenting and boyling , it bursts forth at last , with great violence , into the duodenum , and by virtue of that motion is discharged and thrust out partly upward , through the stomach , partly downward through the rest of the intestines . which is sufficiently apparent from hence , in regard that the invasions of choler are subitane , no signs preceeding of any ill affection of the ventricle , or of any choler bred or gathered togethet within it ; and for that often when people have made a good meal , not feeling any disturbance either in the appetite , or in digestion , it overflows in their sleep at midnight , and sometimes in the day time , without any foregoing notice ; which certainly could not but precede , if a copious quantity of choler , the cause of the disaster , were bred in the stomach , or gathered there together . neither will reason permit us to believe , that nature has constituted various and several organs to perform one and the same office , such as is the generation of choler . for to ob●…ain that end , she makes use only of one sort of means ; and thus the stomach alone chylifys , the liver alone breeds choler , a the heart only breeds blood , &c. nor does the usual subterfuge avail in this place ; that choler generated in the stomach , is not natural , but preternatural choler . for to this i answer , that that choler , which the distemper , call'd cholera , ( which choler , they say , is bred in the stomach ) and in the loosenesses of many infants is discharged in great quantity , is a sharp , and for the most part eruginous or green choler ; i have found it to be such in the dissected bodys of many that have dy'd of this distemper , heaped up together in great quantity in the gall-bladder , and the ductus cholodichus ; but little or none in the stomach . which is a certain sign , that this choler , when it is in a boyling condition , breaks forth into the stomach and intestines , but that it is not bred there . lxvii . in infants that have dy'd of such a green choleric loosness , i have observ'd , and that frequently , the gall-bladders full of very green choler , and swell'd to the bigness of a large hens egg. so that it is most certain that where the natural , there the preternatural choler is bred ; that is to say , on the liver . * but some will say , that it is impossible that so great a quantity of green choler should be so suddenly bred in the liver , or be collected and stir'd up from any other part within it , as uses to be evacuated in the disease called cholera , in a few hours : for in the space of four and twenty hours , several pints of that matter are evacuated , to the filling of some chamberpots , and therefore of necessity it must be true , that that choler is at that time bred in the stomach . to which i answer , that this choler being gathered together from all parts to fill the gall bladder , for the most part is of a dark green color , and very sharp , and when this , being in a boyling condition , breaks forth into the intestines and ventricle , then it vexes and tears those parts , and like a violently pricking medicin , causes the serous , and various other humors , to flow from all parts to the intestines . which being tinctur'd by a small quantity of green choler infused into the ventricle and intestins , become all of a green colour and so are discharged green out of the body : which redundancy of flowing humors being sometimes very great , the ignorant believe that it is only meer choler that is expel'd the body in such a great quantity , when they are only other humors coloured by the choler . now that this choler causes such a tincture by its intermixture , i know by experience ; for that with half a spoonful of that juice taken out of the gall-bagg ; i have , in the sight of several people , tinctured a whole pint of water . lxviii . the affirmative patrons of the third problem , with whom regius consents , assure us that all the chylus does not flow from the stomach to the intestins , but that some part of it is conveighed to the spleen , through the vas venosum breve , and other neighbouring gastric veins . for proof of which they give a two sold reason . the first is , because the birth in the womb is nourished first of all with the milky juice that swims at the top of it , and through the navel-vein sticking to it , and not as yet extended to the placenta , conveighed to the liver and heart of the infant . now if this happen to the embryo ; 't is no wonder that when a man is born , that part of the chylus should pass thro' the gastric veins to the spleen . the other reason is , that after a man has fed heartily , there follows such a sudden refection , that so great and so sudden could never happen , if the whole chylus were first to pass through all the milky vessels ; and that some part of it did not rather get to the spleen by a shorter cut , and thence reach to the heart more speedily . lxix . to the first reason , i answer , that the embryo is not at that time nourished with the milky iuice , but with the remainder of the seminal liquor , poured upon it by reason of its vicinity to it , entring the pores , and soon after received into the mouth : and that the navel ▪ vein , being at length fastened to the uterine placenta , can neither receive or attract any more milky juice ; so that an agreement with it and the gastric veins , was ill contriv'd from hence . moreover , supposing that any thing of the alimentary juice were carried at that time to the liver of the birth through the navel vein ; i say , it does not follow from thence , that the chylus in men born , passes also out of the ventricle through the gastric veins , and out of the intestins through the mesaraics : that comparison being altogether lame , seeing that several parts are in such a manner serviceable to the birth , which they cannot pretend to in men born . of which , all the navel vessels afford us an example , the foramen ovale in the heart ; the closure of the arteria pulmonaris with the aorta , &c. besides that several parts have no use as yet in the birth , that come to be serviceable in men born , as the lungs , the liver , the spleen , the genital parts , the eyes , the nose , the ears . so that from the use of any part in the birth ▪ there can be concluded no use of any part in a man born ; as we cannot conclude any use of the gastric and mes●…raic veins from the use of the umbilical . lxx . as to the second reason , it seems to infer a very plausible argument from sudden refreshment , that follows after eating and drinking , which is thought to be occasioned from hence , because that the more subtil part of the chyle , passing by a shorter cut from the ventricle to the spleen , gets far sooner to the heart , and refreshes it , than if it were first to pass to the intestins , thence thro' several milkie vessels to the vein called subclavia , and so through the vena cava to the heart . nay , i have sometimes heard that for a farther proof of this assertion , that an example was cited by regius out of fernelius , of a certain female patient , whose pylorus or orifice of the stomach was wholly obstructed , yet did she cat every day , tho' she threw what she cat up again , and in that manner liv'd a long time . which could never have bin , says regius , unless something of the chylus had bin conveighed out of the stomach through the gastric veins to the spleen . . because the chyle enters no other but the milky vessels . . because there are no milky vessels at all , that are carried to the stomach , or from the stomach ( as deusingius pretends to assert institut . anat. tho' i do not believe that ever any deusingian will presume to make out ) so that if the chyle should pass from thence to the spleen , it ought to be conveighed through the vas breve , and other blood conveighing veins ; whereas they neither admit the chylus , nor can receive it , for the reasons brought concerning the mesaraicks l. . c. . . because the chyle is not separated from the thicker mass , nor enters the milky vessels , unless choler be first mixed with it , together with the pancreatic juice , which doth separate and attenuat●… it by a peculiar fermentation or effervescency from the thicker matter that involves it ; which choler is poured forth into the guts , and not into the stomach , and if it should be carried to the ventricle by chance , that is , contrary to the usual motion of nature , and then chylification is disturb'd . now that the chyle cannot be separated from the thicker matter , or attenuated by fermentation without the intermixture of choler , so that it may be able to enter the milky vessels , is apparent in those people that are troubled with the yellow jaundice ; in whom , by reas●…n that the choler cannot flow into the duodenum , by reason of some obstruction of the cholodochus , or any other cause whatever , that distemper happens , because the choler being deny'd passage into the duodenum , the patients cannot go so often to the stool , and when they do , the excrement is for the most part chylous and white , collected together in the guts , and cannot be fermented and distributed for want of choler . * as to the suddain refreshment after meals , that comes not to pass by reason of any shorter cut from the stomach to the spleen , and from thence through the liver and vena cava to the heart ( which however is not a shorter way neither , than when it is carried from the ventricle to the intestines ) but because the subtil vapors of the nourishment , penetrate through the pores of the ventricle to the heart ( for the whole body , as hippocrates testifies , is 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , or full of streams ) and likewise all together gently tickle the nerves of the sixth pair , common to the heart and ventricle ; which is apparent from hence , because not only nourishment , but all fragrant smells , and cordial epithemes or applications , refresh those that are subject to swooning , and recover 'em out of their fits ; when as neither the odors nor those things from whence the odors exhale , reach either the spleen or the heart , but only the most subtil vapors make their passage through the pores . and moreover 't is wonderful to think how soon the thin particles of the nourishment , which require but little digestion , pierce through the milky vessels to the vein subclavia , and the heart . i have given to doggs , empty'd with long fasting , liquid nourishment of easy digestion , and within three quarters of an hour after having dissected 'em , i found in that short space of time a watery chyle , very plentiful in all the lacteous or milky vessels , carried from the ventricle and the intestines , tho' the food seem'd to be all entire in the stomach . the history cited out of fernelius seems not to be very rightly quoted . for i do not remember that ever fernelius wrote any thing of obstruction of the pylore . indeed in his l. . patholog . c. . he relates a story of a woman with child , that had a hard swelling in her stomach , so that no nourishment could descend into her stomach , but presently upon touching that orifice they returned towards the throat again , which woman in two months time , with all the art and endeavours that were used , could get nothing into her stomach . but what is this story to the proof of the opinion forementioned ? he tells us the nourishment could not descend into the stomach , therefore no chyle could there be made out of it ; neither could the chyle flow from the stomach to the spleen . the story of philip salmuth cent. . obs. . might have bin cited and objected much more to the purpose , of a certain person who was troubl'd with continual vomiting , and was forc'd to throw back all the meat he swallowed , by reason the passage was stopp'd by a scirrhous or hard swelling at the mouth of the pylore , as was found after he was dead . another story like this is recorded by benivenius observat . . and another by riverius cent . . obser. . and another by schenkius exerc . l. . sect. . c. . not unlike the story which io. vander meer related to me of an accident seen as well by himself as by several of the physicions in delph , of a certain woman that for half a year lay very ill at delf , and vomited up all the meat she eat after some few hours , the first well concocted , the next loathsome and smelling very badly : after which her evacuations by stool began to cease by degrees ; so that for the first week she did not go to stool above twice or thrice , then once a week , and then hardly once in a month , which brought her to nothing but skin and bone , till at length she dy'd : in whose body , being opened , was found a pylore all cartilaginous , with an orifice so small , that it would only give passage to a little needle . but seeing it appears by these histories , that the pylore can never be suddenly nor long so streightned , but by degrees , so the passage of the chylus is obstructed by degrees , from whence it comes to pass , that for want of sufficient nourishment , the strength is wasted insensibly , and the body emaciated by degrees : seeing also that by their going to stool , tho' it were but very seldom , and for that the pylore would admit the passage of a little needle , that it would not admit a greater body , it appear'd that the pylore in those persons was not totally obstructed , or if it were wholly clos'd up , yet that they did not live long by reason of that obstruction , but dy'd in a short time , it cannot thence be prov'd that the chylus passes from thence to the spleen . for if this were true , the patients strength would not have fail'd so soon through the obstruction of the pylore , nor have yielded so easie an access to death . lxxi . bernard swalve considering these difficulties , lib. de querel ▪ & approb . ventric . p. , . dares not assert that refreshment is occasion'd by the chylus coming a shorter way than through the intestins , but writes that supposing a case of necessity , the little orifices of the gastric veins in the tunicles of the ventricle gape a little , and that into them , it is not the chylus , which is too thick , but a more liquid iuice is speedily infus'd presently , to be intermix'd with the blood flowing back to the heart . but according to this assertion swalve seems to offer a most cruel violence to the gastric veins , and to force 'em to confirm his speculation , as if by agreement he would , at his own pleasure shut 'em up , but upon this condition , that they should not gape , but in a time of necessity , or being open , should not empty their blood into the cavity of the ventricle ( which otherwise might easily happen , and so occasion vomiting of blood , ) and that they should not take the chylus it self , but only sup up a liquid humour out of the stomach , and so carry it in a hurry to the heart . lxxii . the use of the chylus is to breed good blood out of it : but whether any parts are nourished at the first hand by the chylus , before it be chang'd into blood , is a controversie . this galen most plainly writes concerning the ventricle , l. . de natural . facult . c. . in these words ▪ moreover this is the end ( that is of the concoction of the stomach ) that so much as is apt and agreeing in quality , should take some part to its self . and therefore that which is the best in the nourishment , that it draws to it self in the nature of a vapour , and by degrees , stores up in its tunicles , and fixes it to ' em . when it is fully satisfied , whatever of nourishment remains , that it throws off as burdensome . the same thing he also asserts , c. , . of the same book . vallesius confirms this opinion of galen by many arguments , controvers . med. & philos. l. . c. . that the ventricle is nourish'd by the chylus , the shape of its substance , and these reasons over and above , te●…us . if the ventricle were not nourish ▪ d by the chylus , neither would it digest the food . for why does it generate the chylus ? is it not to send it to the liver ? therefore 't is the care of the ventricle to nourish the liver ; and therefore it is not guided by nature , but by intellect . for those things that operate by nature , are never concern'd with the care of other things . moreover , either the ventricle retains some part of the chylus , and sends some part to the liver , or it retains nothing at all of it . if it retain'd nothing , it would presently covet more , since only nourishment seems to be that which can protect it from hunger ; and therefore the blood alone is not proper to nourish the members . endi●…s parisanus is also of the same opinion with galen , l. . subtil . exercit. . c. . as likewise hen ▪ regius medic. l. . c. . neither do peramatus and montaltus differ from the rest . aristotle contradicts galen , who shews by many reasons , l. . de part . animal . c. ●… ▪ that the blood is the last aliment , and that all the parts are immediately ●…ourish'd by that , and not by the chylus . plempius l. . fund . med. c. . tho' he thinks that both pa●…ts may be easily maintain'd by reason of the weakness of the arguments ; nevertheless he asserts with aristotle , that the ventricle , and all the parts , are at first hand nourish'd with the blood , and supports this opinion by many arguments . of the same opinion is bernard swalve in querel . & opprob . ventric . we are also enclin'd to approve the opinion of aristotle , that the blood is the last nourishment ▪ but i would have this added , that the chylus contributes a certain irrigation necessary ▪ to moisten the stomach and milkie vessels , without which they could not continue sound , tho' they may be nourished by the blood. in the same manner , as many herbs being expos'd to the heat of the sun ▪ tho' they receive sufficient nourishment from the earth , yet languish and wither , unless they be often water'd ; the moisture of the water contributing new vigour to 'em ; as loosning again the particles too much dry'd and contracted by the heat of the sun , and by that means giving a freer ingress to the nourishment . in like manner the tunicles of the ventricle and milkie vessels , unless moysten'd by the chylus , would grow too dry , and so the pores of the substance being contracted , would not so readily admit the nutritive blood flowing into 'em , and for that reason would be much weakned , and at length quite fa●…l in their office . which is the reason that by long fasting the milkie vessels are many times so dry'd up , that they can never be open'd again , which afterwards obstructing the distribution of the chylus , causes an atro●…hie that consumes the patient . but when there is a defect of that moisture in the brain , then the troublesom contraction of its tunicles causes thirst , and the vellication occasion'd by the fermentaceous juice that sticks to 'em , begets hunger , neither of which a new chylus pacifies by its nutrition , but the humid moistures swallow'd produce that effect , and the chylus extracted out of those by their moist'ning , by which the contraction of the tunicles is releas'd ; and the acrimony of the juice yet twitches , is temper'd and mitigated . and that this is done only by humectation , is mani●…est from hence ; for that all moist'ning things , as ale , water , ptisan , and the like , being plentifully drank , presently allay and abate the thirst and hunger for the time . lxxiii . but what shall we say of the child in the womb , which seems to be nourish'd by the milkie iuice alone of the amnion or membrane that enfolds the birth , at what time there is no blood that flows as yet through the navel vessels ? to which i answer , that the birth is nourish'd by the thicker particles of the seed remaining after the forming of the body of the said seed , first partly chang'd into blood in the beating bladder , or bubble ; partly clos'd together by proximity a●…d some kind of concoction : not that it is nourish'd by the chylus or any milkie juice of the amnion membrane : but then the remaining particles of the seed being consum'd , then it is nourish'd by blood made of the lacteous liquor of the amnium . by which nevertheless it could not be nourish'd , were it destitute of that moisture with which it is water'd by the lacteous liquor . see more of this c. . of this book . lxxiv . if any one shall acknowledge , that the stomach , which because it is manifestly furnish'd with several veins and arteries , is therefore nourish'd with blood , but deny that the milkie vessels were to be nourish'd with it , when they receive into 'em no blood conveighing arteries . i answer , that there are innumerable parts in our body , wherein the arteries are not to be discern'd , tho' it be certain they enter into those parts . and to which we can perceive no way through which the blood should be conveigh'd ; which parts nevertheless are nourish'd by the blood , and not by the chyl●…s . of which sort are the corneo●…s tuni ●…e , the u●…eters , the membrane of the tympanum or drum of the ear , sundry ligaments and bones , ma●…y gristles , &c in which number the milkie and lymphatic vessels may be reckon'd . for tho' entra●…ce of the blood into 'em be not so perceptible , yet can it not be thence concluded , that the blood does not find a way into those vessels , when in many other parts the entrance of the blood is not discernable , and yet their being nourish'd proves the access and entrance of the blood. chap. viii . of the guts . i. from the right orifice of the ventricle , call ▪ d the pylore , the guts are continu'd ; by the greeks 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , because they are placed within the body ; and henco by the latins call'd also interanea . ii. they are oblong bodies , membranous , concave , round , variously wreath'd about , reaching from the ventricle to the podex , serving to receive the chylus , and to contain and make way for the excrements . i say for receiving the chyle , &c. but it is a thing much controverted , whether they do not also contribute to the making the chyle . for this seems to have been the opinion of galen , who l. . de us●… part . has these words ; the guts , though they were not fram'd for the concoction of the chylus , but only to contain and distribute it , yet because nature is sometimes slothful and idle , in its passage through the guts , it comes to be perfectly elaborated . aretaeus and aretius follow the opinion of galen , and among the more modern authors spigelius ; and the very similitude of the structure of the ventricle , the guts seem to make for him ; as well in the substance , temper , colour , and contexture of the tunicles . and plempius , sway'd by these authorities , l. . fund . med. c. . assumes the affirmative ; and affirms that the same concoction which is perform'd in the stomach , may be perform'd in the guts ( which regius also inculcates ) and hence concludes , the clysters made of liquid nourishments , given at the fundament , may nourish , in regard there is a thick chylus concocted out of 'em in the guts , and carry'd away through the milkie vessels , and so communicated to the whole body . but we rather approve the negative ; for that seeing all manner of crudity proceeds from a cold and moist distemper of the stomach , ( as in a lientery ) the meat is evacuated without any alteration , or without any manner of concoction , which however , were there any chylifying virtue in the guts running a long way through their crooked windings and meanders , would at least gain some kind of alteration into a chylus . moreover , the choler flows continually together with the sweetbread juice into the guts , and in them indeed ferments the concocted nourishment , but by the virtue of that peculiar effervescency , and its bitterness , it rather hinders than promotes chylific concoction , as is apparent when it sticks in too great quantity to the stomach . and then who can believe , that clysters mixt with the excrement in the thick gut , can be chang'd into a chylus , and consequently nourish the body . the stinking place , and the feculent ordure therein intermix'd , plainly teach us , that there can be no alteration into chyle made there . perchance they may so far repair the strength of the body , as some more subtil and benign vapours may ascend through the pores and vessels to some superiour bowels , and somewhat refresh 'em , in the same manner as the odor of wine , hot bread , honey , aqua vitae , and roast meat , receiv'd thorough the nostrils , refresh the fainting spirits , tho' they be not turn'd into a chylus . iii. the length of the guts exceeds or equals the length of the person whose they are , six times more , or less , ( others who also measure in the stomach and gullet , say seven times , or somewhat less . ) hippocrates stretches 'em out to twelve or thirteen cubits . vesalius to fourteen italian ells and a half . we commonly measure 'em at fourteen of our dutch ells , or very near . only in the year . in november , once at a public dissection we found the guts of one person to be sixteen ells and a half ; and hence , that they might lye in a little room , placed in the abdomen with several windings and crooked circumvolutions , and joyned to the mesentery , by means of which they were ty'd to the back , and sustain'd by the cavities , the os ilium . iv. there was a necessity for such a length and circumvolution , that the concocted nourishment falling down from the stomach , might stay the longer in the guts , be more conveniently fermented by the mixture of the yellow choler , and the pancreatic iuice , and by that means the more subtil parts of the chyle being separated from the thicker mass , might with more ease be thrust forward into the narrow orifices of the milkie vessels , partly by the proper peristaltic motion of the entrals , partly , and that chiefly , by the impulse of the muscles of the abdomen , mov'd by the force of respiration : and to that end , because the separation ought to be made in the small guts , nature leads about , and forces the thinner substances through several windings and turnings as through so many stops and remora's , whereas she carries the thicker substances thorough a circular and oblique passage only . moreover , she has form'd certain little folding-doors to open and shut , which hinder the over rapid course of those things that flow downward . for had the chylus flow'd down through the short guts , either before a due and convenient fermentation , or could pass from 'em , whereby the body had been deceiv'd of its due and convenient . nourishment , she had constrain'd man to eat often for the support of himself , and to supply that defect by continual filling . of this cabrolius and riolan●…s give us several examples , that is to say of men most voracious , in whom , after their decease , one gut has been found , and that wonderfully short , in the shape of a great roman s. add to this , that the excrements had flow'd down much more speedily , and had thereby expos'd man to the more frequent duty of evacuation . v. their circumference is round , to the end they may be more capacious , and for the more easie descent of those things that pass through ' em . vi. their substance is membranous , like the stomach , having also a triple tunicle . the exterior common , and overcast with fat , arising from the membranes of the mesentery , springing from the peritonaeum . the middlemost fleshy ; interwoven with several thinner fibres , especially the transverse and streight fibres . the innermost nervous , which in the slender guts is wrinkl'd , to stop the chylus , and overspread with a kind of fleshy spongy crust , but very thin , ( which some call the peristoma , others the silken covering , others the woolly moss ) through which fallopius believes the chylus to be transmitted and strain'd , as it were , through a sponge ; and to prevent the injuries of the sharp humours , and for the better defence slippery , by reason of a slimy clamminess , generated cut of the excrements of the third concoction ; but in the thicker guts dilated into little cells . riolanus l. . anthrop . c. . writes ; tho' without any ground , that the carneous and fleshy tunicle , which is the middlemost in the stomach , is the innermost in the guts , and that the innermost is thick , but however more nervous , and not much different from the inner tunicle of the ventricle . vii . now in regard the guts are furnish'd with fibres of all sorts ; the question is , whether they have an attractive force , by which they may draw the chylus out of the ventricle . many maintain the affirmative , induc'd thereto by the authority of avicen , and many other arguments ; but erroneously ; seeing there is in 'em no such attractive force . in like manner there is also another question started concerning their retentive faculty . both questions are learnedly and at large discussed by andrew laurence l. . anat. c. . quaest. , . viii . they draw their nerves from the sixth pair ; their arteries from the mesenteric branch , both upper and lower , and some from the intestinal branch of the coeliac artery . ix . innumerable roots of small veins dispers'd between their tunicles , meeting together about the knitting of the mesentery , form many veins , from the ingress of the mesentery , which they ascend together , call'd the mesaraics ; which at the upper part of the mesentery , a little before its ingress into the vena porta , close together into two greater branches , and so constitute the right and left mesaraic vein . x. into these vessels are ingrafted the mesenteric milkie vessels , gaping with their orifices toward the inner guts , and receiving the chyle from 'em , and conveighing it to the grand receptacle of the chyle . xi . the temperament of the guts is said to be cold and dry ; that is to say , speaking comparatively , as they are less hot and dry than many other parts . xii . the use of the guts appears by what has been said already , not only to receive the nourishment concocted in the stomach , but also that a separation may be made there in them , of what is useful , from what is unprofitable ; and from them to send what is profitable into the milkie vessels , and exonerate what is unprofitable at the fundament . xiii . now the act of propulsion and expulsion , is perform'd by the compressure of the muscles of the abdomen , which is very much assisted by the proper motion of the small guts , proceeding from the contraction of the fibres , resting in their proper tunicles , which is very conspicuous in living cats and coneys dissected . and it is most certain , that this motion of the fibres is perform'd by the oblique , but chiefly by the transverse fibres , and by them the things contain'd are thrust down from the upper parts to the lower . which motion , if it happen to be irregular , which rarely happens , and that the fibres by their contraction move the things contain'd in the guts , beginning from the lower parts to the superiour , then the ordure carried up from the thick intestines , ascends into the stomach , and is thence vomited out at the mouth . thus i remember i handled a young lad that lay sick at nimmeghen , who , besides many other nasty things , vomited up a suppository that was given him at the fundament . and here at utrecht , in the year . in april , i had prescrib'd a clyster to the most prudent and grave consul wede , who then lay very ill , which being injected at the fundament , in a little time he vomited up again , from which extravagant motion i concluded a prognostic of death , which ensued some few hours after . xiv . tho' there be but one gut from the pylore to the fundament , yet in regard of the thickness of the substance , the magnitude , shape , and variety of function , it is distinguish'd by anatomists , into the thin or slender guts , and into the thick . xv. the thin or small gut , so call'd from the thinness of its substance , possesses all the navel-region , and the hypogastrium . and this , according to the shape , situation , length , and plenty of lacteous vessels , is by the ancients said to be threefold . the duodenum , iejunum , and ilium . xvi . the first is continuous to the pylore , by galen call'd 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , the springing , or proceedings forth : by the ancient greeks , and hierophylus , 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , and thence commonly by the latins call'd duodenum , from the measure of two transverse fingers ; tho' most modern anatomists will hardly allow it the measure of four fingers . but if you reckon from the pylorus to the inflexion of the iejunum , where it rises upward athwart , lying under the sweetbread , then it will be found to be twelve fingers in length . xvii . this duodenum contiguous to the pylore upon the right side , nor wreath'd with circumvolutions , tho' it be narrower than the rest of the guts , yet is of a thicker substance than all the rest of the small or thin guts , and is bor'd thorough , about the breadth of four or five fingers from the pylore ( but seldom about the middle of the jejunum , though plempius says he has seen it ) in the wrinkle of its flexure , where sticks out a little teat , sometimes with one hole common to the cholidochus ; and that other found out by wirtzungius , sometimes perforated with two several holes proper to both chanels . which holes , if they be two , the one transmits into the duct●…m 〈◊〉 , the other into the 〈◊〉 . but if there be b●…t one chanel at the ingress , ( which is frequent in men , very seldom in dogs ) then the point thrust into that gut toward the upper parts , enters the ductus biliartus ; if toward the lower parts , it enters the ductus pancreaticus . veslingius reports , and daily dissections teach us , that this gut is found to be of an extraordinary laxity and largeness , and then seems to be joyn'd as a lesser ventricle to the larger ventricle . which laxity happens from the sharp fermentaceous and vitlous humours sliding into it ; which occasions vehement fermentaceous ebullitions , by which the gut is not only very much distended , but often times fill'd with troublesome rumblings , great pains , sharp prickings , and extraordinary anguish which thence arise . xviii . it begins , as has been said , from the pylore , and by and by going down backwards under the ventricle , it is reflex'd toward the right kidney , and adhering to the broader end of the pancreas or sweetbread , is fasten'd to the vertebers of the loyns and the left kidney by membranous ligaments , and then extending it self downward to the beginning of its windings , ends under the colon ▪ xix . the second is call'd by the greeks 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , by the latins jejunum , because it is found empty for the most part , as well for the great quantity of the milkie vessels that enter into it , as also because of the more speedy ebullition of the chylus , by reason of the choler and pancreatick iuice flowing at first hand through its proper chanels , or its separation from the dregs , and passage into the milkie vessels . xx. it is in length about twelve or thirteen palms , and about a fingers breadth wrinkled with many windings ; and seated under the pancreas , near the back-bone , in the region of the navel , chiefly toward the left side , beginning from the first circumvolution of the intestines , and ending where it ceases to look black and bluish , and to be empty . theodore kerckringius observ. . takes notice in this gut of some little valves or folding-doors , as it were , for that they do not so shut up the gut , as to fill up all its cavity : but about the middle of its cavity so shut it up , that being each of 'em broader at one end than another , they grow narrower by degrees , and then a little lower are received by another , which being broader in that part where the other is narrower , so frame and constitute the gut , that those things which fall down from the upper parts may slip down , but not be precipitated as it were at one fall . the same kerckringius was the first also that discover'd and observ'd valves or little trap-doors like to these in the colon gut , which he has plainly shewn me in a thick and blown gut , and then dry'd , which is the best way to discern 'em most perspicuously . and therefore he deservedly merits the applause of this first invention , seeing that never any person before ever made mention of these fol●…ing docrs or valves , that i know of . xxi . the third proceeding from the foremention'd , is call'd ilium , by the greeks 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , from its being twisted and twirl'd ; and volvulus by the latins , by reason of its circumvolution , and the multitude of its twistings . xxii . this being seated under the navel , next the lateral parts of the abdomen and the ribs , equals the breadth of a transverse finger ; and in length exceeding the other two measures one or two and twenty palms . xxiii . the original of it is where the intestine begins to grow narrower , and being somewhat ruddy , ends at bauhinus's valve , where the colon begins . xxiv . that which follows is call'd intestinum crassum , the thick gut , as being of a more fleshy and thick substance ; and that is also divided into three parts , the blind , the colon , and intestinum rectum , or the right gut. xxv . the first is that which the greeks call 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , the latins caecum , so call'd from its obscure use ; or else because it is not passible or penetrable at the other end ; whence it is also call'd 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , mesocolon . and therefore it is a small appendix , like a long worm , sticking to the beginning of the colon , in length about four fingers transverse , having a small cavity in people grown up altogether empty , but in the birth full of excrements . spigelius has sometimes found a round worm within it . in fourfooted beasts it contains some excrements for the most part . xxvi . it is not fasten'd to the mesentery , but by the help of the peritonaeum is joyn'd to the right kidney . xxvii . the use of this gut was unknown till of late ; tho' some there were that attributed to it this use , others that , tho' all were but vain conjectures , with which they thought fitting rather to expose , than confess their own ignorance . xxviii . the second of the thick guts is called colon , as much as to say 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , or hollow , as being the most hollow of all the guts ; or as others will have it , from 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 to hinder , because the excrements are stops in its little cells . this is larger and broader than the rest , as being eight or nine palms in length . xxix . it begins about the os ilium , knitting it self to the next kidney ; hence it ascends upward , and then being turned toward the liver , it proceeds athwart under the bottom of the stomach , to which , by the help of the caul , it is joyned , and on the left hand is joyned to the spleen and left kidney with thin membranes , and then winding about the left os ilium , weaves to the beginning of the intestinum rectum . it possesses the upper part of the belly . . to the end the excrements that are gathered within it , may be rowl'd down by their weight , and so the more easily exonerated . . to assist in some measure the concoction of the stomach by the heat of the excrements ; in regard the chymists believe no digestion to be so natural as that which is perfected by the heat of dung. . secondly , to prevent the middle mesentery from being compressed by the weight of the excrements : which would very much straiten the milkie and lymphatic vessels , and mesaraic veins and arteries . xxx . it has a proper ligament , about the breadth of the middle finger , according to its length extended at the upper part from the caecum to the intestinum rectum , wherein the row of little cells is contain'd . xxxi . it is ty'd to the upper and lower parts by the assistance of the peritonaeum . veslingius ascribes to it two peculiar suspensorie ligaments that never appear . but the extremity of it , which below the left kidney extends it self to the beginning of the intestinam rectum , is ty'd to no part , but remains free from any manner of band , and is overspread with a good quantity of fat. xxxii . at the ingress of the thin gut , it has an orbicular valve , or little solding door , looking upwards , which prevents the ascension of the excrements and vapors , which from the first finder , is now called bauhinus's valve , tho' others rather ascribe the first discovery to varolius , and salomon albertus : but riolanus raises a bitter contest concerning it . xxxiii . anatomists do not agree in the description of this valve . . some say , that it is a membrane sticking to the gut on one side , and drawing before it a curtain . . others say , it consists of two membranes opposite one to another , placed toward the inner parts of the colon , which closing together , shut up the thin gut. . others believe there is no true valve in that place , but a fleshy circle , wrapt over the thin gut , where it enters the thick one , and contracting it like the sphincter muscle . . we our selves formerly , as has bin said in the preliminaries , could not think it to be any other than a loose circular membrane , or some little lappet of the ilium gut , where it enters the colon : which when any thing ascends out of the ilium into the colon , gives way and opens : but when the quagmiry excrements or vapors descend from the colon to the ilium , falls and folds down , and so by obstructing the way , hinders the passage towards the thin guts ; in the same manner as in the little long gutters of leather hanging out at the sides of ships , through which the water that falls upon ▪ the decks , readily flows out again . but tho' the waves dash upon those ; gutters , yet because they do not mix with the water , therefore the water coming not into them , does not flow back . now that we might be assur'd in this our last opinion , i thought it convenient to fish out the truth a little farther by some experiment . and therefore having taken the colon out of a body , with a part of the ilium , and ty'd it at both ends with a pack thread , and blew into it with a strong breath , through a small pipe , and kept the wind within with a small thread , and then dry'd the gut , so distended , in the air , till it became hard : and then we could clearly discern , not only those half opening valves of the colon sound out by kerckringius , but we also observ'd the aforesaid valve of bauhinus , to be a membrane spread athwart over the ingress of the thin gut , and hanging somewhat over toward the inner parts of the colon , and bo●…'d through in the middle from one side to the other with a right or straight hole , as if slit with a penknife . and so we observ'd also , that the lips of both those openings closing , the ingress of the ilium into the colon was so guarded by these valves that nothing could fly back again ▪ and by this view we found , that of the foresaid four opinions , the second was the most probable , but that the first , third , and fourth , which was our own , was a deviation from the truth . only that the third rightly and truly asserts , that there is a certain fleshy circle which laps the ingress of the ilium into the colon. xxxiv . in this colon , the thicker sort of excrements are gathered together , and contain'd till the time of exoneration , whereas it would be a great shame and trouble to have his excrements continually dropping from him . for which reason it is very large and capacious , and has little closing valves , to stop and retard the excrements . and by reason it encompasses almost the whole abdomen , sometimes ascending , sometimes descending , hence it happens that the dregs and excrements to be expell'd , pass down more slowly , requiring two or three times of compressing it self for their expulsion . xxxv . the third and last of the thick guts , is the intestinum rectum , which descending in a streight line into the hollow of the hips , ends in the fundament . call'd by the greeks 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , because it runs on without any excrescencies or windings ; also 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , because it is the beginning ; or 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , because it constrains us as it were by a kind of command , to quit our selves of the burthen that oppresses us . xxxvi . it is far inferior to the colon in length and br●…dth , as not being above one palme and a half in length , and about three fingers broad ; but in thickness and carnosity exceeds all the guts : being outwardly covered with fat appurtenances . xxxvii . it is ty'd to the os sacrum ; and coccyx , by means of the peritonaeum , and in men is fastned to the root of the penis , in women to the womb by a musculous substance , whence springs the great consent of these parts . xxxviii . the end of it is the fundament , called anus , and podex , which has three muscles : the first , which is called sphincter , and is fasten'd to the lowest parts of the os sacrum , embraces and purses up the fundament orbicularly , to keep in the excrements . to this , there are some who add another , but of a thinner substance for the same use , inseparably joyn'd to the former , and as it were riveted into the skin , at the extremity of the fundament . but this the greatest part of anatomists confound with the first , and make but one of both . the other two are called levatores , or fundament-lifters , which rising from the ligaments of the coxendix , and os sacrum , descend distinct to the sphincter , and intermix their insertions with it , to the end they may draw the fundament back again , brought down by the force of straining , in evacuation . tho' riolanus derives their original from the bones themselves , yet he divides 'em erroneously into four muscles , whereas such a division cannot be made without dilaceration , as de marchettis well observes , anat. c. . these muscles being loosened by any accident , cause a falling of the fundament , or rather a sinking down of the gut. xxxix . into the fundament are ingrafted the roots of the haemorrhoid veins , which are two fold . of which , the internal ascending sometimes to the right , sometimes to the left mesenteric veins , and sometimes to the splenic branch , empty their blood into the vena porta ; but the external enter into the hypogastric branch . xl. arteries accompany the veins , proceeding partly from the lower mesenteric branch , and partly from the hypogastric arterie . xli . to these , three or four little veins joyn themselves , deriv'd from the extream parts of the pith of the back , which make this gut very sensible , and infuse spirits into the muscles to enable their contraction . chap. ix . of the mesenterie . i. the mesenterie , or 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , is so called from its situation , as being placed in the middle of the bowels . ii. it is a membranous part seated in the middle of the lower belly ; destin'd not only to bring the vessels safe to the intestins , and carry 'em back again , but also to be a common band of all the guts themselves , lest their manifest windings and turnings should be confounded and intangl'd to the manifest hazard of life and health . iii. which tho' it be but one , is divided by some into the mesaraeum , or mesenterie , and the mesocolon , while the thin guts stick to the first , the thick guts to the latter . iv. it consists of a double strong membrane , continuous to the peritonaeum , and every where stuft with fat. besides which , wharton writes adenograph . c. . that he has found out and demonstrated a third middlemost and proper to it , somewhat thinner than the former , and propping up the vessels and kernels within it . v. from the center to the circumference it is about the bigness of a span. but the shape of it is circular , whose circumference is contracted into innumerable folds , to streighten the length and widness of the guts , and to contain their proper situation and order . in the middle it is large , oblong in the sides , especially on the left side , where it descends to the right gut. but it is of an extraordinary thickness in fat people , the bulk of fat being largely augmented : in others it is much more thin . vi. it rises about the uppermost and third vertebra of the loyns , to which it is ty'd with a very firm connexion . fallopius believes it to derive its original at the nervous plexare , or knitting , from whence it takes its beginning ; of which more c. . & l. . c. . vii . it has several very small and soft glandules , inserted among the membranes ; and in the middle , one great one , all which it is most certain do manifestly conduce to the attenuation and greater perfection of the chylus . and of these glandules there is great difference found in the number , not only in several sorts of animals , but in many individuals of the same species : however this is observ'd in man , where they are sewer in number , their bigness compensates that defect . now that they conduce to the attenuation and perfecting the chylus hence appears , for that innumerable milkie vessels run through 'em ( after what manner is to be seen cap. . ) and pour the chylus into 'em , to imbibe in it something of a slight subacid quality , for its greater perfection ; which vessels proceeding from 'em , meet together at length in the middlemost great glandule , and thence in a direct and short channel are carry'd to the receptacle of the chylus , into which they empty their milkie juice . this glandule fallopius and asellus erroneously call the pancreas or sweetbread , and many at this day , the pancreas mesenterii ; but very far different from the real pancreas seated under the stomach . viii . this both experience and our own eyes do teach us . for if these glandules come to be obstructed by any accident , or that the liquor bred in 'em ( concerning which see something in the preceding chapter , & l. . c. . ) and which is to be of necessity , mix'd with the milkie iuice , has by any accident acquir'd an over acid sharpness , then the milkie iuice within 'em becomes coagulated in the form of a cheese , and by reason of its abundant overflowing swells very much : by which means the passage is obstructed to the chylus that comes next , whence such people as are troubled with this distempet ( by reason of the distribution of the chylus is obstructed ) are troubled with the coeliac flux , and grip'd with pains in the belly , and by reason of passage deny'd to the nourishment , labour under an atrophie , and by degrees are wasted to death . of which i have already given three examples . ix . the first was of a scotch souldier , who during his stay in india , and a long tedious voyage upon his return , having fed upon unwholesom dyet all the while , fell into a languishing sickness , and labouring under a coeliac flux with gripings of the guts , tho' his appetite was still indifferent good , was brought to our hospital , where after he had lain three or four months , and that all this had been try'd in vain to cure his coeliac flux , at length he dy'd as lean as a rake . the body being opened , first there was to be seen an overgrowing spleen hard and black ; a pancreas extreamly swell'd , hard and of an ash-colour ; we also found the innumerable glandules in the mesenterie ( which in some persons are hardly discernable ) to be very tumid , and somewhat hard , insomuch that some were as big as a bean , but most of 'em as big as a filberd , and some few as big as a nutmeg . but when they came to be dissected , there was nothing in 'em , but a certain white cream coagulated into a milkie substance . x. the second example was of a poor girl of about eleven years of age , who dying of such a flux of the belly , accompanied with rumbling and pain in the belly , was reduced to nothing but skin and bone. i open'd her body in november . at the request of her parents , who believed her to have been bewitch'd and kill'd by diabolical arts , and by the murmuring and hissing in her guts , believ'd snakes , toads , and other creatures to have bin bred in her bowels . but when she came to be open'd , we found , as in the former innumerable glandules of the mesenterie , very tumid and somewhat hard , of which many were as big as a filbert , and some somewhat bigger . their outward colour in some was white , in others speckled like black and white marble : but within fide , as well in these as in all the rest , was contained a very white milkie juice , curdl'd into the form of a cheese . the spleen and pancreas somewhat exceeded their due proportion . xi . the third example was of a noble danish child , called nicholas retz , between seven and eight years of age , who having lain under a great atrophie for several months , accompanied with griping in the guts , at length reduced to skin and bone , dy'd in june . whereupon being desired by his friends and others , who had the care of him , to examine the cause of the child's death for the satisfaction of his parents , i opened the body in the presence of several spectators ; and there i shew'd the liver , spleen , heart , lungs , kidneys , ventricle , and guts , all in good order and well condition : only the pancreas was somewhat swell'd and ill coloured : but in the mesenterie appear'd the certain cause of his death : for that the innumerable glandules of the mesenterie , were swell'd to such a wonderful degree , with an extraordinary hardness , some as big as a filberd , others somewhat bigger , and many as big as a bean : they were all of a white colour , and contained in 'em a white cream coagulated to the hardness of a dryer sort of cheese , which hindring the passage of the succeding chylus , was the cause of the atrophie , and consequently of the death of the child that ensu'd . xii . from whence it is sufficiently apparent that the coeliac flux , and atrophie , is occasioned by the obstruction of those glandules or kernels . nor is that their use , which anatomists commonly ascribe to 'em , that is to say to prop the veins and arteries carried through the mesenterie , but in them , as in all glandules , there is something of a particular fermentaceous liquor bred , to be mix'd with the milkie chylus ; and for that reason they become serviceable to the milkie vessels ( not the sanguiferous ) and hence by reason of their obstruction , or something else amiss ( such as is occasioned by a vitious ferment mingled with the duodenum ) many times the membranes of the mesenterium are stuft with a world of ill humors , the occasion of languishing fevers , and several obstinate and diuturnal distempers . xiii . riolanus has conceiv'd a strange opinion of these glandules , anthropog c. . while he asserts , that by reason of them , the root and foundation of all strumas is in the mesenterie : and that never any strumas appeared without the body , unless the mesenterie were strumous ; which he says , was also the opinion of guido and iulius pollux , with whom it seems he rather chose to mistake , than to understand by physical practice and philosophy , that strumas have no affinity at all with the glandules of the mesentery , being only design'd for the farther preparation of the chylus alone . neither can those strumas that break out on the outside of the body , pretend in any manner to any cause or original in the mesenterie : since daily experience tells us , that most people who are troubled with struma's , are sound in all other parts of their bodys ; nor do they complain of any distemper in the lower part of the belly , whereas the diseases of the mesenterie are usually very fatal to the patient . and the very cure it self instructs us in the contrary , which is chiefly perform'd by topics , that would never prevail , if the original cause of the distemper lay concealed in the mesenterie . lastly in the dissections of persons troubled with strumas , the same thing manifestly appears , who are for the most part seen to have a sound mesenterie . xiv . the mesenterie derives its nerves from the plexure of the inner nerves of the sixth pair ; and the nerves proceeding from the marrow of the loyns ; which causes it to be so sensible in its membranous part , tho' it be more dull of feeling in its fat and glandulous part , for which reason apostemes ly long conceal'd in it before they be discern'd as they should be , either by the patient or physician . xv. its arteries proceed from the mesenterie branch of the great arterie , the right and left , or the upper and lower . xvi . it has several veins running between its membranes , call'd the mesaraic , which rising with very small roots from the tunicles of the guts , and mutually opening one into another , as they frequently meet in the mesentery , at length meet altogether in the two greater branches , that is , the right and left mesenteric continues to the vena porta . these infuse the blood , forc'd through the arteries to the mesentery and guts , being the remainder of the nourishment of these parts , into the porta vein , thence to be conveigh'd to the liver . of the use of the porta and mesaraic veins , see more l. . c. . xvii . besides the arteries and mesaraic veins , an innumerable company of milkie veins , and many lymphatic vessels run through it , of which we shall discourse c. . & . chap. x. of the pancreas or sweetbread . i. the pancreas or sweetbread so call'd in latin , as being all flesh , is also call'd by another name 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , and by the latins lactes , from its inner white and milkie colour . ii. it is a glandulous , loose and shapeless body , situated at the first vertebra's of the loyns , under the hinder part and bottom of the stomach , cloath'd with a thin membrane from the peritonaeum , and as it were hanging at it . iii. the shape of it is oblong and flat . iv. with its broader part adjoyning to the confines of the liver , it lyes under the stomach near the first verteber of the loyns ; and including the meatus biliarius and trunk of the porta is joyned to the duodenum : hence it extends it self toward the spleen , and sharpens by degrees , but is not fasten'd to it . v. the substance of it is altogether glandulous , and consists of many as it were little knots or knobs , cohering together by means of the vasa intercidentia , or interpassing vessels , and many small fibres , and included in the common membrane taken from the peritonaeum . from whence it is that francis de le boe sylvius describes the sweetbread to be a conglomerated glandule , compos'd as it were of many small kernels gather'd in a cluster together , and cloath'd with their own proper little membrane . these little knobs make a shew of being hard , but taken together , seem to be very soft , by reason of their loose connexion . vi. the colour of it is pale , hardly shewing the least tincture of any blood ; neither does it agree in colour with any of the fleshy parts . and hence proceeds the wonder , that by the ancient anatomists it should be call'd 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , that is , all fleshy ; whereas it should have been rather nam'd 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , or all kernelly . vii . the bigness is not the same in all persons ; for sometimes you shall find it to equal the length of six , seven , or more cross fingers , seldom so short as three or four . it s greatest breadth is generally two fingers and a half ; its thickness the breadth of one finger . viii . the weight of it is various , according to the weight and difference of the body . wharton has observ'd it in men of full-grown age to weigh four or five ounces for the most part . regner de graef has observ'd it in horses to weigh eleven ounces . in sickly people it exceeds the usual bigness , and is often full of corruption ( of which riolanus , hildan , r. de graef , horstius , tulpius , blasius , and others , give us several examples , ) and sometimes also little stones breed within it , as were found to the number of seven or eight , at paris , in the body of a certain deceas'd nobleman , by the report of r. de graef , lib. de succ. pancreat . who also adds in the same place another example out of sennertus , of a pancreas harden'd to a gristly substance . ix . it is furnish'd with small nerves from the sixth pair , more especially from the upper plexure of the abdomen . x. it receives its arteries from the left branch of the coeliac artery , leaning toward the back ; and sometimes from the splenic artery . xi . it sends forth its veins to the splenic branch near the porta : furthermore , it transmits a trunk of the vein , which in some measure it embraces . xii . it is also stor'd with many lymphatic vessels : in the middle part of it , according to its length , a peculiar chanel extends it self , indifferently capacious , and consisting of a thin and strong membrane , call'd from the first discoverer ductus wirtzungianus . xiii . this one chanel runs through the middle of the bowels , and receives an innumerable company of little and small vessels , open into it from all parts of the bowels . among which there is one somewhat bigger than the rest , which it admits in its lower part , not far from its ingress into the intestin . sometimes there are two chanels to be found , but not equal in their length , of which the one keeps its wonted station ; the other remains a little lower ; but both are joyned together for the most part , and make one orifice : sometimes also the other enters the ductus cholidochus near the duodenum , while t'other perforates the intestine a little below . frederic ruisch , observat . anat. . writes , that he has often observ'd two pancreatic chanels in human carkases , of which neither had any communication with the ductus cholidochus : also that he rarely found this chanel single in dogs . for that in reference to this chanel the sport of nature is various , even in the same creatures sometimes , but more especially according to the diversity of animals . for that some have one , which is most frequent in men : others two , others three , which being often joyn'd together , before their exit out of the pancreas , sometimes enter the intestine separately . in some , they are inserted into the ductus biliarius ; in others , partly into the intestine , in some few , they are inserted into the stomach ; which happens most frequently in some sort of fish. xiv . the chanel call'd the wirtzungian , tho' it be easily discover'd in men , yet is not so soon found out in dogs ; because their pancreas is not contracted , as in men ; but thin and extended in length ; and sometimes as it were divided into certain parts . but if the instrument be thrust into its orifice , where it opens into the d●…odenum , the chanel is presently to be found . xv. the orifice of the said chanel discharges it self into the duodenum , having an opening sufficiently large , sometimes the breadth of four , sometimes five or six fingers from the pylorus , in a remarkable wrinkle of the flexure of the duodenum , ( where there is a very small extuberancy , denoting its exit ) next to the going forth of the biliary pore in men , in dogs about two fingers breadth below the exit of the meatus biliarius , and not unfrequently opening into the very biliary chanel it self , ( as is familiarly observ'd in sheep ) and some affirm that there is a valve belonging to it , looking outward , and obstructing the ingress of any thing out of the intestine into the chanel . but because the chanel from part of the intestine easily admits the instrument , and for that this valve did never manifestly appear to us , we are apt to believe , that an oblique insertion into the intestine is sufficient to exclude the humours , as shall be said concerning the ductus biliarius , c. . in another part being extended toward the spleen ; it grows slenderer and slenderer , till it quite vanishes , before it reach the extream part of the pancreas , so that it never touches the spleen , nor enters it , which is that which some have endeavour'd to perswade us . how nicolas steno found this chanel call'd wirtzungian in birds , he most elegantly describes lib. de musc. & glandul . in these words : xvi . there is , saith he , an observation made upon birds , that is of very great use for the explanation of the wirtzungian duct . for in several sorts of birds , i have seen a double pancreatic chanel , meeting also with a double ductus biliarius ( of which the one comes from the vessel of the gall , where it does not lye upon the liver , the other from the liver it self ) the insertion of which four vessels varies three manner of ways . for either they all meet together in one mouth , or every pancreatic chanel , with its bilary , enters into a common mouth , so that the intestine is only pervious at two holes ; or else every chanel having its own particular chanel , is the occasion that there are four ways into the intestines . lately i saw the hepatic ductus in a turky-hen , where it went forth out of the liver single , but then being divided in its progress , it ran to the intestine with two little chanels , so that the intestine by that means receiv'd the choler out of three little vessels . xvii . into this wirtzungian duct , out of all those little knots , of which the pancreas consists in men , certain little branches like small rivulets run abroad , and pour out the pancreatic humour , prepar'd and concocted in the little knots of the said pancreas , to be thence carried to the duodenum . but in that chanel there is never any pancreatic iuice to be found , because it flows with a steep current into the duodenum , and never stays in the chanel : in like manner as the urine flowing from the reins through the ureters , by reason of its rapid passage , is never to be found in them . xviii . i admire at lindanus med. physiol . c. . art. . vers . ▪ where he asserts this chanel to be an artery ; but that it is uncertain from whence it springs , whether from the aorta , or the coeliac , before its splenetic emission . assuredly it has no similitude with the artery , neither in substance nor in use , neither is it any where continuous with the arteries : neither does it beat , or contain any blood as the arteries , but without any blood carries in it a certain peculiar liquor ; neither does it discharge it self into the veins , as the arteries do , but into the cavity of the intestine . neither is it true which lindanus adds , that is to say , that from this chanel ( which he calls an artery ) several little forked branches are extended into that bowel , whereas indeed several little forked branches run out from the little knobs of the bowel into the chanel , as has been said . therefore less erroneous were they , who affirmed this chanel to be a vein , as resembling a vein in the structure and species of its substance , whereas indeed it is no vein , nor carries any blood , but is another sort of membranous vessel , appointed for the conveyance of a peculiar humour . xix . as to the office of this bowel ( and i hope no body will be offended , that by virtue of a peculiar philosophical licence , we call this noble glandulous body a bowel ) there have arisen sharp contests ; while some affirm'd that it did only support the divisions and separations of the vessels , and lay under the stomach like a pillow ; others asserted that it fed upon the cruder portion of the blood ; others that it assisted the heart in sanguification ; others that it drew melancholy from the spleen , or furnish'd the stomach with fermentaceous juice , or supply'd the place of the distemper'd spleen . others that it receiv'd the chylus , and concocted it to a greater perfection , and separated the choleric excrement from it . all which opinions , when i found 'em to be meerly conjectural ▪ and altogether uncertain , nor supported by any solid reasons or experience , i thought fit to be a little more diligent than ordinary in the examination of this almost neglected part of anatomy : and at length , after many experiments ( of which some succeeded ill , some well ; for that besides the pancreatic iuice ; there flow'd for the most part great store of choler by the ductus cholidochus into the duodenum , ty'd both above and below , and then slit long-ways ; which choler spoil'd both the colour and taste of the pancreatic juice ) i found by the dissections , as well of living as of newly strangled creatures , a certain sublimpid and salivatick , or spittly sort of liquor flow from the ductus pancreaticus , somewhat sowre , and slightly acid ( tho' needham , contrary to all experience , denies its acidity . ) and sometimes having something of saltness mix'd with it ( and the same in mangy dogs i have observ'd to stink , and to be of a very ill taste ) i say i observ'd this clear and salivous or spittly sort of liquor to flow from the ductus pancreaticns into the duodenum , and that sometimes to a very considerable quantity ; but never any of the vasa chylifera extended to this bowel , nor ever was any chyle found in it . xx. whence i judg'd , that tho' several anatomists have describ'd several vasa chylifera running out of this bowel , and caus'd 'em to be delineated in their tables ; nay tho' schenckius himself deriv'd the vasa chylifera from hence , and were distributed from hence toward the mesentery , tho' veslingius and baccius affirm that the chylus flow'd out of it being wounded , and tho' dominicus de marchettis fancy'd that he had observ'd several chanels running out toward the liver , and distributed from it to the guts , yet that all they were deceiv'd by some preconceiv'd opinion ; and that neither the vasa chylifera do run out of it , neither is the chylus emptied forth into it , but that there is in it a peculiar humour concocted in it , bred out of the serous and saltish part of the arterious blood which is carried into it , mixt with some animal spirits brought and conveigh'd through the small and scarce discernable nerves . which humour flowing into the duodenum , and being there mixt with the choler flowing also thither , and the nourishment digested in the stomach , and falling down through the pylore into the stomach , raises a peculiar effervescency in those aliments , by virtue whereof the profitable chylous particles are separated from the excrementitious , attenuated , and made more fit for liquation and distribution . and this operation is apparent from the diversity of the substance of the aliments concocted in the stomach , and still contain'd there , from the substance of those which are already fall'n down into the guts . for those are more viscous and thicker , and retain the colours of the various sorts of food ; these more fluid , less slimy , and more white . which aptness for liquation is prepar'd , to the end that by the peristaltic motion of the intestines the chylous particles may be forc'd through their innermost mucous tunicle into the milkie vessels , while the rest that are more thick fall down by degrees into the thick guts , there to be kept till the time of evacuation . now this effervescency is occasion'd by the volatil salt of the choler , and the sulphurous oyl meeting with the acidness of the pancreatic iuice , as in chymistry we find in like manner the same effervescencies occasion'd by the meeting together of the like mixtures . xxi . these things being more seriously consider'd , i was confirm'd in my self , that the pancreas or sweet-bread is no such useless bowel , as it is by many describ'd to be ; nor that the iuice which is prepar'd within it is so small , that it can scarcely be discern'd , nor that it is unprofitable or excrementitious , as many have hitherto thought ; but that it is a iuice of which there is a moderate quantity , and by reason of its specific subacid quality very necessary to raise a new effervescency in the guts , together with the choler that is mixed with it , of the nourishment concocted and fall'n already down from the stomach , and by that means a separation of the profitable from the unprofitable particles , and that therefore a sound constitution of health depends in good part upon a sound pancreas or sweet-bread , and that through the unsoundness of the sweet-bread many diseases proceed , hitherto ascrib'd to distempers of the spleen , liver , mesentery , and other parts . and it may be easily observ'd , that upon its juice being out of order , that is either too plentiful or too sharp ( especially if there be too copious a mixture of sharp choler ) there is occasion'd an effervescency too violent and disorderly in the guts , which is the cause of sowre vomits , belchings , wind , distension of the bowels , diarrhea's , dysenteries , colick passions , and several other diseases ▪ tho' it is as certain , that most of these diseases may proceed from a vitiousness in the choler only . xxii . on the other side , if the sweetbread iuice be two scanty , too mild and insipid , it causes but a weak effervescency , obstructions , atrophie , and extraordinary binding of the body . or being too salt and acid , and rising toward the stomach , it occasions canine hunger , reaching , sowre belches , &c. but falling down into the guts , extraordinary gripings , corrodings , loosness , &c. ascending toward the head , together with the blood , epileptic convulsions , and as it were hysteric passions , and melancholy ravings . therefore highmore out of aubertus , relates , that in a noble woman , long troubled with an epilepsie , and as it were an hysteric passion , and at length dying of those distempers , there was nothing found defective but her sweetbread . xxiii . ascending toward the stomach or the heart , it causes palpitations of the heart , swooning fits , together with an inequality and weakness of the pulses , &c. thus highmore relates from the same aubertus , that a merchant of leyden could not sleep , or if he did , he swooned away , and at length went away in one of those fits ; in whose carkass , all other parts being safe , only the sweetbread was found putrified with an aposteme . and thus according as this juice is variously affected , it occasions various distempers , as are to be seen in those that are troubled with hypochondriacal diseases , of which a great part are to be attributed to the bad disposition of this juice . which impurities it contracts , partly through ill dyet , as salt meats , smoak'd meats , sowre , acid food , and such like ; or through the bad concoctions of the other bowels , especially of the spleen : for that from these causes , by reason of the vitious ferment of the blood , many particles of the blood in the heart being render'd less spiritous , and somewhat acid and salt , and remaining prone to coagulation , and so being carried through this bowel to the arteries , cannot be sufficiently concocted therein , nor chang'd into a ferment convenient and proper for the concocted aliments already slid down to the guts . xxiv . two years after i had made these examinations , and committed 'em to writing , there was brought me a disputation of the learned regner de graef , once my scholar , held in the academy of leyden , under the presidentship of the famous professor fr. de le boe sylvius , concerning the pancreas or sweetbread , and its iuice , which confirm'd me much more in my opinion . for at length , among many other experiments , after several endeavours and inventions to little or no purpose , he found out an ingenious way , whereby this juice might be gathered together in a living dog ; which he afterwards very liberally shewed to us , and several other spectators , in the month of march , . he took a fasting dog , and having ty'd his mouth that he should not bite , and opened his aspera arteria with a pen-knife , that he might breath through that hole , presently he ript open his abdomen , and then binds the gut , as well under the pylore , as under the egress of the pancreatic ductus , and then dissects and opens it between those two ligatures in the external part , which is free from the mesentery ; and with a sponge wipes away the choler , flegm , and other stuff which he found there . then taking a small quill of a wild duck , at the one end of which he had fitted a small glass bottle close stop'd round about , he thrust the other end into the ductus pancreaticus , which in dogs is two inches broad below the egress of the ductus biliarius ; and then with a needle and a double thred , sew'd the gut and the ductus to the quill and the bottle , so that the quill with the glass bottle , hanging without the abdomen , should not stir either from the gut or the ductus . this done , he put back the guts that hung out before into the inner parts , and sews up the slit of the abdomen with a strong thread , and so keeps the dog alive as long as he could , that is , for eight or ten hours . in this manner , within the space of seven or eight hours , he received into his bottle an indifferent quantity of this limpid juice that distill'd into the bottle thorough the quill , sometimes half an ounce , sometimes six drams , sometimes a whole ounce ; of which we tasted , and found the taste to be the same as i had tasted in several of my experiments before mentioned , that is , a little sowre , somewhat saltish , and somewhat subacid . the whole operation de graef relates more at large in his disputation , and describes in his tables annexed ; and farther testifies , that in some dogs , that perhaps were not so sound , he has observ'd that juice to be very impure , that it yielded sometimes a stinking , sometimes a nauseous , sometimes a very austere and astringent taste ; in so much that they who tasted it were all that day troubled with an uneasie suffocation , sometimes with stinking belches , and reaching of the stomach . the same de graef , in a little french book which he published in the year . upon the same subject , writes , that at anjou , in a man that dy'd suddenly , and was dissected before he was cold , he collecttd together the pancreatic juice , and found the acidity of it to be so very pleasant to the taste , that he never tasted the like in dogs . and in the same book , and more at large in lib. de suc. pancreat . edit . an. . c. , , , . he discourses of the qualities of this juice , how being mixed with the choler , it promotes effervescency , and causes the chyle to be white ; and what distempers it causes , if vitious ; all which would be too long here to repeat . most certainly a most ingenious invention , and for which the industrious and learned discoverer deserves a high applause , who by this industry of his has lighted us a candle to the better and clearer knowledge of most diseases . xxv . but by the way we are to observe , that as the first discoverers of new inventions are generally giv'n to err in this , that they have such a tender affection for their new-born embryo's , tho' yet but weak and imperfect , that they will observe no deficiency or error in 'em , but with an extraordinary pride , loathsome to all company , endeavour to extoll'em above others , more mature and perfected by age and experience ; so does regner de graef in this part shew himself a little faulty , while he following the most famous francis de le boe sylvius , from this one discovered cause of many diseases , endeavours to deduce the causes and originals of all distempers ; believing that diarrheas , dysenteries , colic , epilepsies , syncopes , hysterical suffocations , fluxes of the terms , agues , and i know not how many other diseases , proceed from this one cause ; as if no other vitious humours , bred by the ill habits of the other parts , could ever occasion such diseases . whereas a thousand dissections of bodies , that have dy'd of those diseases , plainly demonstrated that those diseases were occasion'd by the viticus habit of the other parts , in regard the pancreas in them was absolutely sound . xxvi . we have also in the sight of many spectators demonstrated , that when the sweetbread has been safe and untouch'd , diarrheas , dysenteries and colicks have proceeded from some corruption of the liver and choler ; epilepsies from the depravation of the brain and meninx's , or by some stinking ulcer in the ear : also that several fevers are occasion'd by vitious humours bred in the body through the bad temper , ill concoction , corruption , ulceration or inflammation of the other bowels and parts , as in pleurisies , inflammations of the lungs , squinancies , phrensies , &c. also that many times deadly symptomes and most terrible hysteric passions and fits are occasion'd only by the distemper of the testicles preternaturally swell'd , and containing a virulent , yellow , livid iuice , sending up virulent exhalations to the upper parts . which diseases have been many times cur'd by the evacuation of that vitious matter , without applying any medicins to the pancreas or sweetbread , that was altogether innocent of the distemper . xxvii . in the year . novemb . . i dissected in our hospital a carkass of a young maid of four and twenty years of age , which had lain sick for three years together , sometimes troubled with immoderate defluxions of her courses , sometimes with gripes of the colick , sometimes with diarrhea's , and want of appetite ; lastly an ▪ anasacra or hydropsical swelling of the whole body ; and toward her latter end oppress'd with a tedious cough , accompanied with filthy spittle ; in which body we found the sweet-bread almost entire , and without any dammage ; but the liver was in a very bad condition , not dy'd with a red , but with a black and bluish colour , and the lungs full of many little ulcers . which being seen , many persons , as well physicians as students in physic , renounc'd the opinion of sylvius , and regner de graef . xxviii . on the other side wharton has started a new opinion concerning the use of the sweetbread , believing the excrementitious iuices of the nerves to be purified therein , and chiefly of that complication which lies under the nerves . which from the sweet taste of the substance of the sweetbread , he judges not to be bitter or sharp , but sweet and insipid . but in many other places of his adenography , he discourses after another manner of the other glandules ; and affirms 'em to prepare the alimentary juice for the nourishment of the nerves . but who can believe that there should be a redundancy of excrements in the most pure animal spirits , and that they should flow from all parts of the body through invisible pores to the pancreas only , there to be separated from the animal spirits ? or who is not able to see that the thicker juices prepared in the glandules , can never pass thorough the thick substance of the nerves , but they must occasion obstructions and palsies . but more of these things l. . c. . xxix . by what has been said , it is apparent how far the ancients , and many of the moderns were mistaken in their opinions concerning the use of the sweet-bread ; and among the rest fernelius , who asserts that most of the superfluous and unprofitable moistures are heaped up together in the sweet-bread as in a sink , and thence flow into the guts . but in regard this bowel it self is covered with a thicker membrane , and all the particular glandules are covered by themselves with a thin little membrane , nor has it any other vessels that enter into it , unless some very small arteries and veins , and very slender nerves , there does not appear any way for the superfluous and excrementitious moistures of other parts to enter the sweet-bread : besides that there is no reason why they should be forced more to this part than to the kidneys , guts , or other evacuating parts . xxx . seeing then it is apparent by what has bin said , what the constitution and use of the sweet-bread , and sweet-bread iuice is . we will only add two things by way of corollary . . how that particular juice is generated in the sweet-bread ? . how great , and what sort of effervescency it raises in the guts . xxxi as to the first , our modern philosophers teach us , that the blood contains in it all manner of humors , acid , bitter , salt , sweet , insipid , thick , thin , &c. and that , of these , certain particular parts of the body admit of such and such particularly , which by reason of certain disposition of magnitude and figure , have an extraordinary analogy with their little pores ; but exclude others by reason of their disproportion : and so by reason of that specific constitution of the pores , the cholerick humors are most properly separated in the liver ; the serous in the reins , and the pancreatic iuice in the sweet-bread . but tho' it must be granted , that in the nourishment of the singular parts by reason of the certain and peculiar disposition of the pores in each , some particles of the blood stick to these , others better and more closely to those , till they are changed into their substance : yet this is not to be granted in the generation of humors , from whence at length , that general nourishment , the blood , proceeds . for in the blood is contained a matter , out of which humors of all sorts may be form'd , as it is fermented , mingl'd , and reconcocted in these or those various bowels , and several parts , yet is there not in the blood any pancreatic , splenetic , choleric juice , &c. ( as in wheat and bread there is not really any chylus , choler , or blood ) but it is a heterogeneous matter containing such and such different particles , which being after a peculiar manner mingled and concocted in the proper vessels , become humors sweet , bitter , acid , &c. not by reason of any analogy with the pores , but because of the specific nature , temper , and structure of the specific parts . and thus the matter is contained in the earth , out of which , according to the variety of mixture and concoction , a thousand sorts of herbs , trees , flowers , shrubs , and other things are generated : and thus in like manner several forms of things are shap'd by the hands of the artificer : while one makes statues , another bricks , another earthen vessels of all sorts , tho' such things were never in the earth before , nor could be said to have bin . the blood therefore , which is sweet , flowing through the splenic arterie into the spleen , is there depriv'd of the greatest part of its sweetness , and gains a subacid quality somewhat saltish ; not by reason of the pores of the spleen , but by reason of the natural subacid quality of the spleen , which it infuses in the blood and certain other humors that accompany it . sweet wine thus grows sowre , being poured into a vinegar-vessel ; not by reason of the pores of the vessel , having some kind of analogie either between the wine it self and the particles of the vinegar , or else because there was an acidity in the wine before , and its acid particles were only mix'd with the vinegar , and the sweet not mixed ; but because the sowre acidity of the vinegar , contained in the vessel , might there fix the sweet sulphury spirits of the wine , and exalting the salt and acid above 'em , altogether deprive it of its sweetness . for in that manner is choler bred in the liver : not that it was really praeexistent in the blood , or for that the pores of the liver have any analogie , with the choleric particles of the blood , were the occasion of its being separated from it ; but because the sweet blood , flowing in great quantity through the splenic branch to the porta out of the mesaraic veins , with a mixture of the splenetic juice , becomes so altered , that it is fermented and concocted after a new manner in the liver ( which proceeds from the peculiar temper , structure , and ferment prepared in it ) by which means many particles of it are made choler , which were not so before that new mixture and concoction : concerning which see the following th . chap. de generatione bilis . and thus it is in the pancreas , wherein some part of the blood flowing into it through the small arteries , is changed into sweet-bread juice ( the rest proceeding forward to its fountain the heart ) not by reason of the analogy of the pores of the sweet-bread with that juice ; but by reason of the new alteration which the blood undergoes in it , occasioned by the particular property or nature of the part , together with the new mixture and concoction . xxxii . as to the second we have affirm'd , that the pancreatic iuice being mix'd with the choler that flows to it , causes a new effervescencie in the duodenum . which is apparent in the dissection of living dogs ; in whom generally there is a spumous humour boyling in the said intestine , which is raised by the acidity of the pancreatic iuice , and the mixture of choler , abounding in volatile and fixed salt. which is that very thing which chymical operation teaches us ; viz. that acid spirits meeting with the lixivious salt , always fall a boyling if there be nothing intermix'd to prevent the operation . now that in choler there is contained a lixivious salt besides the oily sulphury parts , is hence apparent , for that both may be separated from it by chymical art. and then the tast discovers the moderately sharp acidity of the pancreatic juice ; and moreover for that being put into sweet milk , it presently curdles it , even as vinegar and other sharp juices do . lastly , for a farther proof of that effervescency occasioned by the mixture of choler with the pancreatic juice , we will add the twice repeated experiment of d. schuylius , tract . de vet. medicin . the abdomen of a live dog , saith he , being opened , i ty'd the duodenum with a string , not far from the pylorus ; and with another string a little below the insertion of the pancreatic ductus , and so left the dog , having sow'd up the abdomen again . three hours after , the dog being still alive , and strong , for he had lost very little blood , the abdomen being opened again , we found the space between the two ligat●…res so extreamly distended , that it would not yield to the compression of the fingers , but threaten'd a rupture , nor did we find the dogs gall-bag less distended . a most intense and burning heat also scalded that intercepted part of the duodenum ; in which , when i had made a little wound with a lancet , together with the humors contained therein , great store of wind brake out with the usual noise and ratling of breaking wind ; from whence also , a sowre kind of smell offended the noses of the standers by ; which when the gut was more opened , none of the spectators could endure . which was a manifest argument , that there had not only flow'd thither such a quantity of choler , and pancreatic iuice , but that there was an effervescency raised in 'em , not a mild and moderate one as in sound people , but extreamly vehement . for not only that part of the intestin was full , but distended extraordinarily by a violent force and rushing of the blood and spirits . nor was it probable that that part of the duodenum could have bin so distended , nor that the vapors , exhalations , humors , and wind , could have bin dissipated with so great a force , but by the effervescency and agitation of particles quite contrary to those humors . some few days after i repeated the same experiment , in the presence of several students ; and within two hours or little more , that portion of the intestin swell'd very much , but did not burn so violently : but having opened that swell'd portion of the intestin , which i had ty'd before , frothy bubbles brake out with a loud noise , with which that space of the gut was distended . so that it is not for impudence it self to raise any more doubts concerning the truth of this effervescency . chap. xi . of the mesenteric milkie vessels . i. the milkie vessels conveighing the white chylus from the guts through the mesentery , were first discovered in our age ; and in the yeor , by gaspar asellius , anatomist of padua . i say in our age , for that hippocrates and others had some obscure knowledg of ' em . galen also saw 'em and observ'd 'em ; but he believ'd 'em to be arteries , and sway'd by that error , assirm'd that the orifices of the arteries reaching to the intestines , receiv'd some small quantity of nourishment , appears l. . de off. part. c. . & l. . de natural . facult . c. . & lib. an sang. in art. content . c. . ii. asellius was the first that gave em the name of milkie veins . but in regard they carry no blood , and for that their substance is far different from that of the veins , as being much more transparent and thinner , we thought it more proper to call 'em milkie vessels for better distinctions sake . iii. they are thin transparent vessels covered with a single tunicle , scattered through the mesentery , infinite in number , appointed for conveighing the chylus . iv. they take their original from the guts ( the chiefest part from the iejunum and other small guts , among whose tunicles , with several small and slender ends of roots they open into the inner hollowness of the intostines , their orifices lying hid , under a spungy kind of slime , into which the chylus is squeezed by compression of the said guts , and from whence it is received by the gaping vessels . ) from hence , with an oblique passage , they ascend the mesentery , by the way interwoven one among another , and variously confused , and so proceed forward between and thorough many little glandules , chiefly those that are placed at the separation of these vessels , toward the great or middlemost glandule of the mesentery , into which a very great number enter , and a many cross over the superficies of it , and afterwards end at the great receptacle of the chylus , absconded under that great glandule . but they never enter the liver , as some with waleus and 〈◊〉 endeavour to persuade us . neither do any of 'em open into the vena porta , the vena cava , or mesenteric vein ; tho' lindanus , following waleus ( l. . physiolog . c. . ) asserts that mistake . nor are they ever continued with the mesaraic veins , as being slips of them , which was a figment of deusiagius . nor ever were any seen to proceed from the stomach . v. wharton observes in his adenographia , that those vessels in their entrance into the glandules , or a little before , are divided and subdivided into several little branches , and so are quite obscur'd in the very substance of the glandules , and after they have so in a manner disappear'd in the very middle of the glandules , presently new strings of the said vessels spring out again , from the very body of the said glandules , which meeting together form a trunck as before , and being carried toward the beginning of the mesentry , associates to it self other branches of the same kind meeting with it , and is by them enlarged . thus without doubt , those vessels that enter the great glandule , spring out of it again as from a new root , and into the receptacle of the chylus . vi. they have many valves which admit the entrance of the chylus from the guts , and hinder its return , which tho' they cannot be easily demonstrated to the sight , by reason of their extraordinary smallness , yet thus are they easily apprehended ; that is to say , if these milkie vessels are pressed toward the great glandule , they presently grow empty : and fred●…ric r●…isch , a physician formerly at the 〈◊〉 , now at a●…sterdam , and a famous dissecter , had publickly shewn 'em , and caused 'em to be engraven in his plates : but if the same compressure be made from the kernel toward the guts , the chylus stops , neither can it be thrust forward . which is the reason that in dogs and other creatures well fed , that are dissected alive , or hang'd three hours after they have fed , these milke vessels appear soon after very numerous and full of juice in the mesentery : but while the guts are stirr'd and mov'd up and down by the anatomists , together with the mesentery annexed for demonstration sake , that milky juice is squeezed out of 'em by that motion , and flows to the receptacle of the chylus ; and so these small vessels in the mesentery vanish as it were from between your fingers , and escape the sight , when being empty'd , by reason of their thinness and transparency , as has bin already said , they can no longer be discern'd . vii . the use of these milkie vessels , is to conveigh not the blood , but the chylus from the guts to the great glandule of the mesentery , and thence to the receptacle of the chyle . and this the whitish colour of the contain'd juice teaches us , which in a creature kill'd three or four hours after feeding , is like the cream of milk , and disappears when the distribution of the chylus is at an end , nor does the blood ever succeed into its place , and so the chylus being evacuated , these pellucid and small cobweb-lawn vessels , for want of that milkie colour almost escape the sight , which is the reason why they have lavn undiscovered for so many ages . i say almost , in regard that to these that look narrowly , they remain conspicuous in the form of little fibres . which deceiv'd galen and some others , who took these little fibres for nerves or very small arteries . viii . now that the chylus is carried through these vessels from the guts to the receptacle , is apparent from hence , for that if in a living animal well fed , and suddainly dissected three hours after , they be ty'd in the middle , there will happen a swelling between the ligature and the gut , and a lankness in the other part. and the same is also manifest from the situation of the valves , of which we have already spoken . ix . the cause why the chylus enters the milkie vessels , and is forced through those , is twofold . the one more feeble : a kind of rowling contraction perform'd by the fibres of the guts themselves , which contraction is conspicuous in cats and rabbets dissected alive . the other is stronger , powerfully assisting the former , an impulse of the muscles of the abdomen mov'd upwards and downwards by the act of breathing : by which the chylous , and consequently the thin and most spirituous parts of the nourishment concocted in the stomach , and fermented by the mixture of choler , and the pancreatic or sweet-bread juice in the guts , being separated from the grosser and more crude mass , are forc'd out of the guts into the gaping orifices of the milkie vessels . which orifices , by reason of their extream narrowness , will not however admit the grosser parts ; and hence it comes to pass , that being separated from the thin chylous parts , and forced to the thick guts , they are exonerated through the fundament as unprofitable excrements . x. from what has bin said , it appears that these chyle-bearing vessels , do not always conveigh the chylus ( for they are often found empty ) but only by intervals : that is , so soon as the chylus is perfected in the stomach , and descends from thence to the intestines . xi . deusingius in his treatise de motu chyli , believes that expulsion only is not sufficient ; and therefore he adds to it sucking or attraction , the necessity of which he endeavours to prove by these reasons . if there be no attraction ( says he ) but that all motion must be referr'd to impulsions , how shall we think that the nourishment enters from the mother into the umbilical veins , or by what cause can it be forc'd thither ? or how does the alimentary matter in an egg reach to the heart of the chicken ? unless by attraction , by means of the motion of rarefaction , and the reciprocal distension and contraction of the heart . but these reasons are not of force enough to defend and establish the said opinion . i answer therefore to both , that no nourishment enters immediately from the mother into the umbilical veins ; but that as well the blood , as the milkie juice , by the impulse of the mother is forced from the womb only into the uterine placenta ( as shall be demonstrated more at large c. . of this book ) and thence by the impulse which is caused by the umbilical arteries from the heart of the birth toward the said placenta , the blood of the mother that lies therein , being rarify'd and concocted by the arterious blood of the embryo , is forc'd into the umbilical vein , and the chylus also is forc'd along into the vasa chylifera , that tend to the concavity of the amnion , or membrane that enfolds the birth . if any one enquires how the rarify'd juice enters the embryo , before the navel be grown to its just magnitude , and how such a motion of the heart is caus'd by its arteries ? i answer , that that ingress is caus'd by a kind of sliding or slipping into it ; but there is a great difference between attraction and slipping into a thing . for a hard , heavy , dry , or any other such kind of substance is attracted , that cannot follow of it self , and sticks to the thing that draws it : but a soft and fluid thing slides or slips in ; which finding a lower evacuated place , can neither contain it self , nor subsist in its place , but slides in of it self without attraction . as for example ; if the water next the mill is cast upward by the water-mill , the subsequent water cannot be said to be drawn by the mill , which is sufficiently distant from it , nor is any way joyn'd with it , but not being able to support it self , slides voluntarily down to the empty space . and in this manner the liquation of the chylus slips into the embryo . for while the heart continually makes blood of the matter that daily offers it self , and forces it away from it , presently the particles of the adjoyning liquation or dissolv'd nourishment , slip of their own accords into the empty pores , and supply the vacuum . so that there is no attraction of the nourishment in the embryo . and the same is to be said of the chicken in an egg , into which the alimentary nourishment enters , partly by slipping , partly by the impulse of the heart of the chicken . chap. xii . of the ductus chyliferus of the breast , and the receptacle of the chyle . i. this chyliferos ductus of the thorax , is a vessel extended from the region of the loyns all the length of the back-bone , to the subclavial vein , lying under the short ribs ; through which the chylus being pour'd into it , out of the milkie mesenterics , together with the lympha or pellucid water , is carried to the subclavial vein . but because the passage of the chylus through it is not continual , hence some , not without reason , have thought that this vessel ought to be more properly call'd ductum lymphaticum magnum , the great lymphatic chanel ; for that as soon as the chylus vanishes , it is found to be re-supply'd by the lymphatic water . ii. the first discovery of this is ascribed to john pecquet of diep ▪ john van horn , a famous anatomist of leyden , both which discover'd it in the years . and . neither being private to what the other had done ; and in our time publickly shew'd it , and caus'd it to be engraven in their plates . but altho' we are much beholding to 'em for their diligence for restoring to the great benefit of physic , the knowledge of this vessel , which had lain bury'd in darkness for almost a whole age , through the negligence and unskilfulness of anatomists , for rendring the knowledge of it more perfect , and making it apparent by publick demonstration ; and all this without any information before-hand ; yet are they not to assume to themselves the whole honour of the first invention . for above a hundred years ago this very passage was first observ'd and taken notice of in the dissection of horses , by the most famous anatomist bartholomew eustachius , who lib. de vena sine pari , antigram . . writes thus : in those creatures , ( says he ) speaking of horses ) from the great sinister iugal trunk , where the hinder seat of the root of the internal iugular vein appears , ( he believes it to be the subclavial , where the jugular enters it above ) a great root springs forth , which , besides that it hath a semicircular orifice at its beginning , ( clearly designing a valve ; ) there is also another root , full of a watery humour ; and not far from its original , divided into two parts , which meeting in one stock again that spreads no branches , near the sinister side of the vertebra's , penetrating the diaphragma , is carried downward toward the middle of the loyns , where becoming broader , and embracing the great artery , it concludes in an obscure ending , which i have not as yet so well ▪ found out . from which words it is apparent , that this passage was first discover'd and observ'd by eustachius , but the use of it was not rightly understood . for he describes the beginning of it from the subclavial vein , where the end is : and the end in the loyns where the beginning is : so that we are beholding to eustachius for the first , but ruder detection ; but to van horn and pecquet for the more accurate and perfect knowledge and demonstration of it . iii. but tho' there may be one continued chanel from the loyns to the subclavial vein , yet because it has a broad capaciousness at the beginning , like a little bag , first receiving the chylus out of the mesenteric vessels , it is excellently well distinguish'd into the receptacle of the chylus , and the ductus chyliferus . iv. the receptacle of the chylus is the original of this chanel , more capacious than the chanel it self , and is a kind of a little cell , seated in the loyns , into which the chylus first flows out of the mesaraic milkie veins , and is collected into that as into a common receptacle , which was the reason that pecquet first call'd this little cell by the name of the receptacle of the chyle . which nevertheless van horn would rather have call'd by the name of the little milkie bag. this bartholinus calls the milkie lumbar glandule , but erroneously , in regard the substance of it has no resemblance with the substance of the glandules . walter charleton calls it by the name of the pecquetian conceptacle , from the discoverer . but in regard it receives as well the lymphatic water poured forth from the glandules of the adjacent parts , as the chylus it self ( for in a live creature , if you squeeze out the chylus with your thumb , it is presently fill'd with lymphatic water ) it may be no less properly call'd the receptacle of the lympha , as well as the chylus , and so much the rather because the chylus only flows into it at such and such intervals , but the lympha fills it continually . v. the seat of this receptacle is under the coeliac and emulgent veins , almost in the middle region , between the muscles psoas , the kidneys and the renal glandules , which , together with the kidneys , it touches by immediate contract , so that there can hardly be separated with a penknife certain little branches running between . yet in all creatures it does not exactly keep the middle place of the loyns , but in beasts most commonly inclines toward the left side , near the hollow vein descending , close to the left kidney , seldom turns to the right side , or keeps directly in the midst of the lumbal muscles . vi. in brute beasts this vessel is generally single , with one cavity ; sometimes twofold ; that is , one in each side . sometimes one , with a little membrane going between , as it were distinguish'd into two cells . moreover , sometimes three of these vessels have been said to have been found , two in one , and one in the other side ; which is more than we have ever met with as yet . bartholinus has observ'd three in a man ; two of a bigger size , set one upon another , but conioyn'd with mutual milkie little branches , seated between the cava descending , and the aorta veins , in an angle , which the emulgents make meet with the vena c●…va . the third somewhat higher , and nearer to the diaphragma , and losing it self in its nervous beginning under the appendix . vii . the shape of this receptacle is for the most part round , and somewhat compress'd ; but many times oval . viii . it varies in bigness : frequently it fills the space between the lumbar muscles , extending it self to the kidneys and their kernels . in brutes we find it sometimes a little bigger , somewhat extended toward the lower parts . ix . the inner cavity , the chyle being taken out , sometimes equals two ioynts of the fore-fingers , sometimes only one of those ioynts ; sometimes it will hardly admit the top of the finger . in men the cavity is less than in beasts ; but the substance of the little bladder is much more solid , as being very thin , smooth and soft in brutes , in men thicker . x. from the upper part of the receptacle rises a branch somewhat broad , call'd the ductus chiliferus of the breast , or the great lymphatic , consisting of a thin and pellucid small membrane , like the receptacle , leaning upon the back-bone about the middle below the great artery , covered with the thin skin that covers the ribs , and winding somewhat toward the right side of the artery , where it is more conspicuous in its lower part , the guts being remov'd to the right side , with the mesentery and the diaphragma cut off . hence proceeding farther upward under the great artery , about the fifth and sixth verteber of the breast , it turns a little without the great artery toward the left side , and so between the intercostal arteries and veins , ascends to the sinister subclavial , into which it opens in the lower part or side , in that part where the sinister iugular enters into it in the upper place . but at the entrance it does not open into it with a wide gaping , but with six or seven little small holes , covered over together with a little broad valve in the inner concavity of the subclavial vein , which valve looks from the shoulder towards the vena cava , where is appointed the ingress of the chylus and lymphatic iuice out of the ductus chyliferus into the subclavial vein ; but the return of the same juice , and of the blood also into the said chanel out of the subclavial vein , is prevented . xi . sometimes two branches , somewhat swelling , ascend from the receptacle , which nevertheless we find united below in the middle under the great artery , as if there were but one chanel only in the upper part . xii . in human bodies sometimes , tho' very seldom , there are to be found two or three receptacles of the chylus , and from each arise particular ductus's , which being united in their progress , at length with one ductus proceed to the left subclavial vein . xiii . their usual insertion is into the left subclavial vein , as well in men as in beasts ; but very rarely do anatomists observe the insertion into both subclavial veins . whence i judge that it is scarce to be found in one beast of an hundred . thus bartholinus reports that he found the insertion of the ductus chyliferus into the left subclavial vein in the dissections of six men and several beasts , and once only in a dog its ingress into the right subclavial also . pecquet observ'd two branches ascending upwards , joyn'd here and there together in the mid-way , with several parallel little branches , and meeting together at the third verteber of the breast , and then divided again , of which one entred the right , the other the left subclavial . xiv . in the inner part , this chanel has many valves , preventing the return of the chylus and ascending lymphatic juice , sufficiently manifest from hence , because the chylus contain'd in it may be easily forc'd upward by the finger , but by no means downward ; and for that the ductus being bor'd thorough in any part , the milkie juice tending upward from the lower part , flows out ; but in the upper part , above the little wound , stays within the valves , nor will descend to the wound made in the chanel . moreover , for that the breath blown into it , through a small pipe thrust into it ; or liquor injected into it through a syringe , easily ascends upward , but cannot be forc'd downward . xv. the discovery of this ductus chyliferus belonging to the breast , is not always equally to be made with the same easiness , for that because its tunicle is pellucid , and lyes under the inner cloathing of the ribs , it is not so easily obvious to the sight , especially if it be empty of chyle , as frequently it is some hours after meals , or after fasting : but it presently appears when it swells with a whitish chylus . and therefore it presently shews it self in live dogs , or strangled three or four hours after a full meal . and then also the ingress of the milkie mesenteric veins into the receptacle of the chyle , from the great glandule of the mesentery , manifestly displays it self . bartholinus writes that he readily found this chanel with the receptacle in the bodies of two men newly hang'd , that had fed heartily before their deaths . in such as lye sick , and dye of the disease , it is hard to be discover'd , as being empty of chylus , for that sick people eat very little , especially when death approaches , and that their stomach makes hardly any chylus out of the nourishment receiv'd . nevertheless in the year . i found it in two persons that dy'd through the violence of the disease , and shew'd it to some students in physick . first in april , in the body of a woman emaciated by a long disease , but while she liv'd , very thirsty . in which body , the next day after the woman dy'd , i found it swell'd with serous and lymphatic humour , and shew'd it to the spectators that were present . the second time was in may , in the body of a woman that dy'd of a pleurisie , in her right side , and in her life time , provok'd by continual thirst , had drank very much : and for that reason , both the receptacle and this ductus were very much swell'd with serous humours . but in both bodies i found the situation of the chanel to be such , as it us'd to be in dogs , and that its insertion was into the sinister subclavial . only in the first body the receptacle of the chylus was small , in the latter more large , as admitting into it the whole joynt of the thumb . afterwards we have search'd for , and found this ductus in several human bodies , tho' we have found some variety as to the receptacle , as sometimes that there was but only one , sometimes that one distinguish'd or divided with a small membrane in the middle ; sometimes by reason of a double protuberancy , they seem'd to be two distinct receptacles : and sometimes that out of this one ductus very seldom two arose ; which afterwards clos'd together in one . but hitherto we never found in men the insertion of this ductus into the right subclavial , but always into the left . xvi . but whether the ductus chyliferus sends any branches to the breasts and womb , we shall inquire in our discourse of the womb and teats . while we were writing this , came forth in print a small dutch treatise of lewis de bills , wherein he boasts to have found out a much further propagation of the lactiferous and chyliferous vessels . for he writes , and gives you the draught of it in a plate annexed , that the ductus chyliferus belonging to the breast , makes a wreath'd circle to the division of the jugular veins ( which afterwards some rather chuse to call the labyrinth , others the twisted turning ) and that two little branches ran from it to the glandules of the teats , and two ascended further upwards to the glandules of the neck . for my part , i have several times search'd for the continuation of this contorted circle with the chyliferous duct of the breast , but could never bring or follow this chanel farther than the subclavial vein . nevertheless , understanding by report of others , that the said circle could not often be found , yet that it was sometimes discover'd by steno and others , i order'd my dissections of dogs after another manner , that is , from the upper part of the throat to the sternum or breast-bone , and upon several diligent inquisitions after this circle , sometimes i found it manifestly conspicuous , especially if it were blown up ; for so it became most obvious to the view of the spectators . at other times i found nothing else , but only a various concourse of several lymphatic vessels , taking their rise out of the jugular glandules , the glandules behind the ears , and others adjacent thereto , and thence running out to several veins , and then discharging it self into them . in the mean time i observ'd this also very accurately , that this concourse of small lymphatic vessels , was not continu'd with the chyliferous duct of the breast , nor receiv'd the chylus from , or carried it farther to the glandules that lye round it , as lewis de bills erroneously asserts ; but quite the contrary , that that lymphatic juice was carried from the said glandules to that lymphatic circle or various concourse of several vessels ( i say various , because it is not always the same in all bodies ) and thence by means of several little branches spreading farther , is emptied into several veins , as the glandules of the armpits and groins , by means of their lymphatic vessels , exonerate their lymphatic juice for the most part into the milkie vessels . xvii . but tho' this circle has appear'd to us now and then , and other times not at all ; yet it is manifest that some could never discover it . for of late their came to our hands , the anatome of the bilsian anatome , by iacob henry paulus royal professor in the academy of hoppenhaghen , wherein that learned person utterly explodes the said bilsian labyrinth , as a meer fable , because he could never find it , but only some kind of concourse of small lymphatic vessels , as aforesaid . his words are these , l. . of the said book : the new chylifer chanel , says he , which d. john van horn has first divulg'd , ( he means the pectoral chanel ) when it leaves the breast , does not again ascend toward the throat , or come to be taken notice of again : and the wreathed receptacle of bilsius , with its windings , turnings , pipes , branches and small twigs , is nothing else but the propagations and excurrencies of the lymphatic iugular vessels from the upper glandules to the glandules of the armpits , and this on both sides . wherein nature sports her self after a wonderful manner , in the same manner as in the veins of the hands and feet , and which have been obvious to me at several times in several varieties . but generally they kept this order , that the ductus proceeds alone by it self from the oblong glandule of the iaw , where it lyes between the huddle of the parotides , and wharton's glandules at the lower seat of the larynx , call'd thyroidae , accompanied sometimes with three or four small branches , which often close with another branch , proceeding from the lesser glandules , which adjoyns to the caro idal artery , and the internal iugular vein , tho' ▪ not always . this ductus then forsaking the gullet , over which it is spread , associates it self to the external iugular vein , and creeping under it , sometimes crosses over , sometimes passes by two other lymphatic vessels , which proceeding from the glandules of the neck , in the middle of the neck mutually embrace and bind each other , and are the occasion of many branches , but no proper circle , unless a man will fancy it so to be . and therefore that famous circle is a meer labyrinth , and an inextricable errour . but all those propagations of vessels , when they have once reach'd and pass'd the branch of the external iugular ( to which frequently adjoyns a small glandule also ) proceeding from the muscle that bends the head or mastoides , fall into a common ductus like a glass viol , with a wide belly , and as it were blown like a bladder , so that it might not improperly be call'd a receptacle by bilsius . from which , at length , double appendixes extend themselves , of which the one enters the armpit vein , near the pipe of the rough artery , in the place where the carotidal arteries arise from the trunk : the other at a little distance enters the external iugular : to which another lymphatick vessel ( which hitherto anatomists have deriv'd originally from the ioynts ) joyns it self from the subaxillary glandules . so that there happens a meeting of several insertions , that is below , of the pectoral ductus ( an error ; for that never passes beyond the subclavial vein ) from the side of the axillary vessels ; above , of the lymphatical iugular vessels , and vessels arising out of the thymus , which is one of the iugular glandules , but seldom any passing of one into another . xviii . this description the same author , in a new plate annex'd , apparently demonstrates , and in the same seventh chapter , adds the way to find out the iugular lymphatics . but tho' the foresaid doctor paulus wittily enough derides bilsius's circle , yet is it not probable that bilsius at his dissection should delude so many learned men that were present , into that blindness and madness , as to testifie in a public writing , that they saw such a circle clearly by him demonstrated , which was not really there to be seen : could they be all so blind ? besides , we our selves , and several others , have seen this circle , tho' we could not always find it . which we the rather believe may happen through the sport of nature , in regard that in some dogs the circle is found to be perfect ; in others only a disorderly concourse of lymphatic vessels about the throat . to conclude then , i assert this in the mean time , that this circle is no production of the thoracical ductus chyliferus ( as bilsius erroneously avers and delineates ) and that , as has been said , it receives no chylus from it , nor carries any chylus , but is a chanel into which the lymphatic juice , being carried from the circumjacent glandules , and other parts , and to be conveigh'd into the neighbouring veins , and other parts , is collected together . now whether the chylus and lymphatic humour be one and the same thing , or whether distinct juices . see chap. . following . xix . the use of the chyliferous or great lymphatic pectoral ductus , is to conveigh the lymphatic iuice continually , and the chylus at certain intervals , being forc'd out of the milkie mesaraic vessels , and attenuated therein , by the mixture of the lymphatic iuice , to the subclavial vein , to the end the lymphatic iuice may prepare the blood to cause an effervescency in the heart , and that the chylus mixed with the venal blood , and carried together with it through the vena cava to the heart ; may be chang'd by that into blood. xx. that the chylus and lymphatic iuice ascends upward , not only the situation of the valves , but ocular observation in the very dissection of animals , sufficiently teach us , by means of a string ty'd about this chanel ; for presently there will be a swelling between the knot and the receptacle , and a lankness above the ligature . which experiment proves successful in a dog newly hang'd , if when the knot is ty'd , the guts , together with the mesentery , be lightly press'd by the hand , and so by that compression the chylus be squeez'd out of the chyliferous mesaraic vessels into the receptacle , and out of that into the pectoral ductus . xxi . now that the chylus enters the subclavial vein , together with the lymphatic iuice , and thence is carried to the heart through the vena cava , besides that what has been already said concerning the holes , is obvious to the sight ; it is also apparent from hence , for that a good quantity of milk being injected into the ductus chyliferus , it is forthwith carried into the subclavial vein , hence into the vena cava and right ventricle of the heart , together with the blood contain'd in the vena cava , and may be seen to flow out at the wound made in the ventricle . xxii . now the cause impulsive that forces the chylus , together with the lymphatic iuice , out of the receptacle into this ductus pectoralis , and so forward into the subclavial vein , is the same that forces it out of the guts into the milkie mesaraic vessels ( of which in the preceding chapter , that is to say , the motion of the muscles of the abdomen , mov'd upward and downward with the act of respiration , which causes a soft and gentle . impulsion of the chylus through all the milkie vessels , which impulse is conspicuously manifest from hence ; for that if in a living creature the muscles of the abdomen be open'd and dissected , and thereby their motion be taken away , and then the bowels of the lower belly be gently squeez'd , presently we shall see the milkie iuice move forward , and croud through all the milkie vessels ; and tho' that compression has no operation upon the pectoral ductus , yet the chylus forc'd into it by that compression out of the receptacle , is by that forc'd upward , as one wave pushes forward another . xxiii . here now arises a question , whether the whole chylus ascend through this chanel to the subclavial ? and whether or no also a great part of it do not enter the mesaraicks , and so ascend to the liver ? to which , we say , that the whole chylus passes to the subclavial vein , except that which out of the chyliferous bag , by an extraordinary course sometimes , tho' very seldom flows to the urine bladder , ( of which see more c. . ) or else in women with child , according to its ordinary course flows to the womb , ( see c. . ) or in women that give suck to the breasts ; ( see l. . c. . ) but regius is of another opinion , believing that part of the chylus is carried to the spleen out of the stomach through the gastric veins , and part through the mesaraics to the liver . of which , the one is refuted by us in the preceding chap. . and the other l. . c. . deusingius smartly maintains , that the whole chylus is not carried to the subclavial through the ductus thoracicus , and confirms his opinion by these arguments . exercit. de chylificat . & chylimotu . . saith he , there is no congruous proportion of nature between the innumerable milkie veins scattered through the mesentery , and the thoracic ducts ( which nevertheless are seldom more than one ) conveighing the chylus beyond the axillary veins . . how shall the thoracic duct be able , without prejudice , to transmit such a quantity of chylus , carried through so many milkie vessels , to the receptacle of the chylus ? . so very small a portion of the chylus as is carried through the ductus thoracicus to the axillaries and vena cava , does not suffice to supply the continual waste of blood , agitated and boyling through the whole body , nor to repair the continual wearing out of all the parts . . seeing there is a great quantity of chyle made , and but very little can pass through the streights of the ductus thoracicus , where shall the rest of the chylus remain , which between every meal is not able to pass through the small thoracic duct ? . that same largest quantity of the chylus , which in time of breeding and giving suck , is carried to the womb and dugs , whither is that carried , when the time of breeding and giving suck is over , when it is very probable that it cannot pass through the ductus thoracicus . . if the ductus thoracicus of a live animal be quickly ty'd with a string , the motion of the milkie liquour in the mesentery is not perceiv'd to be hindered . and then he adds the experiment of lewis de bills , by which he believes it to be obvious to sight . these are the principal arguments by which that famous artist endeavours to uphold his opinion . now let us examin of what weight they are , and whether they are so ponderous as they promise to be , to the end we may see whether truth will give her voice for this acute invention . xxiv . i answer to the first and second , that there is not only a lesser but a greater proportion between the milkie mesenteric vessels , and one or two thoracic ducts , than there is between so many innumerable veins that proceed from the head , the trunk , the feet , the arms , and some other parts , and one vena cava into which they all evacuate themselves . for if we consider so many myriads of veins , all of 'em may be thought to evacuate into the vena cava ten times as much blood , as either the vena cava can contain , or disburthen from it self . and yet who does not see that it is done without any disorder ; and why therefore should we wonder that the same should be conveniently done in the milkie vessels ? besides , we must consider that the flowing of the chylus is not so continual ; for many times there is a great distance between the two meals , at what time there is no chylus that is either made or flows ( which is manifest to the eye in creatures hang'd a long time after they have fed , in which those vessels are found empty of chylus ) and that men who feed often , or else eat to excess , and therefore neither concoct the chylus over hastily , or in over great quantity , so that it cannot swiftly make its way through those passages , such men are out of order , either because they do not digest the food they have eaten sufficiently , or for that the quantity of the chylus being too great , cannot pass quick enough through those milkie vessels , and therefore by the way , by reason of its longer stay , grows thick , sowre , coagulates , or is otherwise corrupted , which breeds obstructions , and impedes the passage of the chylus . lastly , if we may argue from similitude , we must consider how much serous humour passes in a little time through the narrow ureters : which , if it may be done with so little trouble in those vessels , why may not so much pass through the milkie vessels , and the ductus thoracicus ? xxv . to the third and fourth i answer , that the portion of the chylus that passes through the ductus thoracicus , is not so small in quantity , but very copious , as is obvious to the sight . if a living dog be quickly open'd four or five hours after he has been well fed , and the milkie vessels in the middle of the breast be cut away , and then the intestines together with the mesentery , be alternately and softly pressed by the hand , so they be relax'd ( as in respiration that compressure is alternately made in healthy and living creatures ) then it will appear what a quantity of chylus passes through that vessel in the breast . for in a short time a great quantity will flow forth into the hollowness of the breast ; neither shall any thing be discern'd to flow thither through any other passages . moreover , by the singular observation of walaeus , there is wasted every day in a healthy plethoric person , very near a pound of blood. is it impossible that in a whole days time a pound of chylus should pass through the milkie vessels , to restore and supply that waste of blood ? in the space of half a quarter of an hour we have squeez'd out above two ounces by the same way as is before express'd , how much therefore might pass in a whole day ? certainly much more may be thought to pass than is wasted , supposing that the chylus were continually present in the guts , from whence being continually present , and still passing , proceeds the growth and increase of the body , and the plethory is caus'd . to this may be added lower's experiment , cited by gualter needham , l. de format . foet . c. . who in a live dog having made a hole in the right side of his breast , tore the receptacle of the chylus with his finger near the diaphragma , and then sewing up the external wound , preserv'd the dog alive : nevertheless , tho' the dog were very well fed , within three days , he dy'd , as being starv'd to death : but then after he had opened the body , the whole chylus was found to be cram'd into that part of the breast which was wounded , and the veins being open'd , the blood was seen to be much thicker without any serous humour , or refreshment by any mixture of the chylus . xxvi . to the fifth i answer , that a great part of the chylus that is wont to be carried through the ductus thoracicus to the subclavial vein , during the time of breeding and giving suck , is carried to the womb and the dugs , and because that for want of that chylus , which is carried another way , the womans body is not sufficiently nourish'd ; hence those women ( if they be otherwise healthy ) by the force of nature , become more hungry and greedy , that by eating and drinking that defect may be supply'd and that in the mean time the necessities of nature may be furnished , which requires nourishment for the embryo or birth . but if through any distemper of the stomach , or of any other parts , those women are not so hungry , but eat little or less than they were wont to do , then they grow weak , by reason that the chylus is carried another way for the nourishment of the birth , and are emaciated almost to skin and bone , as we find by daily experience . xxvii . to the sixth , that when the pectoral chanel is ty'd , and the creature lyes a dying , we see that the milkie mesentery , being partly press'd by the adjoyning parts that lye upon 'em , and partly flagging one upon another , vanish by little and little . this is true ; but not because the chylus enters the mesaraic veins , but because it is pour'd forth into the chyliferous bag , and the ductus thoracicus , which are then dilated and extended more than is usual by the chylus , and when they can hold no more , then it stays about the great glandule of the mesentery in the milkie mesaraics , and may be seen therein for a whole day and longer , which could not be , if the chylus enter'd the mesaraic veins . xxviii . as for the experiment of lewis de bills , which has seduc'd too unwarily several learned men into another opinion , what is to be thought of that , we shall tell you l. . c. . iohn swammerdam in his miracles of nature p. . promising to himself that he will restore to the liver the office of sanguification , or of making blood , affirms , that the whole chylus ascends through the mesaraic veins to the liver , and that what we see in the milkie vessels is nothing else but a whitish lymphatic juice . and this he proves from hence , for that as he says , we find the blood as it were streaked and mixed with white lines in the mesaraics , sometimes as it were mark'd with spots , and sometimes he found nothing but pure chylus in 'em ; and at length he adds these words ; in the gate vein , tho' not ty'd , we have often seen the chylus , and taken it out of the same ; and we have seen many of the mesaraics fill'd with chylus . now if any person will suffer himself to be persuaded into these things , let him , for me , i envy him not . but for my part i give more credit to asellius , pecquet , deusingius , wharton , and several others , but especially to my own eyes ; than to such writings as these : unless swammerdam can prove all that i have nam'd to have bin purblind , and his own party the only sharp-sighted people in the world. for they that have any skill in anatomy are to be persuaded rather by demonstration than by writing , as be such who have eyes in their heads and believe what they see . but in regard that swammerdam promises to explain these things more at large in his anatomicis curiosis ( so he calls his treatise which is now in the press ) we will there expect a more curious explanation , in the mean time we will stick to our former opinion . but why the blood is sometimes of a bad colour in the mesaraics we shall shew l. . c. . however swammerdam , to confirm his own opinion , adds another argument taken from that which never any one could yet demonstrate , that the chylus is carried out of the guts into the milkie veins of the first sort . but by the same argument will i prove , that the chylus is not carried into the mesaraic veins , because no man could ever yet demonstrate its ingress out of the guts into those veins . 't is true that iohn horn epist. ad rolphin . say's he can make it out by demonstration , but was never yet so good as his word ; tho' if there be any at this day who pretend to do it , i wish they would admit me to be a spectator , and then i may be able to judg of these sayings . again , no man could ever yet demonstrate to the eye the manifest passage of the seed out of the testicles through the different vessels into the little seminary bladder : does this prove that the seed is not conveighed through these passages in living people , because it cannot be demonstrated in dead bodys ? the seed conspicuous in the parastatae or vessels affixed to the back of the testicles , and the seminary vessels , without any more manifest demonstration , sufficiently prove , that it ought to be conveighed out of the testicles and parastatae through those vessels , seeing that the seed is made in no other parts out of the testicles , ( as we shall shew c. . ) and there are no other passages to the seminary vessels . in like manner when we see that the chylus concocted in the stomach flows no where else than to the intestins , and is then conspicuous with its white colour , which is apparent from those white chylous stools in the coeliac fluxes or loosness of the belly , and is also seen to be no less white in the milkie mesenteric vessels , the chyliferous bagg , and the pectoral milkie channel : nay seeing moreover , that after long famin the guts being empty'd of the chylus , it is no longer to be found in the said milkie vessels , nor does any such white liquor appear in any other vessels ; what man in his wits , by the dictate of reason only , will question whether the chylus passes out of the guts into the milkie mensenteric vessels , and thence are pressed forward to the rest of the milkie vessels , tho' the first entrance were never yet demonstrated to the eye . the defect of which demonstration proceeds from hence , that there is such a pressing and moving forward of the humors and spirits in the bowels and other parts which are entire and endu'd with life , which no art can perfectly demonstrate to the eye in dead , mangl'd , and dissected bodys . in the mean time how the chylus passes out of the guts into the milkie mesenteric vessels , has bin already shewn in the foregoing chapter . lastly , what swammerdam writes , that it is only a white lymphatic juice which is carried through the milkie vessels , let him , i beseech him , tell that story to those that know no difference between the lympha and the chylus , nor can distinguish between those liquors or juices . we affirm and demonstrate that both liquors pass through the said milkie vessels , and why the milkie liquor is mix'd with the lymphatic juice , we teach a little before in the same chapter , and in the following . xxix . besides the passage of the chylus already mentioned , which many maintain to be through the mesaraics to the vena porta , riolanus l. . enchir. c. . walaeus epist. ad barthol . & maurocordatus l. de mot . & us . pulm. c. . write , that they have observed the distribution of the chylus to other parts ; and farther relate that they have taken notice that the milkie vessels run forward to the very liver , the sweetbread , the trunck of the vena cava , near the emulgents , to the vena porta and mesenteric , and some others . but all those learned men were most apparently deceiv'd by the lymphatic vessels , which they thought to be the milkie vessels , as is apparent from the text of the forecited places , and from what shall be said in the following chapter concerning the rise and distribution of the lymphatics . chap. xiii . of the lymphatic vessels of the lympha . i. the lymphatic vessels are thin and pellucid vessels , conveighing the lympha , which is a thin transparent , and clear liquor , to the vasa chylifera and the veins . ii. the first discoverers of these were thomas bartholinus , and olaus rudbech , between whom there is a very great and sharp dispute for the honour of the first discovery , while each one assumes to himself . these two in years and , searching after something else in dead bodys , happen'd by chance into the knowlege of these vessels , perhaps neither of 'em knowing that the other had made the discovery , so that both may contend unjustly to ascribe that honour singly to themselves , which may be equally due to both . however glisson and charleton affirm that these vessels were discovered and shown at london by one ioliff an english man , before they were made known by bartholinus . but bartholine in his spicilege , affirms upon his word , that he knew that ioliff was not born before his discovery , and that he never knew him either by name or by report . iii. bartholine gives to these vessels the names of lymphatic , watery , and crystalline , and the liquor therein contained he call'd by a very proper name , lympha , from its clearness and crystalline brightness . olaus rudbech chooses rather to call 'em the watery channels of the liver and glandules . iv. they consist of clear and cobweb-like skin , out of which being brok'n , if the water happen to flow out , they presently disappear , because their tunicles are affixed to the vessels and membranes that lie under 'em , from which , by reason of their extream thinness and clearness , they cannot be distinguished . v. their number is not to be numbered , and therefore not to be certainly determined . vi. their colour is transparent and chrystalline : their shape oblong , full of holes , and hollow like the veins , but very knotty : their breadth but very small . vii . they have several valves admitting the lympha into the vasa chylifera , and several veins , but hindering its return . these valves has lewis de bils most obstinately all along deny'd , till they were shown him at the hague , delineated in plates , and made public in a printed treatise by frederic ruysch , a most excellent physician and anatomist , who discovered 'em bent like a crescent , fix'd to the sides of the vessels , and plac'd opposite one to another , but much more numerous and thinner than any that are to be met with in the veins . which valves may be also observ'd without any opening of the vessels : for the lympha contain'd being press'd with the finger contrary to its proper motion , is every where stop'd by the valves . viii . lewis de bills , who had call'd these vessels before the dewbearing-channels , finding himself convinc'd by dr. ruisch as to the valves , presently invented a kind of evasion , and published it abroad to save his reputation in a little discourse printed at rotterdam . he distinguishes between the lymphatic iuice and the dew ; confessing the one to be carried to the veins and milkie vessels through the lymphatic vessels , which are furnish'd with valves , and affirms this to have bin found out by himself many years before ( tho' how truly , appears by bartholinus's answer de experiment . bilsian . to nich. zas , printed . p. . ) but this he says flows through particular little pipes , consisting of very small fibres woven together , but furnish'd with no folding shutters , seated among the veins and tunicles of the arteries and lymphatic vessels , like a kind of moss , with a continued course from the inner parts to the exterior . an excellent evasion indeed , whereby he endeavours to underprop the truth of his first opinion by certain imaginary little pipes . i call 'em imaginary , because that as yet never any , tho' but a young practitioner in anatomy , who does not easily apprehend there can be no such pipes in nature , when the tunicles of the veins and arterys so closely adhere and stick one to another , that they are hardly separable by any art , and that there are no such intervening of pipes or any other passages to be seen , tho' men had lynx's eyes , much less demonstrable : seeing that in regard of this same close sticking of the tunicles , many sharp-sighted anatomists have questioned , whether the veins consist of one or two tunicles . which may be said of the lymphatic vessels , which seem to consist of one single tunic . ix . there can be no certain situation assigned to the lymphatic vessels ; in regard they are to be found in several parts of the body , and in the trunck accompanying many veins , especially the greater , and seem to be fasten'd to 'em by little fibres . many are also conspicuous in the middle , and innumerable in the lower belly , which do not accompany the bigger veins . many also are found in the arms at the sides of the brachial vein ; as also in the thighs , sticking to the iliac and crural veins . some there are that hold that these vessels are joyned to the muscles , but i could never observe any in the muscles themselves . x. concerning their rise , there have bin formerly very great disputes ; but by the singular industry of modern anatomists , those mists are in a great measure scattered . nicholas steno , a most accurate dissecter , has laboured so diligently in search of their rise , that at last l. de musc. & gland . he pronounces for certain upon the testimony of his own view , that there is an intercourse between all the lymphatic vessels and the glandules , especially such as are clustered together ; which to that purpose have a kind of hollowness in the middle , in which that liquor is collected out of the body of the glandule , as having a farther journey to make through the lymphatic vessels . thus also malpigius , lib. de hepat . writes , that all the lymphatic vessels , in what parts soever , still every where arise out of the clustered glandules , which are found in a thousand places of the body , even those that proceed out of the very liver . which he affirms , as having found those glandules in the hollow and covering of the liver of a calf , where the bloody vessels , and the hepatic channel enter it . in like manner frederic ruisch reports that he has in the liver of a man found , as it were , a chain of glandules ; under the gall-bladder , which were hard but mix'd with no blood. xi . a great number of these vessels go forth from the liver , which is manifest to the sight , tho' no ligature be made use of , but if a ligature be made use of between the stomach and the liver in that part of the mesentry which knits the liver to the ventricle and guts , by which ligature the vena portae , with the bilarie shall be comprehended : then presently ( if the experiment be try'd upon a living creature ) between the ligature and the liver , there will be a swelling of these vessels , which will more increase if the liver be gently pressed by the hand . but they chiefly arise out of the hollow part of the liver , where the glandules aforesaid are principally seated , and some of 'em cross over the vesicle of the gall. but whether or no , or how they run through the substance it self of the liver , that is not visible to the eye , nor can it be as yet found out by any instruments or any other art. glisson , in anat. hepat . searching backward , found that they creep under the capsula of the vena portae ( which capsula is a membrane from the peritoneum enfolding the vena portae , where it enters the liver ) and that there they hide themselves , nor could he observe any farther progress ; from the conjecture it might be probable , that they follow the distribution of the capsula , and bilarie passage included in the same , and never enter the substance of the liver . but to us it seems more likely , that arising out of the clustered glandules seated in the hollow part of the liver , they presently break forth and shew themselves ; and therefore that they neither follow the course of the capsula and bilarie passage , nor can be much dispers'd through the substance of the liver . xii . how pecquet has observed tho egress of the lymphatic vessels out of the liver , he himself describes lib. de lact . thorac . of the second edition . behold , says he , having slit the belly of a live dog , i search for the lymphatic passages . these being supported by the trunck of the vena ▪ portae , after the manner of ivy , presently shew themselves ▪ to the greedy eyes of those that are called to the sight . then after many encomiums to the eternal memory of bartholine , seeing some running toward the duodenum , other toward the center of the mesentry , like so many furrows , i bind'em apart from the porta with several strings . from the liver all swelling upon their being ty'd , the other way languid , vanished from the sharpest eye ; then loosning the knots , the lympha pouring out of the liver again , through various springs most worthy to be observ'd , by the means of most evident vehicles of aqueducts , it seem'd to creep into the sweetbread . these things has pecquet excellently well observ'd ( tho' at that time he knew not the true rise of those vessels from the clustered glandules of the liver ) for the lymphatic vessels issuing out of the liver , through the duplicature of part of the mesentery knitting the liver and guts to the back , creep on as well above as below the sides of the vena portae , and ductus cholidochus , the greatest part toward the mesentery ; and under the vena cava , near the fleshy pancreas annexed to the ventricle and duodenum , several with little dispersed branches pass over a certain glandule lying under the vena porta , and sticking to it in many bodies ( being sometimes one , sometimes two or three , seldom none at all ) and thence together with many others , passing beyond that glandule , throw themselves into the receptacle of the chylus . xiii . now lately that accurate dissector frederic ruisch , has observ'd also several lymphatic vessels to proceed from the spleen , not only from the superficies , but from the inner part of it , accompanying the splenic arteries and nerves , and sets down a singular method by which it may be found out lib. de valv . lymph . and farther notes , that they are not equally so numerous in all creatures of the same species ; and that the spleen of a man has fewer than that of a calf . xiv . the same ruisch , in the same book , writes that he has also seen lymphatic vessels in the lungs . bartholin avers the same ; and olaus rudbech has caused 'em to be engrav'd in copper . xv. moreover in other parts these vessels arise from the cluster'd glandules ; which glandules have this specific virtue , to imbue the saltish particles separated from the serum , by dissolution with a slight acidity : for the lympha contains in it somewhat of acid. they that proceed from the glandules of the neck , empty themselves for the most part into the labyrinth ( of which in the foregoing chapter ) or concourse of the lymphatic vessels seated between the jugular veins . but those that proceed from the axillary glandules they descend , and partly according to the length of the vena cava are carried to the cystis of the chylus ; partly in the mid-way , enter the thoracick chyliferous duct , into which is opened a branch proceeding from the glandule of the oesophagus or gullet . those that rise out of the groyns of the loins , ascend , and running under the lower part of the chyliferous receptacle , empty their lympha into it , at the entrance fortify'd with double folders , preventing the slipping of the milky juice into ' em . now that several lymphatic vessels empty themselves into the receptacle of the chyle , is hence manifest , if upon the opening of a live animal , you press the receptacle with your thumb , and so empty the chylus out of it . for then it presently swells and is fill'd up again with the lympha . xvi . nor do they open only into the vasa chylifera , but also into many veins . and thus nicholas steno observ'd , that they gape into the iugular and other veins , and pour forth their lympha . and frederic ruisch writes , that it appears to him by ligature , and the structure of the valves , that all the conveiances of the lympha , which are found in the lungs , empty their liquor into the subclavial , axillary , and iugular veins . whither they that arise out of the joynts are carried is not yet discovered . some there are who report they have seen clustered glandules in the joynts , from whence , no doubt , proceeds the original of these vessels ; and as to their insertion , there is no doubt but that they discharge themselves into the vasa chylifera , and into several veins . xvii . lewis de bils , out of his ignorance of the valves of the lymphatic vessels , in his epistolary dissertation publish'd an. . describes a quite contrary course of the lympha , through a mistake most remote from truth , and seems not at all to distinguish the lympha from the chylous iuice . and the admirers of b●…s , choose rather to err with him , than to follow the truth . among the rest nicholas zas , in his dutch treatise of the dew of animals ; and others who have seen the demonstrations of bils , believe they have observed the lympha to be the same thing with the chylous juice contain'd in the milkie vessels , and that it is carried out of the bag , and other chyliferous vessels to the liver , and to the glandules of the groins , armpits , jaws , and others , and from them flows also to the spermatic parts , for to moisten and nourish 'em ; but that it is not carried from the glandules and liver to the vasa chylifera . moreover that it only appears thinner and clearer , as being strain'd through the glandules . xviii . but our eyes , and reason it self teaches us quite the contrary . xix . our eysight thus : because that besides myself , bartholin , van horn , pecquer , n. steno and several other sharp-sighted persons could never perceive any other course of this liquor , than from the liver , and not from the glandules of the armpits , loyns , and groyns , ( and the same reason certainly will hold in other remoter parts ) toward many veins , but chiefest of all toward the receptacle of the chyle , and other vasa chylifera , to which it may be easily forc'd with the finger ; but cannot be mov'd from them toward the glandules or liver , by reason of the obstruction of the valves . nay if in the dissection of a living creature , the vessels be ty'd ( which has bin often experimented by me and my scholars ) there will be a swelling betwen the knot and the glandules , but a lankness and emptiness toward the vasa chylifera . nor is it of any moment what regius offers , l. . physic. c. . edit . . that upon the tying of a knot , these lymphatic vessels will swell beyond the knot ; because the juice that was wont to be press'd into 'em , is not pressed forward by reason of the ligature , and hence when they fall , by their falling they squeez the juice contained in 'em backward toward the ligature . but wherefore i pray , do they not squeez it forward , seeing that by the same reason it might far more easily be done than backward ? and if that motion ought to be made forward , why does it not so fall out in veins that are ty'd , as well as in the mesenteric and thoracick milkie vessels ? wherefore do not these vessels , when the farther progtess of the contain'd juice is obstructed by the ligature , by their fall squeez the juice backward toward the ligature , but are almost quite empty beyond the ligature ? have they not the same right and power , as the lymphatic vessels ? wherefore also , when there is no ligature , cannot the lympha be forc'd by the finger from the chyliferous bagg toward the liver and glandules of the groyns and armpits , tho' it may be easily for●…'d toward the vasa chyliferae ▪ why do the valves obstruct this , more than that motion of the lympha ? certainly all these things plainly teach us that the lympha does not move from , but to the chyliferous bag , and the vasa chylifera . in the liver , or a little below the liver , the thing is so plainly manifest by the forementioned ligature , that it is beyond the contradiction of any man that has eyes ; whenas there is no chylus strain'd through the liver , nor any chylus that comes thither , whatever regius , bils , and other asserters of antiquated learning and erroneous demonstrations , so vigorously maintain to the contrary ; as shall be more largely prov'd l. . c. . now then if this happen thus in the liver , why shall the same thing seem such a wonder in the forementioned glandules , in which the same thing is evident by ligature ? why must the glandules of the groyns and armpits make milkie juice , and not rather extract it out of the vasa sanguifera themselves , in like manner as we see , that in the ventricles of the brain , the small glandules adhering to the choroïdal plexure ( so far as which no milkie or chylous liquor penetrates ) extract a serous and lymphatic liquor out of the vessels to which they adjoyn ; and discharge it into the cavities of the ventricles ? however if any follower or admirer of lemis de bils , either will be pleased , or can at any time demonstrate this thing otherwise to us , so as to convince us by seeing it with our eyes , we shall rest satisfy'd , in the mean time we are bound to believe what we have hitherto seen and now asserted . xx. reason also gainsay's the foresaid opinion : for that the milkie iuice of the chyliferous receptacle , cannot immediately upon its slipping out of the receptacle toward the glandules , supposing 'em to be the glandules of the groyns , changed into this pellucid and clear lympha , and lose all its milkie colour in a moment . but this they say is done , because it is strain'd through the glandules lying in the mid-way . but there are no glandules where the insertion of the lower lymphatic vessels into the receptacle of the chylus shews it self . there are two indeed a little lower , but the various lymphatic vessels pass by 'em at such a distance that they do not so much as touch 'em ; so that the lympha contained in them cannot attain its transparent thinness from such a straining . others more studious of novelty than truth , that they may by some means or other underprop this new opinion , assert with regius , that the milkie juice being infused with violence into the receptacle of the chyle , becomes frothy and white , but by cessa●…ion , the froth ceasing , becomes watery , and flows to the glandules , so coloured like water : like brown ale , which being poured forcibly into the glass , foams at the top with a white froth , but let it stand a little , and the froth turns again to watery liquor . but how lame this simile is , is every way apparent ▪ for certainly there is not so much violence in the motion of the chylus which should occasion the chylous juice to become white and frothy ; for that natural motion proceeds softly and gently , of which no more violent motion can ever be felt by a man , not discern'd by the eye in dissections of living creatures . so that if it presently loses its white colour ( which they call spumosity ) descending from the chyliferous bagg by a short way to the loins and glandules of the groins , why does it retain it in a channel four times as long , ascending to the subclavial veins ▪ whence has it that whiteness in the intestines and milkie mesaraics before it is infused into the chyliferous bagg with that feign'd violence ? wherefore standing quiet in the milkie vessels , or taken out in a spoon , by that sedateness does it not lose its colour , but still preserve its whiteness ? xxi . and thus , whether we consider the autopsia , viz. ocular convincement , or reason , the lymphatic vessels do not seem to have any other original than from the cluster'd glandules , and the parts by us already mention'd . and further also , it manifestly appears that the lympha is a liquor very much distinct from the chylus . xxii . after the description of these chanels or vessels , let us examine in few words what sort of liquor the lympha contain'd in 'em is . for the opinions of learned men are very various in this matter ; and every one advances his own as truest , or at least most probable . xxiii . bartholine de vas . lymp . brut. c. . writes that the lympha is a simple water , being the remainder of the nourishment , as it is elementary . this martin bocdan ( who , apol. . memb. . artic. . agrees with his praeceptor ) asserts in man to be diffus'd between the ●…at membrane and the muscles , but in other creatures is contain'd under the skin , and because it does not all transpire through the skin , therefore that these vessels were made for its evacuation . but both the one , and the other , describe a very mean rise , substance , and use of this lympha , when such a simple water could never be sufficiently expell'd through the pores only by the heat of the parts , nor would there be such a necessity for it to be carried inward through the pores of the body . if you say that this is requisite for the moist'ning of the parts , certainly that office is sufficiently perform'd by the moisture of the meat and drink assum'd . besides , a meer water never settles into a gelly , as this lympha will do , if it stand a while in a spoon . xxiv . glisson anat. hep. believes the lympha to be a liquor consisting of the vapors of the blood , gather'd together like dew , forc'd into these vessels , and flowing back with the vehicle of the nourishment brought through the nerves . but this opinion is confuted by these reasons ; . because such vapors may easily thicken into dew or water , but never like the lympha into a gelly . . for that the supposition of the nutritive juice being carried through the nerves , is false , and by us c. . of this book , and l. . c. . and l. . c. . sufficiently refuted . . because the vapours of the blood , partly invisibly through the pores , and visibly by sweat , partly by the expiration of the lungs , or else condens'd , may be emptied with the urine , stool , weeping , &c. so that if that be all , there is nothing that compells 'em to enter those vessels . xxv . backius does not seem to differ much from glisson , who seems to deduce those vapours of the blood out of the veins into these vessels ; for he affirms the lymphatic vessels to be veins arising from the veiny trunk . but in regard there is a vast variety of substance between them and the veins , and for that no such original appears , nor not so much as the least shadow of it , about the veiny trunk , or vena cava ; seeing also they are never known to arise from any other veins , but are sometimes inserted into 'em out of the cluster'd glandules , 't is to be thought that this opinion is far from the truth . xxvi . george seger , dissert . anat. artic. . pronounces the lympha to be the animal spirits , or to be made out of 'em , which after they are distributed into all parts through the nerves , are partly there consum'd and dissipated , and partly congeal into this water . with seger agrees francis de le boe sylvius , disputat . med. . thes. . and more at large disput. . thes. , . but that this invention of seger is more ingenious than true , is apparent from hence , for that the animal spirits are such thin vapours , that there are not the like in the whole body ( for they penetrate with an extraordinary swiftness the narrowest and most invisible pores of the nerves ) whence it is very likely that they being pour'd forth into the substance of the hotter parts , presently do their duty with an extraordinary swiftness ; and for the remaining part , by reason of its extream tenuity and volatility , is far more swiftly dissipated by the heat of the parts than any other vapours , and much less congeal into liquor , than any other extravasated vapours , unless it happen in some colder parts , as in the testicles , of which we shall treat c. . and how suddenly they are dissipated , is apparent from that weariness which follows violent exercise , or in the suddain laxation of the contracted muscles . moreover , should these spirits congeal into this liquor in the parts to which they flow down , hotter than the brain , certainly they would much sooner , and more easily , congeal in the brain and marrow of the back , by reason of the greater degree of cold in both , that is by reason of the heat which is less in them than in other parts : but they are never seen to be condens'd in them , neither can such a sort of liquor penetrate through the nerves ; and if in them they are not condens'd into liquor , much less in the parts hotter than the brain , the heat of which would easily dissipate such thin vapours . lastly , a most copious quantity of lympha flows from the liver and its glandules , to which nevertheless there are so few , and such slender nerves that reach , that some anatomists question their ingress into ' em . also in the ventricles of the brain , from the choroidal plexure ▪ a copious quantity of lympha , somewhat thicker , is separated by the small glandules lying between it , thence design'd to flow forth through the papillary processes , and yet there are no nerves , that enter that plexure . from whence it is apparent that the lympha is not made of animal spirits condens'd . xxvii . bernard swalve l. de pancreat . p. . believes the lympha to be compos'd of the remainder of the animal spirits that have lost their volatility , with somewhat of an acid spirit mix'd with it out of the glandules , and so entring the lymphatic vessels . the greatest part of the lympha , says he , is beholding to the animal spirit , the lesser to the acid spirit . but what has been already said destroys this opinion ; as also this , that the lympha is continually mov'd through innumerable hollow vessels in great quantity , whereas so great a quantity of animal spirits can never pass in so great a quantity through the invisible pores of the nerves , and cannot be carried to the making of the lympha . moreover , for that a great quantity of lympha breaks thorough several vessels ; into which nevertheless , as has been said , very few animal spirits can be carried , and that through very few and most slender nerves . add to this , that the acid spirit of the glandules has a coagulating power , and therefore would be a strange obstruction to the thinness of the liver . moreover , swalve himself eod. lib. p. . and . most eagerly maintains , that nothing , not so much as the thinnest of liquors can be carried through the pores of the nerves , and therefore much less such a quantity of spirits , out of which a part of such a copious lympha must be made . xxviii . n. zas above-cited , writes , that the lympha , which he calls dew , is an alimentary iuice , by which the nerves , the membranes , tendons , also the tunicles of the veins and arteries , and all the spermatics are nourish'd , increas'd in growth and enlarg'd . but among all the foregoing opinions , there is none that carries with it less probability than this ; which is utterly destroy'd by what we have written l. . c. . where we prove at large that all the parts are nourish'd by the blood , and not by any other humours . but lewis de bills , from whence zas draws all his main fundamentals , finding that zas was too short in the defence of his argument , has found out another invention ; for he distinguishes between dew and lympha , and says that the dew serves for the uses by zas assign'd , but not the lympha : he also ascribes different passages to each of them , by which they flow to their parts ; of which passages or ways i have lately treated , and sufficiently demonstrated the vanity of this invention . seeing then that most learned men , and studious assertors of the commonwealth of physic , did not discern the true original of this lympha , and hardly seem to have reach'd the use of it , i will not be afraid to venture my own opinion concerning this matter . xxix . i take the lympha to be a fermentaceous liquor , separated from the serous part of the blood in the cluster'd glandules , yet not simple , but mingl'd with much volatile and liquid salt , and impregnated with some few sulphury particles , which by reason of the thinness of its parts enters these vessels , and is carried through them , partly to the vafa chylifera , partly to many veins . to those , that in them it may by its mixture make the chylus thinner and more easie , and more apt to make an easie dilatation in the heart . to these , to the end that being mingl'd with the venal blood , not at present so thin , it may prepare it to a quick dilatation in the heart : for in both respects the mixture of it is very necessary . for the chylus of it self is somewhat sweetish , and somewhat fatty , which shews the predominancy of the sulphury juice , not as yet become sufficiently spiritous . and hence , by reason of the viscid and thick particles , seeing that if it came alone to the heart , it is unapt for dilatation , there is a necessity , that by the way this liquor should be thin , saltish , sowrish , and endu'd with a kind of fermentaceous quality , to attenuate its viscousness , and prepare it for fermentation . for as mineral sulphur , by reason of its viscous particles , by it self slowly , and by degrees , but by the mixture of the salt-peter , cutting those particles , kindles at the very touch of fire ; so also the sulphury particles of the chylus , if other saltish and thin particles were not mix'd with it to a just proportion , would be slowly , and not suddenly dilated , and become spiritous in the heart . xxx . to which purpose aforesaid the pancreatic iuice does also in some measure contribute , being mix'd with the chylus in the duodenum , which is a kind of a stronger and sharper lympha , and indu'd with a more vigorous fermentaceous quality . and therefore it is that this lympha being carried with the chylus to the heart , renders it more easily diffusive , and fit to be alter'd into spiritous blood. as in gunpowder the mineral sulphur mix'd with the salt-peter and coals , presently takes fire . but the venal blood , having lost a great part of its spirits in the nourishment of the parts , and the length of its course , has need of some mixture of the lympha to facilitate its fusion in the heart . but because it is much thinner than the chylus , and still mix'd with many spirits : hence it is that it requires the less quantity of lympha , and that 's the reason that fewer lymphatic vessels open into the veins , but a vast number into the milkie vessels . xxxi . now because this lympha is separated from the serous part of the blood , the question is whether it be not the serum , or a liquor different from it ? to which i answer , that it is not the serum , but a particular thin liquor , extracted out of the serous part of the blood. for in this serous humour , besides the watery particles , are contained other briny particles in good quantity , and some sulphury particles . the salt particles are apparent from the briny taste of tears , sweat , and urine ; the sulphury from hence , that stale urine being heated , is easily fir'd by the touch of the least flame . then again in these there are other more viscous , more crude and fix'd parts , as are often to be discern'd in urine ; others more thin and spiritous , which by reason of their extraordinary thinness , together with the thin watery part of the serum in which they abide , being separated from the thicker particles on the cluster'd glandules , easily enter those narrow orifices of the lymphatic vessels , proceeding from those glandules , ( from whence the thicker particles are excluded by reason of their thickness ) and through these are carried to the vasa chylifera and several veins . xxxii . the difference between the lympha and the serum , is hence made plain ; for that the lympha being taken out in a spoon , not only held to the fire for the thinner particles to exhale ( which is the direction of rolfincius ) but being cool'd of it self , without any exhalation before the fire , thickens into a gelly ; whereas the serum will neither thicken before the fire , nor without fire . for that the salt of the lympha , which seems to contain in it somewhat of sowrish , being reduc'd to an extraordinary thinness in its most thin watery particles , and impregnated with some sulphury particles , while any heat remains in it , is very fluid ; but being condens'd by the cold , is not fixed into hard and salt crystals ; but together with the sulphury parts mix'd with it , by reason of their fatty viscousness , by which the hardness of the salt particles is soften'd , it congeals into a gelly , which again dissolves into a most thin liquor by the heat of the fire . whereas on the contrary , the cruder particles of the serum condens'd by the cold , will never dissolve through the heat of the fire ( which is apparent in urine ) but into crude and clammy strings , and many of 'em retain a stony and tartarous form , and will never return to their former thinness . xxxiii . now out of what parts the lympha proceeds , which is to be separated in the glandules , and deriv'd into the lymphatic vessels , is by many question'd , glisson believes it proceeds from the nerves ; bartholine from the arteries . the first is absurd : because the invisible pores of the nerves cannot give passage to such a visible and copious liquor , without a palsie of the parts , and an extream relaxation of the nerves with continual moisture . the latter is more probable , by reason of the quantity of the lympha , which cannot be so copiously strain'd out of any vessels as out of the arteries , in regard that all the glandules receive some ends of the arteries . and so from that arterious blood forc'd into the glandules , by reason of their specific structure , the lympha seems to be separated in the same manner almost as the serum is separated from the blood in the kidneys : and from the little arteries of the choroidal plexure the lymyid serous liquor is separated from the same blood by the glandules lying between , and deposited in the cavities of the ventricles of the brain , from thence to be evacuated through the papillary processes , or extremities of the olfactory nerves . but in the liver , which receives very few arteries , but sends forth many lymphatic vessels , and pours forth a copious quantity of lympha out of its glandules , this lympha cannot be there so copiously separated and pour'd forth out of so few arteries chiefly creeping along the exterior membrane , but is rather separated from the blood brought through the vena portae ( which here performs the office of an artery ) by the glandules that adhere to the hollow part of it . xxxiv . but what it is that presses forth the lympha out of the glandules of the liver , spleen , and other parts , and thrusts it farther when once enter'd the lymphatic vessels , is apparent from what has been said concerning the thrusting forward of the chylus , c. . & . for the impulsive cause is the same , that is to say the motion and pressure , partly of the lower part of the belly by the muscles of the abdomen mov'd upward and downward ; partly by the respiration of the lungs . that which proceeds from the joynts , is mov'd by the motion of the muscles of those parts ; as we find by the motion of the jaws and the tongue a great quantity of spittle flow into the mouth , which spittle is a kind of lymphatic iuice , but somewhat thicker , whereas when a man sits motionless , or lyes asleep , his spittle is nothing so plentiful . for by the compressure of these parts , as well the glandules therein conceal'd , as also the lymphatic vessels , are press'd , not only by the muscles , but also by the incumbent flat bowels , by which means the contain'd liquor is squeez'd and thrust forward out of those vessels . xxxv . charleton , oeconom . animal . writes that the motion of the lympha through its chanels is very slow . but bartholine in spielleg ▪ confutes that opinion , and proves the contrary . for my part , i believe the lympha to be mov'd sometimes slower , sometimes swifter , according to the more vehement or remiss motion of the parts where the cluster'd glandules and the lymphatic vessels lye , as happens in the salival vessels under the tongue , which proceed from cluster'd glandules . xxxvi . observe by the way concerning the lymphatick vessels lying hid in the lower belly , that if they be broken up by any accident , ( for they are very tender ) then there happens to be a serous liquor pour'd forth into the hollow of the abdomen , the increase of which at length insensibly produces that sort of dropsie , call'd ascites ; tho' it may also proceed from other causes . in the year ▪ we dissected a young woman of four and twenty years of age , which for seventeen years had labour'd under that distemper call'd ascites , and at length dy'd of it . in whom i did not perceive the least desect of her bowels , only that some of the lymphatic vessels were broken , which was the cause of the distemper ; for in her childhood she had been cruelly us'd by her parents , who were wont to kick and thump her ; and those blows occasion'd the breaking of her lymphatic vessels . which suspicion , the humours that were gathered together in the abdomen , did not a little confirm . for they appear'd somewhat coagulated in the body , when it was cold ; tho' it was not come to that consistency of a gelly , as is usually seen in the lympha when taken out of the lymphatic vessels in a spoon . however , the reason why she had liv'd so long in misery , was the soundness of her bowels , and for that by reason of the youthful heat of her body , much of the serous moisture insensibly flowing into the concavity of the abdomen , was every day consum'd . xxxvii . these vessels being broken , sometimes also it happens that the lymphatic liquor does not come to be pour'd forth into the cavity of the abdomen , but flows out between the neighbouring membranes , and that occasions the production of those watry bladders , call'd hydatides , with which the liver sometimes within , sometimes without , and sometimes also the mesentery , and other parts in the abdomen are seen to abound . a great number of these bladders ( some as big as a pigeons egg , others as a hen egg , and many less ) william straten , at that time physic and anatomy prosessor in our academy , afterwards principal physician to the prince of orange , shew'd us in the hollow part of the liver of a thief that was hang'd , febr. . we have also shew'd 'em growing sometimes in the mesentery before the students in physic at our hospital : and there also we have seen livers , which withoutside have been cover'd with little bladders full of lympid water , of which number , some having been lately broken , had insus'd a serous liquor into the cavity of the abdomen , and by that means had occasion'd an ascites . hence i concluded that the dropsie , call'd ascites , is never generated without some solution of the continuum of the inner parts of the abdomen , whatever the cause of it may be , and i thought their opinion to be rejected , that this disease is begot by the condensation of the vapours exhaling out of the internal parts into water , when that exhalation in some men happens to be continual , and yet very few come to be troubled with the ascites . volker coiter , obser. chirurg . musc. p. . writes that he himself found in the body of a phthisical and dropsical man , the bowels of the lower belly wasted , and emptied of all their moisture ; but little bladders , some bigger , some less , adhering every where to the mesentery , peritonaeum , intestines , spleen , liver , and all the bowels , and all those little bladders full of water . the same case is cited by cordaeus . com. . ad hipp. de morb. mul. xxxviii . now there may be several causes for the breaking of these vessels : but besides violent and external accidents , the most frequent cause is , either corrosion by sharp humours , or else their obstruction and compression . and for this reason the ascites happens to gluttons and great drinkers , that every day stuff and swill their guts , who from the crudities hence bred , either heap together a great quantity of sharp humours in the body , or else bring a weakness and obstructions upon the bowels , by which means these little vessels are either corroded , or else compress'd and straiten'd , that they cannot carry and discharge their lymphatic humour as they were wont to do , which therefore flowing out of the lymphatio vessels , either causes little membranes among the bladders ; or else the covering membranes being broken , it slides into the concavity of the abdomen . chap. xiv . of the liver . i. the liver 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , or jecur , is a remarkable bowel seated in the right hypochondrion under the diaphragma or midriff , of a vast bigness , round and smooth in the convex or gibbous part , but concave in the lower part , where it rests upon the right side of the stomach . ii. in dogs and many other beasts it is divided into several lobes , but in man it is contiguous , swelling into a little lobe in the lower simous , saddle or flat part . it is rarely divided into three lobes , which iames sylvi●…s in isagoge , reports to have seen . iii. the bigness of the liver is not the same in all creatures , but according to the proportion of bodies , it is larger in man than in other creatures , and the natural and ordinary bigness is such , that it descends three or four fingers below the bastard ribs , and extends it self somewhat beyond the pointed cartilage of the breast . andrew laurentius writes , that in cowardly people , great drinkers and gluttons , the liver is thought to be bigger . which rule however , 't is very probable , is lyable to many exceptions . in a preternatural constitution it deviates from its ordinary magnitude , as well in excess as defect . in the year . i dissected a body wherein the liver was of that enormous magnitude , that it caus'd admiration in all the spectators ; for below it reached down to the groyns , and extended it self from the right side to the spleen , and so possessed the chiefest part of the whole lower belly . but tho' to the outward view and touch , it seem'd to be of a healthy colour and sound substance , yet we found in the middle of it a large hollowness , from whence to the amazement of all the beholders , we took out eleven market pounds of matter , white , well-concocted , and without any ill smell . other monstrous large livers are describ'd by spigelius anat. l. . c. . riolanus anthrop . l. . c. . bartholine obs. cent . . hist. . and by several others . iv. less frequently is the liver defective for want of its due proportion . and yet we find an example of that too in riolanus , lib. citat . who writes that at paris , in a certain body , was found a liver that was no bigger than a kidney ; and thence he observes out of avicen , that the smalness of the liver is always noxious , but not the bigness . how you may guess at the largeness of the liver by the bigness of the fingers , see l. . c. . v. the substance of it is soft and ruddy , like congeal'd blood , the firmness of which appears nevertheless when the liver is boyl'd . there lye hid in it many kernels , out of which the lymphatic vessels break forth . vi. malpigius , who has examin'd the substance and inner parts of the liver , most accurately by his microscopes , l. de hep . c. . has observ'd many things unheard of , and hitherto altogether undiscover'd . . that the substance of the liver in a man consists of little lobes , which shew forth a heap of clusters , and are cloath'd with their own enfolding membrane , and strengthen'd by membranous knots continued athwart , so that there may be observ'd middle spaces , and little small chinks , between the sides of the lobes . . that the whole mass of the liver consists of glandulous balls and several roots of vessels ; and hence , that they may all cooperate for the common good , there is a necessity of an intercourse between the vessels and these glandules . . that the branches of the vessels of the porta , vena cava , and porus biliarius in an equal number through all the small lobes , and that the roots of the vena portae supply'd the place of arteries , and that there is such a correspondence between the porta and the porus biliarius , that both their little branches are closely contain'd under the same covering . . that the roots of the said vessels are not joyn'd together by way of anastomo●…is , but that the glandulous balls , constituting the chief substance of the liver , are in the middle between the vessels that bring and carry , by means whereof those that carry infuse their liquor into those that bring . from which observations he concludes that the liver is a conglomerated or cluster'd glandule separating the choler , and this ( ibid. cap. . ) he endeavours to prove by several reasons . and because this is proper to conglomerated glandules , that besides the arteries , veins , and nerves , they enjoy their own proper emptying vessel ( as is apparent in the parotides , sweetbread , and others ) which is dispers'd through their substance , and extracting and carrying off the design'd humour ; he asserts this vessel in the liver to be the porus biliarius with the gall bag. most certainly these new observations of the famous malpigius dispel many hepatic obscurities , and lighten us to the inmost knowledge of the liver . for formerly there was no question made , but choler was generated in the liver ; but how it came to be separated from the blood , was not known : but now by the observations of this quick-sighted artist , it appears to be done by the small kernels and glandulous balls lying up and down * . vii . but tho' malpigius , by reason of these new golden inventions seems unwilling to call the liver a bowel for the future , but rather a conglomerated or cluster'd glandule ; yet i beseech him to grant us this liberty , that we may still , for a while , call it a bowel , lest by too sudden a change of the name , we should render our discourse obscure , especially among those who never heard of this denomination before . viii . in the mean time the condition of the unfortunate liver is to be lamented ; as being that which formerly was call'd the principal bowel , and by galen seated in the highest throne of sanguisication , and there has been worship'd for many ages by the common consent of physic ; yet that in these our times it should be torn and depos'd from its throne , and despoil'd of all its soveraignty ; nay that it should be said to be dead , and therefore be buried , and only remembred with an ironical epitaph by bartholine , and yet contrary to the expectation of all men , like a silkworm chang'd into a butterflie , so metamorphos'd into a pitiful conglomerated glandule , be beholding to a miserable resurrection in that likeness . ix . the colour of the liver obvious to sight , which is ruddy , is not peculiar to it , by reason of its frame , and composition , but accidental , by reason of the copious quantity of blood infus'd into it , through the vena portae , as by the following experiment of glissons may appear . the proper colour of it is pale , slightly inclining to yellow , which however it seems to be a tincture which it receives from the choler passing through it : and hence it is that malpigius ascribes to it a white colour . x. by reason of the vast quantity of blood that flows to it , the temperament of it is hot and moist , and by its heat it cherishes and comforts the stomach . xi . it is incompass'd with a thin membrane , arising from the peritonaeum that girds the diaphragma , and rolls it self back about the liver . xii . it hangs as it were strictly fasten'd above through all its circumference to the diaphragma , with a broad membranous strong ligament , arising from the peritonaeum , where it adheres to the joynted cartilage . erroneously therefore wrote spigelius , that it is distant a fingers breadth from the diaphragma . this ligament is not only fasten'd to the outermost membrane of the liver , but constitutes it , and to the end it may sustain the weight of so large a bowel without the hazard of breaking , it descends toward the inner parts of it , and is fasten'd to the common sheath or swath of the branch of the vena portae , where the navel vein adjoyns to it . to this broad ligament is joyn'd another peculiar round and strong ligament springing also from the peritonaeum , where the liver is joyn'd upon the right and left side to the diaphragma . but this ligament we have seen more than once wanting in men ; and for the most part is not to be found in beasts ; and there some dissecters of beasts , that have not seen many dissections of human bodies , from their dissection of brutes , believ'd that ligament to be frequently wanting in men. below , it is fasten'd to the abdomen by the navel ligament , that is , the navel vein cut off after the birth , and chang'd into a ligament , by which the massie bowel is kept fast in its place , and hinder'd from ascending higher with the diaphragma . xiii . it also adheres to other neighbouring parts , as the vena cava and vena portae , the omentum , &c. which ligaments however do not hold it in its hanging posture . xiv . by these ligaments , altho' the liver be fix'd in its place , yet is it not so straightly ty'd , but that it may be mov'd with convenience enough in respiration upwards and downwards , and in the motion of the body to the right or left , or in any other posture , as necessity requires . xv. it admits into it four very small nerves ; two from the sixth pair ; a third from the stomach pair , and a fourth from the costal pair ; to which the obtuse sense or feeling of that membrane or tunicle only that involves it is attributed ; for they do not seem to penetrate into the inner substance of it . however galen . de us . part . c. . & . de loc . affect . c. . & . has observ'd two notable nerves which accompany the vena portae enter the parenchyma . it wanted not bigger nor more inward nerves , as that which needed not to feel , and making the ferment it self , might well be without the fermentative quality of the animal spirits . xvi . it is furnished with very small arteries coming to it from the right coeliac branch ( according to veslingius very few , but according to walaeus innumerable ) and dominic . de marchettis anat . c. . writes that he has sometimes seen when the upper mesenteric artery has communicated a large branch to the liver . these arteries galen tells us are chiefly dispersed through the hollow or saddle part of it . rolfinch says that he has observ'd 'em very numerous in the convex part of it . glisson observes no little branches of small arteries extended toward the inner parts of the liver , but all plainly to terminate in the membrane . reason altogether confirms glissons opinion ; for the substance of the liver has hardly any need of arteries , seeing that the blood flows to it in quantity sufficient enough through the porta vein ( which here performs the office of an arterie ) which blood by reason of its similitude in substance , is more convenient for its own nourishment and making of choleric ferment , than the arterous blood. nor does the vena portae with its branches , nor the roots of the vena cava want arteries ; as being sufficiently furnished and nourished with their own contain'd blood ; nor does it ever appear , that any little branches of arteries are inserted into the tunicles of any veins for their nourishment . therefore because fewer parts of the liver are nourished with arterial blood , veslingus seems not erroneously to have observ'd , that only a few arteries enter the liver . hence lindan takes notice , and that very truly , that those arteries seem rather to stop in the investing membrane , than to penetrate into the substance of the liver . xvii . it has double veins . for in the upper part , the vena cava seems to be joyn'd to it , into which many roots being up and down dispersed through the substance of the liver , discharge their blood. with these roots , in the lower part , meet the little branches of the vena portae , which run likewise through the whole parenchyma . xviii . to these vessels is adjoyned the porus biliarius , which is dispersed through the liver with innumerable roots , receiving the choler separated from the bloody ferment : with which moreover are intermingl'd other very thin roots afterwards closing together , and in one little pipe conveighing the choler to the vesicle of the gall. xix . besides these vessels , asellius writes , that he has observ'd a branch of the milkie vessels in the liver . but without doubt the egress of the lymphatic vessels , at that time altogether unknown , from the liver , deceived him . for there are no milkie or chyliferous vessels that run to the liver , as we have a thousand times demonstrated in our dissections of brutes as well alive as dead ; but many milkie vessels issue forth out of it , carrying a most clear and transparent juice . so also gualter charleton l. de oecon. animal . saith , that the same is to him unquestionable by a thousand experiments , and therefore he concluded without any farther scruple that there was no portion of the chylus conveighed to the liver . and therefore no credit is to be given to gassendus and backius , who believe the chylus to be carried to the liver through the ductus cholidochus . for the obstructing valves , and the narrow and oblique entrance of the ductus into the duodenum , and the contrary motion of the choleric , and pancreatic or sweet-bread juice toward the intestine , in living animals obvious to the sight , sufficiently refute their opinion . xx. the vessels of the liver are intermix'd after a wonderful manner through its substance or little lobes , as plainly appears if the flesh be separated , which is to be done leisurely and carefully , for fear of tearing the vessels . for the performing of which excarnation , glisson describes three ways . anat. hep . c. . formerly it was asserted by the anatomists , that the roots of the vena cava ran chiefly through the upper part , but that the little branches of the vena portae ran chiefly through the lower part of the liver . but by the more indefatigable industry of glisson and malpigius , it is since discovered , that both the aforesaid vessels , and the small branches of the gall-vessels , are equally dispers'd and intermix'd one with another through the whole parenchyma , and reach to every part alike : but that the little branches of the gall-vessels are much less than those of the vena cava or portae : for that through those the fewer and thinner choleric humours glide ; through these the more bloody and somewhat thicker are to be conveighed . and it was but reason that these vessels should be dispersed through the whole bowel , when all its parts conspire to the same performances . however the liver is harder in its lower part , by reason of the ingress and egress of the larger vessels , as also for that the conglobated glandules are there chiefly seated . xxi . but how all these little branches are intermingl'd one among another in the liver , there is a great dispute among the anatomists . for i say nothing of the lymphatic vessels , for that they take their rise no farther than from the conglobated glandules , nor enter any farther into the rest of the substance of the liver . the greatest part of anatomists , following galen , write that the little branches of the porta with the roots of the vena cava , are joyned together by many anastomoses , so that sometimes they close together at their ends , sometimes their ends enter into the sides of other little branches ; and that to these the interjected bilarie vessels are fasten'd by frequent anastomoses . to these fallopius , cartesius , riolanus , and several others are of a contrary judgment , who altogether question those anastomoses , and affirm that either they are not at all , or else very obscure . bartholine writes , from the observation of harvey , that the roots of the vena portae creeping through the gibbous part of the liver , are covered with sieve-like tunicles full of infinite pinholes , otherwise than the branches of the vena cava , which are divided into large arms , and that the various excursions of each vessel run forth into the bossie part of the bowel without any anastomoses . bauhinus tells us of a remarkable anastomoses , which represents a channel , and is as it were a common and continued passage from the branches of the vena portae into the roots of the vena cava , admitting the point of a good bigg bodkin . into this apparent channel others deny that any branches of the vena porta are opened , because that no such opening could either be seen or observ'd . glisson writes that this chanel is a production or continuation of the umbilical vein through which , in the embryo , the navel-blood is carried directly to the vena cava : but that it is altogether shut up in men that are once born , and together with the umbilical vein supplys the office of a ligament , neither do any orifices of any other vessels open into it . xxii . so that how the blood flows out of the little branches of the vena portae into the roots of the vena cava , and vena portae , from the foresaid various and differing opinions can hardly be made manifest . xxiii . in this obscurity not only malpigius by his observations made with his microscope , but glisson , an exact examiner of the liver , affords us great light. which latter , by his frequent excarnations of this bowel , writes that he has found by experience , that the branches of the vena portae and vena cava , joyn one to another , and there grow close together , but do not open into one another , nor that any little branches are inserted into the side of one another , or close with the ends of any other , but only that the sanguineous humors are emptyed through the ends of the branches of the vena portae into the substance of the liver , and from thence again enters the gaping ends of the vena cava , and gall vessels , all which ends terminate into the substance of the liver ; ( this malpigius , as abovesaid , observed to be perform'd or done by the means of the glandulous balls , of which the substance of the liver chiefly consists ) and that there is as much blood and humors suck'd up through the gaping ends of those roots , as is poured into the substance of the branches of the porta , always granting a due and just proportion of the bowel . certainly i believe there is great credit to be given to the experience of this famous person . for his treatise sufficiently testifies that he was very diligent and laborious in making his scrutinies into the liver ; and therefore we have thought it necessary to quote his experiment , by which he solidly proves that there are no anastomoses of the vessels in the liver , anat . hep. c. . in these words . xxiv . for the farther confirmation , saith he , of this opinion , i will bring one memorable experiment , which gives a great light not only to this passage of the blood out of the vena portae into the cava , but to several other things belonging to the circulation of the blood. at a 〈◊〉 therefore at london , we thought fit to try , how easily water being forc'd into the porta would pass through the liver . to that end we took a good large ox's bladder , fitted to a pipe ( as when we give a glister ) and fill'd it with warm water coloured with a little milk , and then having ty'd it with a string that none of the liquor might slide back , we put in the top of the pipe into the porta near the liver . presently the bladder being hard squ●…ez'd , the water passing through the pipe , enters the vena cava , and thence carried into the right sinus of the heart , goes to the lungs through the arterious vein , and passing through them slides down into the left ventricle , thence is carried into the aorta ; and lastly we discern clear milkie footsteps of this humor in the kidneys . the liquor thus transmitted into the liver , wash'd away the blood by degrees , not only from the larger vessels , but also from the capillaries and the parenchyma it self . for the bloody colour seem'd to vanish by degrees , and by and by all the blood being wash'd away , the liver turn'd from a white and dark brown into a kind of yellow . which colour , as seems most probable to me , is nearest the natural colour of the liver , than the ruddie which it borrows from the blood continually passing through it . after this experiment made , we cut pretty deep into the parenchyma it self , that we might know whether the inner parts of it were likewise chang'd , and there we also found all the blood so washed away likewise , that it could hardly be done in such a manner any other way : for that the whole parenchyma was all of the same colour before mentioned . now if the injected liquor had penetrated the liver by the help of the anastomoses , how came it to pass that all the blood was thence wash'd away , and that the parenchyma having lost the bloody colour , should presently of its own accord put on the new colour . certainly the water could add no colour to it , which it wants it self . nor could the milk impart to it that dark brown colour , altho' by that means it might retain something of its whiteness . but for the avoyding of all farther dispute , i often try'd this experiment with water alone . yet still the colour appear'd to be pale and dark brown ; and because it appear'd to be alike in all the parts of the parenchyma , it was a certain sign , that the water wash'd all the parts alike . which could not any way have been done , if part of it , having made its passage through the anastomoses had slid immediately into the vena cava . now that the blood naturally takes the same road with the water , i do not believe there is any one that questions . and therefore i think it fit thereupon to conclude that the blood does not glide through those feign'd anastomoses , but runs thorough the parenchyma of the liver it self . xxv . this celebrated experiment , added to the celebrated observations of malpigius , so clearly illustrates the understanding of a thing hitherto so obs●…ure , that now there can be no farther doubt concerning the manner of the passage of the blood out of the porta into the vena cava , nor of the natural colour of the liver it self , which being boyl'd , appears to be of a pale yellowish colour , inclining to a dark brown. and hence moreover it is most clearly apparent , how in other parts also , the circulation of the blood is made not only through the anastomoses of the arteries with the veins , but through the pores of the substance of the parts themselves . of which more at large l. . c. . xxvi . as the trunk of the porta vein entring the liver in the hollow part , sends forth a thousand branches into it , so likewise a thousand roots of the vena cava are dispersed through those interjacent ramifications , and there by little and little meet together toward the uppermost and inner part of the liver , and become fewer and larger , till at length they close into one trunk , continuous to the vena cava : which , according to riolanus , is fortified with a valve preventing the ingress of the blood out of the vena cava into the liver . concerning which see l. . c. . but before they close together into that trunk , certain membranous circles on the inner side , like valves , are opposed to the boughs of the larger roots meeting together , sometimes thicker , sometimes thinner , which bartholine has observ'd looking toward the greater tunicle . these hinder the return of the blood going forward toward the vena cava . xxvii . concerning the office of the liver there are various opinions , of which the ancientest and the most received is from galen , who saith that sanguification is compleated in the liver , and that it is the true and primary sanguifying or blood-making bowel . but this opinion , after the discovery of the circulation of the blood , has been wholly abolish'd ; since it is found that the blood is only made in the heart . which hippocrates himself clearly signifies l. . de morb. where he says , the heart is the fountain of blood ; the seat of ch●…ler is in the liver . moreover , reason contradicts that opinion : first , because there are no milkie vessels that reach to the liver , and consequently nothing of the chylus is carried thither to be chang'd into blood ; for that the chylus neither ascends nor passes through the mesaraic veins , we shall farther shew l. . c. . secondly , because in the embryo the heart and the blood are seen before any rudiments of the liver are seen : whereas the liver , if it were the efficient of sanguification , of necessity , it ought to precede its effect , that is to say , the blood. thirdly , because when all the bowels are form'd , and that in the beginning of the formation all the vessels are fill'd with blood , then is the liver still of a whitish colour , and inclining somewhat to yellow ; which is a sign it does not generate the ruddy blood , seeing that of necessity it ought to be colour'd from the beginning by the blood which it generates and contains , before all the other parts . but in the beginning it is of a pale colour , afterwards somewhat yellowish , which afterwards it preserves in its substance , tho' clouded by the copious mixture of the blood . xxviii . bartholine at first was of opinion that the more refin'd and concocted part of the chylus was carried through the milkie vessels , and that out of the chylus the cruder blood is generated , which is afterwards to be brought to perfection in the heart . and deusingius , a stiff defender of this opinion , believes the chylus comes to the liver through the mesaraic veins , tract . de sanguific . nay , that some of the milkie vessels reach from the sweet-bread to the liver , and enter the hollow parts of it : of the former of which opinions was regius . but afterwards bartholine renounc'd this opinion , and that with good reason , because it could be no way defended . . because no milkie vessels reach the liver . . no chylus passes through the mesaraics . . because if the heart should make blood of the crude blood made in the liver , and not of the chylus it self , of necessity all the milkie vessels must run to the liver , and carry thither all their chyle , to be turn'd into blood , and none would run to the subclavial veins , and a good part of the chylus would ascend through the mesaraics to the liver . but our eye-sight convinces us of the truth of the first , and reason of the latter . see l. . c. . xxix . glisson believes the parenchyma of the liver to be a certain streiner through which the blood and humours pass , and that those alterations which they undergo in the liver , are accomplish'd by percolation . true it is , such a simple streining may separate the thin from the thick , but occasion no other alteration worth speaking of . besides , where there is any streining , there the thin pass thorough , and the thick remain behind . but through the liver not only all the blood passes , neither is there any thing of thick that remains behind ; but also some part of the ruddy blood passing thorough , losing its own nature and sweetness , is chang'd into bitter and yellow choler . if glisson should perchance object , that that same choler is the thicker part , and therefore it does not pass with the rest of the blood , but is evacuated thorough the ductus biliarius ; i answer , that the choler indeed does often acquire a certain thickness in the gall-bag , through its long standing , and the dissipation of the most thin parts by the heat ; but that the said choler , so long as it remains in the liver mix'd with the blood , is thinner than the blood it self . and this i will prove by the roots of the porus biliarius , and the gall-bladder , which are much less , much thinner and narrower , than the roots of the vena cava inserted into the liver . for if it were thicker , it could never be suck'd in , and evacuated through vessels much thinner than the rest ; and leave the thinner to be receiv'd by the bigger and larger roots of the hollow vein . besides , the choler sweats through the tunicles of the gall-bladder , and dyes the neighbouring bowels of a yellow colour , whereas the blood never sweats through any tunicles of the veins , which are thinner and softer than that bag ; and this is very likely to be true , because it is much thicker . xxx . therefore the true office of the liver is to moisten the blood with a sulphury dew , and together with the spleen to perfect the ferment of that and the chylus . and therefore all men , all creatures , as well by land as by water , are furnish'd with the liver , because without that ferment the spiritous blood could never be made . xxxi . from all that has been said , it appears , that the liver was always reckon'd among the principal parts , when galen ascrib'd to it the office of blood-making ; and though in our age it be depos'd from that employment , and reckon'd among the ministerial parts ; yet is it to be rank'd among the noble parts , the use of which we cannot be without , and which officiates in one of the highest offices , and whose diseases are most dangerous , and destructive to the health of the whole body . especially the wounds that are given it , are by hippocrates and celsus numbred among the deadly and incurable , by reason the copious efflux of blood kills the patient before it can be stanch'd by any medicaments ; or if the blood happen to be stop'd , yet the ulcer that follows the wound is very rarely or never to be cur'd ; so that of three thousand wounded in that part , hardly one escapes . yet i remember five cures of that bowel , which are reckon'd however next to miracles . the first is related by gemma l. . cosmo●…rit . c. . of a spaniard cur'd of a wound in his liver . the second bertin says he saw l. . c. . of a noble man , whose liver was not only wounded , but some part of the liver carried away by the wound , and yet cur'd contrary to all expectation . the third of a patient cur'd by cabrolius himself ; which patient had a wound that reach'd the deepest part of the liver , observat. . the fourth related by the same cabrolius out of rochus of tarragon . the fifth mentioned by hildan , cent. . observ. . of a certain helvetian , who after a piece of his wounded liver was taken out , and terrible symptoms of approaching death , yet recover'd . xxxii . but these are miracles of nature which averrhoes formerly asserted to happen sometimes in cures . for my part i have seen several wounds of the liver , as well in the field as in other places , but never yet saw any man so wounded escape . xxxiii . things unusual are seldom found in the liver , yet we find in some writers the relations of stones and worms that have been seen therein . among the rest hierome m●…ntu is reports that he has seen a liver full of worms * : and such kind of worms wier is and bauhinus have observ'd . borell is found a hairy worm in the liver of a dog. then for stones , the experience of several convinces us that they have been found in the liver : but they are rarely generated in the liver ; yet the author of the german physical ephemerides cites one example out of george greiselius , of a certain lady in the lower part of the lobe of whose liver there grew a bladder a hands breadth in length , wherein was contained a shining black glutinous humour , and in the middle of it a stone as big as a hens egg , shining also , as if it had been full of niter , but insipid and without any smell , weighing an onnce and eighteen grains . the same author cites another example out of iames of negropont , of a liver of an unusual bigness , weighing above twelve pounds , which was hard , yellow , and here and there strew'd with hard stones ; and in the gall-bladder , besides much yellow small sand , were contain'd two round , yellow , rough stones , about the bigness of a musket-bullet : besides which , another lesser stone stopp'd up the meatus hepaticus to the gall-bladder . but tho' stones are rarely found in the livers of men , yet in the livers of diseased oxen and sheep , we have sometimes found 'em very numerous , some red , some yellowish ; others white like tartar of wine . xxxiv . to this story of the liver may be added a certain conjunction of the liver with the lungs , and a wonderful situation of both of them , and the parts adjoyning , which d. wassenaer , a famous physician at utrecht , imparted to me in writing , as seen by him in a little child of cornelius de mirop , governour of wingenlangenraeck . this child was in his life time asthmatic , and vexed with a frequent and terrible cough , upon every slight occasion ; and at length dy'd of a fever at seven years of age. whose body being open'd the d of febr. . in the presence of d. goyer , the said wassenaer , and two or three chirurgions and others . xxxv . the abdomen being laid open , saith he , and the breast , there was no diaphragma to be found by which the thorax is separated from the lower belly . nor was there any more than one lobe of the lungs , which being continued on the right side with the liver , seem'd to be like it both in colour and substance . there was no spunginess in that lobe , which crossing the middle of the liver , under the hollow part of it , stuck out like an appendix . out of the midst of the liver certain passages , like the gristles of the windpipe , deriv'd themselves into the aspera arteria it self . there was no skin or cover that appear'd about the ribs ; for the liver and right part of its lobe , stuck every where so close to the ribs , that they could not be separated but by a penknife . the pericardium , in which there was but very little liquor , enfolded but half the heart , which about the bottom , together with the left and upper part of the lobe of the lungs , was so firmly united to the spine of the back , as the liver and right side of the lobe of the lungs was fasten'd to the ribs . in the convex and lower part of the liver , about the ninth rib was an ulcer , full of well concocted matter . the stomach also , considering the proportion of the body , and the age of the child , was twice as big as it ought to have been . xxxvi . and thus sometimes we meet with wonderful things , as to the situation , structure , and connexion of the bowels . as for example ; no less rare and monstrous is that , which upon his own , and the testimony of several other physicians and chirurgions , schenkius affirms , observ. l. . viz. that in the year . in the dissection of the dead body of ortelius , a merchant of antwerp , there was not so much as the footstep to be seen of any liver or spleen ; but that the substance of all the intestines was fleshie , and much more solid than the flesh of the muscles , that it seem'd to resemble the flesh of the heart . that the vena cava had taken its rise from the original it self , which was thought to be the cause that the patient in his life time was so frequently tormented with an inflammation and aposteme in his lungs . malpigius therefore conjectures , and that not without reason , that the glandulous substance of the liver , contrary to the order of nature , was extended all the length of the intestines . chap. xv. of the choler vessels , and the choler it self . i. for the discharge of the choler there are two passages appointed in the right and hollow part of the liver , that is to say , the gall-bladder , and the porus bilarius . thorough the latter the more feculent and milder choler flows into the intestines . into the former the thinner choler * flows , and staying there a while , by that stay cuts off the proper quality of the part , but more from the remaining liquor that sticks to it , acquires a sharper and more fermentative quality . ii. the gall-bladder is an oblong bladder , fashion'd like a pear , somewhat round , hollow , and seated in the caveous or hollow part of the liver . iii. at the uppermost and middle part it is joyn'd to the hollow of the liver ; the rest of it hangs forth without the body of the liver ; where touching the right side of the ventricle , and the gut colon , it frequently moistens and stains both with the choler transpiring through its tunicles . iv. it is furnish'd with a double membrane . the one exterior without fibres , rising from the peritonaeum , which invests the pendulous part without the liver , and fastens it to the liver , and is the same with the exterior membrane of the liver . the other proper and more thick , strengthned with a slippery slime against the acrimony of the contain'd humour . this several anatomists , with laurentius , affirm to be interwoven with all manner of fibres , and that with the right fibres it attracts the choler to it , with the oblique , it retains the choler in it , and with the transverse expells it . yet to others these fibres seem to be imaginary , in regard they cannot by any way be demonstrated ; and therefore fallopius and riolanus explode 'em ; and glisson both rejects and refutes their use describ'd by laurentius . but laurentius's cause may be well enough maintain'd , if we say that although these fibres cannot be manifestly demonstrated , yet they may be discern'd by reason , seeing this part stands no less in need of fibres to maintain and strengthen it , than the veins , arteries , the piss-bladder , and several others , which when they are dilated , contract again by means of their fibres , and so return again to their former condition . which distention happens in the gall-bladder by reason of the redundancy of the gall , or else its effervescency ; which , a contraction by means of fibres , tho' invisible or obscure , must be of necessity , not only to press forth the choler out of the bladder , ( which glisson grants ) but also to reduce the gall-bladder to its first condition . to this we may add , that fibres are admitted by anatomists in veins , which nevertheless no man can easily demonstrate , though it be manifest from their crooked swellings that they have fibres . v. it has two sorts of vessels , some that open into the cavity of it ; of which more anon . others , which run thorough its tunicles or membranes , which are fourfold . . small little arteries , proceeding from the upper right branch of the caellac . . many capillary veins , bringing back the remainder of the blood after nourishment supply'd , and at length closing in two small branches , through which it pours forth this blood into the vena portae . . a little nerve hardly conspicuous , deduc'd from the branch of the sixth pair creeping through the tunicle of the liver . . some few lymphatic vessels propagated from the liver , running through its exterior parts . the arteries and a nerve enter it about the neck of it . the veins go forth the same way toward the porta●… the lymphatic vessels in men enter the same way , and running thorough the bottom of the gall-bladder , at the lower part are joyned with the rest of the lymphatics proceeding from the liver . but in those creatures where the gall-bladder hangs forth out of the liver , they enter at the neck , and fetching a circuit about the bottom , return the same way toward other lymphatic vessels proceeding out of the liver . vi. this bladder is divided into bottom and neck . vii . the bottom is larger , round , or shap'd like a pear , dangling below , of the colour of the gall contain'd in it ; sometimes yellow , sometimes rustcolour'd , sometimes black , and sometimes of a garlick green . viii . in the bottom of this same gall-bladder are found several stones , but so light , that being thrown into water , they will swim at the top . of these i have observ'd sundry colours : sometimes yellow , sometimes black inclining to green , and sometimes speckl'd like marble . these seem to be generated out of choler , void of any acrimony , which in regard it never boyls , never breaks out of the said gall-bladder , but is harden'd within it by degrees into stones , by the heat of the liver . formerly i dissected a person that dy'd of the jaundice , after he had been for some years troubled with a black and green iaundice * , in whose gall-bladder i found a stone somewhat black , and of an indifferent blackness . fernelius patholog . l. . c. . gives us a relation of a certain old man , who had such a large stone in his gall-bladder , filling the whole concavity of it to that degree , that he might be thought to have no bladder at all . other innumerable examples there are of stones found in the gall-bladder , frequent to be seen in the writings of physicians . ix . the neck of the bladder is narrower , and toward the upper parts is streightned into a thin passage , which ends in a common passage leading to the intestines . x. in this neck , according to the opinion of andrew laurentius , veslingius , and bartholine , there are valves to be discern'd , sometimes two , sometimes three , preventing the return into the bladder of the choler which ought to flow into the intestines . but i could never observe any such things ; however , i observ'd the egress of the bladder to be most strait , and the neck of it to be full of many wrinkles , lest the descent of the choler should be too easie and too slippery , and therefore to render the evacuation the more slow . in like manner neither could riolanus and glisson find those valves . for the said narrowness of the neck seems to be order'd by nature to that end , that the choler being once got into its bladder , should not presently return again , but stay for some time within , to acquire a sharper acrimony , and more fermentative quality * , from the nature and property of the place , and by the mixture of the sharp choler still remaining in the bladder , which being once well mingled with it , and thence raising a slight effervescency in the choler it self , it happens that the wrinkles of the neck being dilated and gaping by means of that distension , some part of it being attenuated and made more fluid by that effervescency , cannot conveniently be contain'd , but is forc'd down to the intestines . of which see more c. . following . xi . the choler is carried to the bladder through many small roots , scatter'd up and down in the liver among many little branches of the vena cava and vena portae , ( as has been said in the foregoing chapter , ) which closing together into one passage , through that passage pour forth the choler ‖ into the gall-bladder . but these roots are so small , that they are hardly to be seen ; only the trunk into which they all run , is to be found . and glisson describes the way of searching for it , and finding it out , anat. hep. c. . this trunk we have often seen very apparent with some roots in an ox liver , admitting a good big bodkin ; to which , at the entrance into the bladder of the gall , sometimes a small , and sometimes a large valve is affix'd , which hinders the return of the choler out of the bladder into the liver . in dogs , whose liver is divided into several lobes , we have often found , and visibly shewn to the standers by two or three trunks . if you ask then , how it returns in persons that are troubled with the jaundice ? i answer that it does not return , but that the choler which is generated in the liver , for want of convenient effervescency and fermentation , is not separated from the blood , and therefore never flows into the bladder , but remains mix'd with the blood , and together with that is carried to the hollow vein , the heart , and the rest of the body . xii . the use of the gall-bladder is to collect the choler with which , in healthy persons , it is moderately replenish'd , yet not fill'd so full , but that it might contain half a spoonful more . in a sickly habit of body it is sometimes swell'd and stuff'd with choler ; sometimes , but very rarely , altogether empty . xiii . the other choler vessel is the porus bilarius , call'd the bilary passage , which is an oblong chanel , twice as large as the neck of the bladder , proceeding from the liver not far from the vena portae , and conveighing the choler receiv'd by the liver into the common chanel , which glides not only somewhat thicker and more dreggy through the broader chanel , but also milder ; where it does not tarry by the way , or acquire a more eager acrimony , either by a longer stop , or from the nature of the place , as the other already collected in the bladder . xiv . to this there are some that appropriate double valves , preventing the regress of the choler into the liver ; the one at its exit out of the liver , and the other at its entrance into the ductus communis . but oothers deny there are any such valves , because they cannot be found by anatomists . but reason seems to perswade us , if there are not two , yet that there ought to be one , seeing it is manifest that there is such a valve in the trunk which hinders the regress of the choler . por our parts , we shall forbear to determine the controversie , till our eyes , and certain demonstration shall give a definitive sentence . xv. now here a question may arise , whether there be two sorts of choler generated in the liver , of which the one sort , being the sharper , flows into the gall-bladder ; and the other milder flows through the choler passage ? i say , no ; but that it is one and the same choler , whose somewhat more feculent parts nevertheless more easily pass through the porus bilarius , as being broader , and by reason of their feculency are less eager ; but the more thinner parts are conveigh'd into the gall-bladder ; to the end they may there be made more sharp , and acquire a more efficacious fermentative power , as well from the specific temper of the body , as from the mixture of the sharp choleric juice remaining in the bladder . xvi . but that the choler , which glides through the porus bilarius , differs in some qualities from that which is contain'd in the gall , malpigius has experienc'd , lib. de liene , c. . and found that which flows through the said porus to be more mix'd and less sharp , nor coloured alike , and being heated by the fire , yields a most strong scent , which the other does not do . perhaps it may be objected , that many times there is a thick and slimy choler found in the gall-bladder , which for the most part is very insipid , and void of acrimony . i answer , that it is not so thick when it first enters the gall-bladder ( for being thick and viscous , it could never pass through the narrow passages of the roots , but when the gall-bladder is obstructed , or that the choler for some other cause is detain'd within it longer than is requisite , then the thinner parts being dissipated by the heat of the liver , the choler becomes thick and viscous in it , contrary to its natural temper ; and sometimes is dry'd to a stony hardness : which for the most part happens for this reason , because it has not a fermentative quality , strong enough to stir it up to the effervescency , and so to timely expulsion . in like manner , i say , that the choler becomes whitish and insipid in the bladder , for want of that saltish and sow'rish liquor that comes from the spleen , by reason of the corruption or defect of which liquor , the liver begets vicious choler * , which may easily happen in a sickly constitution , wherein any other humors in any other part of the body , may alter from their natural habit . xvii . now the porus bilarius receives that milder sort of choler by means of innumerable roots that are dispers'd through the liver , which accompany the little branches of the vena portae to all parts of the liver ( some excepted , to which the roots of the gall-bladder are extended , ) nay , they are wrapt about with one and the same tunicle , arising from the membrane that enfolds the liver , in like manner as the spermatic vein and artery ; and by means of that so closely stick one to another , that they cannot be separated one from another without tearing ; in so much that at first sight they seem to be one and the same vessel , and can only be discern'd to be distinct from the variety of the colour , if they be held up to a clear light , which cannot be done but when the liver is excarnated . xviii . franciscus sylvius de le boe is of opinion that they are not the little branches of the vena portae which are cover'd with one common tunicle with the roots of the bilary porus , but that they are the little branches of the hepatic artery , which he reports that he saw discover'd and demonstrated by john van horn , disputat . med. . thes. . but without doubt , in that demonstration the little gall branches , which because of the liquor contain'd in them , are not so ruddy as the veins , were by van horn taken for arteries . but that which sylvius adds , that the hepatic artery , for the most part inclosed within the common covering , is inserted into the little branches of the hepatic bilary porus , i will believe it when i see it . i know there is a very close conjunction of the little branches of the porta and the gall vessels , but of no artery . and hence , that there is any insertion of any artery by anastomoses into the bilary vessels , must be prov'd before my eyes by demonstration , before i can give credit to it . xix . and therefore the roots of the porus receive the choler or iuice generating of it from the substance of the liver it self , into which several little branches of the vena portae , few of the hepatic arteries empty their blood , which is presently alter'd therein , and by the mixture of sulphury and saltish particles is concocted after a new manner , and in many of its particles grows bitter , and turns into choler . which choleric particles , by means of the glandulous balls ( of which malpigius asserts the substance of the liver chiefly to consist ) are separated from the other bloody particles , which are less alter'd by that concoction , and suck'd up by the roots of the porus bilarius and gall-bladder . xx. and , as has been already said of the arteries , there are many that feign several anastomoses between the extremities of the twigs of the vena portae and the bilary roots , although there are no such things as we have shew'n in the foregoing chapter . and which glisson clearly evinces by many reasons and experience , ought not to be ; in regard that the whole alteration of the blood into choler , and separation and transfusion of it out of the veins into the bilary vessels , is made by means of the glandulous balls . xxi . now the choler flowing as well from the liver through the bilary porus , as out of the gall-bladder , meets in one common chanel , call'd the ductus cholidochus , which is a meatus chanel or passage made out of the necks of the bilary porus , and the gall-bladder meeting together . xxii . this goes for the most part alone , sometimes admitting the pancreatic chanel at the end of it ( which is very frequent in a man , seldom in a dog , ) toward the end of the duodenum , or beginning of the jejunum , obliquely between both tunicles of the intestine , for the most part single , seldom double about the end , with an insertion of about a fingers breadth , opens toward the hollow of the intestine , and empties its choler into the guts , as well immediately out of the liver , as out of the vesicle of the gall. others , and not without reason , rather believe that this whole chanel is no more than the bilary porus , extended from the liver to the guts , into which , on the side , is inserted the neck of the gall-bladder . xxiii . vesalius and sylvius assert that there are certain loose little membranes fix'd to the orifice of this chanel like valves , preventing the return of the choler from the guts to the liver . but if we inquire more diligently , there will be no membranous valves to be found here , only an internal loose membrane of the intestine , depress'd by the concocted nourishment passing thorough , so shuts up the way , that no liquor can enter the chanel from the guts , which when the choler descends and seeks to go forth out of the chanel , presently opens and gives it a free passage . xxiv . glisson allows to that part of the chanel which obliquely enters and bores the gut , fibres like rings , which he believes are open'd like the sphincter muscles , when plenty of choler makes its way , but are then contracted again when that choler is pass'd away , till more new choler comes . and these fibres , as he says , prevent any humour from ascending from the guts to the liver or gall-bladder . but perhaps glisson took that little piece of flesh which bunches out at the exit of the ductus cholidochus into the guts , for some little shincter muscle . xxv . but because that some oblique passage into the guts is very narrow , and the channel broad , hence the other seems not able to transmit hardly the tenth part of the choler through a channel no wider than a goose-quill , therefore glisson thought that the foresaid ductus cholidochus , did not only do the duty of chanels to conveigh the choler , but also perform'd the office of receptacles or bladders , to contain and keep it for some time . but in the dissections of dead carcasses 't is very rarely seen that any choler is contain'd in those vessels . and therefore 't is more probable that the choler most usually descends in a small quantity from the liver and the gall-bladder ( for a small quantity serves to procure effervescency or fermentation of the chylus , together with the pancreatic juice ) and therefore by reason there is so little of it , it may easily pass through the streights of the oblique passage . which passage however being obstructed contrary to nature , then the choler happens to stop in the ductus cholidochus , as it were in some bladder , which never happens according to nature in a a state of health . for then a little choler somewhat sharp , suffices to provoke evacuation , to cause a distention of the ductus , and to open the passages . xxvi . here we must observe by the way a certain constitution of the gall vessels seldome happening , which we saw in the year . in the dissection of a woman about thirty years of age , who having been long troubled with a dropsy not very terrible , but partly an anasacra , partly an ascites , at length dy'd of it . in this body we found the liver not ruddy , but inclining to yellow : in the rest of the bowels there was hardly any yellowness to be observ'd , and an over-abounding serous humor fill'd the hollowness of the abdomen . the gall-bladder was white both within and without , as also the chanel running forth toward the ductus cholidochus communis ; and so large as to admit almost a mans little finger . but neither in the bladder , nor in the chanel was any choler at all , but a white kind of juice , very viscous , and not very much . nevertheless in the common ductus cholidochus ( which is the bilarie porus extended to the guts ) just entring into the duodenum , there was contained an indifferent quantity of yellow choler , which by the yellow choler within , was plainly discovered to have flow'd into the duodenum . xxvii . hence we may raise a great argument against those who affirm that no choler at all flows from the liver through the bilary porus to the guts , but that part of the choler flowing from the vesicle , breaks forth into the duodenum , and part ascends through the bilary porus , and so enters the liver . which that it cannot be done , is manifest from this observation . for seeing that no choler was contained in the vesicle , nor in its chanel , and yet the choler was carried to the duodenum , it could be conveighed from no other part than from the liver , through the bilary porus , and the common ductus cholidochus , wherein there was choler also found . xxviii . here a question arises , whether the choler descends to the guts continually , and with an equal course ? for resolution of which question , i think it proper to distinguish between that choler which flows from the liver through the porus , and that which falls from the gall-bladder . now that some choler , tho' but a small quantity continually flows to the guts , and is presently mix'd with the pancreatic juice , flowing also in a small quantity , is apparent to sight in the dislection of living creatures . but i should think that to be the milder sort , descending from the liver through the bilary porus ; not the sharper and more fermentative sort that comes from the bladder , as being that , which by reason of the narrowness of the neck of the bladder , does not seem to glide out of its place , unless when by its effervescency it dilates the bladder and its neck , and makes way for it self . and so i think that this sort does not flow but by intervals out of the bladder ; and more especially when the gall-bladder is pressed by the stomach full of meat , as resting upon the right side of it : and when by reason of the concoction and fermentation so near it , the choler also begins to boyl in the said gall-bladder . for that same sharp choleric ferment is not flowing continually , nor do the intestines always require the same quantity of it . but chiefly then ( when a new chylus , being to be separated from the guts ) it either slides , or is about to slide down into 'em , glisson on the other side , believes , that when the stomach is full ▪ or that the chylus is descending to the lower parts , the flowing of the choler is not thereby promoted , but rather hinder'd . but according to the opinion of galen and the ancients , he asserts , that the choler stays for some time in the gall-vessels , and afterwards of a suddain is forced down from thence into the guts ; and does the office of a clyster to purge ' em . which was that which before glisson , spigelius both believed and maintained : tho' according to the opinion of these two persons the choler would flow into the intestines when there was no need of it . but the ground of this error was this , that galen and his followers thought the choler to be a meer excrement , and that it only promoted the evacuation of the dreggs of nourishment , but were ignorant that it is altogether necessary to the fermentation of the chylus . of which more in the following chapter . xxix . besides the common chanel already mentioned , in the year . in april , i publicly shew'd in the anatomy theater another unusual chanel , thinner than the other usual chanel , which nevertheless was there at the same time , and full of yellow choler , which had no correspondency with the bilary porus , or the common ductus cholidochus already mentioned , but had its rise apart above the neck of the gall-bladder , where the bladder begins to be streightened toward the neck : besides that it was carried apart by it self to the duodenum , into which it was inserted about a fingers breadth from the insertion of the common ductus cholidoch is . the next year in another body we observed something that was rare , that is to say besides the usual ductus cholidochus , another unusual meatus or chanel , extended from the middle of the gall-bladder , directly to that part of the gut colon adjoyning to it . and thus sometimes we shall observe a chanel to extend it self from the gall-bladder to the pylorus , and sometimes to the bottom of the stomach . but these are the unusual sports and varieties of nature , seldome to be seen . xxx . from what has been said , it is apparent that choler is made in the liver , * and from hence flows forth from the choler vessels into the guts . it remains now that we speak something of its generation and its use. xxxi . choler then is a fermentaceous iuice prepar'd in the liver out of the venal blood , and specific splenetic iuice . a xxxii . it is generated as well out of the sulphury and unctuous particles of the venal blood , as the salt and acid particles of the sowrish liquor coming from the spleen , together with those that flow through the vena portae , being beforehand concocted , mixed and prepared in the liver after a specific manner . for the sulphureous juice , altho' it be sweetish of it self , being for some time concocted with the saltish ferment , grows bitter and changes its colour . now that this is the matter of which choler consists , the art of chymistry teaches us , as being that by which but little fixed salt and water , but much volatil salt and oyle may be extracted from the choler of the bladder , if in its natural condition . xxxiii . this choler concocted in the liver , one part of it , being the thinnest , remaining mix'd with the blood , is carried to the vena cava , and therein , infuses into the blood a certain fermentative quality , by which it is made fit to be presently dilated in the heart . the other part more bitter and more fermentaceous , partly of a milder quality , flows through the bilary porus to the intestins ; and partly forc'd into the gall-bladder , from the property of the place and the juice abiding in it , becomes yet more bitter and sharp , and acquires a stronger fermentative quality . xxxiv . from the ignorance of this motion of the choler , some famous physicians , as galen , lud. mercator , helmont , krempsius , hoffman , and others made a doubt whether some choler were not generated in the stomach , heart , head , and kidneys , as well as in the liver and gall-vessels ; which seems to be prov'd by the vomiting of choler , in the disease call'd cholera , and the yellow froth sometimes swimming upon extracted blood , the bitterness of the excrements contain'd in the ears , and the choleric colour of urines . but their mistake proceeded from hence , that they thought choler to be a meer excrement , and that it was all of it sent through the gall-vessels to the gutts , and from thence evacuated ; and were ignorant that in the distemper called cholera , being forc'd out of the bladder into the guts , the greatest part of it ascended into the stomach , and so was vomited up ; as also that a good part of it was carried to the heart , and mixed for fermentation sake with the blood , and circulated with the blood through all the body , and hence the colour of it appeared in the froth swimming upon the blood , and in urines ; hence also the colour and tast of it proceeded in the excrements of the ears , tho' it be not generated in the parts that evacuate those excrements . xxxv . the property of place conducing to the generation of choler , depends partly upon the inner tunicle of the gall-bladder it self , which is endu'd with a peculiar fermentaceous quality : partly upon the choler residing in that bladder , which by a longer stay , being there fermented and boyling , becomes more sharp and bitter , and by that means ferments and renders more sharp the fresh milder choler flowing out of the liver into the bladder ; and so by continuance the sharper choler boyling , flows out of the bladder , and the milder taking its room , and staying there , becomes more sharp . nevertheless the choler acquires either a more intense or remiss acrimony , according as more or fewer , and those more sharp or milder , saltish and sowrish juices , flowing from the spleen to the liver , and there are intermixt with the sulphurous juice , and are more or less concocted . for if the juice that flows from the splenetic branch , be either less in quantity or less sharp , the choler becomes less sharp and less effectual to promote a fermentative effervescency ; which growing clammy in the choler vessels of the liver , and bladder , as not being sufficiently attehuated by that weak effervescency , causes the jaundice and many other obstructions . but if the liquor that flows from the spleen be too sharp , then the choler becomes too sharp and eager as well in the vasa bilaria of the liver , as in the gall-bladder , and that acrimony corroding too violently in the fermentation , causes great pains , cholera's , dysenteries , and other distempers , especially if a sowre pancreatic juice flow into the intestins at the same time . xxxvi . francis de le boe sylvius , considering the very small and almost invincible passages , through which the choler is conveighed from the liver to the gall-bladder , conceiv'd quite another opinion of its generation . for he imagins choler to be generated out of the most similar parts of the blood conveighed through the cystic arteries to the gall-bladder , and penetrating by degrees through the pores of its tunicle into the concavity it self , and there presently changing into the same nature with the rest of the choler ; in like manner as a iugg of wine , being poured into a tub of vinegar streight becomes vinegar . * regius is also of the same opinion , philos. natur. l. . c. . who nevertheless seems to acknowledg the bilarie roots , extracting the choler out of the venal blood infused into the liver . but these three things destroy the fiction of sylvius . . for that never any signs appear of any blood infused into the hollow of the gall-bladder ; no , not so much as the least drop ever observ'd by any anatomists ; whereas in all other parts wherein any juice , liquor , or spirit , is to be made of blood , there are some marks of blood that manifestly appear , as in the brain and testicles . . because that choler is generated in some creatures that are said to be destitute of a gall-bladder , as in the hart , the fallow deer , the camel , &c. in which creatures it cannot be generated in the vesicula fellis , out of the blood that glides through the arteries , but being generated in the liver it self , flows through the bilary porus. . because those vessels are sometimes obstructed through which the choler is conveighed to the porus , and gall-bladder , which is the cause of the jaundice , by reason of the great quantity of choler diffused over the whole body ; when as it is apparent that no choler was generated in the mean time in the porus , or empty gall-bladder , tho ▪ the cystic arteries conveighed blood sufficient to the bladder as they used to do . . because that in gluttons and great drinkers , the jaundice proceeding from a hot distemper of the liver , cannot be caused by the arterial blood being chang'd into choler , which was equally both before and then carried ●…o the gall-bladder ; nor is there any reason it should then be more copiously conveighed thither to be changed into choler , than at any other time . . because this opinion seems to presuppose as if all the whole mass of choler were generated in the gall-bladder , whereas it is all generated in the liver * before it comes to the bladder : as is apparent from hence , for that very much choler flows through the porus to the intestin , which never comes near the gall-bladder ; and therefore could not be generated out of the particles of the arterial blood , gliding into the bladder . . because this opinion seems also to maintain , that real choler does not pre-exist in the blood , and that the particles of it being separated from the blood , flow down into the hollow of the bladder , and are there made perfect choler . but the vanity of this opinion we have at large demonstrated . c. . artic . de generat . suc. pancreat . xxxvii . moreover what sylvius , in his addition to his disputation , alledges for the support of his opinion , do not seem to be of so much weight , as to establish his doctrine . for the insertion of the hepatic artery into the branches of the porus does not prove it , because the insertion it self is as yet very much questioned , as being grounded more upon uncertain belief than certain sight , and therefore to be laid up among those doubts which are not to be credited unless visible to the eyes . in like manner also his experiment made in a dogg , by means of a little pipe thrust into the hepatic artery , and blowing through it into the gall-bladder , is very uncertain , even by the confession of sylvius himself , thes. . moreover if the wind could be so easily blown into the concavity of the gall-bladder , store of blood might easily be also forc'd into it by the protrusion of the heart and the cystic arterys , which never was yet observ'd by any person . xxxviii . but malpigius absolutely denys the generation of choler , l. de hep . l. . believing that choler is not generated out of any blood by the mixture and concoction of several humors in the blood ; but that it is only separated from the blood by means of the glandulous balls of the liver it self , and that such as it is , it pre-exists in the blood , and therefore has need of nothing more than separation . which separation he thinks to be thus brought to pass ▪ neither , says he , is there any necessity for suction , to the end the choler should be sent to the intestins or gall-bladder through the porus , for a strong and continued compression of the glandules of the liver , caused by continual respiration , and the impulse of the blood running through the arteries , and the branches of the portae promote the office of separation in the glandulous balls , and its propulsion through the branches of the porus , as it happens in other conglomerated , and conglobated kernels , in the parotides and the like . xxxix . but herein the learned gentleman is very much mistaken , for there is in the blood coming to the liver and bilarie vessels , a certain substance intended for choler , but not choler it self . * as there is in the nourishment a certain matter , out of which a chylus is to be prepared by the mixture of a specific ferment , and the specific concoction of the stomach , which is not the chylus it self : and in the chylus there is the substance of blood , but not the blood it self : and ▪ as these humors the chylus and blood are made by specific fermentations and concoctions in the bowels , design'd for that purpose , of those things which before they were not ; in like manner the yellow and bitter choler ▪ is made out of sweet blood , and acid splenic juice ( of which neither is yellow or bitter , neither of 'em is choler , or contain any choler in themselves ) being mix'd together in the liver , and fermented and concocted after a specific manner : and the chiefest part of it ( for some of the thinnest remains mix'd with the blood , is carried to the vena cava and the heart , is separated from the rest of the blood , being unfit to be changed into choler , and is carried to the roots of the bilary vessels , and so by degrees proceeds to the porus and bilarie bladder . in like manner as in chymistry , various bodies are changed into metals , which before were not metals : and out of things void of colour , mixed and boyling together , a new colour is raised , which was not in the substance before ; as out of white salt-tartar , and transparent spirit of wine is produced a red colour . and hence it may be certainly concluded , that there is not any single separation of choler pre-existent in the blood , but a new generation of choler which was not before . as to the arguments which malpigius alledges of the pre-existency of urine in the blood , and other things too prolix to be here cited , they are not of so much moment as to prove that pre-existency of choler in the blood , and single separation from it ; when as there is not the same reason for the separation of the superfluous serum pre-existent , and the generation of necessary choler not pre-existent . of this see more in c. . already cited . xl. the natural colour of choler is yellow , the tast bitter , and somewhat tart , the substance fluid . but by several causes , all these three in a sickly habit of body suffer alteration , as the blood is either in a bad or good condition , or the splenetic iuice conveighed to the liver is more or less salt , acid , sowre , or austere . for hence arise many preternatural qualitys of choler , and as they vary , happen fevers , cholerick distempers , dysenteries , iaundice , colic pains , and several other diseases . which regner graef affirms to arise only from the corruption of the pancreatic iuice ; but contrary to experience , for the dissections of bodys that have been brought to the grave by those diseases , frequently tell us , that when the sweetbread has been firm and sound , the cause of the disease has lain hid in the liver , bladder , and other bilarie vessels ; tho' we do not deny but that the same diseases may arise from a vitious pancreas . hence there are several alterations of the colour of the choler , which is sometimes pale , sometimes saffron coloured , sometimes red , sometimes rust-coloured , and sometimes inclining to black. nevertheless regner de graef , not considering the flux of the splenetic juice to the liver , has conceiv'd a quite different opinion concerning these preternatural colours : believing that same variety of colours happens to the choler not in the gall-bladder , nor in the choler vessels , but in the duodenum , and that by the mixture of the pancreatic , acid or sowre juice , no otherwise than if it should change its natural yellow into any other colour in the gall-bladder it self . but in the dissections of bodys that have dy'd in our hospital , we have demonstratively and frequently shewn a green eruginous or rust coloured , and sometimes a blackish colour in the bladder it self before the mixture of the pancreatic juice ; nay in the daughter of the lord v●…ich , who dy'd of an eruginous flux of the belly , and after her death by me dissected in the sight of several physicians , we found the gall-bladder swell'd to the bigness of a hens egg , and full of an eruginous choler : which we have also observ'd in some other infants that have dy'd of the same diarrhoea , as also in others who have dy'd of the disease cholera . so that the various colours of the choler do not always proceed from the mixture of the pancreatic iuice in the intestins , but are often acquired in the gall-bladder , and bilary vessels , in the same manner as we have already rehearsed . of which see more in the preceding c. . xli . but now that the several humors engendered in the body being mix'd with the blood , according to the diversity of qualitys , occasion a great variety of colour , is apparent from these experiments which we have observ'd in the gall of an ox. which being mix'd with acid things , as oyle of vitriol , or tartar , or vinegar first boyl'd a little , then growing very thick , became of a green colour , but being strongly shaken in a flaggon with these acids turn'd to a whitish colour . being mix'd with ordinary cinamon water , it became more thin , more yellow , and more fluid : but being mix'd with spirit of wine ; presently separated from it , and setled at the bottom . lastly , being mixed with fair water , a little gall dyed a great deal of water of a saffron colour . xlii . of the motion of the choler we have spoken ; that is to say , that some part of it mixed with the blood , tends from the liver to the vena cava , but that the greatest part is carried to the bilary vessels , and so through the porus and gall-bladder to the intestines . but the opinions of others are far different concerning this matter . vesalius ( following the judgment of golen ) writes that the choler is drawn out of the porus to the gall-bladder , and from thence is forced down to the intestines . but this opinion fails , because it does not demonstrate the way thro' which the choler comes from the porus to the gall-bladder . to which it cannot ascend through the chanel of the gall-bladder , and through that descend again from the gall-bladder to the intestines , for that in the parts of our body there is neither any drawing of humors , nor any natural going and returning the same way . fallopius l. . observ. c. . believes that the choler of the liver does not ascend , unless when the mouth of the common meatus cholidochus is stopped by some cause or other , but that upon such an occasion it may be done . but the wrinkles and narrowness of the neck of the gall-bladder contradict this opinion , altogether impeding the ingress of the choler ascending this way ; so that the choler thrust forward from the gall-bladder it self by compressing into the common ductus cholidochus , can by no means be repell'd back into the gall-bladder by a contrary compression of the said ductus . from these backius very much differs , dissert . de corde c. . & . who asserts that the choler is carried directly out of the cystis to the common ductus cholidochus , but that the extremity of it , which ends in the intestines , is so fram'd , that it does not permit the exit of the choler , but readily gives way to the chylus descending from the stomach ; and suffers in like manner its ascent to the liver . and that it communicates as well the chylus , as more especially a part of the choler through the same hole to the pancreatic wirtzungian ductus . but the very sight it self evinces and destroys the opinion of backius , by which it appears to the eye in the dissections of living animals , that as well the choler as the pancreatic iuice break forth from their own places into the duodenum , but that nothing of the chylus can enter through that way out of the guts by a contrary conveighance . francis de le boe sylvius , introduces still another motion of the chylus , and asserts that the choler which is bred in the bladder flows to the common ductus cholidochus , and is carried from thence partly to the guts , partly ascends through the bilary porus to the liver , and there being mix'd with the blood renders it more thin ; but that no blood flows from the liver through the porus to the intestines . and this in his additament he proves from hence , because that by blowing through a reed there is a passage open from the porus to the liver . a most egregious consequence ; and this is such another . the breath blown through a pipe into the ureter , passes into the kidney , and farther into the emulgent vein , and vena cava , therefore the urinous serum is carried out of the bladder through the ureter to the kidney . certainly it would be very strange , if the choler which is bred in the liver , and from thence once empty'd into the vesicle , should return through the porus to the liver . but the falshood of this opinion appears from many things already said . first from the rare constitution of the gall vessels : and the force of it is quite enervated by the experiment of the perspicacious malpigius , l. de hep . c. . in a cat , saith he , of a few months old , where the gall-bladder is conspicuously prominent , i have ty'd the neck of the cystis with a thread , and empty'd it out of a wound in the middle . then have i again bound the extremity of the ductus cholidochus , where it opens into the intestin : then the creature still living for some convenient space of time , i have found the intercepted bilary porus extreamly swell'd , and a portion of the common ductus cholidochus . and that i might prevent all possibility of separating the choler by the help of the cystis , after i had first ty'd a hard knot in the neck of it , i cut off the cystis it self , and threw it away . and yet i found the same swelling follow in the hollow'd pores by reason of the flowing choler . moreover i try'd with my finger to drive upward the choler contained in the vessels that so swell'd , yet would it return with a force , nor could be kept back unless with an extraordinary violence . a little after he adds , it is most certain , from many times repeated observation , that the extremity of the cystic passage being bound , so that not the least part of the substance of the cystis or of its neck , remain beyond the ligature , but that only the common ductus cholidochus , and the bilary porus may run directly toward the intestines ; and then tying another knot near the jejunum , a remarkable quantity of choler will be collected together , and evacuated out of a small wound made beyond the ligature in the mid way ; which knot may be several times unty'd , that the porus bilarius being plentifully fill'd may be emptied again . xliii . to which experiment may be added three or four observations of riolanus , anthropog . l. . c. . from whence it appears as plain as day , that the choler flowing from the gall-bladder never ascends thorough the bilary porus to the liver ; and that no choler often descends from the bladder , yet in the interim flows in great quantity from the liver through the poras communis to the intestines , and therein , if it be endu'd with bad qualities , produces diarrhoeas , dysenteries , the disease cholera , cruel gripings , and other distempers . xliv . concerning the use of the bladder , there have been hitherto great disputes among the most eminent doctors . aristotle thought it to be separated from the blood , as a meer noxious excrement ; whose opinion is followed by many . and hence it is that bauhinus , anat. l. . c. . makes a doubt whether the collection of the choler in the bladder be necessary to life ; when the ancients affirm'd the cause of long life to be the emptiness of the gall-bladder , deducing their argument from harts , that have no gall , and yet live long . haly abbas , and avicen , say that it heats and strengthens the liver , and helps its concoction . zirbus writes , that it defends the liver and other parts from putrefaction . which opinion , tho' it be exploded by vesalius , yet does it not displease riolanus . helmont asserts it to be the balsom of the liver , and all the blood. glisson asserts that it does not only preserve the liver from putrefaction , but prevents its obstructions , purifies the blood , and hinders its coagulation . veslingius also says that it preserves the very chylus from putrefaction . many neoterics , according to the opinion of galen , have design'd only to promote the evacuation of the excrements out of the guts ; which bartholine says , are thereby made fluid , and fit for motion . and thus all have made a doubt concerning the use of this noble juice , which is found to be wanting in no man , and which no man can live without : and of which fernelius writes , that many people have dy'd , in whom there has been found no other cause of their death , than that the gall-bladder was altogether empty of gall. xlv . manifest therefore it is , that choler has a more noble use , than hitherto has been ascrib'd to it by physicians and philosophers . and indeed the chiefest use of it is to be serviceable to fermentation . of which more at large c. . chap. xvi . of the spleen . i. the spleen , call'd by the latines splen , by the greeks 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , is an organic part , or bowel seated in the left hypochondrium , under the diaphragma , between the stomach and the ribs . ii. it is very rare , or rather prodigious , as both aristotle and pliny testifie , that the spleen should change places with the liver , that is , that this should be in the left , and the other in the right hypochondrium , which nevertheless has been observ'd by cornelius gemma , and talentonius . and such an unusual accident cattierus describes ; and bartholine relates two or three histories to the same purpose , observat . anat. rar . cent. . hist. also it is as unusual for the spleen to be wanting ; which defect nevertheless hollerias reports that he saw in a certain woman , and was found in ortelius , as has been said c. . andrew laurentius also makes mention of a body dissected at paris , that had no spleen ; in which the splenetick branch ended in a small glandulous body . thus kerckringius in his anat. observ. writes , that in two births dissected at amsterdam , he observ'd the spleen to be wanting . aristotle also testifies that the spleen is wanting in several creatures , l. . de part . animal . all creatures , saith he , that have blood have a liver , but all have not a spleen . and c. . all most perfect creatures only have a spleen . thus riolanus , following aristotle's opinion , creatures that have none or very small lungs , have none or a very small spleen . ent also in apolog. writes that he has observ'd several birds to have no spleen . iii. in men it is generally but one , and seldom exceeds that number . nevertheless cabrolius , observ. . as also posthius , and dominic de marchettis , have fo●…nd two . fallopius observes , in observ. that he has seen three ; frequently in dogs there are two , not so often three ; unequal in bigness ; out of each of which there is a vessel extended to the splenetick branch . and the same thing perhaps may fall out in other creatures . for aristotle de generat . animal . l. . c. . writes that some brute creatures have a double spleen ; and that some have none at all . iv. the convex part of it is knit to the diaphragma , not so fast and tite as the liver , but superficially , as also to the left kidney by small membranous fibres springing from the peritonaeum . and yet in novemb. . we found so fast a connexion of it to the diaphragma , the left kidney , and the left lobe of the liver , extended so far , that the connexion could hardly be sever'd without dilaceration : but this rarely happens . the flat part adheres to the caul , and the adjoyning parts , and being so bound , in sane bodies seldom descends beyond the lowest rib : but the ligaments being loosen'd , it is felt in a lower place , to the great disturbance of health ; but the ligaments being quite broken , somtimes it slides down into the hypogastri●…m ; which cabrolius observ'd to have happened to a certain noble man ; whose spleen swam upon the whole concavity of his belly * and which by riolanus was seen in a parisian woman , whose spleen rested upon her womb , and for two years deceiv'd the physicians , who took it for a mole ; whereas when the dead body was open'd , the cause of the swelling , and the womans death , were both found together to have proceeded from the spleens being fall'n down out of its place . v. the bigness of the spleen in men is various , according to the diversity of bodies and constitutions . for generally it is six inches long , three broad , and about the thickness of the thumb . i●… diseased bodies it sometimes grows to an enormous bigness ; so that its protuberancy beyond the ribs may be both felt and seen . the●… that inhabit moist regions and fenny places , have large spleens . lindan reports also , that the common people of friezland , that use for their common drink sowre butter-milk , have great livers . in the year . i dissected a body , wherein i found a four square hard spleen , about the bigness of a mans head . fernelius also writes that there was a liver seen , that for bulk and quantity exceeded the liver . wepfer found a spleen in the body of a noble woman , that in length exceeded five hands breadth , four in breadth , and one and a half in thickness , and weighed about six common pounds , and so exceeded the liver in bigness . aetius l. . c. , . writes , that in splenetic persons this bowel sometimes reaches in length to the groins , and with its breadth touches the liver . such great spleens as these vesalius also and marcellus donatus testifie that they have seen themselves . and cabrolius makes mention of one that weigh'd five pounds . schenkius also relates out of gamerus the story of one that weigh'd three and twenty pound . but such prodigious bulks are very unusual . in the mean time , the more preternaturally big this bowel is , the worse it is with the patient whose body is the more extenuated thereby , because it does not afford matter sufficient to accomplish convenient fermentation in the liver , of which the blood being destitute , cannot be attenuated and brought to persection as it ought to be ; but is left , sowre , acid , thick , and otherwise unprofitable for the nourishment of the parts . from whence arises the scurvy , as hippocrates first observ'd , l. . poreth . they , saith he , are troubled with bad gums , and stinking breaths , who have large spleens : but they who having large spleens are subject to bleed , and yet have no ill smell in their mouths , they are troubled with bad ulcers and black spots in their legs . vi. spigelius has observ'd , that they who have large veins , have larger spleens , and therefore lean people are more subject to swoll'n spleens than they who are fat . vii . rarely the spleen is less than its natural proportion , and yet i remember some examples of such . . vidus vidius the younger , l. . de curat . morb. c. . in the body of a man very cachectic , found a spleen no bigger than a pigeons egg , almost as hard as a stone . . salmuth cent. . observ . . in a woman that dyed in child-bed , otherwise very healthy while she lived , had found a spleen so small , that it hardly exceeded the bigness of a man's thumb . . riolanus also reports that the spleen of thuanus the historian hardly weigh'd an ounce . . conringius asfirms , that hardly any footstep of a spleen appeared in the princess of luxemburgh . viii . the shape of it is oblong , like an oxe's tongue , whence some have call'd it the tongue-bowel , as being not unlike it in oxen , dogs , and many other brutes : it is somewhat full of crinkles within side ; but the outside is somewhat bunchy or bossie . but in man the shape of it is found to receive sundry figures : as being in some triangular , in others gibbous , square , round , sharp pointed ; and in others distinguish'd into lobes . the uppermost and thicker part of it is call'd by hippocrates and ruffus the head , the thinner part the tail. ix . the colour in a child in the womb is ruddy ; in persons grown up to maturity of a lead colour , or black and bluish . and spigelius has observ'd it , and sh●…wn it in dissection of grown persons , when it has been as red as the liver , which has been also observ'd by vesalius , bauhinus , and conringius . the cause of which variety of colour proceeds from variety of dyet , and alteration of temper and heat ; for thereby is caus'd a great alteration of the humors of the whole body , and so of those humours that are carried to the spleen , whence the variety of colour . x. it is surrounded with a double membrane ; one exterior from the peritonaeum ; the other thin and proper to it self , proceeding from the exterior membranes of the vessels entring the spleen , and interwoven with a neat and wonderful contexture of fibres . which tunicles or membranes have their arteries , veins , and nerves from those that pass through the inner substance . malpigius l. de lien . c. . remarks a wonderful hardness of the inner membrane , not yet observ'd by us. it is observ'd , says he , by many , that that membrane becomes bony ; and boschius has seen it so hard toward the muscles of the abdomen , that he suspected some scyrrhosity to be within it . and many times , especially in sheep , i have observ'd little stones of a pargetty substance , ulcers ●…all'd melicerides , and other tumours , proceeding perhaps from the various conglutinating matter breaking forth from the extremities of the vessels . in the next chapter he writes , that he himself once saw that cartilaginous or gristly membrane in an ox , and that the same was observ'd by spigelius . xi . between both membranes shoot forth various lymphatic vessels , like a kind of a net , furnish'd with several valves , which according to the observation of malpigius , contain a yellowish or somewhat reddish liquor , but by my own , and the observation of others , a limpid , and by conspicuous passages carried through the cawle , cast forth into the receptacle of the chylus . all which arise from many very small conglomerated kernels contain'd in the spleen . xii . it is also furnish'd with innumerable fibres thin and strong , compos'd of little strings twisted together with a wonderful piece of workmanship , without any hollowness in themselves . glisson indeed attributes something of hollowness to 'em , and misguided by that error , that he thought they contributed to conveigh the alimentary juice to the nerves . malpigius altogether doubtful as to their cavity , confesses he could not perceive it , and yet leaves it to more piercing and fortunate inventions to determine the matter . others , less accurate inspectors , believ'd those fibres to be a contexture of the smallest sanguiferous vessels . xiii . besides the foremention'd lymphatic vessels conspicuous among the tunicles , it receives also other vessels , as arteries , veins , and nerves , dispers'd thorough its whole body . xiv . it is watered with two arteries , one entring the upper part , the other the lower part : which malpigius observ'd to enter the parenchyma , or substance of the spleen in an ox and sheep with one branch , but in a dog , a horse , and several other creatures , with three or four branches . these arteries are carried from the branch of the left coeliaca , which they call the splenetick artery , and sometimes from a certain branch going forth from the trunk of the aorta , and with a winding course proceeding to the spleen by the side of the pancreas , and being there divided into a thousand branches , are dispers'd all over it . through these arteries the blood is forc'd , for which if there be not a passage sufficiently free , to the roots of the veins and the splenetick branch , so that it comes to boyl too much in the spleen , there happens a pulsation in the spleen no less than that in the arteries . of which tulpius relates a miraculous story , l. . observ. . of a pulsation of the liver that was heard at the distance of thirty foot . xv. it sends forth a great vein from the flat part , call'd the splenetic branch , which sticks close to the parenchyma with numberless roots , out of which insensibly closing together , sometimes three , sometimes four or more greater branches are found , by and by concurring altogether into that one splenetick branch which runs forth athwart under the ventricle , through the upper parts of the caul , to the vena portae , and discharges it self into it . xvi . highmore denies so many veins , or that they run so far into the bowel , and asserts the numerous sanguiferous vessels to be only little branches of the arteries dispers'd through the whole bowel , and believes the anatomists to be deceiv'd , as mistaking fibres for veins . but this same bowel , of so remarkable a bigness , in respect of its function , cannot but have many blood-bearing vessels of both sorts , which tho' they can hardly be demonstrated perfectly distinct , yet may they be comprehended by the understanding . for if there be so many arteries that pour blood into the bowel , there must be also many veins to assume that infus'd blood , and to carry it into the splenetick branch ; for otherwise there would be a restagnation of the blood , and consequently a tumor and inflammation of the bowel . xvii . highmore hath also observ'd in the said veins at the exit out of the spleen , certain little valves looking forth from the spleen , and soplac'd , as to suffer nothing to flow from the splenetick branch to the spleen , but only the humours from the spleen into the splenetick branch . which valves , tho' by reason of their extraordinary thinness , they can hardly be demonstrated , yet are they presently perceiv'd , so soon as the splenetick branch is puff't up , or that water be injected into it through a syringe ; for then they hinder the breath and the water from penetrating into the spleen . xviii . bauhlnus , bartholine , and some others write , that in the inner part of the bowel , several branches of arteries close together with the ends of the veins by anastomoses , by which means the blood is transfus'd out of them into these ; and so flow to the splenetick branch . but this seems not so probable , seeing that the blood in such a passage or transfusion only cannot acquire a requisite subacid fermentative quality . and hence it is necessary , that that transfusion of the blood be made by some interceding medium ( as happens in the liver , of which we shall say more below , when we come to discourse of the function of the spleen . in the mean while one remarkable anastomosis is to be observ'd ( rarely two ) by which the trunk of the artery , before it enters the spleen , closes with the splenetick branch . which seems to be form'd to that end , partly that the arterious blood ▪ by its mixture , may render the humours more fluid that are carried out of the spleen to the splenetic branch , and excite 'em to more speedy motion . partly , that the redundant and superfluous blood , which by reason of the narrowness of the passages cannot pass with that requisite swiftness through the spleen , may flow through this anastomosis into the splenetick branch . xix . now there is a vessel call'd vas venosum breve , which enters the splenetick branch , not far from , or rather just at its going forth , frequently in man at the very exit of the branch out of the spleen ; in beasts , a little farther off , the roots of which vessel sticking to the ventricle , meet together about the bottom of it , seldom joyning into one , frequently into two or more chanels , and so constitute sometimes one , sometimes two or three vasa brevia , which all shoot forth into the splenetick branch . in dogs and other brute beasts , rarely one , frequent several vasa brevia , descend into the said splenetick vessel . xx. sometimes a certain vein ascending upwards from the inner part of the podex , enters the splenetick branch at the lower part , and pours forth its blood into it . the roots of which adhering to the inner part of the podex , are call'd venae haemorrhoidales internae , the internal haemorrhoidal veins , of which nevertheless the trunk is most frequently inserted into the le●…t mesenteric vein . these vessels , that is to say arteries and veins , before their entrance , are covered with a double tunicle ; the outermost of which they put off when they enter , and cast next about the spleen , and by that means the tunicle of the spleen is made out of it . xxi . besides the forementioned vessels carrying manifest humours , some there are who tell us of milkie vessels . but it is most certain that no milkie vessels shoot forth to the spleen . for if the chylus were carried thither , it would run the hazard of a coagulation , by reason of the acidity of the splenetick liquor . and therefore they are also mistaken who think that part of the chylus ascends from the vena portae , through the splenetic branch to the spleen , as was formerly asserted by the ancients , and lately by ent , apolog. art. . but through that branch , as well the blood that remains out of the nourishment of the stomach , as that which is after a peculiar manner concocted in the spleen is swiftly carried through the vena portae and the liver . which is most apparent in the dissections of living animals by a knot fasten'd upon that branch . for presently a swelling will arise between the ligature and the spleen , and a lankness toward the vena portae . which ligature , if it be ty'd in live dogs , somewhat before the entrance of the vas breve into the splenetick branch , then the swelling will appear between the spleen and the ligature , and the lankness on the other side . which is a certain sign , that none of the thinnest chylus , which nevertheless regius inculcates is carried from the stomach to the spleen through vas venosum breve , or other gastric vessels , to be there alter'd into a fermentaceous matter ; but that the venal blood only descends from the ventricle through that vessel , and flows directly through the splenetick branch to the vena portae . moreover if the said ligature be ty'd upon the vas breve it self , then are we taught another thing ; for then presently the swelling appears between the ligature and the vessel , and the lankness toward the splenetick branch . by which it is plain , that the blood descends from the veins of the ventricle , as has been said , but that no melancholy or acid juice ascends this way to the ventricle , and is pour'd forth to create hunger , according to the assertion of the ancients . lastly , if the short vessel be open'd by incision above the ligature , and the liquor flowing out be taken up in a spoon , any man may see that it is only the pure venal blood , without any mixture of chylus ; and that it differs not a jot either in substance or in colour , from any other venal blood ; and this whether you look upon it warm or cold . which plainly overthrows the opinion of those , who affirm part of the chylus to be carried to the spleen through those passages . an opinion which we have sufficiently refuted in the seventh chapter above . xxii . besides the foresaid vessels , the spleen also receives two little branches of nerves , deriv'd from the costal branch of the sixth pair , which do not only pass through the outward tunicle , and not lose themselves there , as was formerly thought by many , but penetrating further inward , are distributed through the innermost parts of the bowel , with a manifold ramification , which little branches accompany the blood-bearing vessels , and are enfolded in the same covering with them , being form'd out of the proper membrane that covers the spleen , which at the entrance of the vessels turning inward , and shap'd into the fashion of a pipe , accompanies , and as it were gathers into a bundle the ramifications of the said vessels glisson also observes that these nerves , the nearer they approach to the spleen , the larger they grow ; as they likewise do in a little space after they have enter'd the spleen . xxiii . moreover , glisson writes , that the ends of these nerves are united with nervous fibres , and by that means a certain alimentary liquor is infus'd out of the one into the other , and carried from these to the greater nerves ( which alimentary liquor , he says withal , is pour'd forth through the parenchyma of the spleen , being first extended by the fibres themselves ) afterwards this liquor is conveigh'd into the folding of the nerves adjoyning to the renal glandules , from thence , as occasion shall serve , to be distributed into all the nerves of the body , either immediately through the nerves of the sixth pair , or by the means of the brain and spinal marrow ; and so to be carried to all parts of the body . but the most learned person is in this particular altogether out of the way . for , as has been said , the fibres are not hollow , nor have the nerves sufficient cavities through which any liquor prepared in the spleen can pass : nor was ever any anatomist so quick-sighted as to see any liquor in the nerves , or that after dissection could squeez the least drop out of ' em . besides , it is unquestionable , and no more than what is receiv'd and establish'd by all philosophers , that the animal spirits are thrust forward through the invisible pores of the nerves from the brain and oblong marrow into all the parts of the body : now then , shall any other visible alimentary liquor , thicker than the spirits , ascend from the spleen to the brain , or its marrow through the same invisible pores by any other chanel or stream ? will the nerves receive the alimentary juice from the spleen into themselves , not only to be cast forth into other parts , but also to be remitted back into the spleen it self ? shall at another time the smallest drop of liquor falling upon the nerves beget a palsie , and shall this entring in abundance out of the spleen produce no harm ? these are very great absurdities , and therefore an opinion supported by such slender props must fall of necessity . see more of this l. . c. . xxiv . here some one perhaps may put the question how it comes to pass , that the spleen furnish'd with so many little branches of nerves should be so dull of feeling , seeing that the nerves are not only endued with a most quick sense , but also contribute to all the membranous parts by the animal spirits a most acute feeling ? the reason of this is , because there is a continual numness upon those nerves occasioned by the subacid substance of the spleen , which is perceived in the tast of the spleen being boyl'd , and sowre withal , as also by acid fermentative iuice which is bred therein , encompassing the nerves . as the chewing of acid and sowre things begets a numness in the teeth , so that their sense of feeling is much less , or at least more obtuse than at another time . and thus much concerning the vessels , whose state and condition , how they were found out by accurate inspection into the spleen of an ox , malpigius describes l. de lien . c. . xxv . after the fibres and the vessels , the substance it self of the spleen is to be enquired into ; which in a sound spleen is somewhat hard and firm ; and endures handling without any harm ; but in a sickly condition of health grows softer and is easily dissolv'd . thus in scorbutic and hypochondriacal persons i have often found it so soft upon dissection , that with the least touch the finger would enter into it : and the external air would easily dissolve it ; tho' outwardly at first sight there was nothing to be discovered amiss either in bigness or colour . i dissected a scorbutic thief that was hang'd in march . the substance of whose spleen was very soft ; yet neither exceeding due proportion nor ill colour ; and at that time , being cold weather , within two days , it was dissolved by the external air into a frothy liquor of an obscure red colour , so that unless it were several fibres and thin vessels , there was nothing solid appeared within its membrane . from whence appears the mistake of many , who in the scurvy and hypochondriacal distemper , quartan agues , and other diseases arising from the spleen , always lay the fault upon the obstruction , hardness , and tumor of this bowel , when for the most part there is nevertheless no such fault in it to be found in those that dye of those distempers , and only some specific dyscrasis or peculiar disposition of the part receding from its natural sanity , are the cause of these distempers ; while that peculiar indisposition begets some matter either too acid or too sharp , too weak or too fix'd , or some other way out of order . yet we do not deny but that in a preternatural state , sometimes it becomes so brawny and hard , that it may be felt without side of the body . nay george queccius , a physician of norimberg and schenckius , have seen spleens that have been crusted in the middle with a cartilaginous substance . xxvi . many have affirm'd that this substance is like the substance of the liver , and that this bowel performs the same office with it , and that when that bowel is out of order , this bowel alone does its duty . but the dissimilitude of each part is sufficiently apparent both from the colour and the tast. for the colour , which in a raw liver is ruddy and altogether sanguine , in the spleen is black and blue , or of a leaden colour . and that which in a boyl'd or roasted liver is somewhat yellowish , in a roasted spleen is like the dreggs of red wine . then the tast of a boyl'd liver is between bitterish and sweetish ; the tast of a boyl'd spleen is somewhat acid and sowrish . xxvii . it is commonly held , that the substance of the spleen is a certain mass of clotted blood , supporting the vessels that run through it ; because it is easily made fluid by a slight attrition . but malpigius , utterly destroys this opinion , who having accurately searched into the mysteries of this bowel with his microscopes , writes that the whole body of the spleen is a membranous mass distinguished into little cells and apartments , and not so thick a body as it has been formerly describ'd to be , but loose and thin . and to this knowledg he attain'd by a particular experiment : that is by blowing up the spleen through the splenetic artery and branch , till it was very much swollen , and drying it swell'd as it was ; for so , he says , it may be plainly seen , that the whole mass of the spleen consists of membranous ends or cells like the cells of hony-combs . and as for the original of these cells , and their wonderful structure , he elegantly and at large describes it in his book de liene , where it is to be read . xxviii . the same malpigius was the first that observed in the substance of the spleen several little glandules worthy observation : of which he thus writes . in the spleen , says he , are to be observ'd several numerous clusters of little glandules , or rather little bladders or baggs dispersed through the whole spleen , that resemble a cluster of grapes exactly . the least of these glandules are of an oval figure , and in bigness little differ from the ▪ glandules of the kidneys . their colour as i have always observ'd , is white ; and altho ' the vasa sanguinea of the spleen by the pouring in of ink swell and play about 'em , these preserve the same colour . their substance seems to be membranous ; but soft and subject to crumble . their hollowness by reason of their extraordinary smallness , is not perceptible to the eye , and only to be apprehended by conjecture ▪ while being slit they seem to fall one into another . they are very numerous and almost innumerable , and are wonderfully placed in the forementioned cells of the whole spleen , where vulgarly its parenchyma is said to be . also from the slips there hang little boxes , or else from the fibres that arise from it : and besides the ends of the arteries like young vine shoots , or crawling ivy creep about 'em , which is to be observ'd in a fresh splee●… , the arteries being blacken'd . they hang for the most part in clusters , every cluster containing seven or eight . yet they do not so easily appear in the spleen of every creature . nay in the spleen of an ox , a sheep , or a goat , they are only to be discovered upon laceration of the bowel ; or by a slight shaving with a penkife , and long washing with fair water . they are not so eas●…ly discrib'd in a man. but if by the occasion of any disease the whole body of the ▪ glandules swell , they appear more manifest , being enlarg'd in bigness , as i observ'd in a girl that dy'd , whose spleen was full of little globes dispersed in clusters . more than this in the same place he tells ye his opinion of the use of glandules , and what separation of humors is made therein in a discourse at large . certainly we are much indebted to this quicksighted malpigius , who by his microscopes , has so clearly dispell'd the thick clouds that hung over the knowledg of the spleen , to the end the use of it , which was doubtful before , may be the better understood . xxix . sometimes unusual things have been found in the spleen , vesalius l. . de corp. fab . c. . writes that he found in the spleen of a certain person , small enough , but of an extraordinary hardness , fat growing to the gibbous or bunchy part , compacted together like a hard white stone . schenkius , observ. l. . relates that there was found in the body of a spoletan lord a spleen without any juice or pulp at all , empty like a purse , and fix'd to the left ribs . t●…rneiferus in exam. urin. writes that he found a stone in the spleen of a certain noble woman , of the bigness of a chestnut , soft as alabaster , weighing two ounces and five drams , consisting as it were of thin places wrapt one within another like eggshels . in like manner fallopius has observed stones to be bred in the spleen . in the year . in ianuary , we dissected a woman in the presence of several spectators , whose spleen was exact , as to its proportion , and for heat and hardness well enough ; but in the fore-part , where it looks toward the stomach , we observ'd a white substance much different from the substance of the bowel , hard and firm , and which would scarce give way to the crushing of the fingers , about the bigness of a goose egg , not growing withoutside to the bowel , nor swelling outward from it , but plainly and truly continuous with it , and being a part of it , tho' nothing like the other particles of the bowel ; neither could it be called fat or a glandule , from whose service it differ'd altogether . xxx . concerning the temper of the spleen , some question whether it be to be call'd a hot or a cold part ? to which i answer that it ought to be call'd a cold part. not that it is really cold , but less hot than the heart , liver , and many other bowels ; and besides , because it refrigerates the arterious blood that flows into it , and makes it subacid ; and fixes and dulls its sulphury hot particles , and deprives 'em of all their volatilitie . xxxi . concerning the action of the spleen , various are the opinions of the learned . erasistratus , and ruffus the ephesian will allow it no office or function . aristotle affirms it to be necessary by accident , like the excrements of the belly and bladder . hippocrates calls the spleen a fountain of water . and hence perhaps wharton affirms that it sucks forth a watry liquor out of the blood , but to what end cannot be discovered , unless it be for the nourishment of the nerves : which opinion we have sufficiently refuted ; to which he adds several other things of little moment concerning the use of the spleen . xxxii . many according to the opinion of galen and the ancients , believed the office of it to be , to separate the feculent or melancholy part of the chylus , and to attract it through the splenetic ▪ branch , and to collect it into its self ( as the gall-bladder receives the yellow choler ) and to concoct it somwhat , than to empty it again partly through the vas breve into the stomach to excite hunger , and partly through the splenetic branch into the intestins , and through the haemorrhoidal vein to the podex . which opinion bauhinus , riolan , and bartholine , have refuted by many and almost the same reasons ; tho' there were little need of so many , when these three are sufficient to destroy it . . because there is no such large hollowness in the spleen , where such excrement should be stor'd up . . because there is no way through which it may be commodiously evacuated , since it neither ought nor can pass and repass through the same splenetic branch . . because if in a living animal you tye a knot upon the splenetic vein , the vas venosum breve , and the haemorrhoidal vein , it demonstrates the contrary , as we have already shown , which demonstration alone is sufficient to destroy that fond opinion . xxxiii . vesalius , plater , charles piso , bauhin , spigelius , jessenus , and many others , affirm'd the spleen to be a sanguifying bowel , no less than the liver , and call'd it , as aristotle does , hepar vicarium , the deputy-liver : believing when the liver was distempered , that this bowel did execute its office. chiefly enduc'd by this argument , because the spleen in the birth is of a ruddy colour , just like the liver , and for that the spleen being deprav'd , sanguification is annoy'd . then they thought , that that same blood which was made in the spleen serv'd for the nourishment of bowels contain'd in the abdomen , as the liver-blood serves for the nourishment of the rest of the parts . which splenetick blood they affirm'd was made of the watry feculent chylus , which some believe to be carried thither through the milkie vessels , others from the stomach through the vas breve , and others , that it was attracted by the spleen through the splenetic branch . but this opinion by many things already said , is most plainly overturned : seeing the work of sanguification is not accomplished either by the liver or the spleen , but only by the heart : there being no vessels that proceed from the liver through which any blood can conveniently flow to the nourishment of the parts seated in the abdomen : neither are there any passages that convey the chylus to the spleen , as being a part to which no milkie vessels run : neither is any thing carried through the vas venosum breve from the stomach ; seeing that the said vas breve is not inserted into the spleen , but into the splenetic branch without the spleen ; nor can any attraction be made of the splenetic branch toward the spleen , as is before prov'd . veslingius therefore observing this difficulty of the access of the chylus , flyes to the invisible pores of the ventricle ; through which he says , there is a watry chylus conveighed to the spleen ; but proves it by no reasons . lastly this opinion is totally refuted by the circular motion of the blood , by which it is apparent that no blood is carried to the parts from the liver or spleen through the veins for the ends of nutrition ; nor can be carried by any manner of means by reason of the obstructing valves ; but that the boold is all trans●…uted from the heart through the arteries to all the parts . xxxiv . emilius parisanus , subtil . l. . exercit. . c. . following the opinion of ulmus , believes that the spleen prepares arterious blood out of the best part of the chylus for the left ventricle of the heart ; which blood is carried through the arteries into the aorta , and thence into the left ventricle of the heart . which fiction ent deservedly derides and explodes , apolog. artic. . galen also writes , that some of the scholars of erasistratus believ'd that the whole chylus was carried to the spleen , by which it was made into a courser sort of blood for the liver . but both these opinions are so absurd , that if we only consider the passages and motion of the blood , they want no farther refutation . xxxv . walaeus observing that there was no motion of the humours through the splenetick branch to the spleen , nor that any milkie vessels reach'd thither , concluded rightly , that the matter concocted in the spleen is arterial blood infus'd into it through the coeliaca . only in this he fail'd , that he thought the spleen attracted to it self the acid part of the blood , and not the rest , as if the spleen being endu'd with judgment and taste , was more pleas'd with the acid than the sweet part , and not only could distinguish , but knew how to separate the one from the other . moreover , he consider'd not , that in arterial blood there are no particles actually acid , but that acid particles are generated in the spleen out of the saltest particles of it , which being mix'd with the venal blood , serve instead of a ferment , whose slightest acidity concocted in a specific manner in the liver with the sulphurous particles , changes it into a biliary ferment , which by that effervescency that is made in the heart , perishes again and vanishes . xxxvi . glisson asserts that the chief action of the spleen is to make alimentary liquor for the nourishment of the nerves , which opinion we rejected when we discours'd of the nerves of the spleen . xxxvii . as for helmont's opinion , who places the seat of the sensitive soul in the spleen , it is not worth a refutation . xxxviii . the most accurate and industrious malpigius , being very much dissatisfied concerning the action and use of the spleen , to the end he might be able to assert something more certain than others had done , resolv'd to try an ingenious experiment , hoping thereby to discover some light in this obscure darkness . in a young dog ( says he ) having made a wound in the left hypochondrium , the bloody vessels of the spleen bursting forth at the gates of the spleen , were ty'd with a string , then thrusting back what was coming forth into their places , the peritonaeum and muscles being sow'd up together , and the skin loosly united , in a few days time the wound was cur'd . in a weeks time the dog recover'd , and ran about as he us'd to do , so that as long as he liv'd there was no sign observ'd that any harm had been done him , or of the hurt of his health : but becoming more hungry , he greedily devour'd his meat , and eat bones or any thing of that nature ; and his excrement observ'd the exact course of nature . one thing only i observ'd , that the dog piss't frequently , and very much ; which though it be customary to other dogs , yet this seem'd to exceed the common custome . the habit of body every way healthy and fat ; and in nimbleness and briskness equal to others of his kind . but this was peculiar in the external habit of his body , a swelling of the right hypochondrium , so that the extream ribs burgeon'd out beyond the rest . thereupon , fresh hopes encouraging , a second dissection is design'd . the spleen then in the slit abdomen whose vessels were fast ty'd , appear'd very slender , so that being wrapt with the caul , there hardly remain'd any footstep of it behind . for it resembled a small bag interwoven with membranes : the blood-vessels numerously dispers'd to the stomach , and through the caul , were entire and flourishing , and full of blood . the splenetic branch open , and natural , surrounded with its natural fat . the liver to sight , as to substance , colour , and shootings forth of the branches , all in good order : only you might have said it exceeded a little in bigness , in regard it spread it self largely over the left hypochondrium . neither was there any thing found amiss in the breast or the abdomen , or the fleshy part : the blood brisk , ruddy , and fluid . all these things being found in a dog , gave us not the least light to find out the use of the liver . certainly it is a wonder that nothing could be learnt or found out concerning the use of the spleen : nevertheless i put down this , that i might excite others to make the like experiments ; that so at length the true use of the spleen may come not only to be taught by reason , but to be shewn and prov'd by demonstration . xxxix . from what has been said , it is abundantly apparent how various and uncertain the opinions of most doctors are concerning the use of the spleen , so that hardly any one has hit upon the true use of it ; which is no other , than to make acid matter out of the arterial blood , out of which being again mix'd with the sulphurous particles in the liver , and concocted after a specific manner , the bilious ferment of the blood and chylus is made . but how that acid matter or juice is generated within it , is not so easie to be explain'd . that operation seems to proceed in this manner . in the substance of the liver , which is acid by nature , are contain'd many glandules ; now the blood is pour'd into those small glandules through the ends of the arteries ; and into that the animal spirits are infus'd through the ends of the nerves , concluding in those glandules , which taming the sulphurous spirit of the blood , give it a slight acrimony ; with which being once endu'd by the compression of the adjoyning parts , it is squeez'd out of the said glandules , and swallowed up by the roots of the splenetick vein ; and so flows through the splenetick vein through the porta and liver . but before it runs under the roots of the veins , it seems to stay in the adjacent cells , whose substance is acid , and by that stay acquires in them a more eager acidity , as wine standing in a vinegar vessel , acquires a more acid acrimony . xl. here arises a question , whether the spleen be a vessel necessary to life ; and whether it may be taken and cut out of a man's body , and the wound heal'd again without any damage of life or health ? for the affirmative part the authority of pliny offers it self , who l. . c. . thus writes , it is certain that the bird call'd aegocephalus has no spleen , nor any of those creatures that want blood . it is many times a peculiar impediment , and therefore they that are troubled with it , have it burnt out ; and creatures are said to live after it is taken out by incision . trallian seems to prove plinies opinion by a practical example , who l. . relates that a soldier was once cur'd by him , the whole region of whose spleen had been burnt with barbarous hot iron-tools . bartholine also cent. . anat. rar . hist. . endeavours to confirm the authority of pliny , by the experience of fierovantus , boasting that he had cut the spleen out of a certain woman , and so restor'd her to health ; of which he writes there is no question to be made , because of the witnesses , whereas he produces no witnesses of any credit . this experiment of fierovantus , deusingius both quotes and admires , and out of francis rousset , brings the testimonies of two inconsiderable obscure surgeons , who affirm'd that they had taken out spleens that were alter'd and wounded , and had heal'd the patients with success ; and giving undoubted credit to these testimonials , he concludes concerning the spleen ; this bowel is not necessary for life , but only for a more happy constitution of health ; not so much to being , as to well-being ; not to nutrition and preservation simply , but to a better nutrition , as the generation of a thinner , more elaborate , and more spiritous blood. to the confirmation of which opinion , the foregoing experiment of malpigius very much conduces , taken out of the same author . and that same new way , lately first invented in england , of cutting the spleen out of dogs that live for all that , seems very much to favour this opinion . as we also , with several others , have seen a whole spleen taken , or cut out of a dog , the abdomen of the left side being slit by regnerde graesf , and the vessels of the spleen well ty'd with a strong thred : afterwards the wo●…nd being cur'd , the dog was recover'd , for which reason we call'd the dog spleenless . at the same time the same accurate dissecter r. de graesf , told us , that the english gave him an account , how that those dogs after their spleens were taken out , were afterwards always barren : and that therefore he resolv'd to try the experiment in a bitch , which he kept after he had cut out the spleen and cur'd the wound : but thls bitch growing proud was lin'd by a dog , and whelp'd two puppies , by which he refuted the observation of the english. all these things seem to shew that there is no great necessity of this bowol for life , nor so noble a use as hitherto has been attributed to it . the negative is maintain'd , not only by the ancients , but also by levinus lemnius , toby knoblock , lindan , and innumerable other neoteric physicians ; nay , of six thousand you shall hardly find one that does not altogether explode the former opinion . of which c●…lius aurelianus thus writes ; that the spleen may be cut or taken away , we have heard indeed related in words , but never actually perform'd . reason also and experience support the same negative . xli . reason : for that the chief architect never made any thing in our bodies in vain , and therefore all the bowels , none excepted , and all the parts are found and given to some necessary use. what man then in his sen●…s can believe , that so eminent and large a bowel as the spleen is , and with which all creatures that have blood , except some few , are endu'd , should be given in vain to men and beasts , without any necessity for human life . of whose true function and use , altho' we in these darknesses of nature , may not perhaps so rightly judge , and raise sharp disputes upon this subject , yet this does not take away the use of the bowel it self for the support of life , seeing that not only its remarkable bigness , and admirable connexion and society with other bowels , sufficiently shew , but also health proceeding from its soundness , and several diseases arising from its deprav'd constitution , daily teach us the necessity of it . xlii . experience : for that never , that i know of , it was ever seen , heard , written or observ'd by any physician of any credit or authority , that ever any man had his spleen cut out and liv'd . the story of trallian proves nothing ; for he does not say that his patients spleen was cut out , or consum'd and wasted by ustion ; but only that the exterior region of the spleen was cauteriz'd . as for fierovantus , he was a strowling mountebank , of no authority , and very little credit , who endeavour'd to impose upon silly people , that he might appear a greater physician among the vulgar than he was . as for those obscure chirurgeons cited out of roussettus , there is the same credit to be given to them . and we remember a thousand other such like little fables related to us , by certain ignorant and vain-glorious surgeons , to whom there was no credit to be given . certainly , if the thing were really so , we should not need in this age to fetch testimonials from mountebanks and stupid barber chirurgeons , since we have had so many thousand eminent and famous physicians and philosophers , who have made it their business to dive into the mysteries of nature , of whom , tho' not all , yet some would have seen and observ'd something concerning this matter . but now the whole confirmation rests upon the uncertain testimonies of some obscure authors , which are contradicted by other more ponderous reasons , besides the former alledged ; so that the said opinion can no longer be propt by any more such weak supporters : for that besides the nerves , large blood-bearing vessels enter the spleen of a man , and go forth again ; two splenetick arteries and various veins meeting in one splenetick branch , of which the sole resection is sufficient , to kill a man with a vast flux of blood . for it is not probable that these vessels can be so straitly bound by any knots , or other astringent remedies , but that the flux of blood must be very great for all that . or if they be bound with strings ( which in that hidden part of man cannot conveniently be done , as is known to them that understand the constitution and connexion of the bowel ) yet then not long after , the threads being putrify'd , either a deadly flux of blood or a gangrene , must of necessity follow . moreover , i my self have more than once seen spleens wounded with swords and spears , but never knew any man so wounded escape , notwithstanding all the diligence that i and other surgeons could use . now if only the wounds , and those slight ones too , of this bowel are mortal ; nay , if only its being out of order , its obstruction , or any other distemper so grievously disturb the whole body , and many times occasion death ; how much more deadly will it be , how much more destructive to the body and to life , when it is all taken away ? as for dogs , whose spleens are cut out , they do not all live ; nay , of many so serv'd , very few recover ; and they , the rest of their lives , dull , heavy and slothful , nor do they live long . and that for this reason without doubt ; for that for want of convenient matter to be afforded from the spleen , convenient ferment cannot be prepar'd in the liver , which causes a thicker blood to be generated in the heart , out of which blood but few animal and vital spirits can be rais'd , and those very thick . besides , what may be done safely and conveniently in a dog , to attempt that in man , to the hazard of life , would be a villany . for that which in this particular proves not mortal in a dog , would certainly kill a man. without doubt , there is no person of sound judgment but must suffer himself to be perswaded , but that this bowel executes a more necessary action in man , than in a dog , in whom the pancreas , or other part , may better supply the office of the spleen , than in a man , as in whom the whole bowel is furnish'd with so many arteries , veins , and nerves , and furnish'd with its own parenchyma , and consequently cannot be created in vain . xliii . hence it is apparent what is to be answer'd to that experiment of malpigius , that is to say , that because there is a lesser use of a spleen , and not so necessary an action requir'd from it in a dog as in a man : hence it happens that some dogs may want the use of it , and yet not all ; experience teaching us , that several have perish'd in a short time , whose spleens have been cut out , and few have escap'd . whereas it is otherwise in man , in whom seeing the least disorder of the spleen many ways , and after a wonderful manner disturbs the whole microcosmical kingdom , much more dammage would it receive from the taking it out of the body . xliv . and therefore we must conclude the spleen to be in man most necessary for life , and that it cannot be cut out , and the life of man be still preserv'd . chap. xvii . of the function of the liver and spleen ; also of the use of choler , the pancreatick and lymphatick iuice . i. how various the opinions of several men have been concerning the use of choler , the pancreatic iuice , and the lympha , we have shewn in the foregoing chapters . but since no body has as yet perceiv'd , or at least describ'd the dignity of those bowels , nor the necessity of those juices , it will be now time that those mysteries that have lain hid for so many ages , should be brought to light , from the knowledge whereof will arise the greatest light to physic , and the obscure and unknown causes of many diseases will be discover'd . ii. the actions of the liver , the spleen , and the sweet-bread all conspire to the self same end , and prepare the ferment of the blood and chylus together , in the making whereof the functions of these three must of necessity concur , when the one cannot perfect this business without the other . as leaven is mix'd with flowre of wheat kneaded with warm water , that thereby the more thick and earthy parts of the wheat may be dissolv'd , and the spirituous parts asleep and lying hid in that terrestrial mass may be attenuated and stirr'd up , and so the whole mass of bread being throughly besprinkl'd with those attenuated spirits is made more light and easy for digestion : thus there is a necessity for the ferment to be mix'd with the chylus and venal blood , by means of which the spirituous particles lying hid therein , may be attenuated and quicken'd up , and so the whole mass be more fit for sanguification and nourishment . iii. now that same leaven of bread , which will bring us more easily to the knowledg of the ferment of the blood and chylus , is generally made of some quantity of meal which is kneaded together with warm water , to which is added a small quantity of salt & vinegar , and so kept in a warm place , till the salt or acid spirits are somewhat volatiliz'd by the heat , and pierce through the particles of the mass of flower , and dilate and separate 'em , and so render the whole mass ▪ subacid and fermentative . then a little piece of this acid ferment being mix'd into the mass of meal kneaded with warm water , causes the whole mass to ferment . for those fermentaceous particles diffuse themselves through the whole mass , and cut and attenuate all the parts of the dough , and the spirits therein lying hid . our country folks mix also yest with their dough to the same end ; and others perhaps may use another ferment ; but all ferment , whatever it be , consists of salt , acid , sowre , and corroding things , melted and somewhat volatiliz'd with a moderate heat : which if they be thicker and closer , are more slowly dissolv'd , and their power shews it self more slowly , and must be mix'd a longer time with the dough before they can ferment it , as happens in the first ferment , which must be mix'd for many hours , and sometimes a whole night , to perfect its work. but if by the mixture of certain sulphury particles they become spirituous and more volatiliz'd , they ferment presently as we find in yest , which within an hour , or half an hour , and sometimes sooner , accomplishes its operation . for the more spirituous sharp particles be in this more free from the matter wherein they are lodged , and for that reason are indued with a more penetrating power , operate more suddainly , and in a short time dissolve the thick particles of the dough , and more swiftly rouse the latent spirits , which they do yet more violently , if a little honey be added to the yest : for the honey contains in it self sharp particles , but lately dissolv'd by the sulphury , and involv'd within ' em . but nothing of this is perform'd without a moderate heat , as being that by which the salt particles must be brought to a moderate acid quality , and something of volatility . iv. in the same manner it is with the chylus and venal blood , which if they be not attenuated and prepared by the mixture of convenient ferment before sanguification , then they fail to be full of spirits in the heart . that is to say , the spirits lying asleep therein , are not sufficiently separated from the more thick and serous matter , but lye drowsie still , which produces thick and watery blood , of little use to nourish the body and strengthen the parts ; whence the body becomes languid , and both natural and animal actions go but slowly forward . v. this ferment of the blood and chylus is made by the liver , with which hepatic ferment however , the pancreatic iuice is mixt in the duodenum , for the more special preparation of the chylus flowing out of the stomach . vi. the matter out of which the liver makes this ferment , is the venal blood flowing into it from the gastric and mesaraics through the vena portae , and a small quantity through the small branches of the epatic artery , with which is mix'd a sowre , salt , acid iuice , made in the spleen of the arterial blood flowing into it through the arteries , and the animal spirits through the nerves , which is carried through the splenetic branch to the vena portae , and together with the blood with which it is mixed is conveighed to the liver . vii . and by means of this sharp and corroding iuice , by the specific power of the liver , the spiritous particles , as well the sulphury as salt , latent in that venal blood , are dissolv'd , attenuated , and also made somewhat sharp and fermentative , and some certain thinnest part of ' em , like fair and clear water , by means of the conglomerated glandules seated chiefly in the hollow part of the liver , separating it self from the remaining thicker part of the blood through many lymphatic vessels , is carried from the liver into several veins , to prepare the venal blood flowing toward the heart . but the greatest part of it is carried to the vasa chylifera , in them to prepare the chylus for succeeding fermentation in the heart . to which end also a certain fermentative spittle , as also a salt and somewhat acid lympha is also carried thither from the glandules of the arm-holes , groyns , and other glandules , and somewhat of the thinner pancreatic iuice out of the intestines , together with the chylus , enters the vasa chylifera . viii . but as in ale that works , many spirits already rais'd , are already mingled with the whole quantity of ale , and render it spiritous , strong , and fit to be attenuated and digested in the stomachs of those that drink it : so also many spirits being still intermix'd and coop'd up within the more thick and viscous particles of the ale , ascend with them to the top , and boyling , or rather fermenting and frothy , burst forth out of the vessel with a noise . which frothy substance has a kind of bitterish sharp , intermix'd with something of a sweetish taste . and this is that which our houswives call yest , and we the flower of ale , which being preserv'd , serv'd to ferment new ale , or new dough. ix . thus the operation also proceeds in the liver , and the more sharp fermentative spirits , being mix'd with the thicker and more viscous sulphury iuices , ( for sulphur is clammy ) and strongly boyling or fermenting , when by reason of the viscosity of the iuices wherein they are lodg'd , they cannot enter the conglomerated glandules , and from thence the lymphatic vessels , and yet by reason of their sharp ebullition they are parted , together with the iuice wherein they are lodg'd , become bitter , and are call'd by the name of choler . which choler , by the means of the glandulous balls , flows by degrees to the intestines thorough the bilary porus and the gall-bladder , to the end that there , together with the pancreatic iuice , it may be mixed with the thicker mass ; that is to say , with the nourishment concocted in the stomach , and now descending to the intestines , that it may also cause that to boyl , and by that means dissolve and separate the thinner parts of the chylus from the thicker , and attenuate to that degree , that they may be forc'd into the narrow orifices of the milkie vessels . x. to that purpose this choler slides down through the ductus cholidochus to the beginning of the intestines , that is , the duodenum , and is there presently mix'd with the pancreatic juice flowing thither through the wirtzungian chanel , from the sweetbread , and by that means is by and by mingled with the alimentary mass concocted in the stomach , and descending from it , and causes it to boyl . xi . and because at the beginning it is sharper , and retains its full vigour , and for that by reason of the mixture of the pancreatic acid iuice , it is presently ready for ebullition ; hence in that very beginning , the effervescency is most intense ; which is the reason that the milkie iuice , lodg'd in the mass , concocted in the stomach , is for the most part immediately separated in the jejunum , and through the innumerable milkie vessels belonging to this gut more than to any other , with an extraordinary speed push'd forward to the receptacle of the chylus , for which reason that gut is for the most part found empty and fasting . but in the next guts , by reason of the most thin fermentative spirits dissipated at the beginning , the effervescency is somewhat slower and less effectual , and the separation of the chylus from the thicker mass that remains is more tardy , which is the reason they have fewer milkie vessels . lastly , the remainder of that fermentaceous matter being mix'd in the thick intestines , with the thick dregs of the nourishment , being now slowly dissolv'd , by reason the more subtil parts and strength of it are wasted by a long effervescency in the thin guts , causes a more slow and less frequent ( and that not without a longer stay ) fermentative effervescency in them , which moving and distending the feculent filth , and rendring it more sharp , molests the guts , and so provokes 'em to evacuation . and now because this effervescency happens to be late , therefore those provocations are not frequent , so that men in health seldom go to stool above once or twice in a day . and as that remaining ferment is more or less acrimonious , hence it causes in the excrement a swister or later , a more intense or remiss effervescency , whence more frequent or more seldom going to the stool . xii . but how it comes to pass that the said choler becomes more sharp and fermentative in man , proceeds from hence , that all the milder choler does not presently flow directly from the liver through the bilary porus into the intestines , but a good part of it , and that the thinnest is carried from the liver through the gaully roots into the gall-bladder , and there stays a while , that by the specific property and temper of the place , the more sharp spirits , through that stay , may be the more vigorously roused up and exalted , and thence , boyling a little in the cystis , may flow to the intestines : into which place being brought , and being either too little , or too sharp , it may there be the cause of diseases of both kinds . xiii . but the superfluous and chiefest part of the venal blood , of which the ferment is made in the liver , which neither could nor ought to be chang'd into the nature of choler or lympha , being plentifully furnish'd with the fermentative quality of the made ferment , flows into the vena cava , with which from above out of the subclavial veins , it meets a prepar'd and attenuated chylus , or in the absence of that the lymphatic liquor alone , mix'd with the blood of the subclavial veins , and so by degrees enter the right ventricle of the heart , and there by reason of that previous convenient preparation , or attenuation , are presently dilated into a blood-like spirituous vapor ; as gunpowder presently flashes into a flame when touch'd by fire . now that the blood flowing out of the liver into the vena cava , is mix'd and endu'd with a fermentative , and chiefly choleric quality appears from hence , that if in a creature newly kill'd the liver be cut from the vena cava , and the blood flowing out of it sav'd , put but a little spirit of niter to that blood , and presently it becomes of a rust-colour , which happens in no other blood , and by that means the bilious ferment concealed within it , is discover'd . xiv . but that that same bloody spirit may be more perfect , and retain its vigor the longer , by the beating of the heart it is forced immediately through the pulmonary artery into the lungs , and there by the cold of the aire breath'd in is condensed into liquor , and flows through the pulmonary vein into the left ventricle of the heart , wherein again ( as spirit of wine is rectifi'd by a second distillation ) it attains the utmost perfection of spirituous blood , and so is forc'd into the aorta , that thereby it may be communicated thro' the lesser arteries , and through all the parts of the body , to nourish and enliven ' em . out of which nourishment , that blood which at length remains , being depriv'd of the greatest part of its spirits , enters the lesser veins , and by those is carried to the greater , and by them again to the heart , to the end it may be there again attenuated and become spirituous . but because in that circulation , many parts of the blood are consum'd in the nourishment of the parts , whose substance also is continually consum'd and dissipated by the heat ; hence it is necessary that a new chylus fit to be changed into blood be again mix'd with the venal blood returning to the heart , to supply the place of what is wasted . and thus our life consists in such a continual nourishment , which failing , presently health is impair'd , and the oyl of our lamp being wasted we goe quite out . xv. it may be questioned whence those sharp hot fermentative qualities arise in our nature . i answer , out of sulphur and salt. the first emotion is from sulphur , but the primary acrimony is from salt , which besides sulphur is lodg'd in all nourishment . for there is nothing which we eat that does not naturally contain a salt in it , tho' some things contain more , some less : and sulphur dissolves the salt , and renders it fluid . which being dissolv'd and attenuated , corrodes , penetrates and dissolves by means of its acrimony , all the particles of the nourishment , and so disposes 'em for the extraction of the spirits that ly hid within ' em . which operation is fermentation , without which man could not live ; and with which being weak or deprav'd , a man lives miserably . now to advance this fermentation the more prosperously , by instinct of nature to the natural salt which is in our nourishment we add the help of sea salt , which we mix with our meat , and with which we powder our flesh : and so much the harder the substance of the meat is , and consequently the more violent fermentation , and effective ferment they require for digestion , so much the more we desire to have 'em well salted ; as beef and pork . for that the salt in such meats causes a more easy digestion . so that the sulphury spirits that are to reduce that salt to fusion , are sufficiently redundant and effectual in man , as in young and choleric people . and of this we have a manifest example in a herring , which being salted and eaten raw eastly digests in the stomach , but not being salted , tho' boyl'd , is with great difficulty digested . moreover that the fermenting spirits lying hid in that thick salt may be roused up to action , we boyle our meat in the kitchin , that the more fix'd and solid parts of it may be the better dissolv'd , and so prepared to fusion and volatilitie , that they may be the more easily tam'd and vanquish'd in the stomach , when we feed upon those harder sorts of food , we make use of sharp spirituous and sulphury sawces , as spice , turheps , anise , carrots , mustard ; many times drink strong wine , and spirit of wine after meals . for the sulphury spirits being mixed with the salt , potently dissolve and penetrate the thick and sixed particles , and a fitness to melt , and so advance the energie of fermentation . which chylifying operation is very much assisted partly by the spittle which flows from the mouth to the stomach and is endued with a fermentative quality ; partly by a peculiar ferment , which is made out of some part of the chylus , remaining after its concoction and expulsion of the greatest part to the intestines , in the stomach , and sticking to the folds and pores of the innermost tunicle , and there turning sowre . and so by that first fermentation the more spirituous and profitable parts of the nourishment come forth of the thicker mass like cream , and assume the name of chylus . xvi . out of this chylus endu'd with many salt and sulphury particles from the nourishment received by means of a new fermentative preparation , caused by the choler , pancreatic iuice , and lympha , the blood is made in the heart , which contains in it self those salt particles of the chylus , but more attenuated and mix'd more exactly with the sulphureous . xvii . out of the salt particles of this blood , flowing to the spleen , the splenic artery , and to the sweetbread , and many other glandules through peculiar arteries , and somewhat separated by the afflux of animal spirits , there is another matter of ferment to be composed in the spleen and parts aforesaid , to be the greatest part concocted into a more perfect ferment by the liver for the venal blood and chylus . xviii . and thus the first original of internal ferment is from the nourishment , which afterwards is more and more attenuated by various concoctions , and alter'd in our body into a more subtle ferment . xix . now that it is the true office of the liver , spleen , and sweet-bread , to make ferment in the manner aforesaid , is apparent from hence , that when those bowels are perfectly sound , and perform their duty according to nature , the whole mass of blood is better and more full of spirits , and thence the body more lively and active , and all the natural and animal operations are rightly perform'd . on the other side , when these bowels are out of order , a thousand diseases arise from the blood and chylus ill fermented . xx. as we have already said there is a sharp salt , acid iuice which is made in the liver out of the artery blood , copiously forc'd through the splenic artery into this bowel , which by the plentiful pouring in of animal spirits through the nerves , and by the specific temper of this bowel is soon altered , and the sulphury spirit that was before predominant in it is dull'd , fix'd , and suffocated , so the salt acid latent spirits comes forth into action , and the salt particles , somewhat separated from the sulphury , get the upper hand : and hence it comes to pass , that the hot sweetish blood flows through the arteries into the spleen , but by and by the sulphury heat being extinguish'd , together with the sweetness , it becomes saltish , or somewhat acid , and flows through the splenic branch from the spleen to the liver : which is the reason a boyl'd spleen tasts somewhat sowrish . and thus it happens in this matter , as in a vinegar vessel , vinegar is made out of wine ; for the vinegar vessel is laid in a warm place , commonly in the garret , where the sun may come at it . into this vessel , not quite full , they pour a moderate quantity of good strong wine ( for weak wine will not make good vinegar . ) which done , presently the sulphury sweet spirit of the wine is fix'd and suffocated by the salt and acid particles predominating in the vinegar , and the salt and acid particles which are lodg'd in the wine are melted , dissolv'd , attenuated , and forc'd to action by the sharp acidity of the vinegar , and so the wine turns eager , and becomes vinegar . and thus the sulphureous spirit of the arterial blood , is fix'd and stifl'd , partly by the animal spirits flowing through the nerves , partly by the acid and salt spirits prepared and contain'd in the spleen ; and the salt and acid spirits that are in it get the upper hand ; which afterwards , new sulphury spirits that ly in the venal blood , being mix'd therewith afresh , are to be by the liver altered into perfect ferment . xxi . now that the first matter of the ferment to be perfected in the liver is prepared in the spleen , may be in some measure demonstrated by experience . for if the spleen of an ox , hog , or other male creature be cut into small bits , and macerated in luke-warm water , and afterwards mixed with a small quantity of dough , it dilates it , and causes it to ferment , like yest or any other leven : which it does so much the more effectually if the smallest quantity of vinegar be added to it . xxii . now if this function of the spleen be interrupted , there are two causes of diseases which arise from thence . some by reason of the salt and acid iuice too thick and fix'd : others when it is too thin and volatile . for when the salt and acid juices in the spleen are not sufficiently dissolv'd and attenuated , then the spirits which are extracted out of them are too sharp , corroding , and in too great abundance , and this diversity produces diversity of diseases . xxiii . if the spleen be weak , either through its own or the fault of the nourishment , or through any other cause , then the acid iuice that is concocted in it , is not sufficiently dissolv'd , attenuated , and volatiliz'd , but remains thick , and tartarous , or earthy , and the greatest part of it lyes heap'd together in the bladdery substance of the spleen , and adjoyning parts , by reason of its crude viscosity , which causes the spleen to wax great , and to swell , in regard the spirit that lies hid within it is not sufficiently rous'd up , but boyling a little in the narrow passages in the spleen and about the spleen , distends the whole spleen and parts adjoyning to it , and raises a thousand windy vapours with rumbling and roaring , and a troublesome distemper familiar to hypochondriacks . which mischiefs are very much encreased by a deprav'd condition of the pancreas , proceeding from the blood corrupted by the vitious humors of the spleen , and brought to it through the arteries . by reason whereof it concocts its own juice but ill ; and of over salt , leaves it too acid or austere , which partly begets great obstructions in the pancreas , the disturbe●…s of the function of that bowel : partly flowing into the intestines , causes an undue effervescency therein , and infuses a bad subacid quality into the chylus ; whereby it becomes lyable to fixation , or coagulation ; nor cannot be sufficiently attenuated . whence by reason of the more fixed and thicker chylus remaining in the abdomen , and less prepared to farther solution , are generated obstructions in the milkie vessels , in the mesentery , and glandules of the mesentery , and therein a great quantity of crude and ill humors is heaped together , from the quantity and corruption of which a thousand diseases arise , which are vulgarly called melancholic , and are said to arise from the spleen , but how they are bred by it , has not been as yet sufficiently explain'd . but when the blood remains too thick for want of effectual and convenient ferment , and spirits not supply'd in sufficient quantity , the whole body grows dull and languid , and many diseases arise . for the blood being thick and not sufficiently spirituous , and having salt crude and slimy parts intermix'd with it , by coagulating the humors in the liver and other bowels of the abdomen , it breeds obstructions and scirrhosities . it is not sufficiently dilated in the heart , but is forc'd too thick into the lungs , and there being yet more refrigerated by the air drawn in , it difficultly passes through the narrow passages of 'em , and so stuffing the lungs , and compressing the gristles of the windpipe , causes difficulty of breathing . in the heart it self by reason of the inequality of the particles , and the difficult dilatation of many , it produces an unequal , and sometimes an intermitting pulse . in the brain passing difficultly and disorderly through those narrow channels , it causes noises and heaviness of the head ; and because it endammages the natural constitution of the brain , and because it tears it with its remaining acrimony , the principal animal actions are thereby impaired , the imagination and judgment are deprav'd , the memory is spoyl'd , and thence madness , and restlesness , watching , and such like inconveniencies arise which cause true melancholy . but if that thicker salt be somewhat more exalted and fluid , and yet is not sufficiently spirituous , then the blood requires an acid and austere disposition , as in the scurvy ; and then the nervous parts are torn and rack'd by it , the thin skins invelloping the bones are pain'd , and the softer parts are corroded , the guts also are terribly grip'd , and ulcers arise in the thighs very hard to be cured : moreover the blood becomes unfit for nutrition , and thence a slow atrophie of the whole body . the aforesaid salt particles being coagulated in colder kidneys and separated from the serous humor , harden into stones ; but being separated in the joynts and fixed to the sensitive parts , and corroding 'em , they cause the sharp pains of the gout : and lastly , heap'd together in greater quantity , they breed knotty bunches and corns . all which things happen if the fermentaceous juice in the spleen be too raw and thick . xxiv . but if the same iuice be too thin and full of spirits , and be prepared too sharp , then other diseases arise . it excites in the blood a great heat conjoyned with some acrimony , which because of the quick and disorderly motion of the animal spirits causes restlesness , watchings , high deliriums , and madness . sticking lightly , coagulated in the guts , it breeds the running gout , for that sharp humor being by reason of its tenuity easily dissipated in one part , presently the pain arises again in another part , to which some other particles of the same blood happen to adhere . xxv . the spleen scirrhous , or obstructed , or any other manner of way vitiated by breeding a bad fermentaceous iuice , begets a thousand grievous mischiefs . all which things sufficiently make manifest the office and duty of the spleen . xxvi . and in like manner , the function of the liver is apparent , from the diseases that proceed from it when the liver is colder than ordinary , it is not able duly to digest the said splenetic iuice , and together with the venal blood , and the sulphury iuice intermix'd and sticking to it , to alter the splenetic iuice into a due ferment : whereby there can never be a due fermentation . the chylus is not sufficiently concocted , nor sufficiently prepared for future fermentation in the heart . the venal blood becomes crude , serous , neither does it get spirits sufficient in the heart , but is attenuated only into a watry vapour , which turns to a watry liquor in the vessels and sost parts , and so filling the whole body with serum , begets the dropsy call'd anasarca , attended with continual drought , by reason of the salt particles lodg'd in the serum not well mix'd with the blood , which together with the juices flowing from the salival vessels , and at that time also saltish , being carried to the chaps and gullet , by reason of their dry vellication , or twitching of the part , occasion continual drought . xxvii . but when the liver is hot , and consequently weak , then by exalting the sulphury and oily spirits out of the blood , it raises 'em in too great a quantity ; by which the force of the acid iuice coming from the spleen is very much weakened , and a bad ferment generated . which produces inflammations , corruption , fevers , and other hot diseases arising from an over deprav'd fermentation , and begets over much choler . which choler if it grow milder by reason of the mixture of a little acid juice , then it breeds the yellow iaundice . but if sharp by reason of much salt or acid and sharp splenetic juice concocted with it , then it occasions the disease cholera , diarrhaea dysentery , and other like diseases . xxviii . the liver obstructed and scirrhous not causing the generation and due distribution of good ferment , is also the cause of several crudities and many diseases arising from crudities . as for the fermentaceous quality of the pancreatic juice , and what diseases arise from a deprav'd sweetbread , has already been discoursed c. . xxix . in the birth , while it is in the womb , there is no need of any such ferment at the beginning , because it is nourished by the dissolution and fusion of the seed , which contains in it self a spirit moderately fermentaceous ; and then by the milkie iuice contained in the amninium that needs less ferment . afterwards when it requires somewhat stronger nourishment , brought through the umbilical vein , and begins to enjoy it , then the whole uterine placenta supplies the office of the spleen and liver , and makes a more mild ferment , more proper for the birth in the beginning . in the mean time the liver and spleen increase their ferment to future uses , that is , to prepare a more sharp ferment afterwards , that is , when the child being born should feed upon more solid nourishment . which duty however those bowels do not perform presently after the birth of the child , as it were by way of a leap , but were also by degrees accustomed to it in the womb. for the more the heat of the heart increases , and blood is generated more full of spirits , and the more the brain is brought to perfection and becomes stronger , the more sharp spirits are generated in the womb. and out of these two things , blood and animal spirits meeting every day stronger and stronger in the spleen , which by degrees is brought to greater perfection together with the spleen , and preparation of the fermentaceous matter begins to be made ; and as for the manner of preparing the same matter , the said bowels have gain'd to a sufficient perfection ; as appears by the choler , which you shall find well concocted in the gall-bladder of a newborn infant . xxx . and thus i think i have set forth the true , and never as yet sufficiently demonstrated duty of the liver and spleen : as also the use of choler , pancreatic iuice and lympha . many more things might be alledged for farther proof , but to the learned what has been said may suffice . the impartial reader may confer these things with the opinions of other doctors that have wrote before us ; and then he will perceive how far they have err'd from the mark. xxxi . and now from what has been said it is manifestly apparent what a necessary league and confederacy there is between the liver and the spleen , and what and how many diseases arise from the bad constitution of either of these two bowels . how unlikely it is for a man to live after his spleen is cut out of his body . it is also apparent how erroneously the second grand concoction is said to be made in the liver , spleen , and sweet-bread , when of necessity it must be made in the heart . for the forementioned ferment is only made of the blood , and the blood must be first made in the heart before it can come to the liver , spleen , and sweetbread . and therefore the second general concoction is made in the heart , the third in the liver , spleen , and sweetbread . chap. xviii . of the serum and kidneys . i. having thus explain'd the office of the liver and spleen , it follows that we discourse of those parts which evacuate the serum , which is necessarily mix'd in great quantity with the blood , when it is too redundant . ii. now the serum is a watery part of the meat and drink , concocted together with the salt and sulphury iuices of the nourishment , and plentifully mix'd with the blood , to give perfect mixture and necessary thinness and fluxibility , by means whereof it may penetrate the narrowest passages ; to wash away and mix with it the impurities of the same and the more crude salt particles , that together with it self they may be evacuated by spittle , sweat and urine . iii. and here it is that the opinion of jerome barbatus , and some others , is to be rejected , who endeavour by many reasons to prove that the serum is a humour no less alimentary than the blood , and that it nourishes the spermatic vessels , as the blood nourishes the fleshy . but their arguments are so weak , that it is not worth the while to refute ▪ em . for tho' the nourishment cannot be distributed to the parts without the serum , and that there are contain'd in it some salt and sulphurous particles , nevertheless it cannot thence be concluded , that that same serum nourishes the spermatic vessels , and that the blood is excluded from that performance . but of this more at large l. . c. . but for this serum , because there is a necessity for an abundance of it to be mix'd with the blood , and to be daily renew'd , and yet it is not apply'd to any substance of the parts , therefore it is that emunctories are requisite for the evacuation of its too much redundant superfluity . iv. these emunctories or evacuatories , are twofold , external or internal . v. again , the external are twofold : first , these , thorough which there is a manifest , but not perpetual evacuation ; as the eyes , mouth , and nostrils . from the eyes fall the serous humours of tears . through the mouth and nostrils the greatest part of the serous and flegmatic humours and vapours are expell'd , in hawking , spitting , salivation , and the murrh ; as also in respiration , which is conspicuous in the winter . secondly , those evacuatories through which there is made insensible transpiration , that is to say , the pores of the skin , through which day and night there is a continual and insensible exhalation of the serous vapour , which is often perceived in the form of sweat. now this evacuation of the serous humour through the pores , far exceeds all other sensible evacuations of what excrements soever . as for example ; if a man have taken in one day twelve pound of nourishment , he shall evacuate through the pores of the skin , and by transpiration near nine pound of excrement in vapour , and hardly two by sensible evacuation . which sanctorius taught us by an ingenious experiment . he to that purpose weighed in a pair of exact scales , a young man in the morning , after he had been at the house of easment ; and besides that , he weighed apart all the meat which he was to eat that day . then he as exactly pois'd the weight of his spittle , urine , and stool , collected all together , and then weighed the same person at the same hour fasting , as he did before . by which means he found that the excrement insensibly evacuated through the pores , exceeded far in weight all other sensible evacuations . vi. the internal evacuatories are the reins and piss-bladder , with the parts thereupon depending . vii . but before we begin with them , here is one scruple to be remov'd ; whether the serum and sweat , under which ought to be comprehended exhalations and vapours , consist of the same materials , and agree in substance : which is that which the generality of physicians unanimously consent to . tho' lodowic mercatus differs from all the rest , as he that believes these four humours to be distinct in substance . but this doubt may be easily resolv'd , by alledging that the serum of it self is a meer watery liquor ; but that the urine and sweat are not liquors so simple as the serum so properly taken , but liquors endued with a certain saltness , and concocted with salt particles , differing little or nothing , in respect of substance , one from the other , yet in the mean time their chiefest part is serum , from whence the serous humours , which are not erroneously for the most part call'd serum , the word being taken at large , and the denomination from the greater part of the substance . viii . the reins are so call'd from 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , to flow , because the urine , like so many rivers , flows from them , and 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 from 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 to piss . ix . they are in number two ; seldom more or less : for it is look'd upon as a prodigy , that there should be more than one kidney upon one side , and none in the other , ▪ or two kidneys upon one side ; which nevertheless has been sometimes found to be true . cabrolius in two bodies by him dissected , found one kidney leaning upon the vertebers of the loyns . x. these two kidneys are seated behind the ventricle and the guts , under the liver and spleen , on both sides near the spine , at the head of the psoa muscle . whence it comes to pass that that muscle , being compress'd by the stone in the kidney , there happens a numbness in the hip. however riolanus in animadvers . in bartholin . alledges that that numbness proceeds from hence , that the compression is made in that place , where those three nerves are inserted into the musculous part of the psoa , of which that remarkable nerve is made in the thigh , which is thence extended to the foot : but in regard that nerve in the thigh is compos'd , not only of three , but of seven nerves , that is to say , the four lower nerves of the loyns , and the three upper of the os sacrum , some of which abscond under the head of the psoa . i do not see how the head of the psoa , being compress'd , it should follow that the nerves of the thigh , seated in a lower place , should come to be compress'd , and that thence a numbness of the thigh should follow . xi . they lye upon the sides of the aorta and vena cava , between the two membranes of the peritonaeum ; the right being placed a little lower than the left . but the situation is very seldom alike ; for either the right is somewhat higher than the left ; nevertheless in beasts the left is many times the lower . xii . they are both seldom of an equal bigness ; for the most part the left being somewhat bigger than the right . they generally take up the length of three vertebers , and sometimes four : three fingers broad , and equalling the thickness of the thumb . sometimes the whole bulk is found to be lesser , and sometimes bigger , which bartholine believes he has observ'd in those that were most prone to venery . sometimes the bigness increases to monstrosity ; such was that which we saw in the carkass of a certain person in the year . both whose reins surpass'd the bigness of half a man's head : for that nature wonderfully sports her self in bigness , number , figure , and vessels . of which there are various and remarkable examples in eustachius , fernelius , vesalius , carpus , botallus , bauhinus , and others . yet this variety is very rare , and hardly to be found in one among six hundred . xiii . in figure they represent a french bean , or the expanded leaf of wild spikenard . on the outside they are gibbous , and bow'd backward : on the inside somewhat hollow at the ingress and egress of the vessels . the superficies in a man of ripe years is smooth and equal ; otherwise in a cow , sheep , and many other brute creatures , in whom it is unequal ; as if the kidneys were compos'd of many round fleshy little lumps or buttons . which external shape they also shew in new-born children , which remains for three years , and sometimes for six years after the birth , as riolan witnesses . eustachius reports that he never observ'd that shape in men grown up , but only twice . but dominic . de marchettis writes that he shew'd the same figure twice or thrice in the theatre at padua . once i remember i saw the same in a man run thorough the middle of the abdomen above each kidney with a sword : in whose body , when at the request of the magistrate , i enquir'd into the cause of his death , and the nature of the wound , by chance i found such a figure of the kidneys , as if compos'd of small buttons . xiv . they are cloathed with two membranes ; of which the outermost is common , proceeding from the peritonaeum , call'd the fatty , because that in fat people it is surrounded with a great quantity of fat . into this the arteria adiposa runs , from the aorta : out of it proceeds the vena adiposa , which the right kidney sends to the emulgent , rarely to the trunk of the vena cava ; the left sends forth to the vena cava . this membrane knits both reins to the loyns and diaphragma ; the right also to the blind gut , and sometimes to the liver ; the left to the spleen and colon. the innermost and proper membrane is form'd out of the external tunicle of the vessels being dilated , ( which vessels enter the kidney with one only tunicle . ) into which little nerves are inserted , proceeding from the fold of the sixth pair , and the thoracical branch , affording a dull sense of feeling to the kidney : which being nevertheless extended further into the ureters , endue them with a most acute sense , and for that reason are the cause that in nephritic pains the stomach having a fellow feeling , has oftentimes a desire to vomit . but very few nerves , and those very small , and hardly conspicuous , enter the substance of the kidneys it self . xv. both the kidneys have two large vasa sanguifera ; that is to say , an artery and an emulgent vein ; among which are sprinkled certain small lymphatic vessels , as some imagine . xvi . the emulgent artery , produced from the trunk of the descending aorta , being first doubled , enters the flat part of the kidney ; thence it is dispers'd through the substance of it with divers branches , and therein vanishes into extream small and invisible twigs . through this artery , which is very large , great store of blood is carried to the kidney , partly to nourish it , together with its urinary vessels ; partly that a good part of the serous humor may be separated from it in its glandules , and that being emptied through the little urinary fibres , and papillary caruncles , or the ten little bodies in the reins , into the pelvis , or receptacle of the reins , the blood may become less serous . this artery we have once seen in the right kidney , inserted into the lowermost part of the kidney . xvii . the emulgent vein is a little larger than the artery . this , with innumerable roots meeting together in this trunk , adheres to the kidney and its glandules , and thence proceeding out of it from the flat part , runs on to the vena cava , into which it opens with a broad orifice , so situated as to give a free passage for the blood into the vena cava ; but hindring it from flowing out of the vena cava into the emulgent . whence it is certain , that the blood is forc'd into the kidney by the emulgent artery only , and part of it remaining after the nourishment of the kidney , being freed from a good quantity of the serous humour in the little glandules , flows through the emulgent vein into the vena cava . i think it was never observ'd that two emulgent veins proceeded out of one kidney ; yet once it was seen , and publickly demonstrated by us in a dissected body , in novemb. . both were of the usual largeness ; and one proceeded from the middlemost flat part of the kidney , after the wonted manner ; the other from the lowermost part of the same right kidney , and about the breadth of half a thumb one below the other , was inserted into the vena cava . and something like this i find to be observed by saltzman in observ. anat. xviii . the left of these emulgent veins in a man enters the vena cava somewhat in a higher place , and is longer than the right , by reason of the higher and remoter situation of the kidney from the vena cava . in many beasts the right is the higher . sometimes their number is unequal , and their progress unequal , as shall be shewn more at large l. . c. . xix . the dissemination and dispersing of both the emulgent vessels through the kidney , cannot be exactly demonstrated , because of the extream slenderness of the branches , and the dimness of the sight . in the mean while several anatomists have written various speculations concerning this matter , according to the diversity of their opinions . among the rest , rolfinch asserts that the roots of the emulgent veins meet together with the ends of the emulgent arteries by anastomoses , and that he reports to be first observ'd by eustachius , l. de ren. but malpigius lately has sufficiently demonstrated the vanity of these conjunctions , who by his microscopes observ'd that several ends of little arteries end in very small glandules , adhering to the little urinary fibres or vessels ; and that so some part of the serum is separated from the blood of those small arteries , and carried by the urinary vessels to the pelvis , or receptacle of the kidneys : but that the rest of that blood is suck'd up by the ends of the veins , and so flows to the emulgent vein , and thence to the vena cava . xx. in the inner part of the kidney is contain'd the pelvis or infundibulum , which is nothing else but a membranous concavity , compos'd of the ureter , expanded and dilated in the hollow of the kidney , and reaching thither with open and broad branches , sometimes eight or ten , like pipes : xxi . over which lye little pieces of flesh or carunculae , vulgarly call'd papillares , by rondeletius , mammillares , ( over each one ) like small kernels , not so deep coloured , but harder than the rest of the flesh , about the bigness of a pea , somewhat broader above , convex below , with holes bor'd through , but so small that will hardly admit a hair . malpigius observ'd over and above , that innumerable fibres also extend themselves toward the gibbous part from the appendixes of the pelvis form'd into a bow ; and that some portions of the pelvis , like extended vessels , accompanying the vasa sanguifera , extend themselves toward the circumference . xxii . the substance of the reins , as far as occurs to the sight , appears to be as it were fibrous , form'd out of the concourse and intermixture of the smallest vessels joyned together , together with something of carnosity interventing , endu'd with various slender little chanels . to the outward touch somewhat hard , but within side indifferently spungy ; without of a dark ruddy colour , but toward the pelvis or kidney receptacle , more pale . xxiii . this is as much as generally is obvious to the sight in the reins . but not very long ago malpigius was the first who discover'd more secrets in the reins , which were unknown to the preceding anatomists ; and because all anatomists are upon this score much beholding to that great man : of necessity the mysteries by him revealed are here to be added . neither is any thing to be detracted from the honour of this first discoverer . he writes l. de ren. that tho' in men grown up the superficies of the kidneys appears generally smooth , yet that in children new born it is unequal ( as has been already said , ) and that that same conjunction of the buttons or balls in grown people is still to be discern'd on the inside from the diversity of the colour , which in the little balls without , and toward the sides to which they are conjoyn'd , is ruddy , toward the inner parts is more pale . but as in beasts those little glandules are round , but toward the inner parts , being extended to an obtuse narrowness , are joyned together sometimes quadrangular , quinquangular , and sometimes sexangular ; so likewise in men there is plainly to be observ'd from the diversity of the colour , the like , but a closer conjunction of the little balls . then he adds , that the membrane being taken away in a new , and as yet soft kidney , certain round and very short bodies roll'd up like worms , may be discern'd by the help of a microscope ; not unlike those that are found in the substance of the kidney when cut asunder in the middle ; and that this connexion of vermicular vessels composing the external superficies of the kidneys , is the same with the vessels descending to the renal receptacle . and that by the same microscope are to be observ'd wonderful branches of the vessels lying hid under the outward superficies , with little glandules appendant , and dispers'd through the superficies of the kidney toward the renal receptacle : as also certain continu'd winding spaces and little concavities running through the whole outward superficies of the kidneys , conspicuous by the pouring in a little ink through the emulgent vessels : as also innumerable little chanels , which resemble , as seems to the eye , a sort of fibres or liver-like flesh , but are really membranous and hollow , and by their being crowded together , constitute the substance of the reins , and are the vessels that discharge the urine . moreover , he says , that the membrane of the kidney being taken away , and an injection of spirit of wine dy'd of a black colour , being made into the emulgent artery , innumerable small kernels are to be observ'd , annexed here and there to double forked arteries , and dy'd of a black colour by the said injection ; as also several others between the bundles of the urinary vessels , and the spaces intervening , which little kernels hang as it were like apples upon the vasa sanguifera , swelling with the black injection , and spread into the form of a fair tree . from these kernels , where the ends of the arteries lose themselves , he believes it also profitable that the orifices of veins arise , and that the smallest nerves are produc'd from hence , and that the discharging vessels are extended so far from the ureter , seeing this is always the property of the glandules , that the several berries or buttons produce their proper discharging branch , besides the veins and arteries , as is done in the liver , according to what we have said . he has also observ'd that those little chanels or small urinary fibres being very many in number , lose themselves in every one of the papillary caruncles seated in the renal receptacle , and through those sweat through the urine into the receptacle ; which piss descends into the papillary caruncles , not thorough any of the little pores of the pelvis , as was formerly thought , but through these chanels only , and out of them into the renal receptacle . and as for those papillary tunicles ( of which some are round , others flat or oblong ) he believes 'em to be nothing else but the concourse of many small chanels united together . he adds , that he certainly knows by diligent and frequently repeated dissection , that in the kidney of a man , the urinary vessels that resemble solid and compacted sleshy fibres , and yet are hollow , end in the said apparent papillary tunicles , which with a swelling protuberancy open into the renal receptacle , and each receive or admit so many little pipes or vessels as amount to the number of twelve , and that the same urinary vessels are extended from the circumference to those teats , as to the center . lastly , malpigius annexes a question , how gravel and stones can descend into the receptacle of the kidneys thorough those fibtes and teats which are so extreamly narrow ? to which he answers , that small gravel may pass through , because the vessels are membranous and apt to dilate . i rather think he should have said , that the tartarous substance sticking to the serum that passes thorough , hardens into gravel and stones in the renal receptacle , after it is slid through those slender vessels , which frequently happens : sometimes it hardens also in the vessels themselves , and having broken 'em , fall into the receptacle afterwards ; and if much of that matter be harden'd in those vessels , and there remain , then the substance of the kidneys becomes gravelly and stony . xxiv . the use of the kidneys is to separate and evacuate the redundant serous moisture from the blood , which is carried to 'em , together with the blood , through the emulgent arteries ; from which blood , in its passage through the glandules of the reins , the urinary fibres , and the papillary caruncles , a good part of the serum is separated , and distills into the renal receptacle or pelvis , and thence slides through the ureters to the piss-bladder . but the remainder of the blood and mix'd serous humour ( for all the serum is not separated from the blood ) that is sent through the emulgent veins to the vena cava . xxv . but how that separation of the serum is made , is hard to explain . for that the two first things upon which the explication depends , are altogether obscure , that is to say , the specific fermentation , and the peculiar disposition of the pores in the reins . xxvi . for , that there is a certain specific effervescency or separating fermentation in the reins , or about the reins , by which part of the serum , together with the impurities mix'd with it , is separated from the blood , three reasons teach us . . first , for that most diureticks abound with salt , which causes that fermentation ; nay , many of these diuretics are salts themselves , as salt of beans , vine-stalks , iuniper , prunella , &c. . because sudorisics ( by which the serum is separated from the blood ) are very effectual , whether salt of wormwood , carduus , mother-wort , &c. or such as are endued with an acid salt , as vinegar , oyl of vitriol or sulphur , spirit of salt , and the like , which cause or increase that effervescency . . for that in cold distempers , as the anasarca , by reason of the weak constitution of the liver , because there is not a strong and sufficient ferment prepar'd , for which reason the crude serum is not sufficiently separated from the blood , nor yet attenuated ; thence it happens that very little urine is discharg'd , tho' the serum abound in all parts of the body , and distends all the parts with a sensible tumour . but how by that effervescency part of the serum , with its impurities , comes to be separated , and what form it assumes to pass alone through those narrow and porous passages of the kidneys , the blood being excluded from 'em , whoever can demonstrate this , deserves the laurel . xxvii . here the glandules of the kidneys assume to themselves a great priviledge , in which very few doubt but that there is a peculiar power of separating the serum from the blood. but in regard that besides the serum , matter also , slimy flegm , and other humours * much thicker than the blood it self , nay , gravel and stones are discharged with the urine ; hence whether this separation of the blood be to be ascrib'd to the glandules alone , was question'd by many ; who therefore joyn'd to their assistance a specific disposition of the pores in the kidneys , no less obscure and unknown than the foresaid specific fermentation , and peculiar power in the glandules to separate the serum . for who , i would fain know , will unfold to us , wherefore the serum , with the humours contain'd in it , separated from the blood by the foresaid specific fermentation , descend through the pores of the kidneys and glandules , without any blood , when in the mean time , the purulent matter brought from the breast , and altogether mix'd with the blood , has been often seen to pass through the same pores without any blood ? thus in the year . i cur'd a merchant of nimmeghen , who was troubled with an imposthum●… , which was at length discharg'd through the urinary passages in two days time , with some pain in his ureters , two chamber-pots full of white matter well concocted , and somewhat thick , and so was free'd from his aposteme . whereas before the same matter ( the fluctuation of which was not only perceiv'd by himself , by reason of his difficult breathing , but also was easily heard in the stirring of his body backward and forward ) threaten'd him not only with a consumption , but with certain death . xxviii . something to the same purpose i also observ'd in the year . in a servant of the lord of soulen , who being troubled with an aposteme in his breast , all the matter was discharg'd through the urinary passages , with a terrible pain in the loyns and ureters , by reason of the distension of the parts caused by the passage of the thick matter . andrew laurentius also , anat. l. . quaest . . relates a story of the same nature , by him observ'd in a certain person troubled with an empyema , whose body being opened , he found a certain sort of stinking matter in great quantity in the concavity of the breast and the left hollowness of the heart , of the same nature with that which came from him with his urine , which was a certain sign that it came from the breast through the heart to the kidneys . xxix . these and such like things , while others consider and observe a difficult explication of the matter , they reject the glandules , and affirm the whole business to be done by the sole peculiar disposition of the pores in the kidneys , that is to say , their aptitude and structure , which they cannot describe , neither by means whereof the thick matter finds a passage through them , but the thinner blood cannot pass . fling , say they , thin chaff , pease and beans , into a country farmers barn-sive , the thicker pease and beans easily pass through the holes , but the long thin chaff remains in the sive . but tho' the aptitude of the pores in dry things may occasion such accidents , 't is much to be doubted , whether in liquid and fluid bodies mix'd together , the same thing may happen , especially when neither exceeds the other in fat ; that is to say , whether a substance four times thicker than the blood , by reason of the said structure of the pores alone , may be able to pass through such narrow pores , which do not only not give passage to the blood that is mix'd with it , and is much thinner , but stops it . whether also the blood which is so thin and fluid , that it has been sometimes seen to sweat through the pores of the skin , coming to the pores of the reins , cannot as easily , or rather much more easily be shap'd to the form of the pores of the reins , than matter which is so thick , that it can hardly pass thorough the ureters , but many times extreamly torments 'em by their distension . and so that reason , as to the particular structure of the pores of the reins , seems hardly sufficient to explain the said evacuation ; therefore there is something yet lies hid which no body yet could ever discover : in the mean time , tho' the cause of this thing do not manifestly appear , this is certain as to the thing it self ; and we our selves have seen matter carried from the breast to the kidneys and bladder , discharg'd in great quantity , without any intermixture of blood . xxx . but we shall not insist altogether upon liquids ; what shall we say of things that are solid and hard , are they also shap'd in like manner , so as to be strain'd through the pores of the kidneys , without any concomitancy of blood ? yet there are several examples of hard things that are discharg'd with the urine , without any blood attending . thus longinus relates a story of a virgin , that being surpriz'd with a suddain laughter , swallow'd three needles which she held in her mouth , which came from her again in three days with her urine . alexander benedict . l. . anat. c. . writes another story of a pack-needle , four fingers breadth long ▪ which descended into the bladder , and was afterwards found in the dissected body . iohn matthaeus also relates , that a small iron nail being swallow'd unawares , was taken a long time after , cut of the bladder with a stone cut out at the same time , ( the stone cleaving round about the nail , as if the nail had been the groundwork of the stone . my wife swallow'd a small needle that carried an ordinary thred , which in three days came from her again with her urine , august . . n●…r did the needle put her to any pain while it lay in her body . iulius alexandrinus has observ'd little pieces of the roots of parsly , as big as a farthing , swallow'd the day before , discharg'd again with the urine . nicholas florentine reports that a person , who had eat mushrooms not exactly concocted , piss'd out again remarkable bits of 'em with his urine . plutarch relates the story of a man , who after a long difficulty of his urine , at length voided a knotted barly-stalk . george ierome velschius observat. . relates another story of one that was wont to void grape-stones , bits of lettice , and meat , together with his urine . and of another , that when he drank the hot bath-waters , frequently voided with his urine whole pieces of melon-seeds which he was us'd to eat . pigraeus and hildan tell ye of some that have piss'd out aniseeds and alkekengi . all which things , it is both said and believ'd by most hitherto , do pass through the narrow streights of the kidneys , where the blood cannot make its way . how then will the adapted disposition and structure of the pores aforesaid suffice ? i hardly believe it . for that such hard and large bodies , passing the milkie vessels , should first pass the vena cava , and ●…igh the cavity of the heart , thence through the narrow and scarcely visible passages of the lungs , to the left side insensibly , without any pain or prejudice , and then be conveyed through the aorta and emulgent arteries to the kidneys , and be strain'd through their urinary fibres and papillary pores , and that no blood should go along with 'em , surpasses both belief and reason , nor can be prov'd by any experience , seeing that no physician or anatomist ever found needles , seeds , straws , or any such like things swallowed , either in the vena cava , the ventricles of the heart , the lungs , the aorta , or the kidneys . xxxi . these things when formerly i seriously consider'd with my self , and withal bethought my self that they who in great quantity drink the spaw waters , and other sharp and diuretic waters , in half an hours time evacuate forth again three , four , or more pound of serum , without any alteration of the heart ; and that it is very unlikely that so great a quantity of crude and uncoloured serum should so suddainly pass through the heart , lungs , and kidneys , without any prejudice . i began to think that of necessity , besides the veins , there must be some other passages through which the more copious serum , and those hard substances already mention'd come to the bladder . xxxii . and these ways or passages i suspected to be certain milkie vessels , which are carried to the bladder through occult and hitherto unknown ways ; and tho' not in all , yet in some men are so open toward the bladder , that they are sufficient to transmit the milkie chylus and plentiful serum , but also solid , hard , and long substances . and this conjecture of mine the observations of physicians seem to confirm , who have sometimes seen the chylous milkie matter evacuated with the urine . nicholas florentine serm. . tract . . c. . reports that he knew a young man about thirty years of age , who every day voided , besides a great quantity of urine , without any pain , about half a urinal full of milk. capellus the physician , by the testimony of bauhinus , saw a woman that evacuated half a cup full of milk out of her bladder . andrew lawrentius has observed several child-bearing women to have voided a great quantity of milk out of their wombs and bladders . whence it is manifestly apparent that some milkie vessels run forth , not only to the womb , but to the bladder , and may discharge themselves into those parts , if there be no obstruction , that is , if those vessels are not obstructed , compressed , or stop'd up by some other means , as they seem to be in most men ; which is thought to be the reason that the milkie chylus so rarely flows to the bladder . but in regard these passages are short , and not so winding as many others are , it may easily happen that other solid substances , besides the chylus , may pass through 'em , as seeds , needles , straws , &c. but much more easily may a great part of the crude serum , increas'd by much drinking , flow through these passages , and be evacuated through the bladder , in regard so large a quantity of blood cannot be so suddainly run through other vessels , and circulate through the heart . and hence it is that such urine proves of a watery colour , differing much in colour and consistence from that urine which is concocted with the blood , which follows well colour'd after the evacuation of much copious crude serum , and manifestly shews that it pass'd through other parts , ( than the other crude serum , ) that is , through the lungs , heart , and kidneys , and there obtain'd a larger concoction . i also conjectur'd that those liquors which we drink , and whose colour and smell remains in the urine , are carried the same way ; for should they pass through the heart , they would lose both . actuarius l. . de iud. urin. c. . relates the history of a sick person to whom he had given a black medicin , who soon after made black water without any prejudice . and many times midwives , by the colour and smell of the excrements that flow from child-bearing women , know what the woman with child has been eating before . saffron being given in drink to a woman in labour , in a quarter of an hour dy'd the birth of a yellow colour , and yet the saffron could not pass through the heart in so short a time , nor from thence be sent to the womb , much less preserve its colour entire in passing through so many several chanels . iohn ferdinand hertodius , fed a bitch for some days before she whelp'd with meat dy'd with saffron , and after he had open'd her , found the dissolution or liquation among the membranes , and the puppies dy'd of a yellow colour , and yet the chylus was white in the milkie vessels , not tinctur'd with any other colour . i my self have seen those who have eaten the fat growing to the kidneys of lambs , rosted , and in a short time voided it all again with their urine . oyl of turpentine immediately imparts its smell to the urine . and asparagus provokes urine , crude , muddy , and retaining their own smell . whereas if such juices should make a long circuit through the heart and other bowels , they could never come to the bladder so suddainly , so raw , and yet retaining their own smell . which are certain indications that there are certain milkie vessels occult , and taking another course than the rest , which extend themselves , some to the womb , and some to the piss-bladder , and that liquors of this nature , and other solid substances , may sometimes through those more open chanels , reach those parts . which vessels , tho' hitherto they were never conspicuous to the sight , nor demonstrated by any anatomist , yet of necessity must be there . such milkie vessels extended toward the teats , are not to be seen , and yet that there are such vessels , stalks of herbs eaten the day before , and voided through the paps , and broth dy'd with saffron , flowing out at the teats of the same colour , sufficiently declare . now if these vessels in the teats are invisible to the eyes ▪ what wonder that they which tend to the womb and bladder should not be discover'd ? however , for the better clearing of this difficulty , i would desire all anatomists , that they would use a little more than ordinary diligence in the search of these vessels for the common benefit , to the end that what is now but meerly conjectur'd at , may come to be evident by solid demonstrations . others there are who never thinking of the milkie vessels , have invented , or at least imagin'd other ways . xxxiii . bartholine l. de lact. thorac . l. . & . believes that this same thick matter , needles , the milkie iuice , and the like , and in great drinkers , and those that cannot hold their water , the liquor they drink , nothing or very little alter'd , are carried by a direct and short way to the emulgent arteries , and so through the kidneys to the bladder . but these passages are not confirm'd by sight , because those chanels from the chyle-bearing bag to the emulgent arteries are not to be found , nor any branches carried to the sweet-bread and liver , of which he also discourses in the same place : and therefore the lymphatic vessels seem to have deceived this learned person , as well as many others . moreover , grant that the milkie vessels reach to the said parts , yet how is it possible that needles , bodkins , and the like , of a great length , and not to be bent , should pass through those narrow and winding porous passages of the substance of the reins ? and therefore of necessity this invention of so famous a man , must fall to the ground . xxxiv . clemens niloe writes that some of the milkie vessels are carried to the vice-reins , or black choler kidneys , call'd capsulae atrabilariae , and that from those the serous liquors flow to the external tunicle , and thence farther through the ureters to the bladder . but the hypothesis falters , or rather fails altogether in this , that the hypothesis was first to be prov'd that the milkie vessels are carried thither . besides , there is no passage from these black choler ▪ ca●…kets to the ureters , but they discharge themselves into the em●…lgeut veins , or vena cava , and so nothing can come from them to the ureters . xxxv . bernard swalve going about to shew more manifest and shorter ways , writes , that the bath - waters , acid iuices , and any liquor plentifully drank is easily s●…ck't up in the stomach by the gastrick veins , gaping presently upon their approach , and so are immediately carried to the heart . but the vanity of this fiction is every way apparent . for the more plentiful draughts of acid liquors , whether wine , or any other liquid juice , were receiv'd by the gastrick veins in the ventricle , must of necessity be carried then to the vena portae , the liver , the vena cava and the lungs , and in so long a way , and passing through so many bowels , must of necessity be subject to a remarkable change ; and alter their colours , whereas before they are presently piss'd out without any colour at all . nor could they retain the ●… inctures of saffron , rubarb and other things , and be piss'd out as they are with the same hue and smell as they went in . moreover , by the confession of swalve himself , there is nothing thick or chylous canpass through those ways , by reason of their extraordinary narrowness ; whereas we find by experience , that matter , needles , milk , and black physick , has been presently discharg'd by urine . then again , if so great a quantity of cold acids , as is commonly consum'd in a short space , should be carried through the forementioned passages , certainly the heat of the liver , heart , and lungs , would be extinguish'd by that same actual cold , and the whole body would become colder than marble , and so shortness of breath , dropsies , and such like distempers would presently seize all those that drink those liquors : whereas experience tells us that those distempers are cur'd by acids . thus the opinions of doctors concerning a shorter way to the bladder are very uncertain , among which nevertheless our own above mention'd seems to be most probable , till another more likely be discover'd . xxxvi . forestus , duretus , and after them beverovicius and laselius , write , that one kidney being obstructed , the other becomes useless , and losing its own action , intercepts the f●…owing of the urine ; which riolanus says has been more than once observ'd by himself ; which he also believes comes to pass by reason of the sympathy between each other , by reason of their partnership in duty ; and hence if the one be out of order , the other growing feeble , immediately languishes : which veslingius also intimates in few words . but in this particular i take experience to be prefer'd before the authorities and opinions of the most learned men , which has many times taught us the contrary ; that is to say , that one kidney being obstructed , or any other way distemper'd , the other remains sound , and makes sufficient way for the urine , of which i could produce several examples , which for brevities sake i omit . sometimes indeed we have seen , that by a stone falling down upon one kidney , the passage of the urine has been stop'd ; which has not happen'd by reason of any sympathy , but because unfelt by the patient , the other kidney had been long obstructed before , and yet the urine having sufficient passage through the opposite kidney : which opposite kidney being by chance obstructed likewise , presently the passage of the urine is quite stop'd up . which the dissections of dead bodies apparently teach us . for many times we have found one ureter quite obstructed near the orifice , which the sick person never perceived in his life time , while his urine pass'd freely through the other . nor did we ever observe a total suppression of urine , where the kidneys were faulty , but we found upon dissection both kidneys obstructed . the lord wede , a noble man of utrecht , often at other times subject to nephritic pains , found his urine of a suddain supprest by reason of an obstruction in his kidneys , and yet without any pain : presently that same whimsey of consent came into the physicians heads , believing that one kidney was suddainly obstructed , and that the other fail'd in its office by consent . at length all remedies in vain attempted , in fourteen days he dy'd . but then his body being open'd , in both kidneys was found a stone of an indifferent bigness , shap'd like a pear , that was fall'n upon the orifice of the ureter , and had quite damm'd up the urinary passage . who would now have thought that in both kidneys two stones should be fallen at the same time upon both the orifices of the ureters ? and therefore it is most probable that long before , one kidney had been obstructed , tho' he felt no great prejudice by it , so long as the other was open ; but when the stone fell upon the ureter of the other rein , then the urine was altogether suppressed . certain it is , that that suppression of urine was not caused by the obstruction of one kidney , and consequently not by any sympathetical affection of the other . it is also farther to be noted that in the dissections of dogs , we shall often find in the one kidney a long , thick , ruddie worm that has eaten all the fleshy substance of the bowel , whereas there could be nothing more sound than the opposite kidney ; which shew'd no sign of sympathizing with the miser●… of the other . xxxvii . but tho' it be the only office of the reins to separate the serum from the blood , nevertheless some more narrowly considering their fleshy substance and peculiar bigness , attribute also to 'em the function of preparing and farther elaborating and concocting the blood ; which opinion deusingius , following beverovicius , most stifly defends . but if by concoction he means that elaboration only , by which the secous excrement is separated from the blood , then his opinion may be tolerated : but if such an elaborate concoction , by which the blood is made more spirituous and perfect , then his opinion is to be rejected , there being no bowel that brings the blood to greater perfection than the heart , from which the more remote it is , the more imperfect it is : nor can any thing of its lost perfection be restor'd by any other part , no not by the kidneys themselves . for which reason the blood must return to the heart to be restored to its pristine vigor . xxxviii . besides the foresaid office , others according to the opinion of sennertus ascrib'd another action to the kidneys , which is the preparation of seed : which they uphold by several reasons , of which these are the chief . . because the kidneys have a peculiar parenchyma as the rest of the bowels have ; now in regard there is a peculiar power of concoction in the peculiar flesh of every one of the bowels , that peculiar quality must not be deny'd the kidneys , which can be no other than a seminific concoction , when straining is sufficient for the separation of the serum , and there is no need of concoction . . because the emulgent arteries and veins are too large to serve only for the conveyance of the serum , it seems most probable that a great part of the blood being separated from the serum , is concocted in the kidneys into a seminal juice , which is to be further concocted in the testicles . . because when the seed is suppressed and over much retain'd , the kidneys are out of order . . because topics apply'd to the region of the kidneys , prove beneficial in a gonorrhea . . because a hot constitution of the reins causes a proclivity to venery , lustful dreams and pollutions ; and the hotter it is , the sharper the seed is . xxxix . but these are chaffi●… reasons , and of no force , to which we answer thus in order . . that the kidneys indeed are certain straining vessels , whereby good part of the serum is separated from the blood that passes through , and falling into the renal receptacle flows out again . but this straining can never be , unless a certain necessary specific separating fermentation precede , separating the blood from the serum ; and so the kidneys do not simply separate the serum by straining , but transmits , as it were , through a sponge , that which is separated by the said fermentation . moreover because a great quantity of serum is to be separated and transmitted , hence there is a a necessity for larger and greater strainers . for if so much serum , separated by continual fermentation , were to be strain'd through small strainers , would they be so loose , that together with the serum separated by the said concoction , the thinner part of the blood would also slip through ' em . . much of the blood were to be carried through the emulgent arteries being very large for the separation of a moderate part of the blood only , for the blood was not to be depriv'd of all the serum , to preserve it fluid . but through the emulgent veins nothing flows to the kidneys , as is apparent from the circulation of the blood , and the valves which are placed at the entrance of the emulgent veins into the vena cava . lastly , neither does that consequence follow . much blood flows to the reins , and therefore out of some part of it the matter of the seed is prepared in the kidneys . . nor does that other consequence . the kidneys are out of order through retention of the seed ; therefore the kidneys both prepare and supyly the matter of the seed . for then this consequence would be as true . the head-ach proceeds from the retention and boyling of the choler , therefore the head prepares choler . . neither is this consequence true . topics apply'd to the region of the kidneys are beneficial in the gonorrhea , therefore the kidneys supply seminal matter . for then would this be as certain . cold water apply'd to the testicles stops bleeding at the nose , therefore the testicles made blood to be carried to the nostrils . . a hot constitution of the kidneys is a sign of proneness to lust , but not the cause . for this is usual that where all the spermatic vessels are hotter , there the kidneys are also hotter . not that the kidneys add a greater heat to the seed : but the vapors rising from the hot seed , heat and warm the kidneys . so that in brute animals that are ripe and libidinous , not gelt , you shall perceive a certain seminal savour and tast in the kidneys . xl. lastly we may add for a conclusion , that no specific vessels are extended from the kidneys to the testicles , through which the seminal matter can be carried thither . that the spermatic arteries carry blood to the testicles out of the trunc of the aorta , and the superfluity flows back through the spermatic veins to the vena cava ( whose valves are so plac'd , that nothing can slide through them to the testicles ) and so these vessels cannot perform that office , and as for other vessels there are none . xli . from what has been said it appears , that the kidneys are parts that evacuate the serous excrement , most necessary for the support of life . the question is therefore whether the wounds of the kidneys are mortal or no ? we must say , they are mortal , and that of a hundred wounded in the kidneys , scarce one recovers perfect health . which lethality proceeds not from the nobleness or excellency of the reins , but from the concourse of supervening symptomes . that is to say , a vast flux of blood cutting off the vessels , obstruction of urine , or else the impossibility of the retention of it : great pain , inflammation , exulceration , apostumation , by reason of the continual thorough-fare of the sharp serum , difficult to be cured ; and other accidents that weare the strength of the patient to death . for tho' the kidneys are not principal parts , yet are they such , the use of which we cannot want , which use being either wholly suppressed or obstructed , life ceases . true it is that some people who have been wounded in the kidneys have liv'd , and to the more unskilful have seem'd to be cur'd , but at last the reviving apostumes have carried off the patient . thus fallopius , cornelius gemma , dodoneus , forestus , valleriola , and others , relate various examples of persons wounded in the kidneys who superviv'd for some years , but at length however they dy'd of those wounds . but that some die sooner , some later , the reason is this , that some wounds are more or less deep , and the attending symptomes more or less violent . however for my part in all my five and forty years practice , i never saw any body wounded in the reins that ever perfectly recovered , tho' i have met with many such wounds to be cured , especially when i practised young in the camp ; which makes me admire the vanity of so many surgeous , that dare bragg they have many times perfectly cured people wounded in the kidneys . but what shall we then say of the cutting of stones out of the kidneys ? to which avicen inclines , canon . l. . fen. . tract . . c. . of which also pareus writes , lib. de affect . when it swells and bunches out ( meaning the stone of the kidney in the loyns ) at that time you must cut near the kidney , and draining out the matter , cure the gravel with medicaments provoking urine . but we must say that whoever has a stone cut out of the kidney cannot supervive the section . 't is reported that such a cure once was undertook and accomplished with success in spain , upon a person condemn'd to die . but if it were true , as is greatly to be doubted , it is to be numbered among the miracles . xlii . here by the way we are to observe , that there is a certain plexure of nerves between the two kidneys under the ventricle , consisting of a double costal , and stomachical nerve ; from which all the parts of the lower belly borrow their nerves , of which more l. . c. . chap. xix . of the capsulae or deputy kidneys . i. the capsulae kidneys by julius casser are called the deputy kidneys , by wharton the glandules adjoyning to the nervous plexure , by bartholine the black choler cases , or capsulae atrabilariae . ii. they are two glandulous bodies , of which one leans upon each kidney , where they look toward the vena cava under the diaphragma , at the upper part of the membrana adiposa , to which it sticks so close , that oft-times it is overseen by the more negligent , and the kidneys being taken out , is left annexed to the membrane of the diaphragma . the left glandule is nearest the diaphragma , the right is nearest the vena cava ; and the left is placed somewhat higher than the right : but in brutes for the most part neither joyn close to the reins , but ly distant about the breadth of half a thumb , and plac'd somewhat toward the diaphragma , the fat lying between . they are found in that place where the nervous plexure is to be seen , to which they are firmly knit . iii. they seldome exceed the number of two. iv. their substance is not much unlike the substance of the kidneys , but looser , sometimes of a ruddy colour , sometimes like fat. v. in shape they are seldome like the kidneys ( and yet i have more than once seen 'em exactly represent the figure of the kidneys ) but frequently like a piece of flat past ; between square and oblong : sometimes also they are triangular and oval , but rarely round . vi. in grown people they are much less than the kidneys ; extended to the quantity of a vomiting nut , and the right uses to exceed the left in bigness , seldome the left exceeds the right . in the birth and children till almost half a year old , they almost equal the kidneys ; but afterwards they do not grow proportionably to the rest of the parts ; and when the privities begin to have hair , they cease to grow any more . however they do not diminish again in grown people , as some have averr'd . for in consumptions and hectic feavers where all the parts are emaciated , these remain sound and untouch'd , and preserve their wonted bigness . vii . they are wrapt about with a thin tunicle , by which they are strongly fasten'd to the outward membrane of the kidneys . viii . they have an apparent concavity full of windings and turnings , but so little that it will hardly admit a pea , and therefore more conspicuous in the birth than in grown people , which contains a black feculent . matter , with which colour also the inside of it is also tinctured . ix . wharton observes that a great number of little holes proceeding from the very substance it self of these glandules terminate into this concavity with gaping small orifices , but that the cavity it self opens into the next vein , and is there fortifi'd with a valve , opening toward the vein , but closed behind . this they send from themselves for the most part to the emulgent , sometimes to the venae adiposae , sometimes they insert a small twig of the vena cava , proceeding out of their cavity with a large and broad orifice . x. they also borrow an artery from the emulgent , and sometimes one or more branches from the trunk of the aorta . xi . they admit very smell little nerves from the stomach branch of the sixth pair , running to the proper tunicle of the reins . xii . the use of these kernels is hitherto unknown . some with veslingius believe that they help to draw the serous moisture , and collect the black choler , which like a rennet provokes the separation of the serum from the blood. spigelius thinks 'em made to fill up the vacuum which is between the kidneys and the diaphragma , and for a prop to the stomach in that part , which is above the emulgent veins and arteries ; others think that they support the division of the retiform'd plexure of nerves . riolanus , that they are of no use in men grown to maturity , but that their use is only to be sought for in the birth , wherein he believes they receive a certain juice appropriated to the generation of the kidney fat ; for that in the body of an infant there is no fat generated till after he is brought forth into the world , at what time that juice formerly collected is produced into act. glisson believes that they separate the juice that serves for the nourishment of the nerves from the rest of the blood , that it may be carried pure to the nerves . all which opinions nevertheless are meerly conjectural , and lean upon no solid foundation . wharton believes that there is a certain juice unapt for the generation of nerves exonerated into these little coffers from the plexures of the nerves upon which they lean ; which juice however flowing from thence into the veins , may there be useful for other purposes . but neither is this any other than a meer uncertain conjecture , for that it is hardly credible that either this or any other thick and feculent humour could be conveighed through the most narrow pores of the more solid substance of the nerves . others conjecture that there is a certain rennet prepared in these glandules , which flowing from thence to the kidneys , causes therein a quick separation of the serum from the blood . which opinion certainly carries with it great probability ; if the way from these pasages to the kidneys could be demonstrated . but what if we should say , that that same black juice is prepared out of the arterious blood , and obtains a certain fermentative power , necessary for the venal blood , for which reason it flows from them not to other parts , but endued with the same quality flows through the veins proceeding from the capsulae to the vena cava : but neither is this any more than a conjecture . hence because the use of these glandules is so little known , i am persuaded it happens , that they were never taken into due consideration by any of our physicians : whereas we find that many diseases arise from their being out of order . and therefore it is to be hop'd that all practisers , both physicians and anatomists , will for the future observe these parts more diligently , and by frequent dissections of dead carkasses inform themselves what diseases their disorder and ill temparature may occasion . chap. xx. of the ureters . i. the ureters , 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 from 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 to make water and 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , are certain oblong and white vessels , or round channels proceeding from the kidneys receiving the serum strein'd from the reins , and carrying it to the bladder , together with the gravel , choler , matter , and other iuices mix'd with the serum . ii. they arise from the inward concavity of the kidneys , whose various pipes meeting and closing together , form the ureter . iii. one is generally granted to each kidney , seldome any more are found , tho' it were twice my chance to find more ; which two ureters however were united on both sides near the bladder , and enter'd it with an orifice . iv. they consist of a thick twofold and white membrane , the outermost common , the innermost peculiar . but riolanus more judiciously acknowledges but one peculiar membrane , for that there is no outermost common membrane joyned to it from the peritonaeum . the ureters generally are contained under the peritonaeum , together with many other parts , but they are not particularly enfolded by that membrane , nor receive any peculiar tunicle from the peritonaeum , as the ventricle , the vena cava , the liver and many other bowels and vessels do . but the peculiar and only membrane of which they consist , is a membrane strong , nervous , strengthened with some fibres , oblique and streight , and arteries and small veins from the neighbouring parts ; and furnish'd with nerves from the sixth pair and the marrow of the loyns , which endue it with an exquisite sense of feeling : which little nerves however riolanus will not allow the ●…reters , believing it enough to excite pain , that they are membranous , seeing that from the distension of a membrane by a stone or any sharp substance , there follows a pain severe enough to be endur'd . wherein he mistakes , for that any such thing can happen without the flowing in of the spirits through the nerves , is prov'd from the palsey ▪ in which distemper the membranes do not feel , through the defect of animal spirits , nor do they display the least sign of feeling that may be thought to proceed from their structure and composition . v. these are very small in a man ; about a handful in length , and about the breadth of a straw : tho' sometimes they are very much dilated by stones passing violently through and with a tormenting pain ; so that sometimes they have been seen as broad as the small gut. vi. they proceed downwards from the reins above the pso●… muscles that be in the hip , between the double membranes of the peritonaeum , somewhat reflex'd toward the lower parts , and in some manner , by an oblique course between the membranes of the bladder , are inserted about the hinder parts of the neck of the bladder , and are continued with the inner substance of the bladder , in which place some believe 'em to be fortified with valves at their ori●…ices , hindering the return of the urine from the upper parts . which valves however riolanus , andrew laurentius , and plempius call in question , and say that their oblique and winding ingress into the bladder stops the return of the urine out of the bladder , for which opinion we also give our vote . chap. xxi . of the piss-bladder . i. the piss-bladder , 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , is a membranous organical part of the lower belly , which retains the serum received from the kidneys , and at length discharges it as being troublesom either through its weight or acrimony . ii. it is seated in the hypogastrium , between the double tunicles of the peritonaeum , in the cavity which is form'd by the os sacrum , the hip-bone and share-bone . in men it leans upon the intestinum rectum , and is joyn'd to the prostatae glandules ; in women it sticks to the neck of the womb , and in both is fastened to the share-bone before ; and it is also annexed to the navel by the urachus . iii. it consists of a threefold membrane , of which the outermost in men , but not in brutes , being surrounded with fat proceeds from the peritonaeum . the middlemost , which is thicker is endued with fleshy fibres for contraction and expulsion of the urine : and hence by aquapendens , and bartholine , called the enfolding muscle , by spigelius the thruster downward of the urine . this if it be too much distended by ●…oo great a quantity of urine , occasions a total suppression of urine , because the fibres of it being too much distended are so weakned , that they cannot contract themselves again . which sort of suppression of urine forestus writes that he himself was troubled with l. . observ. . the innermost is thinner , and being of a more exquisite sense of feeling is protected by a kind of slime from the corrosion of the liquor contained in it . this is found very much wrinkl'd in people that are troubl'd with the stone . iv. the figure of it , is oblong , globous , or round , and sometimes , sharp like a pear . v. the bigness is not alike in all , but in some larger , in some less ; which extraordinary largeness is occasioned by its frequent and violent distensions , by too long a retention of the water . vi. it has one cavity , which by the observations of physicians in some few has been seen distinguished into two , by a membrane or fence in the middle . vii . there are three holes belonging to it , of which the two lesser before the neck are open to the entrance of the ureters : the third , which is the bigger , in the neck gives way to the urine going forth . viii . it receives arteries from the hypogastries , entring the sides of the neck , and carrying thither blood for its nourishment : the remainder of which it pours forth through little veins into the hypogastric vein . it admits nerves from the sixth pair and the marrow of the os sacrum . ix . it is divided into bottom and neck . x. the bottom comprehends the upper and broader part of the bladder ; from which the urachus is extended upwards to the navel ; which urachus together with the adjoyning umbilical arteries in people of ripe years proves a strong ligament , preventing the falling down of the bottom upon the neck . of the urachus see more , c. . xi . the neck is the lower and narrower part , which in men being longer and straighter is carried to the root of the yard , and opens into the urinary passage or piss-pipe . but in women shorter and broader ; hanging above over the neck of the womb , and opens itself under the clitoris , a little above the entrance of the sheath or matrix between the nymphae . in both sexes fleshy , woven out of many fibres , chiefly transverse and orbicular , lying hid among the right fibres encompassing the whole body of the bladder , which constitute the sphincter muscle , pulling together the neck of the bladder to prevent the urine from coming away unseasonably , and winding about the prostatae , as may be seen in the following chapter . as for those anatomists that describe several other muscles of the bladder , they do but make themselves ridiculous : as the external sphincter , the thruster down , &c. which are nothing else but the fleshy membrane of the bladder . xii . over this neck in men toward the piss-bladder , a little membrane overspreads it self , like a small valve , which prevents the seed which is forc'd toward the piss-pipe from flowing into the bladder , and the falling of the urine which flows out of the bladder into the seminal pipes . which may be demonstrated if a bodkin be put into the bladder toward the piss-pipe , into which it enters easily without any obstacle ; but not the contrary way , unless by the force of dilaceration . this little membrane is broken by the immission of a catheter into the bladder , and sometimes is corroded away in a gonorrhea . bartholine reports from the observation of riolanus , that this membrane is to be found in boys till twenty years of age , but not after that . which observation i do not take to be any perpetual rule . for in practice we have many times broken this membrane not without great pain ensuing , in older men by immission of the catheter . perhaps riolanus might observe this in the dissections of dead bodies in france . for the french youth being extreamly lustful , and abandoning themselves to their venery , and frequently clapp'd , it may easily happen that this membrane may be eaten away by the corroding seed , as it passes through the channel . chap. xxii . of the parts in men serving for the generation of the seed . i. after the organs of nourishment , by which the food is prepared for the support of the body , which would else decay , order and method require that we should proceed to the description of the instruments of generation , by which the perennity of human kind which nature has deny'd to individuals is preserv'd by procreation . ii. these parts are called pudenda from pudor modesty , as being those parts of which man was not asham'd before sin. but after he had sin'd he took notice of his ignominious nakedness , and was asham'd . theophrastus paracelsus writes , that men before sin wanted these parts ; but that after sin committed they were added by the creator , in perpetual remembrance of the shameless fact he had committed : and because our first parents fell through the temptation of the devil , therefore to adam was given a genital member or yard like a serpent , and to eve a member of generation like the serpents den. now whether this be the reason that the adamite's serpent is never at rest but when he is entering eve's den , and that eve's den with so much love and desire receives and admits the adamite's serpent , i leave to others to dispute . iii. these same privities , which are also call'd genitals , being in both sexes not fram'd alike , necessarily we must discourse of both apart : and first for the generating parts of man , in the same order as the seed is generated , moves within 'em , and is ejected . iv. the genital parts in men are such parts as are design'd for a man to beget his own likeness in a woman . these parts are divided into internal and external ; of which some ly hid in the cavity of the abdomen , others are conspicuous without : however all these both outward and internal parts that serve for generation are twofold : others prepare the seed , of which in this chapter ; others conveigh the seed into the womb , of which in the following chapter . v. among those which make the seed in the first place occur the spermatic vessels : which are vulgarly call'd preparing vessels , because that formerly it was thought the blood was there prepared for the generation of seed . these are twofold : that is to say , two arteries , and as many veins which are more conspicuous and bigger than the arteries . some write that they have seen the arteries bigger than the veins , which must be preternatural , and contrary to the circulation of the blood ( for then through large and broad arteries more blood would be carried than could be return'd back through smaller and lesser veins ; whence it is probable that such a thing never happen'd , but that the anatomists that writ so had a mist before their eyes . vi. the spermatic arteries carry blood for the making of the seed and the nourishment of the testicles : of which , the right a little below , the left close by or a little above the emulgent , sometimes both together about the distance of two fingers under the emulgent , arise out of the trunk of the great artery before . but then the right ascending the trunk of the vena cava proceeds obliquely to the vein of the same side , and the left proceeds directly to the vein of its own side . nevertheless riolanus has observed that both sometimes proceed from the emulgent ; and sometimes not two but one only to have sprung out of the trunk of the aorta , and to have perform'd the duty of the two . in like manner , george q●…ck a physician of norimbergh , observed this single artery in a dead masculine body springing from the forepart of the aorta , which being divided into two branches above the separation of the crural branches , joyn'd afterwards on both sides to the descending spermatic vein . and by the relation of hoffman , peter paw , in the year . in the dead body of an old man , found no more than one spermatic artery , proceeding from the middle trunk of the aorta , ten times bigger than those arteries wont to appear in others , and ending in the testicles , being without question double fork'd before . but these accidents rarely happen , as in that person of whom cornelius gemma writes , art. cyclog . lib. . often , says he , we have seen three or four seminal arteries . in the place of often , i had rather he had said sometimes : for the increased number is so seldom found , that of six hundred anatomists scarce one has seen it : but generally two spermatic arteries of each side one , spring from the trunk of the aorta . vii . bauhinus , riolanus , and others report that these arteries sometimes are of one side , and sometimes both in both sides are obsorv'd to be wanting , and this they affirm to be the cause of barrenness . which thing reason convinces us , can never be true , seeing that the blood cannot be carried to the stones through any other passages , than through these arteries ; the veins , by reason of the obstructions of the valves , sending no blood to the testicles . and so for want of matter ( which they affirm to be the cause of barrenness , not only no seed can be made , but neither can the stones be supplied with nourishment ; and by that means would wast and dry up : or else surpriz'd with a sphacelus ( which is an extinction of life and sense , would fall down ; whereas in those bodies where one or both bodies are said to be wanting , the stones were found to be sufficiently swelling and juicie , and a copious quantity of seed conspicuous in the seminal vessels . and therefore there must be some deceit or mistake in what they alledge , which proceeds from hence , which may often happen by reason of the extraordinary thinness of the arteries , that those arteries might be cut off either through the imprudence or overhasty dissection of the anatomists ; and so could be neither found nor demonstrated , which is the reason they readily persuade themselves and the spectators , that they are wanting through some defect of nature . viii . the spermatic veins carry the blood to the vena cava , which remains after the nourishment of the stones , and making the seed . of these , the right vein from the right stone ascending the trunk of the vena cava before , a little above the rise of the emulgent , enters the vena cava ; and the left enters the emulgent on the same side , rarely the vena cava . riolanus also writes that he has observ'd the right vein inserted into the right emulgent , which i never happened to see . into both these spermatic veins within the abdomen , several slender branches proceeding from the caul and peritonaeum , open themselves , by the observation of regner de graef ; as also that the veins do not proceed in so streight a line as the arteries . and do minic de marchettis , anat . c. . writes that he twice or thrice saw the spermatic vein , ascending from the stone into the abdomen , divide it self in the mid-way into three branches , which singly enter'd the trunk of the vena cava . ix . but least the blood ascending through them , should slide back to the stones , they are furnished with many semicircular valves , like half-moons , disposed in a double order , and looking upwards , and so preventing the return of the blood. also at the entrance of each into the said great veins , there is to be seen a little swelling , which is raised by the valve when distended with blood , looking toward the vena cava , as rolfincius not without reason , as he believes , conjectures , and highmore shews that valve in delineation , in the right vein one , and double in the left . x. to each stone belongs one artery and one vein , and these two vessels , more above , at their beginning about the reins , are somewhat distant one from another , but by and by in their progress joyn together , and are somewhat writh'd one into another , and so firmly fastened together with a tunicle rising from the peritonaeum , that they can hardly be separated by art. iohn saltzman tells us of three human bodies , wherein he observed a left artery , rising ▪ a little above the emulgent , which did not presently joyn to the vein , but first ascended upward toward the emulgent vein , passed over it , and wound it self about it , and thence being presently joyn'd with the spermatic vein , descended downward after the usual manner . xi . thus joyn'd above the ureters they are carried down to the groyns , where together with a slender muscle from the fold of the sixth pair latent in the abdomen ( and sometimes another is added from the st . or d . pair of spinal marrow ) and the cremaster or hanging muscle , they pierce the peritonaeum , enter its process , which is the extension of the outward membrane of the peritonaeum toward the scrotum , forming the sheath , wherein several spermatic vessels are contain'd together with the testicle ; in which process being divided into several small branches complicated one among another with infinite windings and circumvolutions , they proceed to the testicles . nevertheless the inner membrane of the peritonaeum at that same opening or entrance , sticks most close to the side of the vessels : for that membrane being broken , burstenness follows , the gutt , the caul , water and wind falling down through the rupture into the production of the peritonaeum and the scrotum . now these vessels aforesaid having thus reach'd the stones , separate themselves again , and with a winding course of the artery quite through the whole length of the artery , run out as far as the lesser protuberance of the epididymis , or winding vessel , fix'd to the back of the testicles , and there again divided first into two , then into several small branches , return partly to the opposite extremity of the testicle , partly lose themselves within the substance of the stones . but the veins divided into very small roots , are inserted into the little branches of the small arteries , and with a kind of net-work are joyned together one to another ; sometimes by a meer leaning and touch , sometimes by anastomoses . but that here are neither observ'd nor allow'd any anastomoses of the little arteries with the slender veins is apparent from the injection of the liquor into the arteries , which never enters the veins . neither ought these anastomoses to be there : for if the blood could pass through those anastomoses from the arteries , nothing of it or very little would go to the stones , but pass to the vena cava far more speedily and more easily by those broader ways or anastomoses , than through the narrow and invisible passages of the stones themselves . xii . andrew lawrentius , bauhinus , veslingius , and many other anatomists were grosly mistaken in this , that they thought the spermatic artery and vein ended in the parastate or epididymis ; and there was changed into the deferent vessel , as a body continuous to it self . whereas it is apparent to those that look more narrowly , that those vessels do not enter the epididymis or parastate , but the testicle it self , and that the parastate may be there separated from the stone , those vessels still remaining whole , and adhering to the testicle it self ; for the blood enters the stones themselves , as regner de graef , by an ingenious experiment apparently demonstrates , lib. before cited . that opinion , says he , which holds that the blood does not enter the stones , appears to be false , as clearly as the noonday light , by the following experiment . thrust in a small pipe into the artery , and immit with a syring , a liquor tictured with some colour towards the testicle , and you shall very neatly discover the progress of the arteries , for that the same liquor having reached the supream part of the stones , or that part where it first enters , diffuses it self , leaving the epididymises untouched within the inner tunicle of the testicles , and runs onward toward the bottom , where while it turns again , it divides it self , and as it were wantons into several small branches , which sometimes to the right , sometimes to the left , diffuse themselves through the very substance of the testicles . xiii . these vessels thus complicated and connexed constitute that plexure , which the anatomists call pampinoformis , as resembling the tendrils of a vine , or varicosus , from its similitude to the crooked windings of the veins : also the pyramidal body , from its shape and figure ; as being more narrow at the beginning , and multiplying as it descends , till it ends at the stone with a broader basis. herophylus , as galen testifies , calls this fold the cirsoides parastate , resembling the winding dilatation of the veins ; which name rio●…anus also gives it . others call it the variciform parastate , by reason of the windings and turnings of the vessels , which name or appellation vestingius erroneously attributes to the hinder part of the epididymis : whereas there are no such writh'd and complicated blood-conveighing vessels to be seen in that part . xiv . in this same fold sometime happens that sort of burstenness called varicosa , when a thick and melancholy blood happens into those meanders . sometimes also a fleshy burstenness is here occasioned by the bruising this fold by a fall , a blow , or by hard riding ; through which contusion a spungy flesh grows up , and that frequently to the bigness of two or three fists : which is rarely perfectly cured , but by cutting away the stone of the side affected . xv. however , regner de graef lib. de part . gen. viror . affirms , that such a complication of the said vessels forming a pyramidical or winding body , is not plainly to be discern'd in men , but that a trunk of the artery , without any net-shap'd divarication runs directly to the testicle , and is divided into two branches three or four singers breadth above the testicles ; of which , one is absconded under the epididymis , and the other proceeds forward to the stone ; of the truth of which his own eyes have been witnesses . and hence he does not believe there is any such net-shap'd contexture of small arteries with the little veins ; which happens otherwise in many brutes , in which he confesses the artery to be wreath'd into several curles and tendrils with the trunk of the vein . but the fleshy burstenness which happens in this part , as also the contexture of the blood-bearing vessels , conspicuous in the same place , and in the same manner in men , as in many beasts , seem to evince the contrary : unless it were that perhaps regner de graef would have said , that altho' that same contexture in brutes seems to consist of veins and arteries complicated together , that the same in men is form'd of small branches only of the vein , returning from the stone . which whether it be otherwise in men than in brutes , i believe to be a very great question ; the artery crossing it only directly . but because we have not yet so exactly observ'd it , we will leave the question undetermin'd , till we have an opportunity to inquire more diligently into it . xvi . the anastomoses of these arteries one into another , and of the veins with the arteries , as unquestionable , have been described by many . but regner de graef , by injection of some sort of liquor into the artery , and several strong arguments , affirms and proves , that there neither are any such an●…stomoses , nor ought , nor can be . xvii . from what has been said , it is apparent , what the arteries , what the veins perform in reference to their use ; that is to say , that the one bring blood , and the other carry back the blood that is superfluous . whence appears the vanity of the opinion of galen , bauhinus , spigelius , and several others , who extend the office of these vessels too far , and talk of i know not what preparation of the blood , and alteration of the colour to white , whereas there is no such thing perform'd in these vessels , as appears by inspection it self ; but that the blood is of a ruddy colour , which is extracted out of these veins , as well as out of other blood-bearing vessels , neither is there any thing of a whitish humour contain'd therein . xviii . these vessels thus mutually connex'd together , run forward to the stones or testicles , which are genital parts hanging down in the cod or scrotum without the hollowness of the abdomen , ordaind for the making of seed . they are call'd ●…estes or stones , because they are a testimony of virility or manhood ; and hence it was that the romans of old admitted only men to give testimony in all causes and trials , rejecting those that were depriv'd of their testes , as not men. xix . they are two in number , therefore by herophylus call'd 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , or twins , partly for the more perfect generation of the seed ; partly that if one should be lost or maim'd , the other might supply the place and office of both . the number is rarely ●…ewer or more ; in regard it seldom happens that any one is born with one stone ; tho' such accidents have happen'd : of which riolan , borellius , and regner de graef , produce several examples . very seldom also more are found in one person , tho' it is said to be a thing familiar to some families . and fernelius tells us of a certain family known to himself , of which all the males had three stones . and forestus , borellus , and regner de graef , and others , afford us several examples of people that have had three stones . but seldom of all it happens that any man is born without any stones , and yet perform the act of manhood in copulation ; yet cabrolius gives us an example . xx. the stones are pendulous at the root of the yard , and there absconded in the scrotum or cod ; seldom and preternatural it is that both should be included within the cavity of the abdomen , which nevertheless has been seen by regner de graef ; to which he adds another seen by francis de le boe sylvius . riolanus also observ'd one to have been absconded within the abdomen , in a noble person , who nevertheless had a numerous off-spring by his wife . the same was also observ'd by my self in a strong man , who nevertheless had several children . paraeus , likewise martin ruland and bartholine , prove by several examples , that both stones have lain hid for some time , either in the groyn , or in the cavity of the abdomen , which that after the hair began to appear , fell down naturally into the cod. xxi . in shape and bigness they are like a pigeons egg , and sometimes a small hen-egg , somewhat flat of each side . yet in both there is some variety , according as the vessels adjoyning are more or less swell'd . generally likewise the left exceeds in bigness the right , and hangs down somewhat lower ; rarely the right is bigger than the left . sometime in veneral distempers now and then one , or both , grow to an usual bigness , which afterwards when the disease has been cur'd , i have observ'd to continue as long as the party liv'd without any prejudice ; but this is preternatural : as is also that which lazarus riverius reports , of one whose testicles exceeded the stones of a horse in bigness , from which afterward fell very hard pieces of a stony substance . and no less extraordinary is that which hildan observes of a certain person that was troubled with a dropsie , whose right stone being grown as big as a goose egg , was found stufft full of hairs intermix'd with a purulent , oily and white matter . plater likewise gives us an example of stones as big as a man's head in a person that was very bulky and fat . xxii . their substance is peculiar , there being none like it of all the other parts of the body , whitish and soft , consisting of innumerable very little small ropes of the seminal vessels joyn'd together in a continu'd series : in which , altho there be no manifest concavity to be perceiv'd , yet that the said little ropes are hollow , and conveigh the seed invisibly , is apparent , if they be made visible . now regner de graef was he that first taught us the way to make 'em visible to the sight : for he in a dog , or other living animal , tyes the deferent vessel , by which means the innermost little strings of the little vessels of the testicles , otherwise imperceptible , will easily become conspicuously distended , and fill with seminal matter . he tells us also that these vessels appear through a whitish tunicle full of white seed in the testicles of a larger dormouse : he adds also , that if you put the same testicles into water after you have stript off the tunicle , and stir them a little in the water , the little vessels of their own accord , without the help of instruments , will separate one from another , and the whole substance of the testicles appear to be compos'd of nothing but small vessels ; which he had often made out to the physicians and surgeons of delph . and the same thing he also shew'd me lately in the stone of a dormouse , which was so dissolv'd into little small whitish vessels , that it seem'd to consist altogether of such . tho' in the mean time it be very probable that in a living creature there may be some peculiar , tender , marrowy substance , with certain imperceptible glandules , intermix'd with those vessels , which in the washing , dissolution , and preparation of those vessels , is separated from 'em , and disappears . for it can hardly be believ'd that the stones should consist of little vessels alone , supported and connected without any other substance , seeing that in all the rest of the bowels , liver , spleen , kidneys , brain , &c. the vessels that run thorough are supported and fasten'd by the peculiar substance of that bowel , and the humours contain'd in 'em , by reason of the property , or peculiar temper and formation of the substance adjoyning to those vessels , undergo a very great and specific alteration , which is no more than what may probably happen , as well in the stones as other bowels . xxiii . the said seed-bearing vessels of the stones being once loosen'd from each other ▪ are to be extended to a wonderful length , requisite in those places , to that end that the seminal matter by a longer stay , and a slower passage , being more exactly and diligently prepared , may attain to a greater perfection . they are in an error who write that the stones are little small glandules , as not having neither temper , their frame or fashion , their substance nor their use ; but are noble parts that give both strength and vigour to men. nay , they may indeed be said to be the principal parts , as contributing so effectually to the procreation and preservation of mankind . xxiv . they receive , as has been said , very small arteries from the spermaticks , and send forth small veins to the vena cava and left emulgent . nerves also they have , according to the vulgar opinion deriv'd from the sixth wandring pair , and the twelfth pair of the breast . in novemb. . and again in decemb. . seeking more narrowly for these nerves in publick dissections of humane bodies , we observ'd only one little nerve belonging to each stone , a little above that place where the spermatick vessels seem to make their exit out of the abdomea , which joyn'd themselves with the spermatick vessels , and so entering their common sheath , ran forward to the stone , but by reason of its extraordinary slenderness , we could not well observe whether it were some little small branch of the sixth pair of nerves , or of the twelfth pair of the breast , or as others , not without reason , will have it , of the twentieth or one and twentieth pair of the spinal marrow ; which last seems to me most probable . and so , upon view , very few small nerves , and perhaps but only one , seem to run out to every stone . on the contrary , glisson however has lately written that he has seen several nerves in the stones contributing matter to the generation of seed : which great quantity of nerves we could never observe in 'em ; but very few , and those such as we could hardly get to reach beyond the whitish tunicle . for they are not conspicuous in the inner substance of the stones , as well by reason of their extream tenuity , as through their whitish colour ; tho' it is most certain that they give animal spirits to the blood that flows thither through the arteries . xxv . but whether the blood-bearing vessels enter the substance of the stones it self , or terminate in the whitish tunicle , is by some disputed . hippocrates seems to be or the first opinion , lib. de loc. in hom. & lib. de oss. nat. where he writes that certain veins do run to the testicles . where by veins he understands some of the blood-conveighing vessels , that is to say , veins and arteries . others , by reason that the ingress of these vessels is so obscure , thought those vessels did not enter the inner parts of the stones ; they not appearing within the stones , but only disseminated through the white tunicle . but this doubt will vanish , if we look a little more narrowly into the use and formation of the stones . xxvi . their use and office is to make seed , and to that end they are compos'd of a peculiar substance and innumerable seminal vessels wherein seed is made . but because matter is requisite for the making of seed , hence reason teaches us , that of necessity there must be blood-bearing vessels , and little nerves inserted into those seed-bearing vessels , for the supply and infusion of matter , by degrees to be changed into seed . but some perhaps will object , that the ruddy colour of the blood-bearing vessels demonstrates , that there is blood in them ; which colour however is hardly ever seen in the substance of the stones , and therefore no blood-bearing vessels seem to enter that substance . i answer , that happens through the extraordinary thinness of the arteries , pressed by the white seed-bearing vessels ; for which reason in a thousand other parts the little small arteries and veins are imperceptible . besides if a stone be newly taken out of the body , and any ruddy liquor be injected through a syringe into the spermatic artery , several blood-bearing vessels will swell up in the midst of the stone , and so become conspicuous . lastly , i shall add what i have learnt by experience in man , that is , in cutting out the stones of vigorous and healthy men that have been slain ; that for the most part no blood-bearing vessels are to be discovered in the inner substance , no nor in the stones of living people cut out after the cure of burstenness ; or at most only some small foot-steps of such vessels appear in those sound persons . but in bodies emaciated by diseases ▪ i have observed several small branches of blood-bearing ▪ vessels slightly manifest , but very slender , running through the inner parts of the stones , which we did not only shew privately to several young students in physick , but in march . november . in two human bodies emaciated by a long distemper , shewed the same to divers spectators publickly in our anatomy theater . the cause of which seems to be this : for that as there is in the brain a peculiar specific power , by vertue of which animal spirits are made of the blood in its vessels , fibres and pores , so also there is in the testicles a peculiar seminifick power , by vertue of which the blood being carried into their vasa sanguifera , is altered into seed . now this active power being strong and vigorous in sound people ; hence the more subtile and more salt particles of the blood , carried through the little arteries to their more inward parts , together with the animal spirits coming through the nerves , fall into those plexures or labyrinth-like , and most wonderfully interwoven vasa sanguifera , and being there received by them lose their ruddy colour , as the chylus loses its white colour in the heart , and is changed into white seed , but as for that small remainder of blood remaining in the vasa sanguifera , it is so obscur'd and discolour'd by the whiteness of the substance of the stones , and the said vasa sanguifera , that it is not preceptible to the sight . but in sickly people whose stones as well as other bowels are weak , the separation of those particles of blood which are necessary for the making of seed , is neither well perform'd , nor with sufficient speed , for which reason the sanguiferous vessels are more tumid , and containing more blood than ordinary , and more visible to the sight . moreover at the same time the ill separated , and over ruddy particles of the blood , being affused into the seminiferous vessels , are but ill and slowly concocted , and altered into seed therein , and therefore the sanguine red colour appears in some measure here and there in these vessels . for the same cause it also happens , that in those that are too frequent in copulation , there is sometimes an ejection of blood instead of seed ; the stones being so debilitated by frequent venery , and over much spending of the seed , that the convenient particles of blood flowing into those vessels , cannot so soon be separated from the rest , nor changed into blood ; now the forementioned power proceeds from an apt , convenient and proper formation and temper of the stones , which temper being either altered or weakned by diseases , or overmuch use of women , they also suffer in their seminific power : as for the same reason the power of making spirits is weaken'd in the brain . xxvii . here a great question arises , how the more salt particles of the arterial blood infus'd into the stones , and most apt for generation , and the watery or white particles come to be separated from the red particles ? which is a thing so dubious , so obscure and intricate , that never any man as yet durst go about to unfold it : or at least they who durst attempt to say any thing , flying to peculiarity of substance and pores , seem to have hardly said any thing at all . in the preceding chapter we have told ye , how that in the liver the separation of humours to be segregated from the rest of the sanguin humours , is performed by small invisible glaudulous balls , formerly unknown , but in our times discovered by the diligence of malpigills , with the help of his microscopes . also c. . we have likewise shewn ye , that the blood passing through the ash-coloured substance of the brain , in that passage , by reason of the peculiar property of its glandulous substance , and its pores , loses its most subtil and spirituous saltish particles , which being imbibed by the beginning and roots of the small nerves , are there by degrees more and more rarified and attenuated and exalted to a more refin'd spirituosity , while the other ruddy and more sulphury particles are sucked up by the more small veins , and so by degrees return to the heart . and thus it seems probable , that the same operation is perform'd in the stones . * for either some very small , and hitherto by reason of their extraordinary exility , invisible kernels , or glandulous balls are intermix'd and scattered among the small vessels of the testicles , by means of which such a necessary separation is made : or else there is a certain white marrowy peculiar substance surrounding the small vessels of the testicles , of which the stones chiefly consist , into which substance the arterious blood being infused , loses in its passage , the most subtil saltish particles , of which the seed chiefly consists , most apt for the generation of seed , to be thereupon suckt up by the peculiar vasa seminifera of the testicles , and more exactly to be prepared , while the other particles entring the orifices of the small and imperceptible veins , return to the spermatick veins , and so farther to the heart . but which of these ways is to be asserted , or whether any other third way is to be determin'd upon , we shall leave to them , who by a more accurate inspection , or by the help of microscopes , shall be able to make a clear discovery . in the mean time there must be something certain and assur'd of necessity , by means of which the aforesaid separation is to be performed . for otherwise , if by transfusion alone the blood should immediately flow out of the arteries into the seminal vessels , there would be no reason why it should not all be converted into seed , but that some part of it should return through the little veins to the heart ; and moreover , why its red colour should not alwa●…s appear in the said vessels . xxviii . besides the vessels already mentioned , by more accurate inspection of anatomists , and that not so lately neither , many lymphatick vessels have bin observed , arising within the tunicles of the testicles , meeting one another with several anastomoses , and ascending with the deferent vessels upward into the abdomen , and there emptying their lymphatic juice into the vasa chylifera . they are furnish'd with several valves looking upward , preventing the falling back into the testicles of the lymphatic juice , ascending from the testicles . these little vessels are easily visible to the eyes of the beholders , if the vasa sanguifera be but ty'd a little above the stones , and then the stones be but stirr'd , for then these vasa lymphatica shall be observ'd to swell between those ty'd vessels , as is daily to be experimented in living animals , and human bodies that have not bin long dead . now because there is a correspondence between all the lymphatick vessels and the glandules , and that their original is deriv'd from them ; hence because they arise from the inner substance of the testicles , that is mainly confirm'd which i spoke before , of the invisible glandules intermingl'd among the vessels of the testicles , and separating a salsugi●…ous matter proper for the generation of the seed from the arterial blood. xxix . a strong , thick , hard , slender proper tunicle is the first covering that involves the substance of the stones , called the white or nervous tunicle , which being a little rough withinside , sticks every way close to it , and binds it together , being somewhat soft , for fear of being broken . withoutside it is somewhat moist , and bedew'd with a watery humour , and rather in the extremities than in the middle , has the epididymis's clinging to it . by means of this tunicle , the vasa sanguifera , together with the nerves that penetrate it on every side , more safely reach to the innermost parts of the stone , and the lymphatic vessels more conveniently spring out of ' em . xxx . round about this , for its better defence , is enwrapt another strong and slender tunicle like a sheath , and therefore call'd 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , or the vaginal tunicle , which is form'd by the process of the outward membrane of the peritonaeum . riolanus writes that this tunicle again is enfolded by another slender and red tunicle springing from the cremaster dilated . but in regard it is nothing but the cremaster muscle dilated , it cannot well be taken for any peculiar membrane enfolding the stone . xxxi . the stones are furnish'd with two muscles , call'd 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , or hanging muscles ; of which each stone has one , which both together arise from the spine of the share-bone , or as riolanus will rather have it from the fleshy extremity of the oblique ascending muscle ; slender , smooth within , and be dew'd with a watery humour ; without-side rough and fibrous , with their fleshy fibres encompass outwardly almost the whole process of the peritonaeum , especially the hinder part , and so hold up the hanging pendulous stones ; and in copulation bring 'em upward , that while the seminary vessels are evacuated , presently the seminal chanels being abbreviated , and the stones moderately compressed with the parastates , new seed may be carried more easily and speedily into the emptied vessels . xxxii . the testicles thus fortified and cloath'd , hang forth without the abdomen , in a purse or soft wrinkled little bag , call'd by the latines scrotum and scortum , by the greeks 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 and 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , which by a middle line or seam being divided into the right and left part , and interwoven with several vessels , is form'd out of a cuticle , and a more soft and slender skin ; and within another slender tunicle adheres to it , rising out of the fleshy pannicle , call'd 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , which cleaves to the vaginal tunicle with many membranous fibres . regner de graef writes that he knew a man , who by virtue of this tunicle ( for it could not be done by the skin , drew up his scrotum , as he listed himself , and caus'd a motion in it , at the request of the standers by at any time , not unlike the peristaltic or crawling motion of the entrails . but because voluntary motions are only perform'd by the muscles , i am apt to believe that the cremaster muscles in that person stuck to the tunicle ; which muscles are in some men so strong , that they will move their testicles and the scrotum too , if adhering to them , as they please themselves . but there is no fat between either tunicle of the scrotum , which would be but a burden and impediment to the part . xxxiii . some symptoms of health or sickness are wont to be taken from the scrotum . for as a scrotum wrinkled and contracted is a sign of sane health , so a relax'd scrotum is frequently a sign of weakness , provided such a relaxation proceed not from any external cause ; by which sign nurses and women judge of the health of infants . xxxiv . the seed being prepared and made in the stones , flows from thence through the vasa deferentia toward the seminal vesicle . but which way it comes out of the stones into the parastates does not so manifestly appear : for as the entrance of the vasa sanguifera into the substance of the testicles is very obscure , so the way through which the seed flows out of the stones into the parastatae is hardly perceptible to the eye , which is the reason anatomists do not agree in describing it . highmore writes that in the middle of the stone he found a certain body round , white and thick , not unlike the vasa deferentia extended from the bottom of the stones to the upper part , and strongly inserted into the inner part of the albuginous tunicle , and penetrating the tunicle , and thrusting itself into the head of the parastatae . that same whitish body appeared likewise to me long before i saw highmore's writings , into which all the winding fibres of the testicles seem'd to throw themselves , but i durst not assert it to be the ductus that conveigh'd the seed to the parastatae ; because i could not perceive any concavity in it . i saw sufficiently that same strong ingra●…ting of it into the inner part of the white tunicle of which highmore speaks ; but i could not discern the perforation of the tunicle by that white body ; and therefore i thought it ordain'd for some other use , that is to say , to the end that together with other crooked fibres annexed to it , it might serve to strengthen the vessels , as well those that enter the testicle , as those that are therein contain'd ; and thence they hasten'd towards the outward parts of the testicle to the epididymis , to prevent a confusion of all the parts together : in like manner as in the inside of an orange or citron , certain whitish harder bodys are observ'd , by which the vessels that convey the juice and the vesicles containing the seed are fortify'd and upheld . spigelius has another conceit as concerning this very thing : for he says that between the stones and the parastates , at the upper part where they are joyned together , several slender vessels pass thorough . in like manner riolanus also writes , that there is a small hole to be found through which the seminal humour enters the substance of the stones , and other three little branches that run out from the stone into the vas deferens . these learned men seem to have seen something as it were thorough a cloud , and to have added every one a chip of their own , according to their own conjectures . but regner de graef , through his singular diligence has illustrated all these incertainties and made 'em much more perspicuous , who has observed these things of the egress of the vasa seminifera . we have clearly seen , saith he , their egress out of the stone , and have found it to be quite otherwise than highmore has described it to us. for they do not go forth from the testicle with one thick channel , but in many animals with six or seven slender channels , each of which being bent from side to side , from the bigger globe of the epididymis ; and meeting together therein with one single channel run forth to the seminary vessels . he adds that those slender channels , while they break forth through the albuginous tunicle , can hardly be seen but when they are swoll'n with seed . xxxv . the seed therefore flows out of the stones into the parastatae , so call'd because they stand by or are attendant upon the stones , and being variously writhed and contorted like those crooked windings of the veins call'd varix's , are by the greeks called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , because they stick to the stones , and as it were lye upon ' em . now the parastatae or epididymidae , ( for by both names we design the same thing , notwithstanding the distinction of riolanus ) are two white , somewhat hard , oblong bodies , of which one lies upon each testicle while they are as yet wrapt up , but still in the albuginous tunicle , and is infolded in the tunicle common to the spermatic vessels , and toward both extreams of both testicles is most closely fasten'd to the albuginous tunicle , but in the middle sticks but loosely to it and is easily parted . xxxvi . the beginning of these parastates rises up somewhat swelling in that place where the varicose body approaches to the stone ; to which it adheres so close that many anatomists , have formerly thought that that same body did not enter the stones but the parastates , and questioned by which way the blood should come to the stones . this beginning is somewhat hard , furnished with no manifest hollowness , but arising with six or seven roots from the stone . xxxvii . in their progress the parastates descending to the lowermost parts of the stone , are for the most part of an equal figure and shape , and are folded and twisted together with several serpentine courses or windings , and contain a white seed . then turning upward again with a wrinkled and somewhat swelling circular progress , after their reflexion ; they are freed from their closer connexion to the stones , and only rest upon their tunicle , and go forth into one passage continuous to the vasa deferentia . from which vessel they differ no otherwise , only that this proceeds with a straight course , and they with many windings and turnings , and also by reason of their thinness are somewhat softer . xxxviii . vesalius ascribes to 'em a nervous substance , fallopius a glandulous . but regner de graef has lately taught us that neither is true : who by a singular dexterity untwisted the winding and folded body of each parastate , by warily cutting first the exterior , then the second membrane , and so extended this body into a prodigious length , which he writes did apparently appear in an ordinary creature to exceed the length of five ells , and to be one entire vessel containing seed , straiten'd in its situation by lateral contorsions to and again twisted one upon another . he adds moreover , that at the upper part of the stones , in its original it is so slender , that it may be compared to a small thread , but by degrees it grows so thick , that being increased to the bigness of a small packthread , at length it makes the vessel that carries the seed : and from hence he also believes that the stones differ no otherwise from the parastates , only that the former consist of sundry minute vessels , the latter for the most part of one channel or thicker vessel , and that the parastates differ from the vasa deferentia only in this , that the latter proceed with a right course , the former with many oblique or windings and turnings , and are somewhat softer by reason of their extream thinness . from which experiment it is abundantly apparent , that there is nothing of a glandulous substance in the parastates , nor any thing of nervous , as having a conspicuous cavity containing seed apparent to acute eyes , which is not to be found in nerves . but it is necessary that the seed being concocted in the stones should pass through those serpentine windings , to the end it may by a longer delay and a slower passage , not only be better elaborated but acquire a greater perfection . xxxix . as to the use of these parts , it is erroneously described by spigelius , who attributes a seminific power only to the parastates , excluding the stones from that office , which he will have only to collect the serous excrements of that concoction , because that in the stones there is no seed , but only a serous humour to be found . dominic de marchettis , because there does not seem to be any hole manifest to the eye , through which the seed made in the stones , may be emptyed out of 'em again , concludes from thence , that the stones were only made to cherish the epididymises with their heat for the more easy and speedy alteration of the blood into seed in those vessels . but the former tells us no reason wherefore nature should ordain a greater part for the separation of excrement , and less part for the seminific action . neither does he shew through what ways those collected excrements are again evacuated out of the stones . nor does the latter make it appear , how the stones , which are the colder parts , should cherish the epididymises with their heat . but they both seem to have fallen into the same error with many others , for that they were both of opinion that the arteries and spermatic veins did enter the parastates and not the stones , which vessels , seeing they enter the stones themselves and not the parastates , it is sufficiently apparent that the spirituous seed being made in the stones , and from thence ascending thorough vessels hardly perceptible , is yet farther prepared , and by a long and winding labyrinth gains a greater perfection , and so by degrees is poured forth into the vasa deferentia . xl. now the vasa deferentia , deferent or ejaculating vessels are two white bodies , somewhat hard , round , in some measure like a bigger sort of nerve , extended from the parastates to the seminary vesicles porous within , without any seeming conspicuous hollowness . and yet regner de graef , a most perspicacious enquirer into the mysteries of these parts , gives us some farther proof of this hollowness , in these words . the vas deferens , says he , is endu'd with a manifest hollowness ; which that it may be discerned , this vessel is to be opened six or seven fingers breadth above the testicle ; then force the breath blown in , or the coloured liquor syring'd into it toward the testicle , and you shall find the vessel distended , and discern the coloured liquor through the middle of it run in a right channel to the stone . then you shall perceive the cavity in the vessel it self rowle from side to side , and lastly to be bow'd by degrees with the vessel , in the same manner as serpents and eeles when they strive to creep with more than usual swiftness , and so with windings , not circular , but sideways , runs on to the bodies of the testicles . thus its hollowness appears toward the stones , now how it may be observed toward the seminary vesicles , he tells us a little after . this , says he , if ye desire to know clearly and distinctly , thrust only a little pipe into the vas deferens , which being distended either by blowing into it or injection of some liquor , you shall observe those seminary vesicles to be speedily distended before any thing breaks forth into the urethra . hence appears their error , who affirm that the vasa semen deferentia , or vessels that carry the seed , have no communion with the seminary vesicles , as being absolutely different from 'em , and that they evacuate themselves through two peculiar holes into the urethra , distinct from those through which the seminal matter breaks forth from the vessels . lxi . john swammerdam , sharply reproves this last experiment of regner de graef , and asserts for a certain that the vesiculae seminariae , or seminary vesicles have no communion with the vasa deferentia , nor receive any moisture from 'em ; and for the more solid proof of this , he tells us of a seminal vesicle that he has at home , inserted in three distinct places in the vasa deferentia . this argument regner de graef derides , and in opposition , bids him shew more than ten seminal vesicles wherein he can demonstrate that the seminal vesicles do not terminate in the vasa deferentia , but the vasa deferentia in them . iohn van horn , sway'd by the opinion of swammerdam , writes that the seed breaks forth through peculiar holes out of the vasa deferentia , but through other holes out of the vesicles into the urethra . but swammerdam rejects this opinion of horn , saying that it is only true in bulls , and not in men , in whom the vesicles have an exit into the vasa deferentia in three distinct places , but no other communication with ' em . but i am of opinion , that that same threefold egress of the vesicles into the vasa deferentia , assign'd 'em by swammerdam , is rather the entrance of the said vasa deferentia into the vesicles , through which the seed flows out of the one into the other . for in the dissections of human bodies we manifestly find , that the seminary vesicles being squeez'd by the finger , the seed does not break forth out of them into the vasa deferentia through those three distinct openings , but in the same place into the urethra . which is a certain demonstration , that the seed flows forth through those three orifices into the vesicles , but does not flow out of 'em again the same way . lastly , after he has said all , swammerdam concludes , that there is a fourfold matter , out of which the seed is made . one out of the testicles ; a second , from the ends of the vasa deferentia ; a third , out of the seminary vesicles ; a fourth , proceeding from the parastates . but , in regard that entities are not to be multiplied without necessity , i know not why so many matters of one seed , and so many parts should be alledg'd for the preparation of those several matters . no man , i suppose , will deny , but that the seed is compounded of arterial blood , and animal spirits , and seeing that spermatic arteries , together with small nerves , are carried into the testicles , and that there is no progress of either to the vasa deferentia , the vesicles or parastates any where to be separately discern'd , it seems more likely , that there is but one seminal matter , that is to say , arterial blood , conjoyn'd with animal spirits , which is altered and concocted into true seed in that wonderful contexture of the vessels of which the stones consist , and which flowing from them through the parastates , and vasa deferentia , in those windings and turnings gains something to its greater perfection , by which means it may be preserv'd in the seminary vessels untainted , till the time of necessary evacuation . and hence it is that the experiment of regner de graef , seems more consonant to reason ; by which the communication of the vasa deferentia with the vesicles is confirm'd , than that of horn and swammerdam , by which it is opposed . for as they produce the testimony of ocular view , so does he , but where ocular view is deficient , there reason is to be call'd to our assistance , and she is to determine concerning the truth of the matter . and this example may help us ; for as spirit of wine being so thin and subtil , that ascending the alembic , it becomes invisible , and cannot be embody'd till descending from thence through the serpentine brass tube set in cold water , it attains such a perfection of condensation , that it flows down into the receptacle to be preserv'd for use. in like manner the several windings and meanders of the vasa deferentia , serve to concoct and thicken the seed , afore it fall into the seminary vessels . moreover as nature in our bodies appoints one part to make the chylus , which chylus flowing through the long meanders of the intestines , acquires therein a great purity , and separation from feculent matter ; tho' the intestines themselves conduce nothing to the making of the chylus it self : so is it in all the spermatic vessels , which singly make no particular matter conducing to the composition of the seed , but only the stones alter the first matter into seed , * which in its passage through the other parts gains some greater perfection , and apter disposition to be preserv'd without corruption for use. lastly , that some new humour or juice , as chylus , blood , choler , &c. may be made , it is not brought to pass by a bare confusion of various matters , but by a specific fermentation of the humours in some specific part or bowel , without which no other new juice or humour can be made of no humours , as is apparent when those bowels are become weak and enfeebled by any unsound constitution ; for then they are not able to prepare those new juices . but now if the most noble seed , which contains in it self a compendium of entire man , should be composed out of those four matters flowing and mixing together in the ureter from several parts , as swammerdam believes , then a new seminal liquor would be made out of those four matters simply mix'd and confus'd , without any other peculiar concoction of those four matters so confused , appointed and precedent in any other design'd part or bowel which is contrary to the custom of nature and reason . in the last place i would desire swammerdam to tell me , whether that matter by him call'd the second distilling from the ends of the vasa deferentia ; be divers and distinct from that first matter which flows from the stones ; and if it be different or distinct , as he will have it to be , from whence those vasa deferentia receive their matter , unless it be from the stones and their parastates , when no other small vessels open into their cavities . but to the business . xlii . one of the vasa deferentia rises out of the parastate of each stone , and creeping upward through the process of the peritonaeum , enters the abdomen the same way through which the spermatic vessels descend toward the stone . now when both are entered the abdomen , by and by they are divided above the ureters , and with a reflexed course run along to the hinder region of the bladder , and above the right gut , near the neck of the bladder , before they meet together again , are dilated and made thicker , and much about the sides of that meeting together , stick to the seminary vessels , into which they open and discharge their seed , and thence united together , both of 'em vanish in the prostatae of its own side . xliii . the seminary or seminal vessels are as it were little cells disposed in clusters , collecting and preserving the seed flowing from the stones to the vasa deferentia ; of which they contain a great quantity , till being troublesom either in quantity or quality , or else in copulation , it be squeez'd out , by the swelling of the muscles of the yard , and neighbouring parts compressing the vesicles , through the same narrow passage through which it fell into the vesicles ; and by the same compression be thrust forward toward the ureter , through two most narrow chanels crossing through the middle of the prostates , and so comes to be evacuated into it , through two very small holes , through which , the vessels being pressed by the finger , the seed in dead bodies is observed to pass through in small drops , like quicksilver strained through a piece of leather . here swammerdam notes that in moles the seminal vesicles , which in those creatures are very large , have their particular muscles with which they are girded about ; but we could never observe any such muscles in men. neither let any man think it a strange or unusual thing , that any humour should flow in or out of any part the same way ; for in this case there is a double motion to be considered ; the one ordinary ordain'd by nature , acting spontaneously , by which the seed flows out of the vasa deferentia into the said vesicles : another caused by the force of compression , by which motion the vesicles being compressed , the seed is squeez'd forward toward the urethra , through the same hole it fell in , and is evacuated into it ; which motion is to be called violent , whether it be done willingly , or by a strong and sharp provocation unwillingly . some tho' erroneously attribute to these vessels the office not only of collecting , but of making the seed ; seeing that the thinness of their substance renders 'em uncapable for such a duty , and for that the seed is already perfectly concocted and finished in the parastates and vasa deferentia . xliv . they consist of a thin membrane , furnish'd with little arteries , veins and nerves , with which some think the lymphatic vessels to be intermix'd . xlv . in length they hardly exceed three fingers breadth , in breadth and thickness equalling the breadth of one finger ; but for the most part somewhat bigger in the one than the other side . xlvi . they are seated on both sides at the ligaments of the piss-bladder and right gut , at the sides near the meeting of the vasa deferentia , a little before their meeting , and adhere very close to the prostates . xlvii . they are double , divided one from another by a kind of space , and both emit the seed into the urethra through several chanels , and a peculiar hole for the continual supply of generation ; so that if those in one side should be damnified by stone , cutting , or any other accident , the others being whole in the other side , may be sufficient to supply the office of generation ; as we hear and see with one ear or eye , when the action ceases in the other . xlviii . cavities they have , not only one , but full of windings , and compos'd of several cells , dispos'd in clusters , exactly representing the little cells in the glandules of a pomegranate , to prevent the whole mass of seed from being wasted in one act of copulation : but that the windings and meanders should be able to reserve enough to serve for several acts of coition . xlix . to these obscure passages through which the seed flows into the urethra , some anatomists affix a little piece of flesh ; and veslingius thinks there is a valve to prevent the continual efflux of seed . but certainly there is no need of it in this place , seeing that the narrowness of almost invisible passages is sufficient to contain the seed : besides , that in healthy people it cannot flow out without a compression of the vesicles ; which being once compress'd ( whether it be by 〈◊〉 of seed , or too much heat , or acrimony thereof , which causes a titillation of the adjoyning parts , which provokes them to a contraction , and consequently to a compression of the vessels ) it must of necessity flow out , and cannot be hinder'd by any valve . riolanus better observes that in young lads , till twenty years of age , that never were troubled with the gonorrhea , there is a membrane wrapt about like a valve , so plac'd , as not to hinder the efflux of the seed out of the vessels , but the flowing of it into the piss-bladder . but 't is a wonder that riolanus should allow this valve or membrane only to young lads , seeing it is to be discern'd in elder people , it not corroded by the acrimony of the seed in a gonorrhea , and is also often broken with great pain in elderly people by the immission of a catheter . l. these obscure passages from the vesicles to the urethra , if they be corroded away by the acrimony of the seed ( which acrimony is contracted by unclean venery ) or if debiliated or dilated of themselves , they become over loose in that part ( which we have observ'd in old men too much using copulation ) then follows a gonorrhea . and in this manner both vesalius and spigelius have observ'd those passages very much dilated in persons that have dy'd of a gonorrhea . galen and highmore tell us of a certain oily humour which is pour'd forth out of these vessels , to smooth and make slippery the passage of the urethra , lest it should be injur'd by the acrimony of the urine or seed . but for my part , i could never squeez any thing out of these vesicles than only seed ; and therefore i believe it to be a thing beyond all doubt , that there is nothing but seed contain'd in those vessels , and that the slipperiness of the urethra does not arise from any oily humour flowing from the vesicles , but from some slimy part of the nourishment of the urethra , with which that innermost passage is besmear'd , which is the reason also of the slipperiness of the piss-bladder , guts , and several other parts . li. adjoyning to the urinary vesicles stand the prostates , which are two bodies , but so close joyn'd together , that they seem to constitute one body ; they are glandulous , somewhat hard , whitish , and spungy ; flat before and behind , round on the sides , and are wrapt about with a thick fibrous and strong membrane , rising from the vasa deferentia , and the lower part of the bladder , and closely joyn'd to the piss-bladder at the root of the yard . lii . they are about the bigness of a walnut , but bigger or less according to the salaciousness of the party , or the more frequent use of copulation . liii . they are also furnish'd with some few nerves , as also veins and arteries , chiefly conspicuous in the external tunicle . liv. these prostates , tho' at first sight they seem hardly to contain any iuice , nor to have any commerce with the vasa deferentia , yet in people extreamly letcherous , that have dy'd presently after coition , they appear swelling with a slimy liquor , and many little vesicles are to be found full of that limpid slimy liquor , which being compress'd flows into the urethra by the way of the seed . lv. but regner de graef has observ'd this slimy liquor to be carried through many chanels absconded in the inner body of the prostates : and at length meeting all together . in the innermost hollowness of it , says he , several passages appear , all which , as many as there are , at the sides of a large little piece of flesh , evacuate themselves into the urethra . the orifices of these are stop'd up with certain small hits of flesh , lest the matter made in the glandulous body should slow forth at other times than in copulation , or least the urine should flow into their body through those passages . lvi . then he adds a way how these passages may be discern'd . they , says he , who are so curious as to examin these passages any farther ; let 'em first squeez out their natural liquor , and then swell 'em up with a hollow straw , at what time being distended with the breath , they will display their ramifications apparently , at the sides of which little cells about the bigness of a mustard-seed distinctly appear , which when the passages are blown up , swell together , so that at first sight you would take the whole substance of this body to be spungy , and to consist of several round oblong , and several other figur'd vessels . now as to the number of the describ'd vessels that terminate in the urethra , it is not always the same in all bodies . yet we never observ'd less than ten in a man : in dogs we have numbred sometimes ninety and more , through which this serous matter flow'd out of this glandulous body , being compress'd . that which is most remarkable in these chanels , is this , that there is no such communication of 'em one with another , by means whereof the wind should burst out of one chanel into another ; for that they are so distinct one from another , that one chanel being blown up , only some part of the glandulous body is extended ; and the other chanel being puff'd up , the other part swells ; so that the substance of the glandulous body may be distinguish'd into so many divisions as there are chanels to be found in it . and thus has regner de graef by his singular industry egregiously discover'd the great mystery of the prostatae hitherto unknown . lvii . riolanus observes that the sphincter muscle of the bladder , orbicular , fleshy , two fingers broad , envelops the prostatae , and that it is in that place separated from the substance of the bladder , the prostatae lying between ; and thence it happens that when they are press'd by the sphincter , the seminal liquor is squeez'd out of 'em : and that at the same time by the same compression the bladder is clos'd to prevent the urine from flowing out with the seed . but in regard the seed does not flow out of the prostates only into the urethra , but out of the seminal vessels chiefly , riolanus ought rather to have said , that the prostates and seminary vesicles are compress'd together by that same constraint of the sphincter , and so the seminal liquor , together with the seed collected in the vessels , is at the same time sent from them to the urethra . lindan here asserts two muscles , of which he calls the inmost the sphincter , the other the fascial or plaistred ; about two fingers broad , wrapt about the neck of the bladder , and the prostates resting upon the glandules . upon which , as he says , depends the power of opening or shutting those parts . but in regard that lindan has only describ'd these muscles from his own speculative contemplation , never demonstratively shewn 'em , we think it but reasonable to question the truth of 'em till farther confirmation . lviii . the prostatae in the middle of the upper part , seem to be somewhat hollow'd like a funnel , and there it is that they admit the passages of the seminal vesicles penetrating through the middle of 'em , which being taper'd at this entrance , run along very small to the urethra , into which they are open'd with a very slender exit . lix . these prostatae , as also the stones , are endued with a most acute sense , and much conduce to the pleasure of copulation . but we are to talk with some distinction , when we speak of the exact sense of these , and of the stones ; for the acute sense is only in the outward membrane involving these parts ; for in the substance it self there is very little or no feeling : for tho' both glisson and wharton attribute many nerves to the prostates and stones , for my part i could never observe but very few , and those very small which are carried thither , and that those are chiefly dispers'd through the infolding tunicle . lx. the use of the prostates is somewhat disputed . some think it probable that they add some greater perfection to the seed which is made in the stones , and render it more fruitful . which opinion , however displeases others , by reason of the small commerce which they say there is between the vessels preserving the seed and the prostates . but this small commerce regner de graef endeavours to prove : for , says he , the piss-bladder being taken away in the middle , according to its length , let the glandulous body be dissected ( so he always calls the prostates ) and the chanels of the vasa deferentia and vesicles be closely pursu'd to their exit into the urethra , and be separated from the glandulous body , then putting a little pipe into the vessels carrying the seed , if any liquor be forc'd into their cavity by the help of a syringe , the seminal vessels swell with the deferents themselves , the liquor flowing strongly through the hole into the urethra , which if they be stopped about their exit into the urethra , nothing bursts forth out of the chanels in that place where they are annexed to the glandulous bodies , tho' the seminary vessels be forcibly disten led ; which would necessarily happen , had they a mutual commerce with the glandulous body . hence regner de graef infers that there is neither any seed generated in 'em , nor any thing seminal contain'd in 'em ; but believes that what is therein contain'd , is something peculiar , some slimy liquor , which serves for a vehicle to the seed issuing out of the vessels , with which he judges the seed to be encompass'd , lest it should vanish before it comes to the womb. but in regard that in dead carkasses the demonstrations of the parts are not the same as in living bodies ; the pores and narrow passages being then so clos'd , that they will admit no breath to go through , whereas they are passable in living bodies , i question whether those things sufficiently prove that experiment of graef , according to his foremention'd opinion . for tho' he perspicuously explain thereby as well the little caverns of the prostates , as the liquor in them contain'd , and also their evacuating passages , yet he does not tell us truly what that liquor is , of what matter generated , and wherefore that commerce between the seminary vessels and the prostates , is not so little as he describes it , but rather so much , and so necessary , that those chanels through which the seed is squeez'd out of the vessels , ought to run through the middle of the prostates to the urethra , and through them empty the seed into it , at the same time that the liquor of the prostates flows into it . here we are at a stand , and therefore , seeing the prostates were not placed in vain where they are , nor in vain admit the evacuating chanels of the vessels through the middle of their substance ; seeing they are no way beneficial to the piss-bladder , or to the evacuation of the urine ; seeing lastly that they contain a certain proper kind of slimy juice , and being compress'd , empty it into the urethra , with the seed of the vesicles ; it seems also probable to us , that there is a great commerce between them and the seminary vessels , and that the seed carried thither through the occult productions of the vasa deferentia , is contain'd in them , or else that they add something necessary to the greater perfection of the seed , tho' the foresaid commerce be not so perspicuous to the sight . that there is seed contain'd in 'em , is apparent from the observation of vesalius , related in one that was troubled with a gon●…rrhea , anat . l. . c. . in one , saith he , that was troubled with a flux of seed against his will , when we dissected him at padua , we found this glandulous body , when it was divided , no less full of seed than the stones themselves : and if we must confess the truth , all the while of the dissection , in no part of the body so great a quantity of seed , as was found in this glandulous body , tho' it varied from the substance of the stones in softness and smoothness . if therefore they contain seed , they are not to be esteem'd such mean parts as regner de graef seems to account ' em . i●… he object that their liquor is not true seed ; however of necessity he must confess , that the seed without it cannot have its utmost perfection of foecundity : for if without that liquor the seed could be perfectly fruitful , the prostates would not be given to all males , but would have been wanting in many as unprofitable and superfluous . lxi . here also the opinion of wharton is to be rejected , lib. de gland . c. . and of antony everard , who both alledge that there is a threefold different seed made in divers parts . the first and most noble in the stones ; the second more serous in the seminary vessels ; and the third more thick and viscous in the prostates . and that this threefold matter necessarily concurs to generation ; so that if one of 'em be absent , the seed becomes unfruitful and barren . but they affirm this without any foundation ; neither do they consider that the same seed which is made in the stones , in its passage through the parastates , acquires a greater perfection ; and so some part of it is conveigh'd through the vasa deferentia , through the occult extremities of those parts to the prostates , but the greater part of it is carried to the seminary vessels , and is there reserv'd till the time of evacuation . neither is there any other matter which is to be chang'd into seed , that flows to these parts , or is concocted or preserv'd in 'em , than that very seed which is concocted and prepar'd in the stones . besides , if there be such a necessity of this triplicity , how shall the seed be generated in animals , which naturally want seminary vessels , as certain in dogs ; and is to be question'd in wolves and foxes : which animals however have a very fruitful seed . this opinion is by many strenuous arguments more at large refuted by regner de graef , lib. de viror . organ . lxii . here two things remain to be inquir'd into : first , what is the true ●…ction of the stones ? secondly , how the seed , which is thick , can pass through invisible pores from the stones to the seminary vessels and prostates ? lxiii . as to the first , our opinion from what has been said is plainly made out , that the office of the stones is to make seed out of the arterial blood , and concurring animal spirit . from this opinion of ours many depart . for aristotle was the first who taught that the stones conduce no otherwise to the generation of seed , than that they extend the seminary vessels by their weight , for the more convenient ejaculation of seed ; whose followers are fallopius , cabrolius , spigelius , regius , and several others , induc'd chiefly by these reasons . . because there is never any seed found in ' em . . because they have no cavities or ventricles to receive and preserve it . . because they admit no manifest vessels through which the seminal matter flows in and out . . because fish , serpents , and many other creatures that want stones , generate . . because it is observ'd that some beasts have generated after their stones were cut out : as aristotle tells us of a bull that bull'd a cow , and got a calf , after his stones were cut out . . because cabrolius reports observ. anat. . that at montpelier he dissected the dead body of a man that had ravished a virgin , in whom he could find no stones neither within or without , but only seminal vessels . . because the same cabrolius saw a young man that had no stone , who nevertheless was married , and had several children by his wife . lxiv . but all these arguments are easily refuted by the following reasons : . though the seed be not ordinarily seen in the stones , by reason of its extraordinary thinness , and the extream thinness of the vasa seminifera , or seed-bearing vessels , yet does it not follow that the seed is therein generated . for there are no animal spirits to be seen in the brain and nerves , by reason of their subtility , yet can it not be thence concluded that they are not generated in the brain , or that they do not flow through the nerves . now how the spirituous seed is in the stones , is hence apparent , because it passes invisibly out of them through the narrow straits of the vasa deferentia , and is only plainly conspicuous in the seminary vesicles , in which the thicker particles of it , being now deposited beyond the power of the concocting parts , are more thickned , the better to enwrap the more subtile prolific spirit , and prevent its dissipation . in the mean time , that the seed being invisible in the stones , yet may be made visible by art , regner de graef has found out and taught us by this acute experiment ; who ty'd very hard the vas semen deferens , or vessel bearing the seed in a live dog ; so that no seed could flow out of the testicles , tho' at the same time the matter that was to be chang'd into seed flow'd in plentifully . in this dog , after copulation , he found the stones and parastates so swell'd with seed , that they were distended to a large bulk . . tho' they have no manifest cavities or ventricles , that proves nothing to the contrary ; seeing there are no ventricles in the spleen or liver , and yet those bowels make necessary ferment for the whole body . . tho' they do not seem to have any vessels in the substance it self in sound people , yet that they reach to the stones , and pass through 'em , partly may be seen in crazie bodies , partly may be prov'd by reasons ; for they are are nourish'd , live , and are sensible , therefore they admit arteries and nerves . from that nourishment there is something of blood that remains over and above , which is to be remitted to the vena cava , and therefore since they cannot send it but through the veins , of necessity they send forth veins from themselves . now then , if these vessels , which are certainly and necessarily within the said stones , are not conspicuous neither in the sound bodies of men slain , nor cut out of the living bodies of such as are burst , what wonder is it , if the small whitish seed-bearing vessels , or those small chanels through which the vessels send forth seed from themselves into the parastates , and out of them through the vasa deferentia into the seminary vesicles , should be invisible ; which nevertheless regner de graef has by his singular dexterity detected and render'd conspicuous . in the substance of the brain there are no vessels to be found , but several pass through it , and open themselves , and pour blood into it , as is apparent from the innumerable bloody little spots that appear in the dissected substance . neither are any passages to be seen in the nerves , yet that animal spirits perpetually flow through their invisible pores , is not to be question'd . in like manner the most subtile arterial blood , penetrating through the smallest arteries to the inner parts of the stones , and the animal spirits may enter the stones through the nerves , and the spiritous seed being made , may again issue forth out of them through other invisible chanels , and so be conveigh'd through the vasa deferentia to the seminary vesicles and prostates ; tho' the passages themselves , by reason of their subtility , cannot be discern'd by the eye . . tho' some animals , destitute of stones , do generate , it does not follow that the stones do not make seed , because those untesticl'd animals have something analogous to stones , wherein their seed is prepar'd , and according to their nature no less prolific than that which in other creatures is made in the stones . thus in male-fish we have known that whitish body , which in our language is call'd hompsell , supply the office of the stones ; and that they do copulate is manifest in river-fish , and no less certain in sea-fish . not many years ago we saw a whale that was thrown upon our coast , that had a yard six or seven foot long ; which nature , no question had given him for the sake of copulation . hence it is not to be doubted , but that the lesser fish are also furnish'd with genitals ; which tho' invisible to us , as in frogs , yet that they have such members , is plain by their engend'ring ▪ or else that they have something else in lieu of stones . as for serpents , which as aristotle says want stones , that he speaks not true in all , the venetian physicians and apothecaries well know , who by the report of aemilius parisanus , distinguish the male-serpents from the female by the yard and stones . and tho' perhaps there may be many that want stones , yet in them , as in fish , there will be something found equivalent to supply the place of stones . . that some creatures are said to have engender'd after their stones were cut out ; this , ( if it be true ) proceeds from hence , that before the stones were cut out , the seminary vessels were fill'd with seed , which afterwards being depriv'd of stones , they ejected by copulation into the womb ; and so begot by virtue of a seed that was perfected in the stones before . but such an act of generation can be perform'd no more than once ; for the vessels being emptied , there can be no restoration of new seed , for want of the stones and new matter . the last of which regius perhaps will deny , who believes that same seed to be only generated in the prostates and seminary vesicles , and not in the stones ; and so tho' the stones be taken away , the generation of seed may go forward in those parts . but this man holds an opinion contrary to the experience of all ages , which has always taught us , that men and brute animals , having lost their stones , become altogether barren and unfit for generation ; and that they never recover new seed , though the prostates and vesicles remain untouch'd , and without any dammage . reason also confirms experience ; for out of what matter should they make seed , seeing that when the stones are cut off , the spermatic vessels are also cut away that bring blood for the generation of seed ? seeing also that the matter which is to be alter'd into seed , can come through no other parts than through those vessels first to the stones , thence through the vasa deferentia to the prostates and seminary vesicles ? . the first story of cabrolius proves nothing against our opinion , because it ●…ges a preternatural accident that rarely happens : nor is it apparent by the history , whether ever the ravisher ejected his seed . moreover , if perhaps he did eject , without doubt there was something in that person equivalent to stones , in which the seed might be made ; which cabrolius perhaps did not observe , because it was not either by him discover'd or known . iohn schenckius writes , observat . l. . that in ortelius , a merchant of antwerp , there was no stomach to be found after his death , but that in stead thereof the first gut was loose , and very fleshie , which supply'd the office of the stomach . now from such a rare accident as this , will any man conclude that the stomach does not chylifie , but that the chylus is made in the duodene or iejune gut ? in like manner from this unusual accident of cabrolius , it does not follow that the stones do not make seed . . from the latter story of cabrolius it is manifest , that that same young man without stones , or so thought to be , had his stones conceal'd and latent within his abdomen , and that he did not procreate without stones . thus bauhinus tells us of a young man of about twenty years of age , who had no stones pendulous without , who nevertheless was extreamly lascivious . in like manner i. my self , not many years ago , knew a man in upper holland , that had more children than money , that had no stones hanging down in his cods : and another i knew in the territory of vienna , one of whose stones is manifestly to be felt in his groyn ; the other no where : and therefore without doubt it must be latent in his abdomen . lxv . therefore it must be taken for a certain truth , that the seed is made in the stones . now if any one should demand by what power , or after what manner the stones make seed ? i shall answer , that that same faculty proceeds from the propriety of their substance , their proper temper and admirable structure , fram'd out of the meeting and complication of small vessels . which faculty i shall then more at large explain , when he that asks me the question , shall tell me first by what power the stomach , out of the receiv'd nourishments , prepares no other juice than the chylus ; the heart out of the chylus makes only blood , and the brain out of the blood makes only animal spirits . lxvi . but seeing that both stones make seed which is equally good , and that there is no reason why it should be better in the right than in the left , 't is thence apparent in what an error they are , who write that males are begot out of the seed of the right stone ; females by that of the left . the contrary to which assertion , besides divers reasons which we here omit for brevities sake , daily experience makes manifest ; while several people that have had but one stone , sometimes right , sometimes left , have had children of both sexes . captain couper , becoming bursten , by reason of a violent fall from his horse , and not being to be cur'd but by the taking away of one stone , had afterwards by his wife several children of both sexes . the same accident happen'd to bernard z. who when a young man , had one stone taken from him by reason of his being bursten ; who therefore was wont to brag that he could got more children with one stone , than others could get with two : for he was very much addicted to venery , and had a great number of children by five wives , and several illegitimates . lxvii . now as to the other doubt , how the seed , which is not only conspicuous to the sight , but seems to be of a thicker substance , can issue out of the stones through invisible passages , to the seminary vesicles and prostates , that is done in the same manner in the seed as in the blood. for in the blood some parts are spiritous and very subtile , others thicker and more viscid , yet all fluid , which being mixt together , obtain such a thinness of parts , that they are every where able to pass through the invisible pores of the substance of the parts . for do but shave the cuticle slightly , and by and by the blood ▪ issues forth through the invisible pores of the skin , and so insinuates it self into other pores of other parts of the body . and thus in the seed the thicker particles become so fluid by the thin and spiritous particles intermix'd , containing much volatile salt in themselves , as also by the peculiar effervescency rais'd in the stones , that they may the more easily pass through the most narrow and invisible passages of the vasa deferentia , though the whole substance of the seed , when it is ejected forth , seems to be thicker . the thick and best concocted seed passes obviously out of the seminary vesicles through the small and scarce visible passages into the urethra , if the vesicles be press'd with the finger , like quicksilver strain'd through a thin piece of leather ; wherefore then may not the seed , which is now more volatiliz'd before that condensation which happens in the vesicles , in like manner pass through the invisible passages of the vasa deferentia ? in immoderate coition , experience tells us , that sometimes instead of seed blood is ejected , which blood if it pass through the invisible passages of the said vessels , why not the seed ? nevertheless i will not in the mean time deny but that the seed may be corrupted in the testicles , upon some accidents , as unclean coition , &c. and be then so coagulated and thicken'd , that it cannot pass thorough , and then tumours in the testicles happen , and other inconveniencies . but how any spiritous humour , containing in it much of volatile salt , can pass through invisible pores , we shall shew more at large lib. . cap. . chap. xxiii . of the yard . i. the seed being made in the forefaid organs , has need of a peculiar instrument , through which to inject it into the womb , to which end nature has form'd the yard to perform that office. ii. now the yard ( by the latins call'd priapus , virga , mentula , veretrum , coles , & membrum virile , or genitale ; by the greeks 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 & 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 & 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 ) is an organic part primarily appointed by nature for the injection of seed into the womb , and secondarily for the evacuation of urine . this is that priapus who is the tutelar angel of nature's garden . whom virgins and the youthful maids implore ; but married women on their backs adore . that same inchanter who by his incantations a thousand ways bewitches the female sex. this is that part which makes ripe virgins run mad , leads honest women oftentimes astray , exhilirates the sad and melancholy , and infuses new vigour into 'em : that by its fellowfeeling warms the colder sort , by its ingress weakens the drowsie , and by its rubbing to and fro , makes the torpid lively and chearful , and raises 'em to a high pitch of pleasure . that by virtue of its sweet influence thickens young maidens about the hanches , and infuses wit and knowledge into ignorant girls , by making 'em the nursing mothers of children . iii. by reason of these wonders which it works , plato in his timaeus , thought the yard to be a sort of living animal , and to have its own motions and inclinations , oftentimes rebellious and opposite to the rule of reason , because it is endu'd with an inbred quality so desirous of generation . aristotle also agrees with plato , who calls the genital member an animal , lib. de animal . mot . c. ult . but in regard this longing motion is not only inbred in the yard , but also in the brain , and is from thence infus'd into the yard : and whereas one animal cannot be the intregal part of another ; and whereas the yard is only part of a creature , compleating the whole with other parts , it cannot certainly be call'd a living creature , but only a part and member of a living creature . iv. it is seated at the root of the sharebone . the shape of it is oblong , and for the most part round , yet somewhat flat on the upper side . the thickness and length of it is proper for the venereal act , tho' in some larger , in others less . generally however men of short stature , who live abstaining from venery , also such as have large noses , are furnish'd with a larger yard : and hence it is that the more salacious sort of men and women make a judgment of the largeness of a man's yard from the bigness of the nose in men ; and by the wideness of the mouth in women of the wideness of their privities , according to these verses : ad formam naris noscetur mentula maris , ad formamque oris noscetur res muliebris . mens tools according to their noses grow , large as their mouths are womens too below . also fools and the most blockish sort of people are said to have great tools . which rules however does not always hold , but are subject to many exceptions . spigelius anat. l. . c. . judges from the bigness of the yard , of the man 's more or less proneness to venery . a larger yard , says he , rather fills the womb with its bulk , than waters it with a fertile seed . for it is not so proper for venery , which it neither vigorously undertakes , nor long ●…tustains ; the muscles that should stiffen the rigid spear being enfeebl'd by its weight . a smaller one therefore , on the other side is more furious and more f●…uitful , in regard that by tickling of the neck of the womb , it provokes forth the womens seed with more delight , and maintains the combat longer . alexander petronius , lib. . de morb. ital. c. . conjectures at the wit and parts of the person by the bigness of his yard ; and says that a large tool demonstrates a thick stupid scull , like that of the ass. v. the yard consists of a cuticle , a skin , a fleshie membrane , and its own peculiar substance : but it has no fat ; for that by its weight and bulk would be a hindrance to the part , and by stupefying the quickness of sense , would hebetate and take away a great part of the pleasure . but it s own proper substance is most convenient for it ; not bony , as in a dog , fox , or wolf ; not cartilaginous nor fleshie ; but such as may be relax'd or extended properly for the ejection of seed . which therefore four parts constitute , the urethra , two nervous bodies , and the nut. vi. the urethra or piss-pipe is the lower part of it ; the inside of which is cloathed with a thin and sensible , the outside with a fungous and fibrous membrane ; and it is continuous to the neck of the bladder , but not of the same substance with it : for it is somewhat more spungy , and of a darker colour . so that in the erection of the yard it may swell and be distended , and then fall again ; which things cannot fall out in the neck of the piss-bladder . moreover , it is separated by concoction from the neck of the bladder , and then the difference of its substance most apparently manifests it self . from whence appears the error of andreas laurentius , who writes that the urethra is nothing else than the substance of the yard prolong'd to the end of the yard , or the more extended neck of the bladder . in the mean while , that it has a great commerce with the nervous bodies , is hence apparent , that it swells and flags together with them . vii . the urethra is of an equal largeness through its whole passage , except in its forepart near the exit , where the nut is joyn'd with the nervous bodies ; as being the place where it has a little superficial hollowness , into which the sharp urine falling in the stone , while it is mov'd about in that place , causes great pain , and is a shrew'd sign of the stone : and therein sometimes a sharp liquor stopping in those that are troubled with the gonorrhea , causes a very painful exulceration . viii . the use of it is to conveigh the seed and urine : to which purpose several small and almost imperceptible chanels open into it from the prostates , and two narrow vessels from the seminary vessels transmitting seed , of both which we have spoken in the former chapter , and the neck of the piss-bladder ; and there is in it also a little membranous valve , of which cap. . ix . upon the upper part of the urethra rest two nervous bodies constituting the greatest part of the yard . withoutside they are thick like an artery , also thick and hard ; withinside thin and spungy , of a black colour inclining first to red , as it were filled with blackish blood. x. they arise on each side from the lower parts of the hipbone , and are fasten'd to 'em with very strong ligaments , and meet together about the middle of the share-bone , to which they are fasten'd with a nervous ligament underneath , but distinguish'd one from another by the coming between of a thin , pellucid and fibrous membranous partition . which partition , the nearer it comes to the nut , the thinner it grows ; so that before it comes to the middle of the yard , it ascends by degrees from the urethra towards the back , and thence proceeding a little farther , insensibly becomes so thin , that near the nut it is hardly to be seen , and so those so nervous bodies seem in that place to embody into one . xi . the inner spongy part of these bodies is fram'd of little arteries , little veins , and little nerves interwoven together in the form of a net , and the spiritous blood ( which flows thither through the nerves , running thither out of the privity ) being there collected , and growing hot with the itch of concupiscence , dilates and extends those parts , as bauhinus , riolanus , and veslingius agree . fallopius makes no mention of the net , but writes that there are two large nerves , and between as many dilated arteries that extend themselves as far as the nut ; in like manner that double veins run forth to the nervous veins ; but that generally in the midst of the separation they meet together in one vein , which runs through the middle of the back of the yard among the arteries to the nut : and that these vessels arise from much about the fourth vertebra , the aorta and the great veins that run toward the thighs , and about the conjunction of the share-bones penetrating through the forked original of the yard , are carried to the back of the yard . this is a very exact description by fallopius of the vessels , of which the smallest branches open toward the inner spungy substance of the nervous bodies : and when the animal spirits , with the hot arterious blood , flow more plentifully into it out of the nerves and arteries , then the yard grows hot and extends it self : but when the spirits cease to flow into it , then the more copious blood and spirits already within it , are suckt up by the little branches of the small veins , and then the yard falls again . now that the yard is extended by the influx of blood and spirits , is easily demonstrated in bodies newly dead : for if you immit water through a syringe thrust into the orifices of the veins , and then force that water forward toward the nervous bodies , we shall find the yard to be extended in the same manner , as we find it stiffen'd in those that are alive by the influx of blood and animal spirits . nevertheless this same inner substance of these bodies is not a meer weaving of these vessels into the likeness of a net , as bauhinus , riolanus , and veslingius assert , but it is a fibrous substance , compos'd of innumerable little fibres , running and spreading this way and that way , equally restraining the surrounding membrane from too much dilatation , and underpropping the little vessels that are interwoven betwixt 'em ; and so receiving within their hollow spaces the blood and spirits wandring out of the vessels through that same substance . wharton writes that those bodies have a glandulous flesh within , which after a certain manner fills and stuffs up its little boxes , and defends from too much falling and weakness in the interstitiums of coition . but regner de graef demonstrates and evinces by ocular view , that there is no such thing as that glandulous flesh in the little hollownesses , which he proves by an egregious experiment there at large set down . xii . at the end of the yard is the nut , in latin glans , in greek 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , in which the two foresaid nervous bodies , with the urethra , end . the lower part of which , that exceeds those three bodies somewhat in compass , is call'd 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , or the crown . xiii . the figure of it is somewhat like a top ; the colour of it , when the yard is fallen , somewhat bluish ; when erected red . xiv . it has a substance peculiar to it self , fleshie , soft , spungy , exquisite for its sense of feeling , and enfolded with a thin membrane , and hollow'd with a long hole before . the infolding membrane is produced from the inner membrane of the ureter , which going out at the hole , turns back and spreads it self over all the nut , and endows it with a most acute sense of feeling , which it ought to have first to that end , to excite the greater pleasure in copulation , which unless it should be , hardly any one would mind the act of generation , and so the race of mankind would in a short time be extinct . of which thing andreas laurentius thus elegantly writes , anat. l. . c. . hence , says he , the titillation of the obscene parts , and the most exquisite sense of feeling : for who would desire such a nasty thing as copulation , embrace and indulge with so much eagerness ? with what face would that divine creature man , so full of reason and consideration , be brought to handle the obscene parts of women , desild with so many nastinesses , and for that cause plac'd in the lower part of the body , like the sink ? what woman would throw her self into the embraces of the male , knowing the terrour of her nine months burden , and the pain of her labour , which many times also proves no less fatal than painful , or endure the cares and toyls of breeding up her birth , were it not for that incredible sting of tickling pleasure with which the genitals are endu'd . xv. the outward part of the nut is cover'd with a praeputium ; which is compos'd of a cuticle and a skin , a little nervous and thin skin proceeding inwardly from the fleshie pannicle . xvi . this toward the lower part , below the hole , is ty'd to the nut with a little bridle . xvii . this is that praeputium or foreskin which is cut away by the jews and mahometans : and it is a wonderful thing , what divers persons of great credit have related to us from their own observation , that this part is six times bigger in the children of jews and turks , than in our christian infants : and in some is of a prodigious bigness , even to the breadth of a thumb , and hangs down below the nut , till cut away . and veslingius testifies the same thing of the children of the egyptians and arabians . this foreskin in copulation rolls back from the nut , and slips below the crown , by which means the whole bulk and thickness of the yard is made equal without any roughness : and this repeated drawing forward and slipping back of the foreskin in copulation , is thought to increase the pleasure of women in copulation : and hence riolanus tells us out of fragosa's spanish surgery , that the turkish and ethiopian women covet more eagerly the company of christian slaves , than of their circumciz'd husbands , as much more delightful . sometimes it happens that this foreskin is so strait and narrow , that it cannot be slipt from the nut , which causes the standing of the yard to be very painful , while the nut is straitned within that narrow enclosure : of which sort of patients i have met with many in practice , and cur'd'em by incision of the foreskin in the upper part : the lips of which incision are easily cur'd , but the nut will never come to be cover'd with the praeputium afterwards ; which is not a straw matter ; seeing i have known several who have had so short a foreskin , that it never cover'd the nut , who suffer'd however no inconvenience for all that . xviii . the yard receives all manner of vessels . it has two remarkable innermost arteries from the hypogastrics , dispers'd first through the nervous bodies , at the beginning of whose meeting they enter , and run along quite the length of the yard , sending forth little branches to the sides : but the outermost arteries it receives from the pudenda . xix . it sends forth the inner veins to the hypogastrics ; and the outer veins to the privities . xx. it has outer and inner nerves from the marrow of the os sacrum ; of which two , of a moderate bigness , run quite the length of the yard at the lower part , together with the arteries and veins . xxi . it is mov'd with four muscles : of which two shorter and thicker , proceeding from the tuberous nervous beginning of hip or huckle-bone , not far from the exit are fastened to the bodies of the yard , and serve for erection . the other two longer and slenderer rising from the sphincter muscle of the right gut , and carried underneath , are inserted into the sides of the urethra about the middle , which they dilate for the more ready emission of seed and urine , and also compress the seminary vessels seated in the perinaeum , or space between the cod and the fundament . and because they hasten forth the little drops of seed and urine , they are call'd accelerators . this use of the muscles regner de graef absolutely rejects , and ascribes to 'em a far different function , that when they swell they may compress the nervous bodies on both sides , and by that means suddainly thrust forward toward the nut , the blood flowing in through the arteries , and for some time stop the same blood being about to flow back again , by compressing the veins , thereby to preserve the yard stiff for some time . but in regard the office of the muscle is only single , by contracting it self to draw the part to which it is fasten'd , and that the muscle was primarily ordain'd for that sort of action , and whatever happens from it besides that action of its own , that happens only by accident ; of necessity , as in all others , so in the muscles of the yard , that action is to be held unquestionable , and we must of necessity maintain that these muscles cause the erection of the yard , and dilatation of the urethra . if by accident , while they swell , they may somewhat compress the nervous bodies , according to regner de graef , that does not take away their peculiar and primary action , nor can it be concluded from thence , that they do not erect the yard , but only serve for that accidental use. xxii . when in the heat of lust the animal spirits plentifully flow into these muscles and the two nervous bodies , then the yard stirr'd with venereal violence is extended and becomes stiff . the manner and bulk of which extension all men understand that are not in the number of bewitch'd and srigid . but that certainly must be a vehement extension beyond the usual measure in the young man of two and twenty years of age , which schenkius speaks of in exercit . an. who without any trouble for half an hour together carried a pewter flagon containing five measures of ale , upon his standing yard , not without the admiration and laughter of those that beheld it . xxiii . the office of the yard sufficiently appears from the definition , and what has been already said . xxiv . but in regard that generation cannot be accomplished without the yard , by the consent of all philosophers and physicians , the question is whether it can be perfected without immission of the yard into the sheath of the womb ? reason dictates that it cannot otherwise be perform'd , since without the immission of the yard , the seed of the man cannot be injected into the womb of the woman . yet experience has sometimes taught the contrary , viz. that women have conceived without the immission of the yard . of which riolanus gives us four examples , one upon his knowledg , and three upon the report of others . lately , says he , we saw a woman at paris , who by means of a hard and difficult labour had her genital parts torn and dilacerated , whose nymphae , and four caruncles were so closely grown together , that they would hardly admit the end of a probe , and yet this woman conceived with child : for the womb covetous of that food , had attracted within the lips of the privities , the seed that was shed round about it ; as a hart draws serpents out of their holes by the breath of his nostrils . when she was ready to be brought to bed , the hole was opened by the means of a speculum veneris , to that wideness which was requisite for the coming forth of the birth , and so she was delivered of a perfect birth safe and well . a second he cites that was seen at paris in the year . a third , he cites out of clementina . quest. . de consang . of a certain maid impregnated , the fences of whose virginity were all firm and untouch'd . a fourth he quotes out of fabricius's surgery , of a woman that conceived meerly from the embraces of the man , without the immission of the yard . a history like to which of a roman virgin , to whom the like accident happened , is related by henry a monichem in lyserus observat. . i my self remember in the year . being then at nimmeghen , that i was sent for to a poor womans labour , living near the crane gate , of whom the midwife related , that a strong transverse membrane with a little hole in the middle , was extended at the entrance of the sheath , so strong that she could not burst it with her finger : this hindered the midwife from getting in her finger ; and in regard she was much less in a condition to receive her husbands yard , all wondered how she could be got with child . upon which the husband confessed that he frequently try'd whether he could make way through that obstacle when he was at the stiffest , but that he never could penetrate or get farther in ; however that in the attempt he had several times spent against that membrane . whence i conjecture that the same seed ascended through the aforesaid hole in the membrane toward the womb , and by that means the woman came to conceive . i advised the cutting away that membrane , and dilating the part , but her modesty not willing to admit a surgeon in the midst of bitter pangs of childbed , the passage being shut against the birth by that sturdy membrane , she lost both her own and the life of the child . by all which examples it appears that sometimes there may be a conception without immission . but these are accidents that rarely happen , whose examples constitute no rule , in regard that husbands rarely complain of such kind of obstacles . xxv . the parts next adjoyning to the yard are called by various names . the part above is called pubes ; to the parts on each side are given the name of inguina or the groyns : the part from the root of the cod to the fundament is called the perinaeum , from 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 to flow about , because that part is generally moist with sweat. all which parts , the pubes , the groyns , perinaeum , scrotum , to the circuit of the podex in people grown to mature age abound with hair , with which nature would in some measure cover the secret parts . which hair both in men and women , begins to appear about the fourteenth year , when riper reason distinguishes vice from vertue . riolanus also observes that in women who have no perinaeum ; seldom any hair grows about the podex , unless when they come to be very old. chap. xxiv . of the secret parts of women serving to the generation of seed and eggs. i. in the foregoing chapters we have explained the genital parts of men : order therefore requires that we should now proceed to the generative parts of women , that is , to the description of those parts , that involve women in a thousand miseries , enervate men a thousand manners of ways , by means of which weak and feeble women triumph over the strongest of men. parts which have ruined many the most potent kings , destroy'd emperors , made wise men fools , deceived the learned , seduced the prudent , thrown the sound into most shameful distempers , impoverished the rich , and vanquished the stoutest hero's : that hurried holy david into sin , led away salomon to idolatry , prostrated the strength of sampson , and compell'd the stoutest hercules to the distaff ; for whose sake sichem was laid wast , ilium ruined , and many kingdoms have been depopulated : i say to the description of those parts , which alone by some peculiar sorts of inchantments are able to drive the minds of most men , and those the most prudent , to distraction , while they think these to be the sweetest and the fairest parts in women , which are the most foul and nasty in her whole body , sordid and diseased parts ; besmear'd with ugly blood and matter , defil'd with hourly piss : smelling of sulphur and puddle-water , and as if unworthy to be seen placed by nature in the most remote and secret part of the whole body , next to the anus and its dung ; being the sink of all the nastiness and uncleanness of her body . to the description of those parts in which , tho' the barathrum of all the nastiness of womans body , the proudest of creatures , in a short time to ascend heaven it self , even man himself is conceiv'd , delineated , form'd and brought to perfection by the will of the first creator ; that afterwards calling to mind his abject beginning , his sordid and unclean domicil , he might not swell with pride , nor erect his bristles against his creator , but with all humility admire the omnipotency of god ; and adore his divine sublimity and majesty with due veneration ; and implore from him another better , more blessed , and eternal habitation for his soul in heaven , not to be obtained but through his immense clemency and mercy . ii. now these parts serving for generation in women , are twofold ; some are ordered for the making and passage of the seed or eggs ; and others for conception . iii. in the making of eggs sundry parts are of great use : among which we meet first with the preparing vessels , which are twofold , arteries , and spermatic veins . iv. the spermatic arteries are two , proceeding under the emulgent from the aorta , and carrying spirituous blood to the stones for their nourishment and the making of eggs. the left of these arteries riolanus reports that he himself has seen in many women to spring from the emulgent , which i could never see in my life . bartholine also writes that he has observed a defect of both . what is to be thought concerning this matter has been above declared c. . regner de graef has accurately noted how these arteries descend from their beginning to the stones . the spermatic arteries of women , says he , differ from the spermatic arteries of men , for those which in men hasten with a direct course to the stones , in women are sometimes wreathed into various curles , imitating the shoots and tendrils of vines ; and sometimes winding from side to side , with a serpentine course approach the stones , and that more numerously in the one than the other side , and seldom are ordered after the same manner as in men. with these arteries descending by the sides of the womb , on both sides meets the hypogastric artery ; ascending by the same sides with a winding and serpentine course , which as some thought , clos'd together by anastomoses with the spermatic artery ; but quite contrary to all sense and reason , when the blood of the arteries forc'd upward and downward by the pulsation of the heart , cannot be forc'd upward and downward out of one artery into another : for so either two contrary motions must be granted in the same artery , which is absur'd ; or the blood of both arteries would meet one with the other , and so not be able to flow any farther , but of necessity must stop by the way . v. the spermatic veins are likewise two , carrying back the blood that remains after the nourishment of the stones and eggs , to the vena cava . the right vein of these two ascends from the testicle to the trunk of the vena cava , below the emulgent , but the left ascends to the emulgent it self , and opens into it after the same manner as in men. saltzman observ'd these veins double on both sides in a certain woman , as he testifies in his observat. anat. but this happens very rarely . both these vessels are shorter than in men , because that the stones of women do not hang forth without the abdomen ; and somewhat separated above , but in their progress toward the lower parts , they go joyn'd both together , and are closely knit together with a tunicle proceeding from the peritonaeum . nevertheless they do not fall out of the peritonaeum , but are divided into two branches near the stones , of which the uppermost is inserted into the stone with a threefold root , and in its entrance constitutes a watry body , but somewhat obscure , according to the opinion of ruffus ephesius , to which dominic de marchettis subscribes : the other is divided below the stones into three branches , of which the one goes to the bottom of the womb ; another approaches the tube and round ligament ; a third , creeping through the sides of the womb under the common membrane , ends in the neck of it , wherein being divided into most slender branches , it mixes with the hypogastric vessels turn'd upwards , in the form of a net. through which passage sometimes the flowers flow from some women with child , and not from the inner concavity of the womb. which blood however at that time , flows not thither so plentifully through the spermatic vessels as through the hypogastrics . vi. besides these little vasa sanguifera , there are very small nerves that run forth to the stones from the sixth pair , and the lumballs . vii . wharton also believes there are some lymphatic vessels that run between the rest of the vessels ; which also was observ'd by regner de graef . viii . to the spermatic vessels below adhere the stones , whose history before we begin , it behoves us to promise a few things . that is to say , that in our times , wherein many secrets lying hid in the body are brought to sight by anatomy , by the same diligence of anatomists , the unknown ovaries , and eggs in womens privities have been discovered , by which means it has been found that their testicles are real ovaries , wherein real eggs are bred and contain'd , as in the ovaries of fowl. this new invention easily drew to it self the lovers of novelty : but others desirous of a more accurate view joyn'd with reason , could not be so easily persuaded to believe it . but afterwards , when upon a clearer demonstration of these eggs , men still took more pains , it came to this at length , that no anatomists of repute and experience make any farther doubt of them . ix . the first discovery of these ovaries and eggs we owe to john van horn , an anatomist of leyden , who published this his discovery in an epistle to rolfinch , printed . by whom other anatomists being incited , resolv'd to go on with what van horn , snatch'd away by an untimely death , could not live to bring to perfection : among whom , regner de graef , physician of delph , deserves the laurel , tho' to the great damage of the art of anatomy , snatched away likewise in the flower of his age , who put forth his accurate discovery with elegant cuts , and his own speculations upon the history of eggs , in the beginning of the year . whom , some months after followed iohn swammerdam , a physician of amsterdam , who nevertheless in his little book which he calls the miracle of nature , contends most sharply with regner de graef for the first little honour of putting forth cuts , and that with so much heat , that he seems to besmear the whole ovary together with the eggs , not with honey , but with most bitter gall , complaining , that he could not prevent the other with a more early edition of his book . that womens stones are ordained for the generating of seed , tho' not so perfect as is the seed in men ; and that this seed is infused partly into the womb , partly into the uterine sheath , from these stones through the fallopian tubes , and other passages describ'd by other persons , in former ages even till our times , was written and taken for granted by all physicians and anatomists , so that it was by my self held for a thing not to be controverted : which was the reason that i wrested some arguments against this new invention of eggs and ovaries , which till then i never saw or heard of . but afterwards examining the thing more diligently , and comparing the observations of others , printed upon that subject , with my own ocular views , i found that my own , and the opinion of the ancients could not hold : which i am forc'd to confess in this second edition of my anatomy . x. these stones are two , more soft , more flagging , more unequal , and less than in men. but sometimes somewhat bigger and softer , sometimes lesser , harder and dryer , according to the age of the party , and her moderate or immoderate use of venery . xi . their bigness according to diversity of age regner de graef describes by weight . for he observ'd in children and new-born infants , the stones to be from five grains to half a scruple ; in such as had attained to puberty , and were in the flowre of their age , that the stones generally weigh'd a dram and a half , and so were much about half the bigness of a mans stone : * that in more elderly people they became less and harder : in decrepit persons that they weigh still a scruple . but 't is very probable this rule cannot be so exactly set down , but that it may suffer some exception , and that in womens as in mens , there may be some variety of the bigness . for in persons that have dy'd in the flowre of their age , according as they have been more or less prone to venery , we have observed the bigness , and consequently the weight to vary , by our inspection of dead bodies , nor have we found 'em to be alike small in old women . xii . they are seated within the concavity of the abdomen , adjoyning on both sides to the sides of the womb , at the upper part of the bottom , in women that are clear , about two fingers , or one and a half remote from it ; ( but in women with child , the bottom swelling recedes upwards by degrees ) and fasten'd to it with broad membranous ligaments . on the other part , adhering to the spermatic vessels , by the help of the membranes wherein those vessels are infolded , about the r●…ion of the o●… ilium , they stick closely to the peritonaeum , and observe the same hight with the bottom of the womb in women that are empty , but in women with child are remov'd more and more from it , ascending by reason of its increase . but they hang by no cremaster muscle , for that not being pendulous without , they need not those muscles to draw 'em up to the upper parts , so that they are only held and strengthened by the broad ligaments . xiii . their figure for the most part semi-oval , in the fore and hinderpart somewhat broad and depress'd . xiv . they are infolded with a strong tunicle , call'd in greek 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , which some aver to be single and proper to themselves ; others single , but produc'd from the peritonaeum ; others double and consisting of one proper , and another common , proceeding from the peritonaeum , strongly annexed to the former . but this division of it into two membranes , seems to be a thing hardly to be seen , and difficult to be affirm'd . xv. they differ in substance very much from the stones of men , whereas the one are form'd of little seminary vessels joyn'd and interwoven one within another with a wonderful order : but these consist of membranes , vessels , and other bodies . xvi . this substance of theirs , regner de graef has with great diligence inquired into , discovered and describ'd in these words . their inward substance , says he , is composed chiefly of many little membranes and small fibres , loosely united one with another , in the space between which are found several bodies , which are within either naturally or preternaturally . the bodies naturally found in the membranous substance of the stones , are little vessels full of liquor , nerves , and preparing vessels , which r●…n forward almost in the same manner as in men , to the stones , and creep through their whole substance , and enter the vessels , in whose tunicles numerous tunicles vanish after they have copiously dispersed and spread themselves , as we find in the yolks of eggs annexed to the b●…ch of the ovary . and , saith he , the lymphatic vessels found in the stones , whether they enter their substance we have not so clearly discovered as to affirm it ; tho' we believe it agreeable to truth . and he adds farther , that what things are sometimes only naturally found in the stones of women are little buttons , which like the conglomerated glandules , consisting of many particles tending in a direct course from the center to the periferie , and are infolded with their own proper membrane . we do not say these little glandules or buttons are always in the stones of females , for they are only discovered in 'em after copulation one or more , as the female is to bring forth one or more creatures into the world after that copulation . nor are they alike in all creatures , nor in all sorts of creatures . for in cows they are of a yellow , in sheep of a red , in other creatures of an ash-colour . moreover some few days after copulation they come to be of a thinner substance , and the middle of 'em contain a lympid liquor included in a membrane , which being thrust forth together with the membrane , there remains a small hollowness only in 'em , which by degrees is so entirely defaced , that in the last months of childbearing they seem to be composed of a solid substance : at length the birth being born , those little glandules diminish , and at last quite vanish . now those things that are observed to be preternatural in the stones of women are watery bladders , call'd hydatides , little stony concretions , and preternatural swellings , call'd steatomata , and the like . xvii . sometimes other preternatural things are found therein , in a sickly condition of body . in the years , , . i dissected three women , wherein one stone exceeded the other the bigness of a stool-ball , and contained a viscous humour , the other stone being sound and well . in several others that were much troubled with the mother while they liv'd , for the most part i found some excess of bigness indeed , but far less , than in that before mentioned , and sometimes in one , sometimes in both , a certain saffron coloured , or yellowish sort of liquor . dominic de marchettis , in a certain woman , saw the right testicle swell'd to the bigness of a hens egg , and full of serosity : and in another the stones so intangled with the ligaments and tubes , that they seem'd to be one fleshy mass without distinction . bauhinus writes that stones have sometimes been seen bigger than a mans fist : and there he makes mention of the dropsie in the stones , in a woman that dy'd of such a dropsie ; out of the swelling of whose right stone he drew out nine pints of serum , the left exceeding the bigness of a quince , and abounding with many watery bladders . to these he adds the story of another woman , whose right testicle he found to be as big as a goose egg , full of long white hair sticking in the tunicle , encompassed with a kind of slimy matter like suet. the aforesaid vesicles which are found in the stones , according to the nature of which regner de graef makes mention , were also long before observ'd by fallo●…ius , and caster , but what they were , or to what use they serv'd they could not tell . xviii . these things afterwards van horn , epist. ad rolfinc . was the first that call'd eggs , and that most convenient name succeeding anatomists deservedly retain'd , seeing that they are really eggs , and that while they were yet but very small , there is nothing but a certain thin sort of liquor contain'd in 'em , which is like to the white contained in the eggs of birds , and those eggs being boyl'd , it hardens in the same manner like the white in the eggs of birds . neither does it differ in consistence or savour from this white . quite otherwise than the liquor contained in the hydatides or watery bladders ( which fallopius , vesalius , riolanus , and others , erroneously took for these eggs ) which will neither harden with boyling , nor savour at all like the white in the eggs of birds . xix . the eggs of women and of all other creatures that bring forth living animals , are wrapt about with a double membrane , one thicker , the other thinner . the one in conception makes the chorion , and the other the amnion . now in creatures bringing forth living conceptions , there was no need that the outward membrane should be hard and crusty , as in birds : for in the one it was to be preserv'd without the body , and therefore to be defended by that outermost rind from external injuries . but this hardness was not necessary to preserve 'em while within the body , as in which external injuries are sufficiently kept off by the hot parts that ly round about it , the womb , the abdomen , &c. xx. but that eggs are found in all sorts of creatures , is now certainly taken for a thing ratified and confirm'd on all hands , which as it is accorded as to birds , fish , and several sorts of insects , so by innumerable dissections , the same is now as unquestionable as to creatures that bring forth living conceptions . tho' according to the diversity of creatures , the variety of bigness is not the same but very different ; and more than that , besides greater already brought to maturity , in many there are found several lesser , that would by degrees have grown to their full bigness . nor is the number always the same , but one , two , three , or more , according to the number of conceptions which the creature will bring forth . but in those creatures where the matter is not apt and proper for the engendering of fruitful eggs , as in old women and mules , or by reason of the ill temper and composition of the eggs , there they become barren . xxi . these eggs are begot in the stones of females that bring forth living conceptions , out of a spirituous blood flowing through the preparing arteries , and an animal spirit flowing through invisible nerves to the stones ; and leaving in their membranous and kernelly substance matter sufficient and proper for their generation , while the rest of the remaining humours return to the heart , through the little veins and small lymphatic vessels . xxii . from all that has been said , our modern anatomists conclude , following their leader van horn , that the testicles of women should be rather called their ovaries than their stones ; and that chiefly for this reason , for that neither in shape nor substance , nor in what they contain they have any likeness or resemblance to the stones of men. and hence it was without doubt , that they were accompanied by many unprofitable parts ; tho' their absolute necessity appears from the spaying of women , who , upon the cutting out of these parts become no less barren , than men upon the cutting out their stones . but whether stones or ovaries , 't is not a straw matter , so we agree in the main about the thing it self . xxiii . now how these eggs come to the womb from the said ovarie , as being most obscure , requires a stricter examination . by what passages the womans seed came to the womb from her stones , before the discovery of eggs , several have varied in their explanation . some , with galen , thought those short processes extended from the stones to the neck of the womb , were the vasa deferentia , or deferent vessels . others conjecture that from these processes near the womb , there was deriv'd a peculiar ▪ branch to the neck of the womb , and so the seed was carried partly to the bottom of the womb , partly to the beginning of the neck ; and that the seed was evacuated through the upper way in empty women , but through the lower way in women with child . riolanus describes a little hard vessel from the lower part of the testicle , white and very slender , and another like it contain'd between the tube of the womb , through which two being joyn'd together , in the bottom of the womb he alledges the seed to be poured forth into the concavity of the womb ; and lastly from these he believes another little slender branch to be also deriv'd to the neck of the womb. but more modern anatomy plainly shews , that the first were deceived by the divarication of the preparing arteries . riolanus , by his inspection of the little nerves running forth that way : and that through the first passages nothing but blood passes ; through the latter nothing of seed , but only invisible animal spirit . spigelius , and veslingius , asserted that part of the seed in empty women passed through the round or lumbrical ligaments of the womb ; but that all the seed in women with child copulating flow'd through the same toward the clitoris and sheath , with whom formerly i altogether agreed , because i saw therein , toward the end , a slimy sort of liquor like seed ; which might be some flegmatic excrement , but afterwards i forsook their party , for that being admonished by the observations of others , by a more accurate inspection , i could not find any hollowness in those vessels through which those vessels could pass . that the seed of the woman is not injected into the cavity , but into the porosities of the substance of the womb it self : and the seed of the man , either is not injected into the cavity of the womb , or being injected into it , by and by flows out of it again , as of no use , harvey's inspections could never persuade me ; for by that means the seed of the woman being enfertiliz'd with the seed of the man , in order of circulation , might easily be driven through all parts of the body , and so be matur'd by any convenient heat ; and be adapted for the formation of the birth . xxiv . these things premised , from all that has been said , it is clearly manifest that there is no true female seed , as the women's eggs and the vasa deferentia of the eggs sufficiently declare ; but that the most spirituous parts of the prolific male seed being injected into the womb , flows through the tubes from the womb to the testicles and the eggs therein contain'd ; and that those eggs impregnated with this seed fall from the testicles , and are received by the extremities of the tubes annexed to 'em , and so through those by degrees are thrust forward to the womb. xxv . these tubes , from their first inventor were call'd fallopian , and are the vasa deferentia , or deferent vessels , wherein fallopius affirms that he has both found and shewn before credible spectators most exquisite seed . which tubes he thus describes . but that same seminary passage , says he , rises very slender and narrow , nervous and white , from the horn of the womb it self , and when it has parted a little way from it , it becomes broader by degrees , and curls it self like the tendril of a vine , till it comes near the end ; then those tendril-like wrinkles ceasing , and being become very broad , it ends in a certain extremity which seems to be membranous and fleshy by reason of its red colour ; which extremity is very much ragged , and worn like the edges of a worn cloth , and has a large hole , which always lies shut , those extream edges and iaggs falling down together , which if they be carefully opened and dilated , resemble the extream orifice of a brazen tube . xxvi . these tubes of the womb , so called from their crooked shape , are two bodies adjoyning to the sides af the womb , hollow , stretch'd out from the bottom of the womb , and composed of two membranes . xxvii . the innermost of these membranes is common with that which closes the womb withinside , but not so smooth , and that more about the extremities than in the middle . the outward membrane is common with the external membrane of the womb , and very smooth , near to the womb somewhat thicker , but about the extremities thinner or smaller . xxviii . the beginnings of the tubes running forth from the womb , by degrees are more and more dilated , and having acquired a remarkable capaciousness , by degrees become more and more crooked , and run on with a tendril-like course till they encompass about the one half of the substance of the stones with the other extremity ; and are very much dilated about the stones in the first place , and by and by contracted , and beyond their contraction slit into many iaggs , to which regner de graef has observed ▪ many watery bladders and hard stones to stick . now because that after the said dilatation , being suddainly narrowed again , they run to the stones with a very slender course , hence it is that in women at first sight they seem somewhat remote from the stones ; and only fasten to the stones by a thin interposition of membranes like the wings of bats . but in many creatures they are found to be very near annexed to the stones , and in many they half embrace the stones . and so the tubes according to nature are passable from the stones to the womb , but only once regner de graef found 'em preternaturally clos'd up . xxix . they are furnished with spermatic arteries , and nerves from the same , that penetrate the bottom of the womb . xxx . wharton ascribes valves to these tubes , so placed that nothing of seminal matter may flow from the stones to the womb , and affirms that he observ'd it in the dissection of a mare . others describe to us valves placed in a contrary situation , preventing the ingress of things contained in the womb , into the tubes . but besides inspection , reason teaches us there can be no valves in these vessels , when the contraction of the extremities alone is such , that they will not allow the passage of any thing through 'em , unless in heat of lust they be dilated by a plentiful flux of arterious blood and spirits , and so the spirituous part of the masculine seed may penetrate from the womb to the stones and the eggs , and then again permit these eggs to pass from the stones to the womb. xxxi some there are that have conceited several cells and various receptacles distinct one from another , and from thence have ascribed to 'em the use of the seminary vessels of men. but they were deceived by the sight of the contorted parte ; whereas in tubes dissected and blown up according to their length , there is only one cavity to be seen , distinguished with no cells or valves , and here and there somewhat unequally dilated . xxxii . the capaciousness and length of these tubes cannot certainly be describ'd , in regard that the difference of age , the use of copulation , and many other accidents cause an extraordinary variety in these things . through the tubes therefore the spiritous part of the male-seed injected into the womb , is carried to the stones , and the eggs therein contain'd , and these eggs again proceed from the stones to the womb. but how these come to the womb through these narrow passages of the egg-chanel ; this , tho' it be hard to be describ'd , yet by similitudes it seems not difficult to be conceiv'd in the mind , and explicated . xxxiii . many fruits in their seasons , as cherries , damsons , peaches , walnuts , &c. whose seeds , which are like to eggs , are brought to such a bigness and fitness , as to be impregnated , gape of themselves , and so those seeds included in their rinds ( which rinds at first stuck close to their substance , but afterwards loosen'd from it ) fall out of them ; but so long as they cease to be irradiated and cherish'd by the dewie moisture of the earth , and the influx of the spiritous solar heat ( which are to them like the seed of the male ) they lye hid within their strong shells or cases ; but when that enfertilizing influx of the earths moisture , and of the solar or other convenient heat , entring through the invisible pores of the said shells or cases , has brought them to a greater perfection of fertility ; by and by those shells or cases grow soft in their sutures , and so the stones , tho very hard , open , and the seeds included within grow moist and more juicy , and dilating themselves , quit the stones , and so thrust forth the bud , which is the first thing form'd in order to the new production . and the same thing happens in pease , beans , wheat , barley , melons , cucumbers , whose seeds are wrapt up in a little membrane instead of a stone . in like manner womens eggs , and the eggs of all creatures that bring forth living conceptions , as also of birds , in their ovary , by means of the nourishment brought 'em through the small little arteries and invisible nerves , acquire a just bigness , and such an aptitude that they may be impregnated by the spiritous part of the male-seed . which fertility if they acquire by copulation , and so become seal'd with the seal of fertility , the little cells wherein they are included in the ovary , grow soft , dilate and loosen themselves ( as the stones of fruits , willing to quit their seeds for new production , open of their own accords ) and so when they can no longer be contain'd in those little cells by reason of their growth , and the loosning of the cells , they fall of themselves into the egg-chanels or tubes , which are relax'd to that degree by the increase of heat and spirits , in the act of copulation , that they afford the ripe eggs an easie passage toward the womb , which afterwards by the gentle compression of the abdomen caus'd by respiration , are gently thrust forward through the tubes into the womb it self , wherein , by reason of the narrow orifice of the womb , they are stop'd and detain'd , there to be cherish'd by its moderate heat and convenient moisture , and the vivific spirit latent therein , and infus'd with the male-seed , may be freed from its fetters , and proceeding from power to act , may begin the delineation of the infant structure . of which more cap. , . xxxiv . here arises a very singular and considerable question , viz. when birds , without the coition of the male , lay their perfect eggs , ( which they call wind-eggs ) whether mature virgins , and women depriv'd of men , and without the assistance of copulation , may not be able sometime to bring forth their eggs ? 't is very probable that in women of cold tempers , and not prone to venery , such accidents will hardly fall out , seeing there is not in them such a copious afflux of hot blood and spirits , which is much promoted by intent venereal thoughts , to the generative parts , that the little boxes of the ovary and the tubes , should be sufficiently relax'd and dilated for the exclusion and passage of the eggs : but in hot women , itching with lust , prone to copulation , and continually intent upon venereal thoughts , sometimes the parts may be so relax'd by a copious afflux of blood and seed to the parts , that the eggs , when mature , may drop of themselves into the tubes out of the ovary , and through them be carried to the womb : yet not so as to be there long detain'd , because of the orifice of the womb 's being open , as not being exactly shut , but when it contains the man's seed for conception , or else the birth . but why these same womens wind-eggs were never observ'd by any person before , happen'd , i suppose , from hence , for that women do not inspect what things slip out of their wombs , or know what they are ; nor will they suffer men to view those things , among which , if there should be an egg sometimes , it would not be discern'd by them . besides that by reason of the tender skin wherewith it is enwrapt , it might fall out broken , or else be broken among the linen with which women dry up their uterine excrements , and so lose altogether its shape of an egg , which else would be visible to the eye . however , in the mean time this has recall'd to my memory , what many years since a woman , not of the meanest quality , whose daughter being about four and twenty years of age , wanton enough , yet honest , was troubled with vehement fits of the mother , related to me ; that is to say , that my prescriptions , which were administred to her , nothing availing , her midwife had many times deliver'd her from her present distemper , and imminent danger of death , by thrusting her finger into the sheath of the womb ; with which she kept rubbing there so long till she brought down a certain viscous liquor out of the womb , which was often accompanied with a certain clear transparent little bubble , and so the person in a swoon came to her self again . this i laugh't at , at that time when i never so much as dream't of womens eggs ; but afterwards it came into my mind , that that same bubble was a wind-egg , of which thing i could now give a better judgment , could i meet with such a bubble that were again to be seen . moreover , it is very probable that those wind-eggs are frequently evacuated by those salacious women , who lying with men , through some distemper of the seed , never conceive : for why should their eggs be less carried out of the ovary to the womb , than the eggs of those of others that conceive ? especially when they themselves have eggs which are proper for fertility , if they were but bedew'd with a fertile male-seed ? which is apparent from this , that some women lying with their husbands never conceive , but lying with other men presently prove with child . xxxv . this conjecture of wind-eggs is yet more confirm'd by that wonderful story related by bartholine of a norway woman , who after eleven kindly labours , at length in the year . being in labour with her twelfth child , brought forth two eggs with extraordinary pains , like to hen-eggs , only that the shell was not so white . such another sort of egg it was that the woman brought forth , with the usual pains of childbirth , in the territory of vicenza , in the year . by the report of iohn rodias , cent. . observ. . without doubt the female-seed contain'd in these eggs , was either unfruitful , or which is more likely , by reason of the unusual thickness of the exterior membrane , the male-seed could not penetrate through the over-straitned pores , to the inner parts of the eggs , and consequently not be mix'd with the womans seed latent within ; and by that means could not frame any embryo out of it self ; for which reason those eggs remain'd unfruitful like the wind-eggs of fowl living without their males . now there are three very remarkable things to be observ'd in the eggs of the said women . . that being little as they are , and sliding out of the tubes into the womb , they should stay there so long . . that they should grow to the bigness of a hens-egg in the womb. . that the exterior membrane should grow so hard , as to harden into a shell ; which is a thing scarce ever heard of , nor ever observ'd by any other physicians that we read of . xxxvi . we told ye before that the egg chanels or tubes were so relax'd by the abundani flowing in of the animal spirits and hot blood , that through them the spiritous part of the male-seed might the more easily be able to penetrate to the ovary and the eggs ; and the eggs themselves might the more easily slip into them , be receiv'd by them , and hasten'd forward into the womb. now that this is the true cause of this relaxation , no man will wonder ▪ who has try'd how strait the genitals of honest women are , if that afflux do not happen ; that is when they copulate without any lust , so that it is a trouble to 'em to receive the yard : and then again , how loose they are , and with what pleasure they copulate and admit the yard , where that afflux plentifully happens ; for i do not speak of curtizans , who by the overmuch use , or rather abuse of copulation , have their genital parts so worn and loose , that they can never be contracted and wrinkled again . he also that shall consider , how much the same afflux relaxes the orifice and sheath of the womb , when a large and mature birth , endeavouring to pass through those narrow passages , by its kicking and motion afflicts and pains those parts , will easily confess the same . for then all those parts dilate themselves : the former , to transmit the eggs ; the latter , to exclude the mature birth ; and that not being endu'd with any art or knowledge , but as being relax'd and mollify'd by a copious afflux of blood and animal spirits , at that time flowing more to those parts than at other times , through the determination of the mind . which afflux afterwards ceasing , all those parts so vastly relax'd , within a few days return to their pristine constitution and straitness . xxxvii . from what has been said , it is manifestly apparent that eggs are carried from the womens stones or ovaries through the tubes to the womb. which is confirm'd yet more by the observations of some credible physicians , by whom , in the dissections of big-belly'd women it has been found , that by reason of those eggs being detain'd in the tubes , through some unnatural cause , and not passing through into the womb , that the births were found in the tubes , and found therein by dissection after death ; of which regner de graef brings some examples out of riolanus and benedict vassalius . which tho' we look'd upon formerly as oldwomens fables , now upon better knowledge of the eggs and tubes , we believe to be true . xxxviii . besides these observations , this whole business was plainly demonstrated at the theatre in amsterdam , april . . by ocular inspection , by the learned frederic de ruisch , a most famous physician and professor of surgery and anatomy . and this in a woman , who in a short time after she had conceiv'd dy'd of some suddain accident , of whom he thus writes : not only the tube of the right , but also of the left side , were somewhat more ruddy , thicker , and more distended than usual , to the admiration of all the beholders . the tube of the right side was somewhat writh'd , toward the opening of the ovary . the womb , without any foregoing preparation , we cut up in the presence of a noble company of physicians : there we observ'd the womb to be somewhat thicker than ordinary , more ruddy and more spungy , and its concavity fill'd with a lympid liquor , upon which there swam the beginnings of a birth , of a mucilaginous substance , which rude mass was afterwards so dissolv'd by the air , that there was no footstep of it to be seen . in that same rude foundation of a birth , i could not perceive any shape of human body . and therefore , whether that foundation were an embryo , or only an impregnated egg , i much question . 't is also worthy observation , that the hollowness of the ovary out of which the egg had fallen , was not only of a deep red colour , but also spungy , as we find in the womb , the birth being newly deliver'd : so that to me the egg seems to be cherish'd in the ovary , as the birth in the womb. moreover , i cannot but wonder at what i find also in other ingravidated bodies , why both the spermatic veins , are so much wider than the arteries : for if the arteries should exceed the veins it would be no wonder , seeing that the birth requires much nourishment . i found the orifice of a womb not closely shut within , as some authors will have it , but gaping more than usually , &c. xxxix . from this demonstration we may clearly be convinc'd , not only how the substance of the ovary , ready to quit the egg , becomes spungy and open , but also how the fallopian tubes , carrying the egg from the ovary to the womb , at that time became more thick and patent . but why the spermatic veins running through the womb , exceed the arteries , we shall give the reason cap. . but why he found the orifice of the womb gaping at that more than usual rate , is beyond mine and the common observation of other anatomists . only this may be said , that being open'd to receive the egg into the womb but a little before , the suddain approach of death gave it not leisure to close again ; or being relax'd by the suddain and disorderly commotion of the spirits , continued open . xl. in a womans egg ( for i speak not of the eggs of brutes ) three things are to be consider'd : . it s external little skins , which after conception constitute the chorion and amnion . . the plentiful humours or liquors contain'd in those little skins . . the small crystalline bubble appearing in a fertile egg already conceiv'd in the womb. of all which in their due places . xli . after this history of eggs , one doubt remains ; that is , if the eggs are carried through the tubes into the womb , and nothing else of seed flows from the stones , whence proceeds that pleasure which big-belly'd women have in copulation , at what time no eggs are carried anew to the womb , in regard the extremities of the tubes are so exactly shut ? as also in such as have their womb cut out for the cure of some disease , particularly the falling down of the womb ? also in women of fifty , who cease to have any more eggs in their ovaries ? moreover , whence proceeds that seed which flows from women in copulation into their sheath , and bursts forth in the night in lascivious dreams ? i answer , that that same great pleasure in coition does not arise from the eggs passing from the ovary to the womb , but rather from the eruption of that seed ( if it may be called seed ) which proceeds from that glandulous substance encompassing the bladder , which seed is equally in big-belly'd and empty-belly'd grown women , and in such as have their wombs cut out , and may break forth with pleasure into the sheaths , as well in nocturnal dreams as otherwise . but we must understand that the pleasure of women in copulation , proceeds not so much from the bursting forth of the said seminal matter into the sheath , as from the rubbing of the clitoris , as it is with men by the rubbing of the nut. xlii . there remains to be enquired , whether women may be castrated , and have their stones cut out ? i answer , that women cannot be castrated without great hazard of their lives : for the small guts must be cut on both sides , which is very hazardous , in regord that upon the least wound of the abdomen , and especially of the small gut penetrating the abdomen , the guts presently burst forth . which wounds in this case must be of a good bigness , for the fingers to be thrust in , the guts to be remov'd , to the end the stones may be found and brought forth . besides , upon the cutting off the stone , the spermatic vessels are also cut away , from whence it would be very hard to stop the flux of blood into the lower belly ; which appears from hence , that it is a hard matter to stop the blood in men , whose vessels may however be much more conveniently bound or cauteriz'd . for tho' , as galen testifies , sows might be spay'd in cappa●…ocia and asia , and the same thing be practis'd among the germans and westphalians : though bitches in the same manner may be spay'd ; yet the cutting out of womens stones is not to be attempted with like security ; for mankind is not to be expos'd to the same dangers with brute beasts , among which many of the females dye when spay'd . and therefore i wonder that platerus , a man of great judgment , should think that women might be spay'd as easily as brute beasts , not considering the difficulty and cruelty of the operation , accompanied with a thousand hazards , which enjoyn all men , especially christians , to abhor such a wicked piece of villany . tho' histories assure us that it was a cruelty most barbarously and ignominiously practis'd upon women in former ages . the creophagi , a people so call'd in arabia , as alexander ab alexandro testifies , not only gelt their men , but castrated their women , according to the example of the egyptians , who were wont to spay their women in that manner . xanthus , cited by athenaeus , relates that adramytes king of the lybians , spay'd his women , and made use of 'em instead of eunuchs : and hesychius and suidas accuse gyges of the same crime . xliii . wierus makes mention of the other sort of castration , by cutting out a womans womb , by which she is made unfit for conception ; which he relates fell out very successfully to a certain sowgelder , who suspecting his daughter to be guilty of adultery , spay'd her by cutting out her womb . but this way of castration is no less hazardous than the other . chap. xxv . of the womb and its motion . having explain'd the parts that serve for the making and evacuation o●… the eggs and female seed , we come now to those where conception is finish'd , that is to say , the womb and its several parts . i. the womb , which is also call'd matrix , and vulva ( by the greeks 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 and 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , and sometimes 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 ) is an organic part serving for generation , seated in the middle of the hypogastrium , between the bladder and the right gut , in the strong pelvis , form'd out of the os ilium , the hip-bone , the share , and os sacrum . which pelvis is larger in women than in men . and in time of labour , the strong ligaments about the os sacrum , and os pu●…is , being loosen'd , and the coc●…yx , or last portion of the back-bone giving way , may yet be further stretch'd to release the birth out of the straits of the uterine prison . ii. the substance of it in virgins is white , nervous , thick , and compacted : in women with child somewhat spungy and soft . iii. it has two membranes . the outermost doubled and strong from the peritonaeum ; smooth , and smear'd over with a watery humour , by means of which membrane it is fasten'd to the intestinum rectum , the bladder and the adjacent lateral parts . the innermost , which is proper to it , is fibrous , and more porous , rising from the inner substance of the womb , and firmly fasten'd to it , rough in the larger cavity , about the neck , full of wrinkles or surrows , and full of little pores . iv. between these membranes is found a fleshie and fibrous contexture , which in big-belly'd women , by reason of the great quantity of nutritive humours flowing to it , swells together with the said membranes , so that the more the birth grows and increases , the more fleshie , fibrous and thicker the womb grows , which in the last months of a womans time equals the thickness of a thumb , and sometimes of two fingers . neither does this thickness proceed from the humours penetrating into the porosities of the womb , as many believe ; but is a real thick flesh , which afterwards , like muscles , serves for the expulsion of the birth . such a sort of fleshie substance of the womb in novemb. . i publickly shewed in our anatomy theatre , in the body of a woman dying in childbed , twelve hours after her decease ; and not long after in another woman that dy'd in labour , together with the child . but this same increas'd flesh , after the birth is deliver'd , the blood and humours flowing out presently with the birth , or afterwards , drys up again , and so the womb returns to its pristine shape and bigness . v. the bigness of the womb is not very considerable ; but varies according to age , and the use of copulation . in virgins it is about two fingers in breadth , but seldom above three fingers in length ; which bigness is some what extended in those that make use of men , and is still bigger in fruitful women that have born many children . how far it increases in big-bellied women is known to every body . vi. regner de graef distinguishes its bigness according to the difference of age , by weight . in new-born children , says he , we have observ'd the womb to have weigh'd a dram , and sometimes a dram and a half . in old women and virgins growing ripe , it is of that bigness as to weigh from an ounce to an ounce and an half . in stronger women , that have had many children , and use frequent copulation , it seldom exceeds two ounces . but a most monstrous and diseas'd womb was that which regner de graef in the same place tells us took up the whole concavity of the abdomen , and weighed at least forty pounds . vii . the shape of it resembles a pear , or rather a surgeons ●…ucurbit ; in virgins somewhat flat before and behind ; in such as have had children , more round . viii . the hollowness of it is but small , as being no more than in women not with child , especially in virgins , and will contain a good big bean ; but after conception increases and dilates it self with the whole womb . this is not distinguish'd with any cells , as in most brute beasts that bring forth living conceptions ; but only by a future , or rather certain line extended in length , and drawn along only in the inner part of the fleshie tunicle , and so by it is divided into the right and left part ; like the line which appears in the outside of the scrotum in men . which concavity however is so order'd , that it is not equal and altogether round , but toward the right and left side . as it were extended into a horn , being somewhat longer toward the little orifice or mouth of it , so that it is almost triangular . it is very rarely seen that this cavity is divided by a middle separation , tho' riolanus brings two examples of such a division . in this cavity there settles for the most part an oily kind of liquor in empty women , defending that secret shrine of nature from drought , and preserving it prepar'd for necessary fruitfulness . ix . those parts that seem somewhat to swell from the sides of the bottom , are call'd the horns of the womb. but these are more manifest in beasts that bring forth living conceptions , whose womb being parted into two parts , is divided into two apparent and long horns , distinguish'd withinside into little cells . but it is seldom seen that such horns are found in women , as silvius found in a certain maid , and of which schenkius cites the example out of bauhinus , observat . l. . riolanus refuses to call these horns the swelling extremities of the womb , but the tules ; wherein van horn and swammerdam seem to take his part . but what is vulgarly asserted concerning these horns , my opinion is , should rather be understood of the womb it self , than of the inner cavity of the womb : for a womans womb is not horned , but truly round and somewhat flat . but its concavity is extended both to the right and left , after the manner of a horn , as is manifest by the dissection of it x. it is fasten'd to the neighbouring parts by the neck and bottom . the neck by means of the peritonaeum , is fasten'd before to the piss-bladder and the share-bones , behind to the intestinum rectum and the os sacrum ; and about the privity joyns with the podex , loosely adhering at the sides to the peritonaeum . the bottom , as to its own substance , is fasten'd above to no part , that its extension may be the freer . xi . at the sides it hangs ty'd with two pair of ligaments . of which the first , which is the uppermost , resembling in shape the wings of bats , is strong , broad , membranous , loose , soft , and being interwoven with fleshie fibres , proceeds from the peritonaeum doubled in that place ( whence vesalius and archangelus imagine both parts of the sides to be so many muscles ) and being fasten'd to the tubes , stones , and protuberances of the bottom , joyns the matrix to the ossa ilii , which being immoderately loosen'd or broken by any outward violence , the womb descends into the cavity , and sometimes slides forth ; at least , if the substance it self of the womb become loose also through any accident ; which tho' in perfect health it be thick and compacted , in a sickly constitution of body it relaxes , like the scrotum in men . xii . soranus and aretaeus assert , that not the whole womb , but its internal fleshie tunicle only , with the primary substance of the womb , slips down to the groyns , the outward membranous tunicle , which is firmly fasten'd to the neighbouring parts remaining whole . but because this opinion presupposes a wonderful dilaceration of the body of the womb into two parts , the outermost and innermost , which is altogether impossible , it is to be held for most certain that the innermost fleshie membrane of the womb , cannot descend into the fall , but that of necessity the whole body of the womb , turn'd upside down , slides from its place . viii . this falling down of the womb , by all physicians hitherto granted , theodore kerkringius an eminent anatomist , now strenuously denies ; and writing upon that subject , bitterly inveighs against andrew laurentius , veslingius , and bartholine , as if they , among others , had erroneously judg'd of this matter , and says that a certain relaxation of the neck , which hangs forth without the privity , causes all these idle mistakes . but let the learned gentleman recant his words ; for , because he never saw a fall'n womb , he over-rashly and petulantly derides others that have been eye-witnesses of the thing ; and most excellent physicians , as to that matter , both in practice and theory , much more skilful and conversant . let him read in carpus , the story of a woman whose womb did not only slip down without the privity , but was also cut away . let him read in paraeus the example of a womb fall'n down , and cut off by paraeus himself . let him also read hildan's cent. . observ. , , . where he will find three examples of a womb fall'n down , related by a person of exact credit . let him read dominic de marchettis , anat. c. . that he himself three times saw a womb fall'n , replac'd it , and cur'd it . let him read many more such like examples in avenzoar , matthew de gradibus , nicholas florentinus , benivenias , christopher a vega , paulus aegineta , mercurialis , bott●…n , lice●… , senn●…rtus , and othees . all which pers●…ns , and many others , were not so stupid , nor so blind , but that they knew a womb when it was fall'n . to these let him add my own testimony , who in a certain young woman saw her womb hang out of the cavity to the breadth of two fingers , which i handled with my own hands , and with a proper instrument thrust back into its place , and afterwards so well cur'd the patient , that the same part never fell afterwards . besides that , all that has been said is yet more confirm'd by the doctrine of hippocrates , who lib. . de morb. mulier and in several other places plainly teaches , that the womb does sometimes slip forth , and also adds the causes and the cure of such a falling down ; with whom galen also agrees . reason also confirms the experience of this thing : for if a copious affluency of cold humours may so relax the little joynt of the hip , that the head of the thigh-bone shall fall out of its cavity , call'd acetabulum , what wonder is it that an affluency of the like humours should so relax the womb it self , and its ligaments , that not being able to restrain it , the womb should fall down ? hence we find that the same accident happens in moist places , especially to women that are of a cold and moist temper , and troubled with a redundancy of flegmatic humours , in which the womb sometimes descends to the orifice of the privities , and sometimes slips down all of it without . as to what kerkringius says , that it is not the womb it self , but a certain relaxation of the neck or sheath ; i would ask him this question , whether the womb remaining in its proper place , the sheath can be so much extended downward as to hang forth without the privities ? and therefore for the future , as to those things that he has not seen , let him believe those that have . xiv . here another question arises , whether the womb in the fall be turn'd upside down ? that it must of necessity be inverted , and cannot otherwise slip forth , reason teaches . yet regner de graef thinks this impossible in virgins , by reason of the extraordinary narrowness of the uterine orifice . but that it is possible only in child-bearing women , when the secundine sticking too close , is over-violently pull'd by an unskilful midwife . indeed i believe it to be true , that the womb rarely falls in virgins ; but that it happens to other women at other times than when they bear children , i my self have seen ; for which i could produce the examples of many honest women , if modesty would permit me : and therefore let the example by me already alledg'd suffice , where the womb hung forth of the womans body inverted . xv. the other lower pair of ligaments , round like worms , somewhat ruddy , proceed on both sides from the sides of the womb like muscles , and so descends to the groyns ; ( whence riolanus thought the womb to be wrapt about with the cremaster muscle , and vesalius calls 'em the muscles of the womb ) then passing through the doubled production of the peritonaeum , and the tendons of the oblique muscles of the abdomen are presently strengthen'd with fleshie fibres proceeding from the os ilium , and being reflex'd above the share-bones , approach the clitoris , and there end . some anatomists assert , that the remaining part of this pair is extended farther into the fatty inter●…al membrane of the thigh , and with that descends to the knee , or according to some , descends to the foot ; which riolanus thinks to be the reason why women in the first months of their breeding complain of pains within their thighs . but they were deceiv'd , in not observing that the said membrane being extended to the knee , does not proceed from the lumbrical ligament , nor has any communion with it , but that it plainly arises from the cartilaginous ligament of the os pubis or share-bone . these ligaments loosl●… bind the bottom of the womb in the parts before and behind . bauhinus observing loose pores within 'em , and sometimes a kind of viscous humour in the lower part , believ'd that they serv'd for two uses ; partly to do the office of ligaments , partly to evacuate through those pores the superfluous humours of the genitals . spigelius likewise observing that viscous humour , judg'd it to be the seed , which in women , as to some part of it , is carried through these ligaments , which he thinks to be the true vasa deferentia , to the uterine sheath and the clitoris . the same viscous humour a●…ter that led me astray into spigelius's opinion , from which afterwards i revolted for the reasons mention'd in the foregoing chapter . veslingius dreamt that beside the seed something of uncleanness gather'd about the womb , and was evacuated through these ligaments ; which nevertheless is altogether impossible , in regard they have no hollowness capable to tra●…smit both seed and such an excrementitious filth : ●…either is it probable that those two substances are ever mix'd or flow together through any other passages , seeing that the seed must of necessity be contaminated and corrupted by that nastiness . erro●…eously therefore does andreas laurentius assert , that these round ligaments are sometimes so dilated , that they cause the rupture call'd b●…bonocele ; notwithstanding that they can never be dilated so wide as to receive the intestine or caul . but the rupture bubonocele is occasion'd in women as in men , that is , when the gut or caul slides down into the dilated or broken production of the peritonaeum wrapt about these ligaments , and accompanying and embracing 'em without the abdomen to the grovns , as in men it includes the spermatic vessels within it self . xvi . the womb is furnished with several arteries and veins , far more numerous and bigger , and more winding than the sheath . nevertheless the arteries are much more numerous than the veins , for the veins are very few , in respect of the arteries ; and those chiefly dispers'd thorough the outward parts of the womb . whence that of aristotle , that from the greater vein , no vein is deriv'd to the womb , but from the aorta many and very thick . but in these words the philosopher does not deny but that some veins run along thorough the superficies of the womb ; which every man that has eyes may see ; but he means that very few or none of those veins enter the inner substance of it , but many arteries do it . xvii . the arteries that creep through the upper part of it , descend from the seminal vessels before they form the vasa praeparantia , or preparing vessels : but those which disperse themselves through the middle and lower part , proceed from the crural and hypogastric vessels of the same artery . there is such a conjunction of these arteries , that they can hardly be distinguished one from another , by reason of their ends gaping into branches both of the one and the other : when the spermatic or hypogastric arteries being fill'd with breath , presently the arteries of the other side , for the most part swell together , at least in the same manner as the arteries of the sheath . xviii . the upper veins ascend to the vena cava , and empty themselves into it near the emulgent : the lower enter the hypogastrics . the upper arteries are vulgarly said to meet together with the upper veins , and the lower , with the lower veins , by various anastomoses : but as yet i could never observe those anastomoses : this only i observ'd , that the little veins arising from the substance of the womb , are intermix'd one among another , and mutually open one into the other ; but that none are conjoyn'd with the arteries by anastomoses ; and so that the arteries only meet here and there by anastomoses . for the arteries with their orifices enter the very substance of the womb , into which they pour their blood , which is every way distributed therein through winding chanels and little pipes : which some thought to be the cavities or glandules called cotyledons , to which , in conception , the placenta or uterine liver sticks , in which at that time they gape , and pour blood into it to be prepared for the nourishment of the birth ; and also contribute copious alimentary blood to the very spungy substance of the womb , seated between both membranes , the which causes the womb at that time to swell to a bigger bulk , and so as the birth grows , the womb's habitation also swells . to which end at that time large and turgid vessels are to be seen , by reason of the plenty of blood which they contain more at that time than before conception . xix . for at such time as women are not with child , the blood which superabounds every month at certain periods , is forc'd in great quantity through the arteries to the womb , with a certain kind of effervescency ; and when as there are but few veins in the inner substance of it , through which the circulation of so much blood can be conveniently made , and the orifices of the said little pipes are now soft and smooth , hence it comes to pass that the redundant blood , which by reason of its quantity cannot be suddainly circulated , as being superfluous and troublesom to nature through its quantity , flows forth through the gaping and open orifices of the pipes , also through the ends of the vessels ending in the neck of the womb . but in such women wherein those little pipes are closer shut , in them their flowers flow only through the ends of the vessels ending in the neck or sheath of the womb ; or else stop , if that fermentative quality be not yet come to such a perfection , as to raise such an effervescency in the blood. xx. now what this uterine ferment is , and where it is generated , which provokes that effervescency of the blood at prefix'd monthly periods in empty women , but very seldom in women with child , has been but little inquired into as yet . we shall suspend our judgment in this particular , by reason of the obscurity of the thing ; and yet we leave it to be consider'd , whether the fermentaceous matter in the spleen , liver , sweetbread , and glandules and other parts , and carried with the blood through the arteries to the womb , and there some part of it being left , and collected together by degrees ( for you shall always find a viscous slimy humour in the dissected wombs of empty women ) gains some peculiar quality , from a certain specific property of the womb , which provokes that specific fermentation ( as the same matter is endu'd with a peculiar quality in the stomach , to extract the chylus out of the nourishment ) by means of which , that humour in healthy people being matur'd to that volatility in a months space , to boyl of it self , the whole body of the woman , but especially those parts next the womb are put into a commotion , and the superfluous or boyling blood , dilating the swelling orifices of the vessels , is thrust forth ; and that same quality or just volatility of the said fermentaceous humour ceasing , the menstruous evacuation also ceases ; as in women with child , and women that have lain long sick . xxi . aristotle not understanding this ferment of the womb , and the thence proceeding effervescency of the blood , asserts that womens flowers are provok'd by the influence and motion of the moon . which opinion , with his leave , stands upon no foundation , or rather is plainly contrary to reason : for according to that opinion , all women would have their flowers at the same time , and they would only flow at that certain time , wherein the moon being mov'd to that determin'd point of heaven , caus'd that specific influence ; whereas during the whole monthly course of the moon , there is not any day , nor any hour , wherein here and there over the whole world innumerable women are not troubled with their flowers . xxii . vain is also their opinion , who believe the monthly courses to be mov'd by the redundant blood collected in the vessels of the womb ; in regard those vessels are not able to contain so great a quantity of blood as is evacuated every period . or if they should collect it by degrees , and so reserve it for a month , they must be strangely swell'd , whereas it is apparent by inspection in dissected bodies , tho' plethoric , dying at the very instant of their monthly evacuations , or when it began to happen , that there appears then no more unusual swelling of the womb than at another time . add to this , that in lean women frequently given to fast , in whom there is no such redundancy of blood , nevertheless the flowers have their usual course . lastly , the continual circulation of the blood does not permit such a stagnation in the vessels of the womb , which if it should happen , the blood would there be in danger of a suddain putrefaction , and would afflict the woman long before the time of her evacuation with most terrible symptoms and effects ; whereas the menstruous blood is not putrid , not differs in it self in goodness from the rest of the blood . this is confirm'd by the testimony of the fam'd hippocrates . but the blood , says he , gushes out as from a sacrifice , and is quickly congeal'd , if the woman be healthy . which aristotle also asserts in these words ; and those which are call'd flowers gush forth , which is as it were the blood of a creature newly kill'd . i say , of it self ; because , if in some it be vitious , sharp , noysom to the smell , or otherwise corrupted when it is evacuated , it has not that imperfection in it self , but contracts it from the vitious nastiness bred and remaining in a distemper'd and sickly womb , or else at the time of the menstruous effervescency flowing from other parts to this same sink , together with the blood , and vitiating the blood by its mixture . and this is the meaning of hippocrates , where he says , and it corrodes the earth like vinegor , and gnaws whereever it touches the woman , and exulcerates the womb . certain therefore it is that the monthly courses are provok'd into motion by the foresaid effervescency of the blood fermenting in the vessels of the womb . which effervescency , if sometimes it be occasion'd , not by the foresaid uterine ferment alone , but by other causes , then sometimes it happens that the courses are still in motion beyond the ordinary period , as often happens in the small pox , malignant and burning fevers , &c. xxiii . there also belong to the upper parts of the womb small little nerves , rising from the inner branch of the sixth pair ; to the middle and lower parts , little branches proceeding from the nerves of the os sacrum . xxiv . the office of the womb is to receive the seed of the man , and to preserve and cherish the womans eggs , till the birth be form'd , and being brought to maturity , and wanting more air , to thrust it forth into the world . moreover , it is ordain'd for another secondary use , that is , the purgation of the womans body . which two offices , aretaeus comprehends in three words : a womans womb , says he , is useful for birth and purgation . xxv . the womb is therefore a part necessary for generation ; but thence there is no conclusion to be drawn , that it is a part necessarily conducing to the life of a woman ; seeing that a woman way live without a womb ; as is apparent in them , whose womb slipping out , is not only ulcerated and corrupted by the external cold , but also cut out , and yet upon the growing up of a cartilaginous substance consolidating within the hole of the womb cut off , the same women have liv'd in health for many years ; and more than that , have lain with their husbands , and almost with the same pleasure , as if they had a womb ; of which there are sundry examples cited by several physicians of great reputation . xxvi . but seeing that the womb is a part most necessary to generation , wherein the conception ought to be made , and the birth form'd , the question is , whether by any specific power or faculty the forming of the birth be there brought to perfection . to which i answer negatively ; for that the forming power is in the seed , and the womb contributes no more to the generation of man , than the earth to the generation of plants ; that is to say , it affords a secure harbour for the seed and the eggs ; temperate and sufficient nourishment . xxvii . now tho' it were held for a thing undoubted and unquestionable by all the ancients without exception , that the office of conceiving wholly belong'd to the womb , and that the birth could not be conceiv'd any where out of the womb ; yet in this age it has been discover'd and observ'd by famous men , tho' it rarely happen , that the birth has been conceiv'd in the uterine tubes . but that same story seems incredible related by philip salmuth , of a certain man that ejected his seed by a lip copulation into his wives mo●…th , who upon that conceiv'd a child in her stomach , and afterwards vomited it up as big as ones finger : as if a child could be conceiv'd out of the seed of the man without the womans egg ; and that in the stomach too , full of fermentaceous juices and aliments to be concocted . i admire that philip salmuth , a learned man , should give so much credit to an old womans fable , as to think it worthy to be inserted among his observations . nor does that story of a child born at pont a mo●…sson , conceiv'd and form'd in the middle of the abdomen , and found there after the death of the mother , deserve more credit . which story was printed by laurence strasius at dormstadt , in the year . with the judgments of several famous physicians and professors upon it : which story i know not how it can be true , unless you will say , that perhaps the egg being before impregnated by the dew of the male-seed in the ovary , and ready to fall out of the stones into the tubes , coming by chance to the borders of the tubes , should slip into the cavity of the abdomen , before its entrance into the tube , and so by the cherishing heat of that place the birth should be form'd therein : which nevertheless seems very improbable ; and therefore such stories as these not without reason , are derided and exploded by the learned guido patinus , bartholine , and others . xxviii . concerning the motion of the womb , there is a famous question started , whether it ascend or tumble to and fro , as it is said to do in the hysteric passion , or fits of the mother . the affirmative part is defended by aretaeus , fernelius , laurentius , spigelius , and especially by daniel sennertus , who prax. l. . part . . sect . . c. . cites and applauds the opinions of the foresaid physicians as infallible oracles , and makes a great addition of farther proof ; and rejects the contrary opinion of galen , as altogether repugnant to truth . now the reasons that perswaded those learned men into the affirmative , were chiefly these two : . the perswasions of idle women , who affirm that they not only perceive it within the globe of the womb as big as a goos-egg , ascend in the hysteric passion as high as the diaphragma , but also feel it outwardly with their hands ; nay , some are so confident as to tell you , they feel it as high as their throats . fernelius l. . patholog . c. . writes , that he , being induc'd by the complaints and intreaties of the women , has sometimes felt it with his hand carried up into the stomach like a little globe , by which it has been strangely oppress'd . . the fumes ; because that in the hysteric suffocation , stinking smells held to the nostrils , either diminish or take away the effect ; but sweet smells exasperate and bring the fit . of which the first they say proceeds from hence , because the womb , which is endu'd as it were with a sort of reason , flies stinking smells , which being held to the nose , it presently descends to avoid ' em . the latter , because it is delighted with sweet smells , and therefore if they be apply'd to the nostrils , it presently ascends to meet ' em . and that which seems to confirm this opinion the more , is this , because the same sweet things being rubb'd about the inside of the privity , immediately abates the fit ; because the womb , as they say , descends to those things with which it is delighted . from whence they conclude , that the womb ascends with a spontaneous motion , and may be mov'd any way ; nor ought that to be wonder'd at , say they , when its motion upward in women with child , and downward in the falling of the womb , is a thing so well known . these reasons were thought to be of so much weight by many , that they led men of great repute into the labyrinth of error . but on the other side , that the womb does not ascend upward of its own accord , nor is mov'd with a wandring motion through the lower belly , may be demonstrated by several reasons . . the ligaments prevent it ; not only the vermiform , those in the shape of a worm , but chiefly the lateral , like to the wings of batts , which are so strong , that they can by no means suffer such a suddain extension . add to this , that the uterine sheath is also firmly fastened to the neighbouring parts , the bladder , the right intestine , the privity , &c. all which parts in the ascent of the womb , would be likewise drawn up together toward the upper parts with great pain and trouble ; and yet we never hear those that are troubled with fits of the mother ▪ ever complain of any such painful attraction . . the womb is so small in empty women , that it cannot extend it self to the diaphragma , tho' it should be violently dragg'd up by the hand ; or attenuated by extraordinary extension into the thinnest membrane that can be . . in a woman with child , tho' it be large , yet no rational man will say , that in an hysteric suffocation the womb with the birth included in it , is able to ascend to the diaphragma and the throat . . in the dissected bodies of those that have dy'd of the hysteric passion , of which i have dissected many , i have often observ'd that neither the womb was swell'd , nor any way remov'd out of his place , tho' while they liv'd , at the very last gasp they have complain'd extreamly of its ascent to the diaphragma , and their very throats . nay more , in the said distemper i have rarely met with any fault in the womb , but have ●…ound it in one or both stones . xxix . the globe or substance which is said to ascend from the lower belly to the stomach and higher , is not the womb , nor , as riolanus believes , the stones or tubes of the womb , swelling with putrify'd seed , and violently agitated up and down ; for those parts are not so loose nor so bigg , as to ascend above the stomach , or to be felt , as big as a hen or a goose-egg ; but the intestines or guts , which are struck and torn by some malignant and sharp vapors , ascending from the womb or the stones ; as in the epilepsie , a sharp malignant vapour arises from the great toe , or some other part , to the head , and there by its vellication causes an unusual and vehement contraction of the nerves . now this pain in the guts being communicated to the sense in the head , presently to repel the mischief , and exclude the cause , a great number of animal spirits are posted into their fibres , by the swelling of which the guts are contracted , and then if there be any wind in the guts , as generally there is , they contract themselves about that wind , and by compressing and squeezing it together , make that same globe . and thus by the acrimony of the same vapour ascending higher , the diaphragma , the muscles of the throat and jaws , and other parts , are contracted by the copious influx of animal spirits , whence proceeds that suffocation . nor does the hard binding of a broad swathe or a long napkin about the belly avail in such a case , to hinder the ascent of that same substance or globe which women take to be their womb , any otherwise , than only because that by means of that hard binding , the copious ascent of that sharp malignant vapour , arising from the womb or stones , is hinder'd , which vapour being then detain'd below that ligature , is dissipated by the heat of the surrounding parts . xxx . here by the way we are to take notice , that francis de le boe sylvius , with whom regner de graef , agrees in this particular , does not acknowledg the forementioned cause of the hysteric passion , but has imagined another quite different ; that is to say , that the fault of the pancreatic iuice is the only cause of the hysteric symptomes aforesaid , and so most couragiously rejects the opinions in this case of all the antient and most of the modern physicians , and excuses the womb and spermatick parts from being the occasion of those symptoms . but altho' some symptoms having as it were some similitude with some hysteric effects , may sometimes be occasioned by the defects of the pancreatic juice , which i am unwilling altogether to deny , yet by diligent observation they may be sufficiently distinguished one from the other , and i my self have observ'd 'em no less in men than in women : nevertheless always to accuse the unfortunate pancreas of this miscarriage seems a little too hard , when the dissections of women , as well by my self as others , many times instructed us , that the sweet-bread had no share many times in those hysteric affections , as being altogether sound and perfect ; but that the fault lay in the stones , that were very much swell'd , sometimes one , and sometimes both , half as bigg as a hens egg , sometimes ill coloured , and full of a virulent liquor ; and when as also it has been observed that in such a uterine suffocation , that all the symptomes have ceased upon copulation , or the evacuation of seed upon the midwife's digitizing the part affected ; and that by the use of moderate coition the return of the fit has been prevented , whereas the same remedies us'd could no way avail to remove any distemper of the pancreatic juice either easily , suddainly , well or pleasantly . xxxi . neither can any thing be concluded from scents in behalf of the said opinion touching the motion of the womb. for the womb is not endued with understanding , and consequently is no way affected with this or that good or bad smell . for it has no nose , nor any other organ of smelling , and therefore makes no distinction between sweet or stinking smells : neither covets or loves , or flies or hates either the one or the other ; neither is sensible of any smells as smells ; neither is affected by them , as they are smells , but by their hot attenuating sharp discussing quality . xxxii . now that stinking smells held to the nostrils abate the hysteric fit , it is not because the womb avoiding the stench of stinking smells descends , but because the sense of smelling being offended by the ill smells , the brain contracts it self ; and so not only sends fewer spirits to the contracting fibres of the guts , and nerves of the mesentery , the diaphragma , and the muscles of the iaws , but also stops the entrance of the vapors ascending from the testicles and womb into those parts , and expells those that were entered before . which stinking smells by virtue of their singular discussing faculty dissipate as well in the brain as in the jaws , and so the woman not only recovers herself , but upon the relaxation of the muscles of the jaws is freed from her fit. xxxiii . on the other side sweet smells increase the fit , not because the womb ascends to meet 'em , but because while their fragrancie delights the sense , to the end the woman may the longer enjoy that pleasure , the brain dilates it self , and so not only permits a greater quantity of spirits to flow to the fibres aforesaid , and increase the fit , but also admits more plentifully a greater quantity of noxious vapours ascending from the womb , through the pores every way dilated ; whence the effects of the hysterical passion , anxietie , raving , drowsiness , and sometimes epileptic convulsions , &c. but sweet things being rubb'd about the inside of the privity , because they attenuate the thick and malignant humours , they dilate the pores , and powerfully discuss . trincavel , eustachius rudius , hercules saxonia , and mercurialis give quite different reasons for this thing , which daniel sennertus rejects and refutes : who nevertheless not being well able to get out of this labyrinth , and finding that the womb is not sensible of smells , nor is affected by 'em as they are smells , flys to a certain hidden quality affecting the womb , imperceptible to our senses , which he believes to adhere in such a manner to the odours , as not to be separated from ' em . but there is no such need in this case of flying to any such occult quality , when the whole thing is plainly to be made out by manifest qualities and reasons . xxxiv . that the womb in women with child extends it self every way , or slips out in falling down , makes nothing to prove its spontaneous motion : for in women with child the womb does not simply ascend , but grows and swells upward and round about through all its parts : for as the birth grows , so its domicil inlarges it self ; and the bigger the child grows , the bigger , thicker , and more fleshy becomes the womb ; so that near the time of delivery it comes to be as thick as a mans thumb , or the breadth of two fingers . which is not caused by the sole influence of the blood and humours into the porosities of the womb , but by a real , firm , and fleshy increment . but there is a great difference between the inlarging of the womb , and its spontaneous motion . for the one requires a long time , the other is done in a moment , and should and ought to cease : in the one the substance of the womb is enlarged and thicken'd , in the other it ought to be extended and attenuated . xxxv . in the falling down of the womb , the motion is not spontaneous , for the ligaments of it being loosened , and the substance of it being affected with a cold and moist distemper , it falls with its own weight , as all heavy things , and paralytic members , having lost their own spontaneous motion , slip downwards . in the same manner as a man who falls from a high steeple , does not move himself downward of his own accord , but is mov'd by his own weight against his will. from all which it is apparent , that the womb moves neither upward nor downward , nor tumbles about the lower belly with a vagous motion ; but sometimes by accident , sometimes through lankness slides to the sides and lower parts . xxxvi . but against this our conclusion another difficulty opposes it self : that is , if the womb do not move it self of its own accord , how comes it to pass , that sometimes after the death of the mother , the birth in the womb is expell'd forth ? thus bartholinus , in the treatise entitled phinx theologico philosophica , relates the story of an infant , that with a loud cry was brought safe and sound out of the womb of the dead mother . and such was the birth of scipio and manlius , upon the records of history . eber also produces an example of a child born after the death of his mother ; and rolfinch produces another out of the memorable speeches of wolfang silberus . three more are cited by philip salmuth ; bartholin also testifies the same thing to have happened at coppenhagen hist. anat. cent. . and i remember another accident of the same nature that was told me at montfurt . harvey also relates another of the same nature , exercit. de part . a woman , says he , being dead in the evening , was left alone in the chamber , and the next morning the child was found between her thighs , having made its own way . now as to the difficulty , we say this , that the mother being dead , the infant may for some time survive in the womb ; so that being alive and strong , and the orifice of the womb open , and the genitals being slippery and loose by reason of the preceding labours , and the efflux of the serous matter , it may so happen that the strugling birth may get forth by its own endeavours , tho' assisted by no motion of the dead womb ; and that such births have been frequently cut out of the abdomens of the dead mother is notoriously known . but the first accident rarely happens tho' frequently it falls out , that women after most bitter pangs of childbearing , their strength failing , fall into a profound swoon , so that they are thought to be dead , and are sometimes buried for such , tho' it has been known that they have afterwards come to themselves . vvhich often happens to those that are troubled with the hysteric passion , and for that reason being thought to be dead , are committed fairly to the ground , as the observations of many physicians make manifest . iohannes matthaeus , physician to the marquis of baden , produces a memorable example of this . quaest. medicar . . an accident deserving compassion , says he , happened at madrid in spain , where a noble matron , of the family of d. francis de lasso , after she had lain in a trance for three days after a hard travel , her relations believing her dead , was carried into the vault appointed for the burial of the family . some months after the vault being opened , for the burial of some other person , the carcass was found in the same place where it was laid , holding a dead infant in her right arm. whence it appears that the matron , when she was buried , was not really dead , but had been delivered of an unfortunate infant , which she held in her arms. now in such a case i say it may easily happen , that the woman which was thought to be dead the day before , the next day was delivered , and in a shorttime after expired : for in extraordinary cases of necessity , nature sometimes performs wonders . for which reason , the woman is thought to have been delivered after her death , who nevertheless was not dead at the time of her delivery . so that from hence no spontaneous or proper motion of the womb can be inferred . if after this , any one will be so obstinate as to believe that the womb is alive after the decease of the woman , and is mov'd of it self by its own proper power , of necessity with plato he will split upon a most hard rock of absurdity , while he concludes that the womb is a creature of it self , not living a life common to the rest of the body ; and hence it will follow that one creature is composed of two , or that one creature is the perfecting part of the other . chap. xxvi . of the parts of the womb. i. in the womb particularly are to be considered the bottom , the neck , the sheath , and the sinus pudoris , or mouth of the privity it self . ii. the bottom is the uppermost part of the womb , properly colled the matrix , uterus , or womb , outwardly smooth and equal , besmear'd with a slippery sort of liquor , in women not separated by any winding prominencies of horns , nor so distinguished with cells , as in most part of beasts that bring forth living conceptions , it is harder and thicker in those that are not with child , about the bigness of a pigeons egg , or somewhat bigger , which varies however according to the use of copulation , conception , and age. iii. it has one hollowness , yet not exactly round , but somewhat stretched forth on both sides as it were like a horn , toward the sides , in persons deceased , hardly able to hold a kidney bean , but without doubt more loose in libidinous coition ; somewhat rugged with wrinkles for the better retention of the seed , and in women , before they come to be with child , besmear'd with a viscous kind of slime . this is distinguished with a kind of large seam into the right and left part : in one of which males , in the other females are conceived , as hippocrates and galen have asserted . in the narrow streights of this cavity , the vivific spirit of male seed infused into the womans egg , finishes out of it self that wonderful structure of so many parts , so that at length a noble creature , shortly to ascend heaven it self , breaks out of this small , close , and nasty prison . iv. the neck of the womb , which many confound with the sheath , is the lower and narrower part of the womb , containing the innermost orifice of the womb . vvhich hole is oblong and transverse , or overthwart , like the hole in the nut of the yard ; in virgins narrow and smooth , but in such as have had children , bigger , and furnish'd as it were with two lips somewhat hard , or little pieces of flesh somewhat tumid , which lips are hardly or never to be found in virgins . this orifice is exactly shut after the reception of the seed , and as it were seal'd up with a slimy viscous yellowish humour , that by the report of galen , it will not admit the point of a probe , neither does it open before the time of travel , unless by ●…ervent and libidinous coition , whence sometimes happens superfoetation . but at the time of delivery for the expulsion of the birth it dilates and spreads after a miraculous manner like a rose ; and then the foresaid lips of the orifice , as i have observ'd in women deceased when bigg with child , equal in thickness half a finger , very loose , slippery , and hollow like a spunge . v. rarely the yard of a man in copulation reaches so far as this orifice , which riolanus however asserts may happen sometimes . it may be , says he , that a longer yard , when the orifice is open , at the time when the flowers flow , being thrust into that orifice , may be there detain'd and squeez'd , as happens in the limeing of bitches ; which that it has happen'd to some , i am credibly inform'd . thus when i was a student at leyden , i remember , there was a young bridegroom in that town , that being over-wanton with his bride , had so hamper'd himself in her privities ▪ that he could not draw his yard forth , till delmehorst the physician unty'd the knot , by casting cold water upon the part . certainly 't is a wonder how such a narrow orifice of the womb can be so much dilated , as to receive the nut of the yard ; which is the reason some think it impossible to be done , and look upon as fables , whatever has been said touching this matter . but this is to be said , that in a very fervent lust , all those obscene parts grow very hot , and are relax'd to that degree , as to receive the yard with ease : as appears by the uterine sheath , which not being heated by libidinous ardour , is so strait that it will not admit the yard without difficulty , but in the act of venery , thro' the more copious affluency of blood and spirits , stiffens , grows warm , and swells , and then becomes so loose , and soft , that it easily receives the yard . therefore it would be no wonder , if in some , through extream lust , this orifice of the womb be so relax'd , as to admit the yard , especially if the sheath be short , and the yard so long as to reach and enter the sybilline chink . nor is this more to be admired at , than that the orifice it self in time of labour , should of its own accord be so relax'd for a large infant to pass thorough , or for the chirurgeon to thrust in his hand and part of his arm to draw forth the birth , when necessity requires . vi. continuous to the bottom and neck of the womb , is the greater neck or gate of the womb , commonly call'd the vagina or sheath ; because it receives the yard like a sheath . this is a smooth and soft chanel , every way enclosing and grasping the yard in copulation , furnish'd with fleshie fibres running out in length , by which it is fasten'd to the other adjacent parts ; and withinside , full of orbicular furrows or wrinkles , more in the upper part than the lower , and more toward the privity than toward the womb , and unequal , to procure the greater pleasure of titillation from rubbing to and fro ; of a membranous , and as it were nervous , and somewhat spungy substance , which swells in the heat of lust , the better to embrace the yard ; about the length of the middle finger , and as broad as the intestinum rectum . nevertheless , the length , breadth , and loosness of it vary according to the age of the person , her use of venery , and her natural constitution : and sometimes this length and breadth of the sheath varies according to the length or bigness of the yard in men. whence spigelius thus writes , annat . l. . c. . the sheath every where embraces the yard , and frames it self to all i●…s dimensions , so that it meets a short one , gives way to a long one , dilates to a thick one , and straitens to a small one : for nature so manages all these differences , in respect to the magnitude of the yard , that it is needless to endeavour to fit the tools , or regard their proportion , for that the great fabricator has every where done it so admirably . in like manner in virgins , and women not so prone to venery , as in those that never had children or labour under an immoderate flux of their flowers , or their whites , the wrinkles are much deeper and thicker , and more numerous ; but in women that have had many children , as also in harlots often lain withal , they are neither so deep nor so numerous , if not many times worn smooth . vii . this sheath in infants is remarkably capacious , tho' the orifice be very narrow : as it is also in grown virgins never lain with , which in the first act of coition is somewhat dilated , with the rupture of the hymen ; but in women that use but moderate copulation , it remains still in such a condition , that the yard passes through a kind of looser sort of sphincter muscle toward the innermost sheath . viii . it is furnish'd with vessels of all sorts . it has two sorts of arteries : some from the haemorrhoidal arteries , creeping through the lower part of it ; others from the hypogastrics descending along the sides of it , and then dispers'd through the whole sheath , and in the upper part for the most part adhering to the arteries of the womb. ix . several veins it sends forth from its lower part to the haemorrhoidals ; the rest , far more in number , and every way dispers'd into its substance , to the hypogastrics , into which they empty the blood which is contain'd in 'em , from thence to be conveigh'd farther to the greater vessels , and so to the heart . and out of these blood-bearing vessels it is that that same little net is form'd discover'd by regner de graef . x. it receives its nerves from those that run out from the os sacrum . xi . regner de graef also writes , that he has here observ'd certain very small lymphatic vessels , which in their ascent penetrating through the external substance of the womb , meet together by degrees , and increase like small rivulets , till they came to the great receptacle of the chylus , and then open themselves into it . besides these vessels , there run out into the forepart of the sheath those chanels sticking to the substance of the urinary passage , of which hereafter . xii . to the end of it , that is , at its first entrance under the nymphs , both before and atop adheres the neck of the piss-bladder , wrapt about with the sphincter , having there an exit ; but in the hinder part it is firmly fasten'd with the binding muscle of the intestinum rectum . regner de graef has well observ'd , that the sphincter of the bladder embraces the lower part of the sheath with a conveighance of fibres , three fingers broad ; to the end that in coition it might be able gently to close it self about the yard ; which constriction ▪ he believes to be mainly helped forward by other bodies , found out by himself , of which he thus writes : to this constriction those bodies contribute after a wonderful manner , which , the fleshie expansions arising from the sphincter , being remov'd , appear on both sides near the lips of the privity in the lower part of the sheath . for they ascend on both sides to the membranous substance , which is fasten'd to the neighbouring parts , and to the clitoris ▪ and there terminate and vanish : so that the bodies of the right and left side have no communion one with another ; as may be seen if either be fill'd with wine : for the body of the right side being blown up , the left never swells ; neither if the left be fill'd , is the right distended , or the clitoris erected . the outward substance of these consists of a very thin membrane ; the inner , which for the most part , like the inner substance of the clitoris , by reason of the quantity of coagulated blood , is of a blackish colour , is woven out of several little fibres and vessels , united and twisted one among another , which for its resemblance to a net is call'd plexus retiformis , the net resembling fold . this plexus retiformis , or net-resembling fold is in my opinion there plac'd , that the orifice of the sheath may be so much the closer straiten'd , and the virile member straitly embrac'd : for being distended with that plenty of blood , when by reason of the fleshie fibres of the sphincter muscle compressing it , it cannot swell outward , it must swell inwardly , and straiten the orifice of the sheath . now the distension of these parts will appear to the eye , if the bloody vessels running through along the back of the clitoris be fill'd with a little breath , for then the whole privity swells together with that same fold . now because this chanel of the sheath is narrower in virgins , many , with soranus , believe that the pain which virgins feel in the first act of coition , and the blood which breaks forth , is caus'd by the dilatation of this chanel by the yard , and the rupture of the little veins and arteries passing thorough it ; which others rather ascribe to the rupture of the vagina , or sheath . xiii . the use of the vagina , or sheath , is to receive the yard , to embrace and gently gird it self about it . to this end it grows warm in the heat of lust , by reason of the afflux of blood and spirits to it . so that it is somewhat in a manner erected , and dilates it self , the more conveniently to admit the yard . whereas , when that heat is over by reason of its laxity and softness , it prevents the entrance of the external air ; nor if the woman be in a bathe , will it admit water to enter the womb : but when a woman has her monthly purgations , or is troubled with the whites , as also in time of labour it does not dilate it self , but the closing sides of it , being press'd down by the weight of the birth , and humours part one from another , and so are compelled to give way to necessary evacuation . xiv . now that the vagina must and ought to be dilated in the same manner as has been said , and without that dilatation would hardly admit the virile member , is plain from those women that take no pleasure either in a violent or unvoluntary coition ; but rather on the other side , complain of great pains , by reason of the violent forcing of the sides of the vagina one from another through the force of the entring yard : and is yet more apparent from the pain that some virgins feel that come to be lain withal before they have any understanding , and consequently no understanding to warm them to the action . in reference to which plazzonus relates a very sad story . lately , says he , it happened , that a young man being to lye with his bride the first night , what with his eager haste , and the robustious intrusion of his member , he not only broke the neck of her bladder , but the intestinum rectum , withal . for which i could give no other reason , but that her privity , not us'd to erection , slagg'd in its first performance of admitting and receiving her husband's first addresses . thus , i remember , that i knew a young bride in upper batavia , to whom , by the violent immission of the yard in the first act of coition , and suddain dilatation of the vagina , there happen'd such a prodigious flux of blood , that in three hours she lost her life , together with her virginity . and the like unfortunate accident some years ago befell the daughter of a certain citizen of utrecht , who was so wounded the first night , that before morning , the flux of blood not being to be stopp'd , she expir'd . xv. below the insertion of the neck of the bladder , in virgins , there appears a thin nervous membrane , continuous to the neck of the substance , and sticking orbicularly to its sides , interwoven with fleshie fibres , and furnish'd with many little arteries and veins , and bor'd through the middle for the efflux of the monthly purgations , that in grown virgins it will hardly admit the top of the little finger , which the ancients call'd hymen , others the claustrum of virginity , others the girdle of chastity . which being safe and whole , is a certain sign of virginity , and being that which must of necessity be broken by the first irruption of the virile member , and sen●…s forth a small quantity of blood , which they call flos virginitatis , the flower of virginity : but being broken , it vanishes , and never more grows again . xvi . this membrane , to the great loss of health , has been observ'd by cabrolius , vesalius , and others , not thin and perforated , as is before mention'd ; but somewhat thick , firm , and contiguous , and sometimes bor'd through like a sive . so in the year . in the month of march , we dissected a young woman of three and twenty years of age , wherein we found that same membrane continuous , not perforated at all , and so firm , that the stoutest efforts of a lusty young bride grown could never have pierc'd it . now when it is so extreamly strong , then in grown women , there is a stoppage of the flowers , and other evacuations that way , which is the death of many virgins , unless cur'd by cutting the membrane ; of which sort of cure there are several examples to be found in benivenius , wierus , aquapendens , hildan , and several others . here some have been of opinion , that the said membrane , hard and unperforated , is a substance quite different from the hymen , growing there contrary to the order of nature : whereas in truth it is the hymen it self , preternaturally harden'd to that solidity , neither will any man ever find any other . xvii . many question the truth of this membrane , others deny that ever it was found , and account as fables whatever has been said concerning the hymen . others with oribasius , soranus , fernelius , and laurentius , conceited virginity to be nothing else than the wrinkled straitness of the female vagina , overspread with veins , the dilaceration of which in the first act of coition , and the rupture of the little veins , by means of the same violence , causes a light flux of blood. but vesalius and fallopius , most expert anatomists , have found that membrane in all virgins , as have also columbus , plater , picolomni , iubart , spigelius , wierus , regner de graef , and several other eminent persons , to whose ocular testimony we must give credit . and not only they , but i my self , at the dissection of a virgin about two and twenty years of age , in decemb. . shew'd that membrane to several students in physic , resembling a membranous ring orbicularly plac'd in the vagina of the womb , with a hole in the middle as big as the top of the little finger , not exactly round , but somewhat oblong in the upper part . and swammerdam writes that he took out such a hymen out of the body of a virgin which resembled the flat perforated small ring , that is put under the glass in prospective glasses , and closes all the rest of the opening of the tube ; as this membrane shuts up the tube of the sheath , and the outermost neck of the womb. xviii . it is question'd by some , whether upon the want of that membrane it may be well and truly said , that such a maid , where such a defect is found , has been deflowr'd by another man ? riolanus well observes , that the defect of this membrane is not always a sign of deflowr'd virginity ; because ▪ most certainly it is not to be found in all virgins : for many times lascivious and wanton girls break that membrane unknowingly , in their imitation of coition , with their finger , or any other instrument . besides , that in some it is so thin and so soft , that easily giving way in the first act , it neither makes any resistance against the bridegroom , nor does it bleed at all . besides that , it may be corroded away by the passing thorough of sharp humours , or else broken by a fall or a blow , or by the midwives finger , as in the hysteric passion . now that it may be so relax'd and soften'd by the afflux of the flowers , and other humours , as to give free passage to the yard without pain or trouble , and will dilate rather than be dilacerated , and consequently never emit any blood in the first act , pinaeus makes out by two examples , which he cites lib. . de not. virgin. c. . and thus that text in deuteronomy is certainly to be expounded : that is to say , if the red piece of linnen were shew'd , then there was no doubt to be made of the virginity of the maid : but notwithstanding , if it could not be produc'd , yet however it was not to be concluded that the maid had lost her virginity ; but before too severe a sentence be pronounc'd , inquiry was to be made , why that efflux of blood fail'd in the first coition ; whether she had been broken up before , or whether it might not be an effect of any other of those natural causes by me recited . but before i leave this place , i cannot but add the elegant verses of catullus , which he writes de slore virginitatis , to wit , concerning that blood which commonly breaks forth upon the rupture of the membrane hymen , in the first coition . ut slos in septis secretis nascitur hortis , ignotus pecori , nullo contusus aratro : quem mulcent aurae , firmat sol , educat imber , multi illum pueri , multae optavere puellae . idem cum tenui carptus defloruit ungue . nulli illum pueri , nullae optavere puellae . sic virgo , dum intacta manet , tum chara suis : sed cum castum amisit , polluto corpore , slorem , nec pueris jucunda manet , nec chara puellis . which i render into english thus : as flowers in enclosed gardens grow , not cropt by beasts , nor bruised by the plough : whose brighter glories , solar beams invest , and fragrancies by gentle rain increast ; invites all human kind , to love , and take : that same , when cropt , its beauty does forsake . those that before ador'd it , now despise and slight the once dear object of their eyes . such is a virgin , while she so remains , while her unspotted honour she retains . but when that 's blasted , she 's no more the same ; nor to her virgin vertues can lay claim . but like a wither'd flower is undon , and by all human kind is pist upon . those that before ador'd her , now despise , and slight the once dear object of their eyes . xix . upon this membrane rest four carunculae , or little pieces of flesh , call'd the myrtiformes , myrtle shap'd , because they resemble the berries of myrtle ; so plac'd , that every one possesses an angle , and answer one another in a square . one of 'em , bigger than the rest , and forked , belongs to the hole of the urinary passage , which it shuts when the urine is voided . the second stands behind opposite to this : the other two are collateral . these carunculae , or little pieces of flesh , in some are shorter , in some longer , thicker or slenderer . which are said to meet together , with certain little membranes , in the outermost part , leaving a hole in the middle , whose closing together some take for the hymen membrane . xx. they are said to be appointed for pleasure and titillation while their being swell'd and puff't up , straitens and bewitchingly squeezes the yard . these caruncles are so describ'd by several anatomists , as if they were to be found in all women ; when there is only one to be found in virgins , but all four are to be found in persons deflowr'd . but as for the second membrane , made by the closing of these caruncles , over and above the hymen , i shall believe it when any body shews it me . riolanus , the most accurate anatomist of his time , not without reason suspects those three lesser tunicles , not to be real little pieces of flesh , but little swellings or warts proceeding from the rupture of the hymen , and the wrinkling the vagina of the privity : and reports that he has found that wrinkled roughness altogether levell'd for the passages of the child , in women that have been deliver'd six or seven days , which , were they true little pieces of flesh , would preserve their shape and substance in the distension of the neck of the womb ; or at least some sign of 'em would remain , whereas there is nothing to be seen of 'em , but when the privity is again reduc'd to its accustom'd straitness . he adds , that these three little bodies , were they real little pieces of flesh , would be a great impediment to women in labour , for that their roughness and inequality would hinder the egress of the infant . he proves the truth of this assertion by ocular view and experience , affirming that in the dissections of virgins , after he had separated the nymphs , he found a fleshie or circular membrane , perforated with a little hole in the middle , big enough for a pea to go through , which membrane being torn , he saw no other caruncles , but one always apply'd to the orifice of the bladder ; but the other three he never found ; and conjectures the foremention'd caruncle to be the extremity of the sphincter of the bladder . xxi . therefore in regard they only are to be found in married people , the hymen being broken , and not in virgins , he strongly infers that those three lesser caruncles , are nothing else than the angular parts of this broken membrane , pucker'd up into a heap by the wrinkling of the fleshie vagina . and thus has this most excellent person , by his great experience , unfolded those doubts , which have hitherto occasion'd so many disputes among anatomists concerning the hymen , and the carunc'es . xxii . the outward part of the womb , call'd in greek 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , in latin pudendum muliebre , membrum genitale , and vulva , as it were valva , or a folding door , being clos'd with two valva's and nymphs like folding doors ; also orificium exterius , the outward orifice , and cunnus , from 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , to conceive ; in english , the womans privities or quaint , is seated in the foremost region of the share-bone . xxiii . in virgins it is much less and thicker than in those that have had children , and in those that are arriv'd at years of maturity , is cover'd with hair above and on each side , while nature endeavours to hide the obscene part. spigelius believes there may be a certain judgment made of the bigness of the privity by several external marks . for , says he anat. l. . c. . the proportion of the womans privity is to be taken for the most part from her mouth : for they that have wide mouths and large eyes , have generally large privities ; and i have observ'd by manifold experience , that all thick and fat women that have large breasts and bellies , have also large privities . on the other side , they that have little flat breasts , a narrow mouth , a peeked chin , and thin lips , have likewise straiter and narrower privities . xxiv . the outward lips appear first to the eye , which toward the hair are somewhat thicker and higher rais'd , and there closing , and more protuberant , compose the mount of venus , as being seated at the threshold of venus's temple , which they that offer to venus must be forc'd to enter . xxv . they are compos'd of a peculiar fleshie substance , and in some measure spungy , which in heat of lust swells , and at the time of delivery becomes very soft and tumid . it was my hap to see in two women newly deliver'd of the birth , when the secundine follow'd , their lips so loosen'd , and a great part of the uterine liver thrust it self into them ; whereupon the midwife , not understanding what such an unusual accident meant , the physician and surgeon were call'd , who observing the lips to be stuff't with the said liver , and for that reason unusually swell'd , and withal , as it were a piece of black flesh budding forth , thought the privity to be torn in the labour , and the part to be already gangren'd . thereupon believing the woman to be in very great danger , i was sought for . but when i came to view the privity , i presently observ'd that black flesh to be a part of the vterine liver , which had thrust it self into the lips , being inwardly dilated , which being drawn out with a pair of nippers , both women were freed from the imaginary fear of any gangrene . xxvi . riolanus attributes to these lips a slight motion of dilatation and constriction , which he affirms to have been often experienced in lustful women , stimulated more than usually with the stings of venery . and farther , he says that the constriction is made by the muscle of the clitoris , extended under the lips of the privity ; and the dilatation by the other muscle , which is under the ligament . lindan will rather have these two muscles extended from the sphincter of the podex through the groyns , and being thin and broad , to be inserted into the internal front of the lips , and upon the evacuation of urine , that the lips are by them divided , and after pissing clos'd again . xxvii . near to the lips stand two fleshie soft productions , call'd nymphae , nymphs , or wings ; in greek 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 . these arise at the joyning together or commissure of the share-bones , where they are joyn'd with an acute angle , and constitute the wrinkl'd fleshie production , that clothes the clitoris , like the praeputium ; and descend about half way , the lips every where touching one another for the most part , and end in their lower part with an obtuse angle , as being almost of a triangular figure ; resembling somewhat in colour that part of the cock's comb , that hangs under his throat . xxviii . they are of a ruddy substance , partly fleshie , partly membranous , soft , puffie , clad with a thin tunicle , different in thickness and bigness , according to the diversity of age ; being generally about a fingers joynt in length , and thin , nor very broad in virgins till five and twenty years of age. in those of riper years , especially such as have lain with man , and born children , they become thicker and broader ; but never descend above half way the lips. these very seldom grow luxuriant in our regions ; but among the egyptians , by the report of galen , frequently grow out to such a length , that through the shame and trouble which they cause , they are forc'd to make use of incision . xxix . these nymphs , together with the lips , besides the little nerves from the sixth pair , have very many remarkable vessels dispers'd through the outer and inner substance . for they receive arteries from the branch of the inner iliac ( call'd the privity-branch ) conveighing plenty of blood in the heat of lust , which causes 'em to swell . they also send veins to the privity-vein , into which , when the heat of lust is over , they again empty their collected blood. which veins in women with child sometimes swell to that degree , that they resemble those swellings , call'd varices . xxx . the use of the lips and nymphs is to close and straiten the entrance of the privity ; and to preserve the womb from the injuries of the external air. concerning the lips and nymphs , i observ'd an unusual accident at nimmeghen , in the year . a certain woman , a seaman's wife , together with her daughter about four and twenty years of age , and after she had shed a great many tears , out of her modesty , made her complaint , that her daughter was uncapable of man , and asked me if i could remove the obstacle . she told me that her daughter's privity , presently after she was born , was well shap'd , but being after that put to nurse , and carelesly look'●… after , her buttocks , privities , and parts adjoyning , would be miserably excoriated by the acrimony of the urine and excrement , by which means her privity clos'd together , leaving only a little hole for the passage of her urine and flowers . when i view'd the part , i found the lips and the nymphs were exactly grown together , as if there never had been any passage before . thereupon thrusting an iron probe in at the hole , i found that the closure was only superficial , but that within there was nothing grown preternaturally together . sending therefore for henry chatborn the surgeon , i order'd him to make an incision upon the iron probe thrust into the hole , and then to cure up the wound ; which was done in a few days : insomuch that the maid in three months after being married to a husband , there were no farther complaints of the narrowness of the privity , and the next year she was deliver'd of a lusty infant . xxxi . between the closing lips , appears the rift , or clift of the privity : and the wings and lips being separated , the cleft appears still deeper , which the moderns call the dike , or the great cleft , to distinguish it from the first mention'd . this runs along from the share bones to the folding of the buttocks and the podex , distant from it about a thumbs breadth , and the more backward it bends , the broader and deeper it is ; and forms as it were a hollow valley , or a hollow dike , representing the shape of a small ship , and terminates in the border of the orifice of the uterine vagina . this same space , which is generally call'd interf●…mineum , and interforamineum , we have observ'd in hard labours most terribly dilacerated , and by that means the cleft or lower part of the vagina has gap'd to the very podex , difficultly cur'd in some , and in others , never . into the middle of the dike enters the orifice of the neck of the womb , or vagina , or chanel that receives the yard . to which , at the upper part adjoyns the urinary passage , through which the urine flows out of the bladder . which orifice of the neck of the womb or vagina , is sometimes so straitened by chaps and fissures , or the scar of some exulceration , that never afterwards they are able to lie with their husbands . sometimes also after violent labour being dilacerated , it closes up altogether , and leaves the woman unperforated , or else with a very small hole . of which bauhinus produces several examples , anat. l. . c. . and cabrolius in his observ. . relates the stoppage of this orifice in a chirurgeon , and how it was open'd again by a chirurgeon . xxxii . now a little higher in the middle part between the wings , there juts out a small particle called in greek 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , clitoris , 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , or 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , to wantonize and lasciviously to handle a womans privities . avicen calls it albathara , or a twigg . by albucasis it is called tentigo . for it answers the virile twig , or rod , in shape , situation , substance , repletion with spirits and erection , differing only in bigness and length . xxxiii . it is a small round body consisting of two nervous portions black within and spungy , rising on both sides from the excrescence of the huckle-bone , as from two thighs meeting together at the conjunction of the share-bone . which beginnings , or thighs riolanus calls the white ligaments . to these thighs the round ligaments of the womb reach with their ends , which formerly being led astray by spigelius , i took to be the vessels conveighing the seed . xxxiv . the extremity or nut of the clitoris , is called tentigo , having a substance like that of the nut of a mans yard , which is covered with a certain thin skin , like the praeputium , proceeding from the conjunction of the wings . at the top there appears a long hole like the hole of a mans yard , but not pervious or bor'd quite through . xxxv . the clitoris like a mans yard , has four muscles serving for the same office , two round above arising from the hip-bone ; and two below , broad and fleshy , proceeding from the sphincter of the podex , which creeping backward through the lips of the privity , are fasten'd to the clitoris . the use of which regner de graef believes to be not so much for the erection of the clitoris as for the contraction of the orifice of the uterine vagina . pinaeus acknowledges only three muscles . xxxvi . it receives arteries from the privitie-arteries , which in the heat of concupiscence and coition , bring spirituous blood in great quantity , which afterwards the privity veins carry back to the greater veins . besides these regner de graef has observ'd such like vessels to reach from the haemmorrhoidals to the clitoris . now these vessels are communicated to the clitoris , where the two meeting they constitute its third body , whose substance they enter only with small little branches , and together with the animal spirit flowing through the nerves , cause it to swell in the height of concupiscence . the same regner de graef observes that the veins of the right and left side for the most part are clos'd together by anastomoses , before they descend to the sides of the clitoris , and run forward to the net resembling fold and other parts of the pudendum ; but that in the arteries of each side anastomoses are rarely to be found . xxxvii . besides the vasa sanguifera , there is also a small nerve , proceeding from the sixth pair , which endues it with an exquisite sense of feeling , and occasions that pleasing titillation in the act of venerie , so that the chiefest seat of womens pleasure in coition is in this part . vvhence by bauhinus it 's call'd the sting of venus ; by columbus and others the sweetness of love. nevertheless the most charming and voluptuous titillation lies in the rubbing of the tentigo or nut. xxxviii . very rarely , or hardly ever do we hear of what bauhinus has observed concerning a clitoris , that it became bony in a venetian curtesan ; which by reason of its extream hardness did so offend and hurt her lovers in coition , that many times by reason of inflammations they were forced to fly to the surgeon for help . xxxix . a little below the clitoris , above the mouth of the uterine vagina , between the nymphae , the exit of the urinary passage is conspicuous ; which being somewhat prominent , and composing the superior caruncle , is the extremity of the sphincter of the bladder , by means of which sphincter , after the urine evacuated , the orifice of the bladder is again drawn together and closed up . xl. the neck of the bladder in grown women is the breadth of two fingers in length , wrapt about by the sphincter muscle , which enfolds the whole length of it . xli . but the neck it self consists within of a thin membrane , which the membranous substance girdles round , being as it were glandulous , whitish , and about the length of one finger thick , and full of pores , especially near the exit of the urinary passage , through which several larger chanels running , terminate near the exit of the urinary passage , and in the forepart of the uterine vagina . some there are who think that the virious , serous , and flegmatick humours that dayly flow from many women , are evacuated through these chanels ; but regner de graef , a most accurate anatomist , not without good reason ascribing to that thicker substance encompassing the urethra the use of the prostates , believes that there is bred therein a kind of seminal and somewhat slimy juice , endued with a certain acrimony and saltness , which causes desire , and makes women salacious , and breaking forth through those little chanels and pores , renders the privities delightfully slippery in coition . the same regner de graef , who believes that viscous matter coming from the yard in the gonorrhea , to be seldom evacuated from the stones or seminal vessels , but most frequently from the stones , believes also that in women troubled with the gonorrhea , the same matter is evacuated out of these parts alone , which he calls prostates , and confirms it by this example . now that the gonorrhea , says he , slows from the glandulous body , and through the little sewers in and about the urinary passage , the dissection of a certain woman infected with this disease made manifest , for her womb and vagina being untouch'd , we found only the glandulous body or prostates to be faulty . xlii . but the said orifice or neck of the bladder , by reason of the softness of the substance , may easily be dilated , for stones of an indifferent bigness to be expell'd and brought away by the great quantity of urine rushing out at the same time with little or no trouble ; or so that the same stones , dilatation being first made by the help of instruments , may be drawn out of the bladder without any incision , as we find it many times successfully done by your lithotomists . xliii . the clitoris is usually but small , and lies hid under the nymphs in the middle fatter part of the privities , or in the top of the larger cleft : afterwards in grown people it grows somewhat prominent , and when it swells it stirs up concupiscence . riolanus well observes that in living people , where all things swell with heat and spirit , this part is manifestly to be seen , especially in the more lascivious , that have more voluptuously addicted themselves to copulation ; but that in dead women it hardly appears , by reason of the smallness of its bulk , that falls upon the dissipation of the spirits . and yet we publicly shew'd it at the theater in the dissected body of one not above twenty four years of age. xliv . sometimes it happens , that contrary to the common course of nature , this part grows out much more in length like the yard of a man , so that women have made an ill use of it , by copulating with others of their own sex , hence called confricatrices , but anciently tribades . thus platerus asserts that he saw a womans clitoris , equalling in length and thickness the neck of a goose. riolanus and schenkius have observed it as long as a mans little finger . regner de graef saw a girl new born , whose clitoris had such a resemblance to a mans yard , that the midwife and the rest of the women there present , took it for a boy ; and gave it a mans name in baptism . plempius writes of one helena , that lay with several women and vitiated several virgins with that part. i my self in a certain woman at montfort saw a clitoris as long and thick as the ordinary yard of a man , which happened to grow to that extent , after she had lain in three or four times . xlv . this is that part which in hermaphrodites thus prodigiously encreasing forms the virile member , which appears from hence , that in the slit of the nut there is no conspicuous perforation to be seen ; tho' the stones seem to joyn to it at the sides without . such an hermaphrodite i remember i once saw in france near anjou about years of age ; who was bearded about the mouth like a man , yet went in womens apparel , and for a small matter turn'd up her coats to any one that had a mind to satisfy curiosity . in this party , the clitoris at the upper end of the privity , was grown out of the privity about half a fingers length , and as thick as a mans yard , with a nut , bridle , and foreskin , as in men ; only that the slit of the nut was not perforated . such another english hermaphrodite , about years of age , in the year , we saw at utretcht , whose governour reported that he was born a perfect girl , but that when she came to be about five or six years of age , her genitals began to be changed , and by that time she came to be ten years old , her yard became conspicuous . we saw the yard hanging forth about half a finger long , but the slit of the nut was not persorated , otherwise not unlike a mans yard , the praeputium of which was form'd by the closure of the nymphs : which half covered and uncovered the nut as in men. and this yard would upon venereal and lascivious thoughts erect it self a fingers length , as his governour reported . in each of the lips of the privity , as in so many cods , one stone was contained . a little below the clitoris , was the urinary passage , and the sheath of the womb. his governour related that he had his monthly courses at set times like other women ; and in height of lust the seed would flow forth : but that the hermaphrodite himself could not tell whether it flow'd through his yard , or from his female privities . his duggs , that were but small , and his hairy breast and thighs , seem'd to denote something masculine , as also his voice and his hair , which was very thick and curling , with the beard apparently beginning to shoot forth upon his lips. at first he wore womans apparel , but the next year , when i saw him again at my own house , by reason his beard grew so notorious , he altered his habit , and put on mans apparel . from whence it appears that these hermaphrodites , are not such as partake of both sexes , but are really women , whose genitals are not rightly form'd , while the stones fall down into the lips of the privity , and the clitoris grows out to an extraordinary length . xlvi . here arises a very weighty question , whether your confricatrices and hermaphrodites , lying with other women , spend any seed through their clitoral yard , and eject it into the womb ? i must confess i was once so much for the affirmative , that i maintained it in the first edition of my anatomy : thinking it might be confirm'd by reason and experience . by reason : because i thought it no more a wonder for the seed to pass the invisible pores of the slit of the clitoris , than in men for it to pass from the stones to the urinary vesicles , through the invisible pores of the vasa deferentia . add to this , that those female rubbers do not feel less pleasure in that coition , than men in their copulation with emission of seed . by experience : because i my self formerly knew a woman , of no mean quality , that made her complaints to me , that when she was young , and feeling the itch of lechery , she was wont often to rub her clitoris with her finger , and so was wont to provoke her self to spend her seed with great delight : but in progress of time this ill custom turn'd to a distemper : so that if her privity were never so little touch'd either by the cushion where she ●…ate , or by her own drawers when she walk'd , or by any other manner of way , presently her seed flew from her whether she would or no , neither was she able to retain it at her own pleasure ; upon which she came to me for remedy . she told me moreover that she could certainly feel her clitoris swell and itch upon the least wanton thought , and that she certainly believ'd , that the seed which was provok'd by the rubbing of her finger flew out from that part , meaning her clitoris . here comes in a remarkable story , related by iacob duval tract . de hermaph . with the whole proceedings of the court upon the tryal : where among other things he reports , that a certain widow woman , who had two sons living , by her deceased husband , and was married the second time , through ignorance , to a hermaphrodite , confessed that the said hermaphrodite one night entered her body four times , and so strenuously and naturally did her business , that she never lay with her husband with more pleasure . which reasons and examples seem'd formerly to me to prove that your female rubbers and hermaphrodites lying with other women , eject their seed out of the clitoris , as men out of the yard . but because in this age anatomy grows still to more and more perfection , through the great diligence and labour of many eminent persons , hence it came to pass that by frequent examination and inspection , i found the round ligaments of the womb not to be the ways through which the seed could be carried to the clitoris ; nor that there was any urethra , nor any thing like it in the clitoris ; not that any seed could pass through its slit , and therefore of necessity it behov'd me to recant my former opinion ; finding the forementioned reasons and examples not sufficient to defend it . for as to that woman that provoked forth a seminal matter by the rubbing of the clitoris , 't is very likely that that same viscous matter flew out of the foresaid prostates , into the vagina , as it is frequent with men to spend upon rubbing their own yards ; and then bursting forth of the mouth of the sheath , moisten'd the clitoris , which deceiv'd the woman and made her think that the seed flew out of the clitoris . the same is to be said of other female rubbers exercising other women , as also of duvals hermaphrodite , whose wife thought he had spent into her body through his extended clitoris . vvhich error proceeded from hence , that while her husband rubbed the sheath of her womb with his clitoral yard , the viscous matter being provoked out of her prostates by the pleasure of frication , flew out into her vagina , with which pleasure the woman being ravished and deceiv'd , thought it had proceeded from the seed ejected into her womb by the hermaphrodite . but all these things being more seriously considered , most certain it is , that no seed of women is evacuated through the clitoris . xlvii . thus having describ'd all the parts of women serving for generation ; here are two questions to be answered . first , whether the genitals of women differ from those of men but only in situation . secondly , whether a woman may be changed into a man. xlviii . as to the first , galen seem to demonstrate and teach it , in his book de usu part. with whom many both grecians and arabians take part , who unanimously affirm that the genitals of women differ only in situation : the one by reason of the colder temper of women and weakness of nature being conceal'd within , the other by reason of the extraordinrry heat and strength of nature , being thrust forth of the body . for that if the womb should be thrust forth , it would hang with the inside turn'd the outside , and the external smooth and equal part would become the innermost , and the inner rugged and unequal side would become outermost , and so form a cod , and the stones that cleave to the sides within the abdomen , would be contained in that innermost scrotum , which scrotum were to be distinguished with a seam in the middle , as the womb is distinguished within , to which the clitoris being remov'd would form a yard above it . or if the mans cod should be forc'd toward the inner parts , then it must have the form of the womb within the abdomen ; and the stones contain'd therein must cleave to the sides on each side , and the yard drawn in , must be hid like the clitoris . xlix . but tho' this most ingenious contrivance be adorn'd with some probability , yet certain it is , that the genital parts of both sexes , tho' they seem in some things to resemble one another , but only in situation , nevertheless they differ very much in many things . for . in women , the arteries and veins are much shorter , and more twisted than in men . . they want the pyramidal body form'd out of the veins and arteries , before their entrance into the stones . . secondly they want the parastates and seminal vessels . . their prostates are of a different shape from those of men . . the tubes are wanting in men ; and the vasa deferentia are of another sort than those in women . . the testicles differ in bigness and shape ; being much less , more moist , and lither in women than in men . . the substance of mens stones consists of seminary vessels ( with some few vasa sanguifera ) interwomen one within another ; but the stones of women consist of membranes , vessels , cups , vesicles , and other bodies . . the clitoris differs very much from the man's yard in length and thickness ; neither is it perforated with any conspicuous hole like the yard . . there is no urethra in the clitoris . . the scrotum differs extreamly from the substance of the womb , as being that which in the womb is thick , compacted and nervous , and in women with child grows to the thickness of two fingers : in the cod the skin is soft , wrinkled , and never increases in thickness . . in brutes , who have a horned womb , it is apparent , that the womb turn'd inside outside , will not form a scrotum , tho' their males have a scrotum like the scrotum of men : in their females nothing like a clitoris or a yard was ever yet discover'd : or if the scrotum should be turn'd to the inner parts , could the yard supply the place of a clitoris , seeing that in a dog , a wolf , a fox , and several other creatures , the yard is inwardly bony . so that if it were true , that the genitals in men differ'd only in situation , the same also would happen in brutes ; which , as is obvious to any man , neither is nor can be . when it is apparent that the secret parts of men and women differ not only in situation , but in substance , bigness , and use. l. as to the latter , whether women may be chang'd into men , experience seems to confirm it as a thing most certain , and the authority of histories : for there are several stories of women chang'd into men. pliny writes , that in the consulship of licinius crassus , and cassius longinus , there was a child born at cassinum of a virgin , which by the command of the southsayers , was carried into a desart island . he also relates what mutianus asserts , that he saw a maid at argos , who after she was married , became so much a man , with beard and all other virile parts , that she afterwards married a wife : and that of the same sort he saw a little boy at smyrna . pliny adds , that he saw in africa , l. cossicius , a citizen of trisidis , now tensert , who being a female , and married , upon the very wedding-day was changed into a male. among our modern authors cardinal volaterran under alexander vi. attests that he saw a virgin , who had a yard that fell down upon her nuptial day . pontanus tells us of a woman of cajeta , a fisherman's wife , that became a man , after she had been fourteen years a woman : and the same thing happen'd to emilia the wife of antony spensa , a citizen of eboli in the kingdom of naples ; ten years after she was married . with several other examples brought , duval , merula , donatus , and others , which seem to confirm the affirmative part . but if we consider the thing more narrowly , it is sufficiently apparent that all historians that wrote those stories , gave too much credit to vulgar report , without inquiring as they ought to have done , into the truth of the matter . li. . we read that it has so fall'n out , that some males , tho' very rarely , have had their yards that have lain latent within the abdomen ; as we our selves have seen the stones lye hid in the groyns more than once ; and hence the midwives and women finding the yard as it were laid up in a cleft , took the infant that was born to be a girl , and took care that it should be baptiz'd as a girl : but afterwards youth and puberty coming on , the latent pintle swelling in the heat of lust , broke loose from its narrow consinement . but such men were not women before , tho' so adjudg'd by ignorant women , and men altogether as idle , till their genitals making way in the heat and fury of libidinous desires , they were thought to be chang'd out of women into men ; and such were all the accidents mention'd in pliny and volaterrane , in which examples there is no more to be observ'd , but that the yard broke forth upon the nuptial day , when loose desires and amorous flames had warm'd and heated all the body . . as we have already observ'd , in some women of full age , the clitoris sometimes grows to the bigness of a man's yard , insomuch that they are able to lye with others of their own sex ; and when that happens , what wonder is it if the ignorant vulgar perswade themselves that such women are changed into men : and such as these seem to be the accidents related by pontanus . . many times it happens , especially among persons of great quality , that the mothers apprehensive of some danger , either from enemies , or loss of inheritance , warily and prudently conceal the male sex , dissemble a boy to be a girl , and to that purpose all the time of their childhood , put the boy into girls apparel : but at length the sons contemning their female habit , have put on man's clothes , which might cause a report among the vulgar , that the girls were chang'd into boys . thus in the time of ferdinand the first king of naples , carola and francisca , the two daughters of lewis guerna , were said to have chang'd sex at fifteen years of age. i should rather have said , had chang'd their apparel : for no question , but to conceal their sex , so long they went in womens apparel , which at fifteen years of age they threw off ; fearing otherwise to be betray'd by their voices , and the budding forth of their beards , whatever fulgosus invents to the contrary . . sometimes it happens that some are born hermaphrodites , and because it is counted an abominable thing to partake of both sexes , their mothers make it their business to hide that defect from their very cradles , and to bring up such children in womens habit ; but then , if at any time appinted their beards begin to grow , they are forc'd to change their habit : and so are said to be chang'd from men to women . . sometimes it happens through an extraordinary change of temper that some women come to have beards and deep voices , which is the reason the common people think 'em to be chang'd out of women into men. thus hippocrates l. . tells us of two women , phaetusa , the wife of pythias , and larissa the wife of gorippus , who by reason of the suppression of their monthly flowers , became deep voiced , and bearded like men. lii . and thus most certain it is , that never any woman chang'd her sex , or can change it ; but that whatever historians have written concerning these metamorphoses , are all idle and ridiculous fables : while they , being over-credulous , were deceiv'd by vulgar report , and not examining the truth , as they ought to have done , contrary to what they intended , obtruded falsities upon their readers . lastly , we shall add this , that if women at any time were ever chang'd into men , without doubt men were sometimes chang'd into women . which nevertheless was never heard of : and the reason is , because the yard being hid up in a chink resembling the female cleft , may swell and break forth in the heat of youth ; and so the person thought to be a woman , becomes chang'd into a man : but being once pendant without , can never be drawn back , to form a woman's privity . chap. xxvii . of the constitution and frame of the female genital parts in women with child . tho' the generative parts of women are so constituted as we have describ'd , yet of necessity there is something more to be added , how they are alter'd in women with child , and to shew the difference between empty women and women with child . i. the womb in empty women is about the bigness of a wallnut , or a good pigeons egg ; of a fleshie , nervous , solid , and somewhat hard substance , the concavity within being very small ; which form and constitution it still retains in the beginning of conception , when first it clasps it self about the seed retain'd . ii. the birth encreasing , this substance becomes more soft and spungy ; and by degrees , as the birth grows bigger , so the substance enlarges it self , and the womb grows thicker . and so the birth and its habitation encreases together to that degree , so that at length about the upper part of the bottom , it comes to be as thick as a man's thumb , or the breadth of two fingers . iii. by that time a woman is half gone , the breasts begin to swell , and the teats being squeez'd , the milk comes forth at first more watery , afterwards thicker . at the same time the place above the paps enlarges circularly , and the teats before contracted grow more loose and tumid ; the lips also of the privity swell out fuller and rounder . iv. the orifice of the womb within is clos'd up , and so continues exactly clos'd all the time the woman goes with child , being damm'd up with a kind of viscous slime ; so that nothing can flow out of the womb , nor any thing be admitted into it : unless by chance , in a very lustful copulation , happening to gape somewhat wider than ordinary , it receives the male seed , which occasions a superfoetation . the same orifice in the first months of child-bearing , is hard , but afterwards hard and pulpous . v. the womb increasing in bigness , the small guts separate themselves to the sides of it : if the birth incline more to the right side , the guts are driven to the left side , and so quite the contrary : and hence it is that women believe they have twins . at the same time the caul is forc'd upward ; concerning which riolanus observes , that if it wrap it self about the stomach , the woman has no appetite to her victuals all the time . vi. the stones , which in empty women are rounder and looser , and rest upon the upper part of the womb , in women with child , by reason of the enlargement of the womb , seem to descend ; and first to rest upon the middlemost , afterwards upon the lowermost sides of the womb . moreover , after the sixth month , they became more contracted , flatter , and somewhat long ; and the spermatic veins are much bigger than the arteries . vii . the neck is drawn upward , longer , but narrower : and two months before the birth , the inner orifice of the womb becomes more loose and tumid , and by degrees dilates it self as the woman grows nearer her time , unfolding it self like a rose ; as if nature were preparing a way for the birth to grow forth ; in which work she is not a little assisted by the weight and strong motion of the strugling infant . in the last month the lips of the privity become more soft and more tumid : and the neck or sheath of the womb , being press'd by the weight of the infant , is so shorten'd , that the mouth of the womb may be easily felt by immission of the finger . in the last two or three weeks before the woman's time , the foresaid orifice of the womb is moisten'd with a certain glutinous and viscous humour , to render it more loose , and apt to gape , and be dilated without violence , and give the freer passage to the infant in going forth . viii . from the stones to the tubes , the bottom of the womb , and neck , the vessels are bigger , and more apparent than usual . for cornelius gemma observes , that vessels of the womb it self are more distended and tumid after many labours . but that seems too hyperbolical which bartholine writes , that the vessels of the womb in time of child-bearing , swell with blood to that degree , especially near the time of delivery , that the emulgents are half as large as the aorta or vena cava . i have seen 'em very large indeed , but never so large . but perhaps he wrote this upon the dissection of some female elephant . and yet regner de graef confirms the same thing : in women with child , says he , i have sometimes seen those vessels dilated to that degree , that i could easily thrust my finger into their hollowness ; which after the evacuation of the secundines , are so contracted again , that in sixteen days space , together with the womb , they recover their wonted proportion ; only that they are more t●…isted and contorted in those that have had many children , by reason of their being extended more in length . ix . the reason why the vasa sanguifera are so much dilated in women with child , is said to be the necessity of a greater quantity of blood , requisite in that place for the nourishment of the infant . but in regard the forcing of the blood through the arteries , is swift enough for the nourishment of all the parts , and that without any extraordinary dilatation of the vessels , and for the same reason sufficient for the nourishment of the birth in the womb ; therefore there seems to be another quite different reason of this dilatation : that is to say , because that through the increasing of the substance of the womb , and the weighty bulk of the growing infant , the veins of the womb being more than usually compress'd , will not permit so free a circulation of the blood as in empty or free women . and seeing that more flows in through the arteries , than can pass through the compress'd veins , and be remitted back time enough to the heart , hence it is that the blood , by reason of its slower circulation , which in the mean time is forc'd through the arteries with an equal chanel , being there detain'd and collected together in greater quantity , more and more distends the sanguiferous vessels , so that toward the time of delivery they are more than usually large . which nevertheless , after delivery , the said compression ceasing , and the circulation becoming free , within a few days are contracted by the fibres themselves , and return to their first condition . in like manner the same thick substance of the womb , no less than the vessels , presently after delivery , and the evacuation of the secundines , begins to fall and dry up , so that in a few days it recovers its pristine solidity and hardness ; and this sometimes in six or seven , sometimes in fourteen , or more days . all which things the accurate inspection of many child-bearing women , and women with child hath taught us . chap. xxviii . of the seed . having examin'd the parts of generation , order requires that we should proceed to the history of the birth contain'd in the womb . which before we begin , we shall premise some things concerning the first foundations and principles of the birth : beginning first with human seed ; and discoursing in the next of the conception , and the forming of the birth . i. the seed is sometimes call'd sperm , sometimes geniture . and tho' aristotle seems to make some distinction between sperm and geniture , as if the one were the seed of those that copulate , the other of those that never engender ; and tho' others take geniture for that seed only which may properly be call ▪ d fruitful ; others for the seed of man and woman mixt together : nevertheless , because the same philosopher confounds these names up and down in other places , as also galen , and many others do , we also intend to make use of these names for one and the same thing . but because in generation there are two seeds that come to be consider'd , of which neither can produce any thing apart ; but which being duly mixt together to perfect generation , i think it will be most beneficial to discourse first of the seed of man , and then of the seed of woman apart , and of what proceeds from the mixture of both . ii. the seed of man therefore is a frothy , white , viscous liquor , impregnated with a germinating or blossoming spirit , made in the stones and other spermatic vessels of arterious blood and animal spirits , for the generation of a like creature . we think that opinion to be rejected as unworthy refutation , maintain'd by aristotle , and asserted by his followers , that the seed is an excrement of the third concoction , when as it is the most noble substance of the whole body , as it were a compendium of the whole man ; or at least such a substance as contai●…s in it self the compendium of all mankind . in what parts it is generated , we have sufficiently explain'd cap. . and cap. . iii. of the matter of which seed , is generated , and the parts out of which that matter proceeds , various are the opinions of philosophers . iv. avicen says , that the seed proceeds from the brain , heart , and liver . some think it falls from the more solid parts into the lesser veins , and from those ascends into the greater , and like a little cloud or settlement , swims upon the rest of the humours , and at length is attracted by the power of the stones . the reasons of which opinions , and their refutations , may be seen in aristotle , fernelius , laurentius , and vallesius . v. many of the ancients likewise have asserted that the seed is made of a certain iuice that falls from the brain and marrow of the back-bone . thus writes hippocrates l. de gen. that the seed is diffus'd out of the brain into the loyns and marrow of the back-bone . thus also writes plato in timaeus , that the seed is a deflux of the marrow of the back-bone ; and al●…maeon , that it is a portion of the brain . vi. the more modern authors , who could find no such large conveyances from the brain and spinal marrow to the stones , rejected the foresaid opinion altogether , and asserted the blood to be generated out of the blood flowing through the spermatical vessels to the stones . which opinion , as most true and indubitable , for many ages has been receiv'd and taught by all the philosophers . vii . but of late glisson , wharton , and charleton , english physicians , have oppos'd this receiv'd opinion , who write that the matter of the seed is a more crude and chylous humour , carried from the mesentery to the brain , and thence to the stones through the nerves , of which they say there are a vast number inserted into the testicles and epididymis : which is contrary however to all experience ; when our own eyes tell us , tha●… only very few , and those very small , and scarce visible , nerves reach to those parts . viii . clement niloe produces another opinion , affirming the seed to be generated out of the lymphatic liquor . but in regard the lympha never flows to the stones out of any other parts , but while the seed is making , is separated out of that seminal matter , and out of the testicles themselves through the lymphatic vessels that take their rise within the testicles , ascends to the abdomen , and so to the vasa sanguifera , it is apparent that the seed is not made out of the lympha ; but that the lympha is only occasion'd by the making of the seed ; as it is also an effect of the making of bilious ferment , cap. , . moreover , if the lympha should be carried to the testicles , as it is not , and in them should be mix'd with the matter that is to be chang'd into seed , then it would not hold proportion with the matter so to be chang'd into seed , but only with the ferment preparing the matter , that it may be conveninently turn'd into seed . so that niloe does not seem to have observ'd the motion of the stones upward , nor to have understood the use of it , cap. . & . ix . hieronymus barbatus of padua , seems not to recede far from this opinion , who lib. de sang. & sero . writes that the seed is not generated out of the seed , but out of the serum . which opinion he endeavours to support with many , but such insipid reasons , as are not worth refutation . but none of these , either modern or ancient opinions , have hit the mark. but he who considers more seriously the prolific liquor , will certainly find , that to the making of the seed there concurs for matter , partly blood , flowing through the spermatic arteries ; partly animal spirits brought through the nerves . x. that the blood constitutes the first mass of the seed , is apparent from the large spermatic arteries carried to the stones , which carry more blood than only serves for the nourishment of the stones . the same is confirm'd by the spermatic veins , carrying back to the vena cava the blood that remains after the nourishment of the stones , and making of the seed . the same is also taught by experience , when upon immoderate copulation , we shall find the blood to be ejected instead of seed , not without some kind of titillation ; as aristotle himself acknowledges , and the observation of several physicians testifies , by reason that the blood flowing in great quantity through the arteries , has not sufficient time to stay in the stones , nor animal spirit pour'd out of the nerves strong and plentiful enough , that the blood could be converted into seed in so short a space . add to this that in the stones themselves , and other spermatic vessels weaken'd by immoderate copulation , and the overmuch dissipation of the spirits , the seminific power becomes debilitated so far , as not to be able so speedily to convert into seed the blood which is brought , being destitute of sufficient spirit from the nerves . which weakness is apparent from hence , that after immoderate copulation the seed first generated is crude and watery . and this experience reason supports , which teaches us that the blood concurs in the seed , as the primary and greatest part of the matter . for that in our bodies all things are enliven'd by the vital spirit flowing from the heart ; and inherent in the arterious blood , and that decaying , nothing can be reviv'd : for that if upon any occasion that blood be stopp'd from flowing into the parts , they presently dye away . hence of necessity that enlivening spirit must be infus'd into the seed , as containing in it self an enlivening power , chiefly requisite in the seed : which spirit , since it cannot be conferr'd without the subject to which it is inherent , that is , arterious blood , hence it follows undoubtedly , that the blood concurs to constitute the matter of the seed . xi . now that the animal spirits , brought by the nerves , and thicken'd in the stones into a thin liquor , and mix'd with the blood , of necessity concurs to the matter of the seed , is apparent from hence , that there is a great correspondence between the brains and the testicles , in regard the brain , the nerves , and all the nervous parts are much weaken'd by immoderate copulation ; and in regard that the waste of much seed , wasts also a great part of the animal spirits , attended by lassitude and a manifest impairing of the strength , together with sadness and dejection of mind ; there is thereby a disturbance in a man's countenance , accompanied with a trembling of the limbs ; all which things declare that the animal spirits are plentifully evacuated with the seed . which seed , if it were only made of the blood , such symptomes would never attend the evacuation of a little seed ; for that a whole pint of blood taken from a man , does not weaken him so much as the loss of an ounce of seed . to this we may add the consideration of the spinal consumption , thus described by hippocrates , lib. . de morb. the spinal consumption , says he , arises from the marrow of the back-bone , and chiefly seizes upon new married and libidinous brides . concerning which , if you ask the patient , he will tell you , that he feels as it were flies and emmets creeping along from the upper parts , as the head , &c. down to the back-bone . and when he goes to stool , or makes water , he voids a great quantity of liquid genital seed ; nor can he generate , tho' he lyes with his wife . he is the laughing-stock of venus , and suffers nocturnal pollutions as well as at other times : but especially when he has travell'd a sleep place , or run hard ; he draws his breath short , he loses his strength , his head akes , and his ears sound . by the description of this disease , it is sufficiently manifest , that there is a certain spirit that flows through the nerves from the brain and back-bone to the composition of the seed . for hence it is that the brain , being weaken'd after immoderate coition , there happens a deflux of spirits not sufficiently concocted , but crude , from the brain to the spinal marrow , whence happens a colliquation , and a flagging and loosness of the nerves . hence nocturnal pollutions in the sleep , the spermatic vessels being weaken'd by immoderate coition , and having lost their retentive faculty : besides that that same crude and unconcocted spirit flowing through the nerves , becomes somewhat salt and acrimonious , and with its acrimony vellicating and tickling the weaken'd genitals , provokes them to an effusion of seed . xii . now this animal spirit diffus'd through the nerves from the brain to the stones , and there thickned into a thin liquor , there in that same contexture of small vessels , of which the substance of the stones consists , is mingled with the spiritous blood , and by slightly fermenting it with its acrimony , and separating the lymphatic iuice , which is to be carried upward through the lymphatic vessels , rising out of the substance of the stones , to the inner parts of the abdomen , by the means of certain small , scarce visible glandules , dispers'd among the small vessels of the testicles , specifically dissolves the saltish particles of it , and separates it from the redundancy of the sulphurous liquor , with which salt particles , and some few sulphury , in its long and winding passage through the small vessels of the stones , by a specific faculty of the stones themselves it is concocted into seed , which flows from the parastates through the vasa deferentia into the seminary vesicles , where it is condens'd into a frothy liquor , and is reserv'd till the time of evacuation . now because this salt liquor has the greatest share in the composition of the seed , and that its fruitfulness and balsamic power chiefly proceeds from thence , the ancients feign'd that venus sprang out of the sea , and gave the appellation of salacity to lust. xiii . now that the salter particles of the blood separated by a certain effervescency , necessarily , and in great quantity concur in the composition of the seed , and far exceed the sulphury particles , various arguments assure us . first , because in fat bodies , where fat and sulphurous humours predominate , there is little seed generated , and hence they have little proclivity to venery . . because in drier bodies , where salt humours predominate , much seed is generated , which make 'em more able for the sports of venus . . because the subacid seed exhales a kind of smell , which must necessarily proceed from a dissolv'd salt. . because the increasing of that in quantity excites an itching titillation , and provoke to lasciviousness . . because the fertility of most things proceeds from salt , either melted or dissolv'd by heat , and thence it is no wonder that the foecundity of human seed chiefly depends upon it . the first is apparent from many experiments . wood-ashes , especially of burnt-oak , strew'd over the fields , renders 'em much more fertile , and that fertility is more lasting than the spreading of cow-dung over the same fields , which only causes a fertility quick and of short d●…rance : because they contain a greater quantity of salt , which being melted by the rain , and attenuated by the heat of the sun , augments that fertility of grass and herbs . grounds dung'd with the dung either of men , or pigeons , or poultry , enfertilize those lands ten times more than either cow ; or horse dung ; because the other contains ten times a greater quantity of balsamic salt. rain-water impregnated with much volatile salt , attenuated by the heat of the sun , and with the watery vapours exhal'd and thickned into clouds , causes the herbs and plants to flourish and grow to a greater perfection , than if water'd with other water . hence aristotle writes in his hist. animal . l. . c. . that reeds which grow in lakes and ditches , never thrive so well as when great store of rain falls . in like manner fish in their ponds thrive much better when it rains . the dew impregnated with a volatile and balsamick salt , produces several sorts of worms and insects upon the trees . in vinegar expos'd to the sun , and long kept , we find many times little worms to breed ; concerning which thing , bartholine gives us a remarkable observation , hist. anat. cent . . hist. . who admires it indeed , but seems not to understand the reason . which is plain , because the whole acidity of the vinegar proceeds from the salt being exactly melted and dissolv'd ; which appears from the spirit of salt , which is most acid , and for that common salt being boyl'd with vinegar , renders it much more acid . now the thinnest particles of this melted salt , attenuated and volatiliz'd by the heat of the sun , agitate the particles of the vinegar with particular motions , and so joyning with some after one , with others after another manner , beget a kind of fertility which breeds worms , enliven'd by the beams of the sun. and thus i think we have sufficiently prov'd that there is a very great balsamic power in salt , and that the foecundity of all things living proceeds from and out of salt. so that it need not seem a wonder , that more salt particles should be requisite to compose the matter of seed than sulphury particles . but i have told you that they are plentifully separated from the blood by a certain way of fermentation , caus'd by the animal spirits flowing to the stones ; which animal spirit consists of salt , sharp particles . xiv . now if the animal spirits flow through the nerves in sufficient quantity , and strong enough , to the stones , and there be concocted into a spiritous liquor , together with the said spiritous salt part of the arterious blood , or be duly prepar'd and chang'd in the long windings and turnings , the seed becomes well concocted , spirituous , and fruitful ; which thickning in the seminary vessels , in copulation is ejected white . but if that spirit flow weak , and in small quantity to the stones , the seed then generated becomes crude , watery , and not so white ▪ the spirits being dissipated , as it happens , through immoderate copulation ; and the spermatic parts become weak , frigid , and moist ; through which ill temper of the parts , the narrow ends of the little nerves that lose themselves in the stones , grow limber , and fall , so that very few animal spirits can penetrate to the stones ; and such as pass through are stifled by the extream coldness and moisture of the stones : and thence it happens that there is no convenient fermentation in the blood flowing through the spermatic arteries , but the greatest part of it is converted into crude , waterish , and sharp juice , which being carried to the seminary vesicles , and there gather'd together , easily burst forth into the urethra , especially in venereal dreams . xv. and for the same reason the viscous seminal matter , that uses to settle in the prostates , is also crude and watery , and by its extraordinary moisture relaxing the pores , toward the urethra in men , toward the uterine vagina in women , flows forth without being felt , and unvoluntarily , which causes the simple gonorrhea . which seminal matter , if it be infected with any impure venereal malignity , and sharp corruption , presently happens a virulent gonorrhea , which is attended many times by corrosion and exulceration . now this efflux of seminal matter , or simple gonorrhea , many times molests the patient for a long time , even whole years together , with little debilitating the strength ; because that spiritous liquor coming from the nerves , is mix'd in a small quantity , with such seed , and very few or no animal spirits waste themselves in its evacuation ; which at other times in libidinous copulation flow to the obscene parts in great quantity , and are dissipated to the great wasting of a mans strength : whereas there is no labour in the spontaneous and unfelt emission of the seed . thus bartholine reports that he saw at padua , a person that had been troubled with this efflux of his seed for above thirty years , without any prejudice to his health ; and another at bergamo infested with the same distemper for ten years , in other respects healthful , but only that he was very much emaciated . xvi . if any person wonder how such a spiritous animal vapour should flow so copiously through such narrow and hardly conspicuous little nerves , let him consider that the arteries also , by that time they come to the stones , are almost invisible , and yet they carry a great deal of blood. moreover , let him know that those copious vapours are not carried thither so copiously , by reason of the extream thinness of the little nerves , only that they descend by degrees to the stones : and hence after a stout copulation , and much emission of seed , there is requisite some space of time before a sufficient recruit can come for the generation of new seed . xvii . but some will say , those little nerves seem only to terminate in the tunicle next wrapt about the stones , which for that reason is endu'd with a quick sense , but never reach to the innermost substance of the stones , which for that reason is insensible , as is apparent from several distempers , which is a sign that those spirits cannot flow to the inner substance . i answer , that as there are no nerves , so neither are any blood-bearing vessels to be seen in the stones of healthy people ; however , it does not follow from thence , that there are no such vessels in those parts , for that they are there , and in whom , and when conspicuous , we have declared cap. . so without doubt there are some slender nerves in those parts , though not to be perceived by reason of their white colour and extream exility . which exility , and the small quanity of spirits that pass through 'em , may be the reason that the inner substance of the stones is so dull of feeling : besides , that the inner substance of the stones is nothing membranous , for there is also an acute sense in membranes ; and because the stones , and other parenchyma's of the bowels have their proper and peculiar substance , consisting of vessels interwoven one among another , the like to which there is not in the whole body , besides which , by reason of its structure and feeling , is of an obtuse sense , as the substance of the heart , lungs , liver , spleen , &c. all which parts , like the stones , have their exact sense of feeling , lying only in the tunicle that enfolds ' em . xviii . but here another difficulty arises , more weighty than the former , that seeing the animal spirits are every way disposed of by the mind , now here , now there , at pleasure , why they are never copiously disposed of to flow into the testicles , and cause 'em to swell , especially upon lustful cogitations ? i answer , those spirits are not unequally disposed of to any parts , but first to those that require some short stretching forth , to the end they may act , or act more vigorously , as the eyes , when any thing is to be view'd with more attention ; the womb , when the birth is to be expell'd ; the genitals in copulation ; then and chiefly then they are disposed of to those parts that serve for voluntary motion , as the muscles . but they flow always equally with a continued course to the parts only sensitive , as also to those parts wherein they contribute any thing to nourishment or fermentation , as being an influx that has nothing common with the will : and that they flow sometimes in less , sometimes in greater quantity to those parts which are sensitive , and so occasion a quicker or a more obtuse sense of feeling , that happens not through the determination of the mind , but by reason of their greater or lesser quantity , or the largeness or narrowness of the passages . and thus the animal spirits flow to the testicles , not by any determined , but meerly by a natural motion . xix . now in the seed thus made of the said matter , two parts are to be considered : some subtil , and very spirituous , which are very few , but very effective : which we now call the germen or blossom : others thicker , frothy and watery , which constitute the chiefest part of the seed , and nourish and involve the spirituous parts . xx. now these spirituous and thicker parts being mix'd and clotted together compose the mass of the seed , containing in themselves a double principle , an efficient and a material . which material is double , the one out of which the first threads of the birth are form'd , which is the most spirituous part , containing the efficient or forming principle ; the other alimentary , being the thicker part of the seed melted and dissolved . xxi . if this efficient principle be not in the seed , as it happens in unfruitful seed , then when nothing can be form'd out of it , it flows away and is corrupted . but if the efficient principle ready to break forth into act , be destitute of the material principle , by which it ought to be fomented and sustain'd : then also nothing comes of it , as when the seed , the second or third day after injection , by reason of some suddain fright , or other accident , flows out of the womb ; and then nothing comes of the blossom . but these two principles being united together , act nothing upon one another but are idle , so long as the material thicker principle be curdled together ; for this detains the spirituous efficient principle , as it were intangl'd and lull'd asleep , and so restrains it , that it cannot put it self forth into action . but when the thicker material principle is dissolv'd and melted in some convenient place by the external proper heat of the womb , then its inbred efficient spirit by degrees gets rid of those fetters , is rous'd up and becomes free , and its power breaks forth into act , and proceeding through the uterine tubes to the ovaries , enfertilizes the eggs which are therein ready prepared and matur'd , and begins to act in them , and in each of them out of it self to delineate and form that which is to be form'd , while the thicker parts of the seed are melted and made fit ; to receive and gently cherish the eggs falling out of the ovaries through the tubes into the womb. for if the eggs should fall into a dry womb , they would produce no more than the seed of a plant cast into dry ground . for as nothing comes of that seed unless sow'd in a ground moisten'd with a tepid humidity , so nothing comes of the egg unless it fall into a womb watered with a convenient lukewarm moisture . xxii . some will say , this cannot be so , for the eggs of fowl do not fall into a moist womb , but into a dry nest , and yet a chicken is hatch'd out of this egg. i answer , that as for birds and other creatures that lay eggs , there is not the same reason for them , neither do they require any such moisture of the womb , or thicker part of the masculine seed , but only the fomentation of warmth . for being to hatch chickens without themselves , provident nature has provided for them , within the shells of the eggs , what was requisite and could not be conferr'd by any thing extrinsic , that is a copious convenient moisture , wherein the spirituous part of the male seed may form out of it self what is to be form'd , and nourish it also with the same , till it comes to the maturity of a chicken . and therefore it is that the eggs of fowl have a yolk , which is deny'd to all the eggs of creatures that bring forth living conceptions . in which sort of creatures it neither is nor could be so . for they being to bring forth large births , there could not be nourishment sufficient contained in little eggs , by which the birth might be augmented and nourished to such a bigness . hence it is of necessity that extensive nourishment must flow into the eggs , and come to the birth ; and first the thicker parts of the male seed already melted , ought gently to receive the new form'd body and nourish it by apposition ; and then other more copious nourishment must be conveighed by the mother to the womb for the nourishment of the large birth . having thus spoken sufficiently in general of the matter of the seed , now let us a little more accurately consider the spirituous part. xxiii . hippocrates discoursing of the spirituous part , writes in several places , that the seed falls from all parts , that is to say , that something is generated in every part , resembling the nature of the part ; which being conveighed from each part to the stones , and mix'd with the thicker matter , together with that same thicker matter composes the seed , containing in it self the ideas of all and every part . xxiv . aristotle ascribes a celestial nature to this spiritual part , like the nature of the stars : for , saith he , there is in the seed of all creatures , that which renders the seed fruitful , and is called heat , and yet no fire , nor any such quality , but a spirit which is contained in the seed and frothy body ; as also nature , that is the soul , which is in that spirit , answerable in proportion to the element of the stars . xxv . now that we may inquire more narrowly into the original and nature of this spirituous part of the seed , we are first to understand , that it is a most subtle body produced by another body , having a fitness by the help of external causes , to produce and form another body , like to that from which it had its own modelling . for when this body has gain'd a proper matter wherein to subsist , it is together with that matter deposited in a convenient place , and freed from all incumbrances . xxvi . that it is a body is apparent , because it is subject to corporeal laws , putrefaction , corruption , and change , &c. and is produc'd by a body , and not from a rational soul ; from which if it were produc'd , it could not be corrupted , for that being incorruptible , must generate something incorruptible like it self . but that it is corrupted is apparent in the emission of fruitful seed , from which no conception happens ; for then nothing is generated out of it , but it perishes , and is corrupted like other corruptible substances . xxvii . that it is produced out of a body is plain from hence , that it is generated and not created : as also that it is produced out of the substance of the seed , dissolv'd by the ambient heat and moisture , loosning the conjoyn'd mass of the mix'd body , and is nothing else but a thin vapour fluid and moveable , volatiliz'd by the heat . for which reason it would easily fly away unless it were detain'd , as being wrapt about by the thicker particles of the seed not so apt for volatility ; and by and by straitly enclosed by the womb and its proper membranes , and in regard of its salt particles , of which for the most part it consists , it were somewhat inclin'd to fixation , and so were hindered and stop'd in its flight . xxviii . that it has an aptitude from the convenient matter of which it self consists , and wherein it inheres , by the help of external causes to produce and form a body like to that from whence it proceeded , experience teaches us . but whence that aptitude proceeds is not altogether so manifest . xxix . that the figures and forms of bodies arise from the various constitution , partly of the forming cause , partly of the matter out of which they are compounded , is a thing confessed among the philosophers . in generation therefore a just and due constitution and disposition of the matter is required , that the formal cause may act upon it , and form and generate something out of it . now the foresaid spirit rooted in the seed , containing in it self the forming form , call'd nature , both has and perfects that requisite disposition of matter ; and that is the first agent or principle of the forming of the birth , and also the first and next matter of the parts to be delineated . for there is a certain efficient spirit infused into all natural seeds , which arising out of the thinnest and most volatile salt and sulphury particles of the seed it self , concocted after a particular manner by the heat , and intermixed with the more fixed particles of the seed ; is the primary cause of formation , and the primary and next matter of the body to be form'd , and actuates the other particles of the seed , and as it were leads the dance of natural motions , which being coagulated , absent , extinct or suffocated , there can be no generation . now if such a spirit be contain'd in all seeds , then certainly in the seed of man. xxx . now a small particle of this spirit contains in it self the ideas of all and singular the parts of the whole body , which parts it is able again to form out of it self , when by the assistance of the uterine heat , being somewhat loosen'd and freed from the thicker mass of the seed , it advances toward the ovaries , and enters the eggs , and in them now carried through the tubes into the womb , it is agitated , mov'd and rouz'd into action . for being agitated , it acts , and acting , it cannot do otherwise , than out of that convenient matter of which it consists it self , and where it is inherent , that is out of it self to form such parts , of which it contains in it self the ideas , and so by degrees renders the rest of the matter of the egg apt and fit , which giving way to the growth of those forms , may be able also to assume their shape . which i shall endeavour to illustrate by a comparison . as coles extinguished , straw , turf , wood , and other materials , do not take fire , nor flame out , unless some subtle matter , having the form of fire , enter 'em , and raise the first idea of fire , which then makes fit the rest of the matter , that it may be able to assume the like form of fire : so there is no creature of the same likeness raised out of the egg , unless it enter some egg , which bears the idea of that same creature , which making of it self the first delineation of that creature , at the same time renders the rest of the matter of that same egg fit , first to increase its delineation , and then assume the form of all its parts . now this is that same idea-bearing spirit ingrafted in the male seed , and separated from its thicker mass by the benefit of the uterine heat , and so infused into the eggs. xxxi . now the seed receives those ideas from all and every singular part ; for as from all bodies infinite subtle beams issue forth , expressing the figure and external colour of all those bodies from whence they flow , so also from every the smallest particles of the body , certain most subtil little bodies issuing from the smallest particles of the body , like most spirituous atoms , are mix'd with the said spirit flowing from them , which then has the same impression of the body from whence it flow'd , and receiv'd the same small forth-flowing body , that lighting upon the proper subject to which it is inherent , it may be effectual out of it self to produce and form a body like to that from which it received the imprinted shapes . for those most subtle bodies flowing either from some body , or some part of a body , cannot but have obtain'd a model or fashioning from it , such as are the shapes of the things within the bodies out of which they flow . and so the seminal spirit obtains some propriety of those particles of the body , out of which it flow'd , and that not only of the figure , but of the whole nature . xxxii . but these proprieties of the singular particles , are not separated in that spirit , but fall and meet together in every particle of it , and then display themselves again in the formation ; in like manner as a thousand beams of visible things meet together in one mirror , and out of them distinguishes the figures and colours of every particular thing . and hence it is that every particle of this spirit has a power to form the whole creature . which efficacy however is more powerful , when many particles are collected together in one bubble . for as a few visible beams flowing from any thing whatever , sufficiently represent the figure and colour of it , and yet that figure and that colour are more apparently , more accurately , and rightly discovered , if many beams concur to depaint and set it forth , as in concave glasses ; so also the particular particles of this spirit have a power to form the whole , yet is the fashioning more perfect , if many particles endu'd with the same power be joyn'd together , and execute their work with united force . now if the particles of this spirit be collected in the bubbles not of one , but of several eggs , thence the generation of several births , for the forming spirit has sufficient power to form the whole in every bubble . which is easily observ'd in birds . for the sperm of a cock , which is injected into the hen but in a very small quantity , but full of spirit , when it lights into the ovary , is dispersed through all those eggs which are already come to maturity ; and is the sole cause of enfertilizing the small particles in each egg , and being agitated by the external heat , and the little quantity of spirit absconded therein , is the efficient cause of the chicken ; and also the matter of the first delineation . xxxiii . now this same spirit flowing from the several particles is mixed with the blood , and is circulated together with it through the whole body , and gives it an aptness to nourish all the parts . for if the blood had not something in it self like to the several parts , it could not nourish all the parts , and add something alike to every individual particle . the particles of this blood which are changed into seed , contain also this same form-bearing spirit within 'em , which is therefore involv'd within the seed made in the stones , and that in a considerable quantity , and composes its more noble and primary efficient part , yet such as cannot subsist nor be preserv'd entire without the thicker material part. xxxiv . here arises a difficult question , how those parts are generated out of the seed , of which parts the parents were destitute long before generation , seeing that no idea , no forming power , or architectonic spirit can flow from them ? i answer , that this is done , because the imagination of the parents supplies that defect , who daily seeing other infants , boys , and grown people , born and well shaped with all their members , firmly imagine with themselves that they shall beget the like . and so no less imprint the ideas of the defective parts in the said spirit , and model both it and the whole seed no otherwise than if the modelling had proceeded from those parts . for how far imagination prevails in this particular , appears in women with child , who by the force of imagination only forming strange ideas , frequently add to the birth not only the strange figures , colours , and spots of the things imagined , but the things themselves according to their whole nature . thus have some infants been born with horns , when the mother has been so frighted by a horned beast , that she conceived such a deep impression of that horn , that has not only disfigured the child with the mold or colour , but with the very substance of the horn growing out . i my self in the year , knew a woman of thirty years of age in gelderland , who kept an ape with a long tail , and took great delight in it . this woman was about a month gon with child , at what time the ape of a suddain leaping upon her shoulders , strook her over the face with his tail : whence the woman conceived such an idea of the ape 's tail , and cherished it so strongly in her imagination , that at length she brought forth a child with a tail at the end of that portion of the back called the coccyx , thinly hair'd and of the same colour with the tail of the ape , which the surgeons having cut off at the request of the parents , the part gangren'd to the loss of the childs life . experience also teaches us , that if a woman with child continually and strongly think of the maim'd part of any man , from which she took a suddain fright , she brings a maim'd infant into the world , tho' both she and her husband had their limbs perfect and quite the contrary : if she continually think of a perfect and sound child , she will bring forth a child perfect in its limbs , tho' perhaps either she or her husband might want a limb. in like manner , a man may more easily imprint into the seminal spirits the ideas of parts defective , than the woman through her imagination can deface , alter , or deprave those parts : and as this is certain of a woman by experience , the same is still more certain of a man. neither is it to be questioned but that if the parents think continually and much upon those defective parts , nor by other imaginations imprint in the seminal spirit the ideas of those defective parts , they shall beget children maim'd in those parts . this is apparent from hence in the first part , that if the parents were born maim'd in any part , when they have not been able afterwards to imagin any ideas of the entireness of that part , as being that which they never knew perfect in themselves , frequently the children are maim'd in that part . but if they were maim'd in any member long after they were born , then easily and strongly imagining the idea of that part of which they knew the soundness and the use before , they may supply that defect in the seed and its spirit . xxxv . but how the said idea's are imprinted in the seed by the imagination of the parent is not so easily explain'd . however thus it seems to happen . the image of the thing often and seriously thought upon , is exactly delineated in the brain ; and that picture and its bringing into shape being imprinted in the animal spirits , and by them communicated also to the arterious blood , together with these , that are to be the matter of the seed , is carried to the stones , and in the making of the seed supplies therein the defect of those ideas , which could not flow from the parts of which the parent was destitute , and so the seed with its enlivening spirit , furnished with all the necessary idea's of the several parts of the whole body , acquires such an aptitude that all the parts may be form'd out of it , even those parts of which the parent is destitute . that this is thus done in the seed , is no such wonder , seeing that after the same manner sometimes the idea's of various things , are imprinted in the birth already form'd through the strong imagination of the mother : because that the idea's of things imagined and exactly depainted in the brain , being imprinted in the animal spirits , by the determination of the spirits made by the mind , or will , together with the arterious blood flow to the womb , of which , and of the birth therein contained the great bellied woman often thinks ; thence they are carried through the umbilical vein to the birth it self , which being very tender , by reason of the extraordinary softness of its body , easily receives the idea strongly imprinted into it by the imagination of the mother , ( as an image seen is imprinted into the soft brain , to be shortly offered again to the memory ) which is very small at the beginning , but increases more and more as the child grows in the womb ; as letters or pictures slightly engraven with a penknife upon the rinds of a cucumber or melon , grow by degrees with the fruit. and thus also the images of visible things , at a great distance are depainted in the tunicle of the eye , by the help of the intermediate air , and sounds are conveighed through the air to places remote . xxxvi . swammerdam proposing this doubt to me in his miracle of nature , how it comes to pass that parents maim'd in some parts , beget whole children , as if he would with one herculean argument dilucidate the whole obscurity , answers , because all the parts are contained in the egg. but if this be the true cause , how comes it , that out of that one egg , containing all the parts , sometimes a child happens to be born maim'd in some parts ; and that sometimes when the parents are sound and perfect in all their limbs ; and such , as before that , have begot , and afterwards also beget entire limb'd children . why should the foundation of an arm , or a legg , or any other part be more wanting , in that egg , than in the eggs of other women , both before and afterwards conveighed to the womb , out of which entire childeren have been conceived ? if these women's eggs contain all the parts of the birth in themselves , why does swammerdam himself say , that levi , long before he was born , lay in the loyns of his parents ? will he have also some eggs to be generated in the loyns of men ? 't is to be fear'd he will shortly bring 'em , as well out of the heads as out of the loyns of men and the stones of women . xxxvii . here another doubt arises ; seeing that those spirituous irradiations equally happen from all parts of the body , in the body of a child , as well as of one grown to maturity : why the office of generation may not equally be perform'd as well by a child as by a person fully grown : when as the forming spirit is equally present in both ? i answer , this falls ou●… for two causes . . because that in a child , that spirit has not yet a subject wherein to inhabit . for the blood being very oylie , is consumed in the growth and nourishment of the body , so that there is no superfluous blood out of which the seed can be duly made . . because that in a child there are wanting those requisite mediums to perfect that work ; for besides the extream oyliness of the matter , and its unaptness , the spermatic vessels are over weak to make seed . in males , the yard is too short , and the passages are too narrow to conveigh the seed out of the stones to the seminary vessels , and thence to the vrethra . in females the vessels are two small and straitened , and the womb too narrow to receive the seed . xxxviii . from what has been said , perhaps some one may raise another question ; seeing that the spirituous ●…dea-bearing irradiations are to be considered only in the seed of a man , how it comes to pass that the birth does not always resemble the male parent in likeness of feature and form , but frequently the mother ? hippocrates of old gave sundry reasons for this , taken from the various quality and quantity of the seed of a man and woman mix'd together : whose opinion many follow , but do not explain it all alike . among whom are capivaccius , and deusingius , whose opinions , because they are grounded upon no solid foundations , we shall omit for brevities sake . my opinion is , that all this whole matter depends upon the imagination of the mother . for a bigg-bellied woman always thinking this or that when she is awake , and converting her thoughts for the most part to the birth contained in the womb , if she be an admirer of herself , and of the outward shape and form of her own body , the child will be like her . but if she be a person that is altogether taken with the shape and features of her husband , and often imprint his image into her imagination , the child will be like the father . but that this resemblance does not proceed from the quality or quantity of the seed of the man and woman , is hence apparent , for that a bigg-bellied woman strongly conceiving in her imagination the external features of any other man , with whom she never had any familiarity , the child shall be like to him : nay , and many times , by beholding monstrous forms and shapes , imprints and stamps 'em many times upon the births . for wonderful is the force of imagination , especially in bigg-bellied women ; of which thomas fienus has written an excellent tractate . thus far concerning the mans seed : now particularly in a few words concerning the seed of women , the use and necessity of it . xxxix . here presently we meet a question , at the very threshold , whether women have seed or no ? aristotle affirms that women have no seed ; but that their flowers supply the place of the seed . for which they who follow this same prince of philosophers , give these reasons . . because there is no way through which the seed can pass from the stones to the womb. . because the womans seed can contribute nothing to generation ; and for that it has been found that women have many times conceived without being sensible of any pleasure in coition ; and therefore without any emission of seed . . because the same accidents do not befall women , at that time that seed is said to be generated in them , as happen to men at that age , that is to say , their voices do not change , their nerves are not stronger , their body is not dry'd , neither are they more perfect in the gifts of the mind , &c. . because by the testimony of harvey , the testicles of women in the act of generation do not swell , nor vary from their wonted constitution either before or after coition : neither is there any sign or mark of their use or necessity either in coition or generation . . because that by reason of the injection of the womans seed into the womb in bigg-bellied women , frequent abortion happens after copulation . for that seed must either be corrupted in the womb , and so bring various mischiefs , and at length death upon the inclosed birth ; or else it must slip out of the womb , and so the orifice of the womb being opened , abortion must follow . and hence they conclude that women have no seed , and so that their stones are only given for ornament , like the paps of men. xl. but this opinion long suspected , at length has been deservedly rejected by most men ; it being sufficiently apparent ▪ that women have seed from hence , that they have stones , spermatic arteries , and veins , and deferent vessels as tubes , and prostates , which parts not being given 'em in vain , no question serve for the generation of seed . moreover in the stones themselves the eggs are conspicuously to be seen , containing a transparent white , well deserving the name of seed , which being matur'd , and bedew'd and impregnated with the male seed , are conveighed through the deferent vessels or tubes ▪ and so carried to the womb . lastly , women in coition emit a certain seminal matter out of the prostates with great pleasure , and after coition suffer the same symptomes as happen to men , sadness , lassitude , conturbation in their countenances , numness , and cessation from desire . thus both the first and second reason of the aristotelians falls to the ground . for that the seed of women included in the eggs , is altogether necessary for generation is apparent from hence , that nothing is begot by the male seed , unless the spirituous part of it , light into the liquor resembling the white of an egg , as into the sole matter proper for its use : and for that women never conceive , that have no eggs in their ovaries , as in elderly women ; or at least none that are impregnated and carried out of their ovaries to the womb : as neither do they conceive who never emit with pleasure any seminal liquor out of their prostates . and therefore there is no credit to be given to those that cry they were ravished by force , and conceived without pleasure . lastly , because that among brutes , bitches , sowes , and other female creatures , being spay'd become barren , as being depriv'd of the organs generating seed-bearing eggs. to which we may add , that the holy scripture makes mention of the seed of the woman , as most necessary to generation . the third reason of the aristotelians is of no value ; for that at the time that seed is generated , their voices do not change , nor their nerves grow stronger , &c. the reason of that is , because the whole temperament of their bodies is much colder and moister than mens ; and therefore the seed included in their eggs , is much more crude and moist than the seed of man , nor does it diffuse such a hot and sharp fermentaceous expiration through the whole body as a mans seed . no less vain is the fourth argument , for that the constitution of the stones was observed by harvey not to vary either before or after copulation , that was so imagin'd by harvey , because that in a beast killed before copulation , he could neither discern nor know what was the difference of the constitution in the copulation itself ; and in another killed after copulation he could not find what was the constitution in the coition . for if perhaps the stones did swell in coition , the swelling of the genital parts most certainly fell through the terror of death , and death ensuing , and so return'd to their former lank constitution ; in like manner as a mans yard tho' stiff with lust , flaggs upon the least fear or apprehension of death . furthermore , neither in coition nor after coition does any manifest difference outwardly appear to the eye , neither in the stones of men or women , only that they are drawn upward in men , yet whether or no there happens any pleasing alteration in the stones of females in the venereal act when the eggs are impregnated with the due of the male seed , this tho' brute animals cannot discover in words , yet their gesticulation sufficiently declares it : and therefore rational women confess it , that they feel an extraordinary pleasure in their wombs , and all the adjacent parts ; among which are the stones , adhering to the sides of the womb. * the fifth argument proves nothing ; for they who at the time of ingravidation from the eggs injected into the womb by coition , are afraid of dammage to the birth and future abortions , they are mistaken in that to think that in the copulations of bigbellied women any seed bearing eggs fall anew into the cavity of the womb , not knowing that those passages , after conception , remain clos'd up till the delivery : as also the vessels appointed for the evacuation of the menstruum's : and that that pleasure , which such women are sensible of in copulation , does not proceed from any egg or seed slipping out of the stones into the womb , but from the viscous seminal matter , which is squeez'd out of the prostates into the uterine uagina . lx. from what has been said it is sufficiently demonstrable , that womens stones were not given 'em only for ornament , according to the aristotelians , which can be none in a part that is always hidden and never conspicuous , but for absolute necessity . xlii . now what that necessity is , let us inquire : and therefore that something may be produced out of plants , there is equally required both a fertility of the earth , and a fecundity of the seed . the fecundity of this seed consists in the spirituous blossom ; the fertility of the earth in a convenient heat and moisture , duly moistened and impregnated with salt and sulphury particles . unless these two concur , nothing can be produced from the seed of a plant. for example , let the best wheat be thrown into a heap of salt , iron , lead , or dry sand , nothing grows from thence , tho' the seed be fruitful in it self , because it does not light into convenient matter , wherein the generative principle may be dissolv'd and set at work . in like manner let the same seed be cast into earth where there is too great a quantity of salt , lime , canker , or any such matter , endu'd with a corroding and sharp quality , then the seed is corrupted and extinguished , together with its generative principle , and produces nothing ; but if it be thrown into a fat earth well dung'd , then the heat assisting the more thin particles of the terrene moisture , enter the small pores of the seed , and are intermix'd with its substance , which thereupon swells , and so the germen , or generative principle is dissolved and falls to work , and whatever is thence form'd is nourished , augmented , and increased by the same moisture , melted and mix'd together with the thicker particles of the seed ▪ being afterwards to receive from the earth more and more solid nourishment when once it has taken root . xliii . and thus it is in the generation of man. the womb is the earth , first receiving the masculine fruitful seed : but unless that land be moistened with a convenient dewie moisture , embrace and dissolve that received masculine seed , and send forth it s more subtle engendring parts through the tubes to the eggs contained in the stones or ovaries , and that the eggs thus impregnated proceed to the womb , that through its cherishing heat the generative principle infused into 'em may fall to work ; i say unless all this be , from the masculine seed alone , tho' never so fruitful , there will be nothing generated : for nothing is generated from the male seed alone , tho' most fruitful in its self . now , that same female albuminous seed of the eggs is like the fat moisture of the earth ; nay it is the very fat prepared moisture it self , which conveniently receiving the spirituous part of the male seed and entering its pores , dissolves it , rowses the generative principle latent therein , and excites it to action . which proceeding into act , presently forms out of its self , in a small compendium , the whole that is to be form'd , that is the first delineations of the whole birth , and nourishes it with that agreeable albuminous moisture upon which it swims first by irroration and apposition , till it be brought to such a solidity , and that the bowels are become so strong , that afterwards they may be able to make and prepare for themselves nourishment carried to the womb and infused through the mouth and navel . xliv . hence it is apparent why copulation does not follow every time that a man lies with an empty woman : because that if a woman , through any distemper of the ovaries , or their bad structure , or by reason of her years , or through any other cause be destitute of eggs , or that the albuminous matter latent in the eggs be badly temper'd , too sharp , too hot , too cold , or endu'd with any bad quality , and so be unfit for the dissolution of the procreative male seed ; then no conception can happen , because the spiritous procreative principle of the male seed , is for the same reasons stifled and corrupted . but this is not the only cause why conception is hinder'd : for it frequently also happens , that the eggs of women are not come to their just maturity , or through some impediment of the passages , the generative principle cannot come to the eggs , nor the eggs to the womb ; or else the male seed being weak of its self , and destitute of a generative principle , or for that its generative principle is corrupted and suffocated in the womb , before it can reach the eggs , by reason of the bad temper of the womb , or else from the vitious humours therein settled ; for which reasons there can be no conception . xlv . however it be , the true , manifest , and necessary use of the male seed appears from what has been already said ; as being that without which there can be no generation of man , no more than generation of plants , without a fruitful moisture of the earth . xlvi . here a material question arises ; if there be such a necessity of the female seed , in respect of the dissolving , cherishing , nourishing matter , whether it have any share in the forming the birth ? hitherto it has been the common opinion , that it has a share as well of the forming cause , as of being the nourishing matter ; and that it is mix'd with the man's seed , and that one mass is made of those two seeds mix'd together , and that out of that mass being fermented in the womb , the spirituous procreative principle is drawn forth , by which , and out of which , the members of the birth are delineated and form'd . which opinion sennertus very speciously both propounds and defends ; and of which ludovicus mercatus is no less a strenuous patron , who thinks with one herculean argument to remove the whole doubt , and to prove the forming power of the female seed . whatever assimilates , ( saith he ) suffering with victory , of necessity acts : but the son is sometimes made like the mother ; therefore the mother acts in the generation of the son. xlvii . but tho' this whole argument should be granted , it does not follow that the womans seed affords any power to the forming of the birth . for there is a great deal of difference between the mother acting , and the seed of the mother acting . for the mother acts upon the man's , and her own seed , while she warms , cherishes , and embraces both in her womb , and so rowses that same procreative principle into action . but this renders it fit for the nutritive matter . but neither she nor her seed contribute any thing to the forming of the parts , but as mediums , by which the latent power in male seed is set at work . but if the womans seed should act in forming and delineating the birth , then it ought to contain in it self an active principle of forming the parts , which might be provoked from power to act out of that alone , by the cherishing of the uterine heat ; but it has not , nor is any such thing drawn forth out of it , as we have prov'd before , and is manifest in wind-eggs . the likeness of the son to the mother proves nothing , in regard the cause of it does not proceed from any act of the seed ; but is imprinted from another cause , for the most part upon the birth it self while it is forming , and oftentimes after it is form'd and furnish'd with all its members , and sometimes some weeks or months after it is form'd : for that innumerable examples of big-belly'd women teach us that the various strong imaginations of the mother , and unusual motions and determinations of the spirits proceeding from thence , do wonderfully change the birth already form'd , and imprint this or that figure upon it like soft wax : while some affrighted by some terrible sight , others looking upon pictures , either with delight or abhorrency , others earnestly longing for cherries , or other fruits , have imprinted strange forms and moles upon the birth , and that not long before delivery ; which active power nevertheless neither proceeds from the seed of the woman , nor can be any way attributed to her , the action being done long after the forming of the birth . xlviii . besides the said argument of mercatus , there are three more ponderous produc'd by other persons : . because a mule is generated between a mare and an ass. . because that between a man and a beast , no man but an irrational creature is generated . . because a white woman many times conceives by an ethiopian , and produces a white infant . which things seem not to be done but by the forming power of the female seed , as it concurs with the forming power of the male seed . xlix . before i dissolve these difficulties , i judge it reasonable to consider , that the male seed does not proceed into act ; neither is there any thing produced out of it like to that from whence it proceeded , unless there be a convenient ferment and nourishment mixed with it ; and if there be any defect or error , or corruption in either , or in both , then either nothing , or something vicious , is produced out of it , which nature perfects however as far as it can . in like manner as we see among plants , that the seed of barly and wheat thrown into barren ground degenerates into darnel , and other unprofitable herbs , having no resemblance to the former , by reason of the defect of convenient ferment and nourishment . l. this being premised , i come to the objections , and answer to the first , that it does not prove that the female seed concurs with the masculine as the efficient cause of formation : but that in the said case the active principle of generation is neither duly produced out of the masculine sex , nor conveniently proceeds into action , by reason of the impediments that occur , because that the seed of the ass is neither in the egg conveniently enough dissolved and provoked into act by the seed of the mare , proportionably to the nature of that creature ; neither is there nourishment sufficiently convenient afforded to it in the first formation . hence the workwoman nature , who never is idle , when she cannot form and perfect an ass , begets a creature next approaching to the nature of the ass , that is to say a mule , which in respect of the asses forming seed is by nature an ass , but in respect of the first nutriment afforded in great quantity by the mare , and participating of the nature of the mare , causes a bulk of body bigger than that of the ass , and in some measure resembling that of the mare . li. to the second i say , that the same defect happens to the seed of the man in the womb and eggs of the female brute , and hence nature instead of a human birth , generates out of it an irrational monster . in like manner as in the eggs and wombs of women themselves , by reason of the same defect of convenient ferment of the womans seed , or some corruption of that or the first nourishment , instead of a man , sometimes out of the fruitful male seed moles are generated , sometimes brute beasts , like frogs , half dogs , dormice , lizzards , and such like monsters , of which there are several examples to be found among writers of physical observations , and among some historians . which monsters however are not generated by the female seed , as containing in it self any forming power , but through the defect of the female seed , which being in a bad condition causes that impediment , by which the forming power of the male seed is so disturbed and obstructed , that it cannot act aright . lii . to the third i say , that a white woman may bring forth a white infant , tho' got with child by a negro . not through any forming power in her seed , but through her strong imagination and fancy of a white child ; and through the same strength of imagination a negro woman may bring forth a white infant . certainly the imagination of women conceiving and with child , works wonders , not only as to the forming of the birth , but also after the formation : and yet nothing of this can be ascrib'd to the actuating power of the womans seed . liii . some there were who thought , that in the mare before mentioned , and in other brute animals , the imagination strongly operates in the forming the birth : which others as strenuously deny ; and because brute animals are void of reason , therefore they will not allow 'em any imagination , but if any thing unusual were begotten in the womb , they think it happened from the forming power of the female seed . liv. to these arguments i answer , that tho' brutes may be said to be void of reason , understanding , and memory , yet they have something proportionable to it , as is manifest from their actions ( the ox knows his owner , and the ass his masters crib : the bee when she brings home her hony , knows her own apartment from a hundred that are like it ; and a dog understands the commands of his master , and does them . ) and that there is something analogous to imagination in beasts conceiving and bigg with young , is apparent from the story of jacob * . and i my self , with several others , saw a remarkable example of this thing . in the year . there came by chance a dromedary to montfort , which the owner carried about to be shown . the creature was very large , round and cleft hoofs , very thick knees , and swell'd to the bigness of a mans head. this dromedary by chance , and out of the way , met a mare which had been covered about two or three days before by a stonehorse ; which took such a fright at the suddain meeting this creature , that presently starting back she threw the country man that rid her ; and when her time was out she foal'd a colt , of which all the right thigh before was like the thigh of a dromedary , with a large round hoof and cleft , which colt afterwards grew to be a strong horse , which we saw afterwards for many years working both in the plough and the cart. certainly no man in his wits will say that this error in shaping proceeded from any efficient forming power in the seed of the mare ; but rather from the strength of imagination . lv. thomas consentinus fancied a quite contrary opinion touching this matter , for he writes , that as well the first matter from whence , as the efficient cause by which the birth is form'd , lies wholly in the female seed : but that the mans seed is neither the matter of the seed to be form'd , neither contains the forming power in it self ; nor contributes any thing to generation , but only a certain insensible substance , which only kneads and moves the matter brought by the woman . with him deusingius agrees lib. de genesi microcosmi , where he most plainly teaches , that the birth is solely form'd out of the female seed , and that it is not only the matter out of which it is delineated , but that there is also in it a vegetable soul that forms the birth . but that it cannot be produc'd into act , but by the assistance of the male seed , as a kind of ferment that dissolves its substance , and so setting the latent soul at liberty , and provoking it to act . but this new opinion is far remote from truth while it attributes to the imperfect seed of women , questioned by some whether it deserve the name of seed , the whole power of forming , and the sole matter for the form. for the seed of a tree , wheat , beans , or pease , which is like the seed of the man , being cast into its womb the earth , does not dissolve the seed or juice of the earth by its assisting heat , and produce its like out of it ; but is dissolved by it , and so the spirituous part of it being set at liberty , and proceeding to action forms out of it self the first lineaments to be form'd , and nourishes and enlarges 'em when they are form'd , with the more thick particles of it self ( which seem to supply the place of the womans seed ) and then with the agreeable and convenient juice of the earth . the thing is apparent in a pea or a bean , which being laid in a warm and moist place , do not themselves ferment the moist air , that any thing should be generated out of it , but are dissolved by the air , and so the spirituous part being set at liberty , and falling to work , in themselves , and out of themselves , form the thing that is to be form'd , and cast forth the first bud. so it is in the male seed both of men and beasts , which being cast into the womb , and entring the eggs with its fructifying part , does not within them produce any aptness in the womans seed to form any thing out of it self , but its generative principle being dissolv'd by the female seed contain'd in the eggs , containing the forming power , is collected in a small bubble , wherein being set at liberty , it forms out of it self what is to be form'd ; and then the womans seed included in the egg , which first supplied the place of fermentaceous juice , presently after serves for the first nourishment of the thing form'd . moreover what deusingius talks of the seed of a cock injected into the ovarie of a hen , that makes nothing against us : for that the smallest quantity of the seed of a cock is sufficient , for the first lineaments of the chicken to be form'd out of it . for if a human birth , at the first laying its foundations does not exceed the bigness of a pismire , how much smaller and less , must the first rudiments of a chicken be , and how small a portion of seed will its first delineation require ? nor is it true what deusingius adds , that the cock at one treading infertilizes the whole ovary , and all the eggs contained in it , nay that the very smallest egg , some scarce so big as a pea , are thereby infertiliz'd , tho' the cock never tread hen more . for the seed of the cock neither enters nor infertilizes other eggs , than those that are come to a just maturity . the rest that are small , and not ripe , are no more impregnated by the seed of the cock than a girl of five or six years can be impregnated by the seed of a man : for those crude and unripe eggs are as yet not fit to admit and receive the seed of the cock , and therefore daily treading is required , to the end that those eggs which every day grow ripe , may be impregnated by the seed of the cock. and hence it is that those hens that are seldom trod , lay many wind eggs that come to nothing . and therefore it is that they who desire many chickens , choose out the eggs of such hens as were most frequently trod by a brisk cock. the same consideration may extend it self to womens eggs , which so long as they are unripe , will not admit the generative principle of the male seed , which is the reason that many young women of cold constitutions , do not conceive in several months after they are married , because their eggs are unripe and unfit to receive the generative part of mans seed , which afterwards they do when they come to full maturity . lvi . swammerdam also seems to ascribe both the matter and the forming spirit to the seed of the woman . fecundation or conception , saith he , is nothing else , but a communication of more perfect motion . so that the egg , which was nourished and laid in the ovary , after conception , the ovary being left , may live and be nourished after a more perfect manner , that it may be thought to look after and maintain it self . and in another place he says , all the parts are in the egg. and assuming to himself the opinion of consentinus and deusingius , he asserts that the seed of man contributes nothing to fecundity , and that neither the matter out of which the first delineation is made , nor that forming spirit is in it . but if he bring not stronger reasons than that of may be thought ; certainly his argument will be too weak to confirm his opinion , or refute mine already proposed concerning the seed of man. and indeed how mistrustful he is of his own opinion , he shews ye in these words of his , fecundation cannot be demonstrated but by reasoning , and very difficultly by experience . lvii . these and the like considerations are the reasons that the aforesaid opinion of the forming power of womans seed has been dislik'd by many famous men , who therefore judged that the womans seed concurr'd in generation as a matter necessary to receive the procreative part of the female seed to cherish and give it liberty , and set it at work ; and to nourish the embryo first delineated , but contributes no matter to the forming of the lineaments , nor can claim any thing of efficient cause in forming the birth . which latter was the opinion of aristotle , stiffly afterwards defended by caesar of cremona , as also by scaliger , in these words . as there can be but one form of one thing , so the principle containing that form can be but one . therefore the seed of man is but one . for being simple and indivisible in its form , it cannot be composed of two , which it would be if it should proceed from the male and the female . subtil . exercit. . several other arguments he adds in the same place , by which he does not only deny all forming power in the female seed , but refuses to acknowledg the seed it self ; nor will he seem to allow it any ministerial function . scaliger's arguments are very weighty ; so that i easily agree with him , that the form and act of formation proceeds only from the seed of the man , and that the womans seed contributes no forming effective cause to the shaping and delineation of the birth . yet i cannot with scaliger wholly renounce the womans seed ; for i have both asserted and prov'd it to be very necessary for generation . and being necessary , yet not having a forming power , it cannot otherwise be necessary but only in respect of that matter , without which the power of the mans seed cannot be waken'd and rowsed into act. now that it is not endu'd with a forming power , appears from hence , that a woman cannot conceive of herself without the help of male copulation . tho' it may be very probable that in her nocturnal pollutions , which happen to women as well as men , besides the seminal matter breaking forth out of the prostates into the vagina , many times the eggs slip out and evacuate through the tubes into the womb. which nevertheless , if the seed included in the eggs contained two principles of generation , active and passive , seeing she has both place , time , and nourishment convenient within her own body , could not choose but conceive of herself . besides , nature has so provided , that there shall be only one agent to produce a natural effect , by the testimony of aristotle ; but if the seed of the woman participated of the formal and efficient cause , then there would be two active principles , the seed of the woman , and the seed of the man , which is repugnant to the order of nature . again , if both sexes contributed an active power , the male would produce either the same with the woman , or another quite contrary : if the same , then one would superabound ; if different , then twins would always be begot , or hermaphrodites , which rarely happens . lastly , our opinion is confirm'd by the natural instinct of mankind ; for the children are not denominated from the mother , but generally from the father , as from him , who being their efficient principle , contributed to their being form'd . lviii . hence it is apparent that the seed of the woman does not contain in it self any forming power in reference to the birth , nor is any efficient cause thereof ; nor as the first matter , contributes to the first matter of the birth that is to be form'd : but that it is only necessary as a matter gently receiving the generative principle of the male seed , dissolving and fomenting it , and setting at liberty the forming spirit inherent in the generative principle ; and disposing it to act , and to form all the first lineaments of the body out of it self , and nourishing the embryo , when reduced into shape . lix . hippocrates does not seem to favour this opinion of ours , who writes thus , lib. . de genitur . in man there is both the male and female seed ; and so likewise it is in woman ; but the male seed is the stronger : and generation must of necessity be accomplish'd by the stronger . in which words hippocrates seems to intimate , that womens seed partakes no less of the efficient cause than the man's . i answer , that in generation , the strength of the seeds consists partly in the efficient cause , partly in the material preparing for formation . and both causes being taken separately , may be called eitheir strong or weak , or to use hippocrates's phrase , either virile or female . when the efficient cause of formation , which is in the male seed , is strong or virile , and the material , cherishing , and nourishing cause , which is the female seed , is likewise strong or virile , then of both together comes a male child . if either cause be weak , yet one stronger than the other , then from the cause that prevails proceeds a boy or a girl . so that it cannot be concluded from the words of hippocrates himself , that he allowed the female seed an efficient power ; but that he has plac'd that same strength of which he speaks , no less in the material preparing cause than in the efficient , and that by strength in the male seed he understood a strong and robust efficient power of forming ; in the womans seed , an excellent temper of preparing and nourishing matter , and an aptitude to set at liberty the efficient principle latent in the virile seed . lx. veslingius fancied quite another opinion of the womans seed ; for he acknowledges therein a double substance ; one corporeal , requisite for the forming of the birth , and another more watery , which loosens the parts of the womb , cherishes and preserves the birth , and which he says , flows continually into the womb after conception . the portion , saith he , of spermatic moisture , which slows from the stones to the bottom of the womb , is of a more noble use after conception . for upon this swims the rude little body of the embryo , at the beginning of its conformation ; and so not only hinders the more intense heat of the womb from making any irregular dissolution of any thing , but gently sustains the birth it self in the strong shogs of the mothers body , and secures the umbilical vessels , at that time as thin as a hair , from danger of a rupture . veslingius has done well to consider two parts in the seed of the woman : but in that he was greatly deceived according to the ancient opinion , that the man and the womans seed were mix'd together in the womb , and so thought the birth to be form'd out of that mixture ; and that he also believed , that the milky juice , which in big-bellied women flows to the womb for the nourishment of the child , to be the more watery part of the womans seed . concerning which juice , see chap. . lxi . at this day , according to the opinion of harvey , many people assert , that the womens seed , after conception , together with the man's seed , flows out again from the womb , as being altogether of no use . yet tho' the vanity of that opinion be apparent from what has been said , we shall examin it however more at large in the next chapter . after this explanation made , both of the man's and womans seed , two things remain to be inquired into in general concerning the seed . first , at what age the seed is generated ; and secondly , why eunuchs and gelt animals become fatter and more languid ? lxii . as to the first , the seed is not generated till the habit of the body becomes dryer and stronger , and when the body is come to its full growth . and hence it is , that because the body attains that strength and firmness between the fourteenth and twentieth year , that then the seed begins to be generated , and acquires every day so much the greater perfection , by how much the body grows stronger , and needs less growth . now the reason why seed is not generated at younger years , and in childhood , is vulgarly imputed to the growth of the body , upon which the superfluous part of the blood , of which the seed is hereafter to be made , is then consumed . but this reason is far fetch'd , and only a sign of the cause why seed is not generated . first therefore we are to enquire , why at younger years the body most increases in bulk , and grows so fast , that by the knowledge of this we may come to know why the seed is not generated at that age. lxiii . the growth of the body proceeds from hence , because all the parts abound with a moist , sulphurous , oily iuice , and for that reason are very flexible and apt to extend ; so that the animal spirits flowing into them , the blood pour'd into the arteries for nourishment sake , do not so sharply ferment , and therefore cannot make a sufficient separation of the salt particles from the sulphury . partly because their force is debilitated by the copious moisture , and oiliness of the sulphury parts . partly because the brain it self , being as yet very much over moist , does not at that time breed such sharp humours , as to make a smart effervescency , which afterwards come to be generated in greater quantity when all the parts come to be drier . for this reason also the spermatic vessels , where the chief strength of semnification lies , are not then so very much dryed , but by reason of the copious more moist and oily particles of the nourishment , continually poured in upon them , they are extended , and grow in length and thickness : and that so much the more swiftly , by how much more moist and oily nourishment feeds them , as it happens in infancy and childhood . but their strength and solidity is then more increased when they become dryer and grow less . i speak of moderate and convenient driness , not of a total consumption of moisture . now the reason why they become more dry is , because the overmuch oily moisture is by degrees consum'd by the increasing heat , and by that means the overmuch moisture and lankness of the spermatic parts is abated , and they become stronger , in regard a greater quantity of the salt particles separated from the blood , is mingled with them , and is more firmly united and assimilated to them . lxiv . the same cause that promotes and cherishes the growth of the body , hinders the generation of seed in children . hence it is that the blood is more moist and oily ; and the animal spirits themselves less sharp , and fewer in quantity , flow to the stones , so that there is only enough for the growth of the parts , but not for the generation of seed . but afterwards , through the increase of heat that oily superfluous substance being somewhat wasted , then the brain being dryer begets sharper animal spirits , which being mix'd with the arterious blood , carried through the nerves to the stones , more easily separate from it the salter particles more fit for the generation of seed , with which being condens'd and mix'd into a thin liquor by the proper quality of the stones proceeding from their peculiar structure and temper , they are concocted into seed , which becomes so much the more perfect , by how much the copious moisture is predominant therein , which in perfect seed ought to be but moderate . lxv . and hence it is also apparent wherefore in old age , very little , or watery , or no seed at all is made in the stones : because that by reason of their abated heat , over much moisture again prevails at that age through the whole body ; tho' not so oily as in childhood , but crude and more watery , whence the brain becomes moister , and begets fewer or less eager spirits , and the blood becomes colder and moister . moreover , the parts themselves concocting the seed , become more languid and over moist , and consequently unapt , as well in respect of the matter , as their own proper debility , to make seed : i except some sort of old men , vigorous in their old age , who at fourscore and fourscore and ten have begot children , as platerus relates concerning his own father . lxvi . as to the latter question , why eunuchs and gelded animals become more languid and less vigorous , the reason is , because that through the cutting out of the stones , there follows an extraordinary change of the whole temper of the body ; in regard that lustful seminal breathing ceases , which is diffus'd over all the parts of the body ( which is apparent from the peculiar smell and rankness of tast in the flesh of beasts ungelt ) and by means of which the blood and other humours are more warmly heated , and the spirits rendered more smart and vigorous . this remarkable alteration of temperament is apparent in eunuchs from hence , that the hair grown before castration never falls off , and the hair not grown before , either upon the lips or other parts , never comes : quite contrary to what befalls those that are not geit . lxvii . the same is manifestly observed in deer who shed their large beams every year , and then new ones come the next year in their places ; but being gelt presently after they have shed their horns , their antlers never grow again , but they become very fat . now this change of temper , caused by the defect of lustful and masculine seminal inward breathings thorough the whole body , tends toward cold , whence it happens that the blood becomes more oily and less fervent , and the animal spirits are generated less sharp and vigorous , and less dispers'd , and that part of the blood , which otherwise ought to be consum'd in seed and seminal spirits , remains solely in the body ; fills the vessels , and more plentifully nourishes every part ; and that plenty and oyliness of the blood moistens and plumps up the body to a more extraordinary corpulency . for the fermenting quality of the animal spirits in such an abounding quantity of sanguineous juice , tho' less fervent , being now more languid and remiss , becomes less able to separate the sulphury and oily particles of the blood from the salt ones , which for that reason remaining mix'd together in greater quantity , and joyn'd together for the nourishment of the parts , moisten them less , and render them fatter , but more languid , and not so strong . for that interposition hinders the more dry and salter particles of the blood from being firmly united to the spermatic vessels . lxviii . to this we may add , that in those that are gelt , by reason of that extraordinary redundancy of oylie blood , the brain it self is overmuch moistened , whence the spirits become less sharp , subtil and vigorous , and consequently less sharp and fit for animal actions . which make eunuchs more dull , less couragious , languid , and effeminate , and slower in all the exercises both of body and mind . lxix . from the same redundancy in the blood of oily particles , dulling the acrimony of the animal spirits , it happens , that they who are naturally fat and gross , generate less seed and slower , are less fit for the sports of venus , and are soon tired . whereas on the other side strong lean people are prone to venery , and hold out longer . because they have more seed , and more quickly replenish'd , besides that their animal spirits are sharper and more copious ; and their fermenting power is not so soon abated by the over much plenty of oily moisture . but some will say , why are not children fat for the same reason ? because the redundant moist and dew-like blood is consum'd in the growth and increase of the body . lxx . from what has been said it appears , wherefore in a plethory the body becomes unwieldy , slothful , and weak , and all the animal actions , both the principal , and others grow drowsy , and the persons themselves are sleepy and heavy headed , &c. because that by reason of the extraordinary redundancy of the oylie particles in the blood , the animal spirits are generated fewer in quantity , less sharp and active . now what that fermenting power of the animal spirits , so often mentioned , is , see l. . c. . chap. xxix . of conception , and the forming of the embryo . i. when the fruitful seed of both sexes is received into a womb well dispos'd , and is detain'd inclos'd therein , it is called conception . ii. this conception is made in the cavity of the womb it self , and not in any pores of the inner membranes ; in regard that no quantity of injected seed can be contain'd in the pores , neither is the prolific principle , being separated from the thicker mass of the seed , included in the pores , but is carried through the tubes to the ovary ; with which the eggs being impregnated , pass the same way to the womb , where they are detain'd and cherished . but as for those , who following harvey , assert that the seed being injected into the womb , soon after flows out again , the prolific principle only remaining within , and tell us that the conception is perfected not in the cavity of the womb , but in the pores of the internal membranes , which regius also affirms : how far they are mistaken shall appear by that which follows . iii. now it is necessary , that the seed being receiv'd and detain'd , that the orifice of the womb should be closed , and so continue ; at least for the first months , to the end that spirit , wherein the fruitfulness of the seed continues , should not be dissipated and lost , before it slide through the tubes to the ovaries ; which would easily happen , were not the orifice well closed ; that the eggs also being impregnated with the said spirit , and so carried from the ovaries to the womb , should not slip forth , nor be corrupted by the entrance of the air. this closure of the womb , as galen affirms , and we have seen , is so strait and exact that it will not admit the top of a probe . iv. now i speak of the seed of both sexes , neither will i be so rash , as with aristotle , or with harvey , to question the womans seed , or to believe that conception cannot be made without it , having prov'd the necessity of it in the former chapter ; for tho' it be not the efficient cause of formation , yet is it such a material cause , as ought necessarily to concur in the eggs with the prolific principle of the male seed to its dissolution , and the expedition of its operation ; and it also constitutes the matter , together with the more watery dissolv'd parts of the masculine seed , by which the most slender , the most tender and smallest threads of the members of the embryo being by this time form'd , may first be cherished , and then receive its nourishment from it , as likewise its growth ; as also for the forming of the membrane it self , the amnion , and the chorion ; in like manner as in a hens egg we see the shell , and the inner thin membrane form'd out of the seed of the hen , before her being trod by the cock ; as is apparent in wind eggs. which shell however , together with the foresaid thin membrane in the eggs of hens and other birds , neither grow nor are enlarged after the eggs are laid , because they have acquired their just capaciousness and magnitude before the eggs were laid ; as being to be hatch'd without the body of the birds , quite otherwise than in other creatures that bring forth live conceptions , in which , as the embryo grows , those membranes must of necessity encrease . and hence because the womans seed alone is not sufficient to supply that daily growth in the womb : first the more watery parts of the male seed residing in the womb , and the blood and other humours conveighed through the vasa sanguifera , joyn themselves to its assistance . v. here we think fit to explode the opinion of those who with aristotle say that the menstruous blood concurs in like manner with the seed to the first forming of the parts . for all the parts are delineated out of the seed alone , and that by and out of the most subtil and most spirituous part of it : neither does the menstruous blood , nor any other blood contribute any thing more than nourishment , which causes the growth of the parts . vi. after conception the orifice of the womb is not only closed , but the whole womb ▪ contracts it self about the seed , to the end it may the better detain and embrace it . thus galen reports that the women have often told him , that after conception they have felt a certain motion in the privities , that did as it were pull and contract them together . vii . the seed being detain'd in the womb , is cherish'd , alter'd , and melted by the dewie heat of the womb ; and so its thicker and more fix'd particles , being dissolv'd by a more firm cleaving and binding together , the more spirituous and active parts which lay imprison'd in those thicker particles being set at liberty , presently pass through the uterine tubes to the ovaries , to the end they may enter the eggs that are come to maturity , and impregnate them , wherein they meet in a small bubble , and like a transparent and crystalline liquor appear in the egg carried to the womb. viii . now in this small bubble only is the forming of the whole embryo perfected . for in that same thin and spirituous part of the seed the architectonic faculty lies , which by the cherishing of the uterine heat , together with its subject in which it is fix'd , that is to say , that same thin and spirituous liquor of the seed , being set at liberty breaks forth into action . for it cannot be free , but it must act : nor can it be set at liberty , unless by an external cause ; that is , by the heat of the womb , the whole mass of the masculine seed being ejected in copulation , be dissolv'd and melted , and by that means the spirituous or prolific part being separated from it , be carried through the tubes to the ovaries , and then shut up in the eggs , return again with them to the womb. for as nothing can produce it self , so neither can any form produce it self out of matter . but breaking forth into act out of its slender inclosure , it begins the delineation of the whole embryo , and in a short time compleats it . for presently the thin particles of the bubble are gently agitated , and mov'd one among another , and coagulated here and there into various forms and shapes , and innumerable passages are hollow'd out through them , and so all the parts of the body are form'd : because that same spirituous matter of the bubble being separated from the thicker mass , contains in it self idea's of all the parts , and hence acquires an aptitude to receive the forms of all the parts , and shape the figures in it self . now because there is but a very small quantity of that spirituous part included in the bubble , and still the least and most subtil part of that is expended upon the delineation of the embryo , therefore the birth at the beginning is scarcely so big as an emmet . ix . hence it is apparent , because the liquor contain'd in that bubble is the most subtil part of the masculine seed , that the first delineaments of all the parts are form'd out of the seed alone , that is , out of the most thin and subtil part of it , and then is afterwards increas'd , and more embody'd , first by the thicker particles both of the man and womans seed melted and diffus'd , and then by the milkie watery iuice flowing through the navel . x. from what has been said , it is manifest how much aristotle swerv'd from the truth , while he affirms that all the parts are form'd , not out of the seed , but out of the blood : nay , while he attributes to the male seed no share , either as to the formation or the matter ; but only affirms that the menstruous blood by motion , generates both form and parts . the seed , says he , is no part of the embryo , as the carpenter contributes nothing to the matter of the wood ; neither is there any part of the carpenters art in what is fram'd , but form and species proceeds from that by motion in the matter . in which error harvey also fell , while he endeavour'd to prove that the blood exists before all the other members ; and hence all the first threads of all the parts are delineated out of the blood ; which he would seem to confirm more strenuously exercit. . it seems a paradox , says he ) that the blood should be made and imbued with vital spirit , before the blood-making or moving organs are in being . thus exercit. . he says , that the blood is first in being , and that pulsation comes afterward . but we answer to harvey , that tho' the little heart , which sanguifies , cannot be well discern'd at first , or clearly be distinguish'd from other parts ; yet of necessity it must be form'd , together with the rest of the parts , before the blood , and being form'd presently beats ; tho' the slender pulse cannot be discerned by us at the beginning . for all the parts delineated out of the pellucid , spirituous , seminal liquor inclos'd in the bubble ; and so by reason of their colour , and their extream smallness are hardly to be distinguish'd by the sight . for otherwise , that there is a heart , and that it exists before the blood , the effect manifestly declares . for seeing there is no blood contained in the bubble before delineation , nor can flow into it from any other part ; therefore that which is observ'd in it at the beginning of the delineation , when any small threads begin to appear , must of necessity be generated within it ; now then if no other part generate blood but the heart , nor any blood can be generated spontaneously , and by it self , of necessity when any signs of blood begin to appear in the liquefaction of the bubble , which are easily visible , because of their ruddy colour , we must of necessity conclude a praeexistency of the efficient cause of blood , which is the heart , tho' it cannot be so easily discern'd or known to be what it is , by reason of its transparency and exility . so likewise if the blood be moved through the vessels , since it cannot be done without pulsation of the heart , most certain it is that the heart beats , tho' the pulsation be not to be discern'd . for the reason why neither the little heart , nor its pulsation , cannot be discern'd , is not because there are no such things , but because they are so extreamly small , as not to be discernable to our eyes . moreover , the thing is manifest in an egg put under a hen ; for the colliquation with the bubble that first appears to the eye , is before the blood : and since it includes in its bubble the forming power that makes the chicken , and for that the blood can never penetrate the inner parts of the egg , it is an argument that the members of the chicken delineated , are delineated out of the bubble of that colliquation , and not out of the blood . and thus a plant is not generated out of the green juice , with which it is afterwards nourish'd , but out of the spirituous prolisic principle latent in the seed . but when the plant is generated , then it goes on with its work in preparing the juice which it makes for its nourishment . to this we may add , that it appears by inspection into a hen egg , that a small leaping print and the blood are seen together . xi . whence it is apparent that there can be no blood , before the organ that makes the blood , that is the heart ; which if the delineaments of the whole body were form'd out of the blood , ought to be form'd with the rest after the blood , which is false , as we find by the testimony of our own eyes , and which the reasons before alledged confirm . and therefore the first threads of the infant are delineated out of the seed alone , and not out of the blood ; neither does the architectonic spirit bring forth into action , out of the blood , but out of the prolific principle , and the sanguific bowel the heart being form'd , presently that begets the blood , and puts it into motion . deusingius discoursing of this matter , thus breaks out ; what captain , ( says he ) or what intelligence directs the blood through the vagous and floating matter of conception ? what assisting intelligence ( when first it is destitute of understanding ) shall design for it the seat for the forming the bowels ? where is the heart to be form'd ? where the reins to be plac'd ? where the brains or the spleen ? lest the brains should choose their seat in the abdomen , and the intestines theirs in the scull ? what cause shall move it to a circulation afterwards , unless it were mov'd by the beating vesicle of the heart ? what providence shall so restrain its wandring at first without any receptacles , and upon the building of the several conduit-pipes , shall direct its course into each of them . xii . now it is not any sort , but a particular and appropriated nourishment that is requisite for the small body of the embryo , already delineated in the bubble , by which , without the visible concoction of the bowels , it may be cherish'd and enlarg'd . now this nourishment could neither be blood nor chylus , as wanting a greater preparation and concoction before they can nourish ; and therefore for that purpose the provident creator has included female seed in the womans egg , like a certain white of a hen egg , as being a most mild humour , most apt for the first cherishing and moistning nourishment of the swimming embryo , nearest approaching to the nature of the tender parts already delineated , nor having need of much concoction , but only a slight preparation , and a gentle colliquation and attenuation , through the mild heat of the womb. thus also galen writes , that the embryo is first nourish'd by the female seed , as being that which is more familiar to its nature than the blood ; since every thing that is nourish'd must be nourish'd by its like . as we find that chickens are first nourish'd in the eggs with the inner white , which is the seed of the birds . but in regard that in the little egg , which in women falls out of the ovarie through the tubes into the womb , there cannot be much female seed contain'd , therefore there is added to it a watery juice , being the remainder of the mans seed already melted and attenuated , after the prolific principle being separated from it , and driven to the ovaries , which the egg falling down into the womb , gentlely receives and embraces , and penetrating the pores of its little stems , and by that means entring the inner parts , and mingling it self with the albumineous female juice , encreases in quantity the colliquation where the embryo swims , and also strongly distends and amplifies the little skins of the egg , that there may be a larger seat for the embryo , and more nourishment , next approaching the nature of its principles . but whether that seminal liquor , which flows from the prostates of women in copulation , be mix'd with the residue of the mans seed in the womb , or presently flow forth after the act , i cannot hitherto certainly find out . besides the prolific principle before inclosed in the egg goes to work much more strongly and vigorously , when the thicker dissolv'd part of the mans seed has entered thorough its tunicles into the inner parts of it ; and by mixture of it self has conveniently dissolv'd the albumineous female seed , to make it more fit to rowle the spirit of the prolific principle into act. the same appears also in plants , in whose seed the prolif●…c principle being included and intangled , never proceeds into act , till they have suck'd in the juice of the earth through their husks and shells , which dissolves the inner substance that resembles the womans seed , and so sets the prolific principle at liberty to fall to work : and so the first cherishing and nourishment of the embryo , is like that substance , out of which it is form'd , or at least form'd out of the like . which is observ'd also by aristotle , who says , the matter is the same that constitutes and enlarges the creature . for whatever is added to the delineated parts while they grow , ought to be like that substance , out of which they were fram'd . in which particular harvey also agrees . xiii . nor let any body wonder , that the remainder of the masculine seed dissolved and attenuated , should penetrate and enter the inner parts of the egg , through the pores of the little skins of the womans egg ( which skins are very tender and porous at first , but composing the chorion and amnion so close and firm , that they will suffer the penetration of no humour . ) for this penetration may as well happen in a womans egg , as in the seeds of plants , that through the p●…res of their hard shells easily imbibe the moisture of the earth , by which the rind is then very much dilated , which causes the seeds to swell , and w●…th that imbib'd moisture of the ●…arth mixed with the thicker dissolv'd particles of the seed , the delineated kernel so soon as shaped is nourished ; which being brought to that bigness as to want more nourishment , that cast forth roots like navils , to draw out of the earth a stronger nourishment through them . and thus it is a in human embryo , and the dissolv'd remainder of the mans seed mix'd therewith . but this nourishment being almost spent , the womb begins to enlarge it self , for the passage , thorough it , of the nourishment to the embryo , as through a root . xiv . this foresaid matter , nourishes the parts two ways . first by a close apposition ; as the tender delineated parts are every way moisten'd and increased by it . secondly , by the assimilation of the aliments concocted in their proper bowels . for that the newly form'd bowels of the embryo , at first cannot undertake concoctions , nor prepare or make nourishment , which is the reason that the thin nourishment is afforded by apposition o●…t of the seminal matter prepared before . but soon after the heart makes blood of the same matter , for the more plentiful intrinsic nourishment of the parts , and then to the nourishment by application , is added another nourishment by reception . both these ways at the beginning harvey acknowledges , exercit. . for , says he , in all nutrition and gro●…ing there is equally necessary a near application of the parts , and concocti●…n and distribution of the apply'd nourishment , neither is the one to be accompted less true nourishment than the other , seeing that it happens by the access . apposition , agglutination , and transmutation of new nourishment . neither are pease or beans said less to be nourished with the humor of the earth , which they suck in through their tunicles , like spu●…ges , then if they should admit the same nourishment thoro●…gh the orifices of little veins , &c. but at length that seminal liquor being spent , and the bowels being by this time well grown and corrob●…rated , and the milkie juice flowing copiously into the amnion , the nourishment by application ceases by degrees , and nourishment by inward reception , that is , by the blood takes place . because that milkie liquor is not so agreeable to the parts of the birth , as the first seminal liquor , and therefore requires a more perfect concoction and alteration into blood before it can nourish . xv. but the blood being bred in the heart , and imparted to the whole body , cleaves to the small threads of the parts , first of the heart , then of the liver , lungs , kidneys , stomach , and muscles , &c. for there are various thicker particles in the blood , thin , salt , sulphury , mix'd , of which some cleave to and are more convenient for these , and are united to them as they are more proper and agreeable to their nature ; according to which variety of nature they undergo several alterations , before they can be assimilated . and the more the blood grows to these delineated threads , so much the more the fleshy masses of the bowels encrease , and the rest of the parts also by degrees , are more and more compleated , and grow stronger and stronger , tho' some later , some sooner , according as nature has use for ' em . xvi . whence it is that the heart manifestly acts , sanguifies , and beats first of all ; because the perfection and action of it , is of all others the first and most chiefly necessary : and still the bra●…n appears like a thicker sort of puddle water , when all the rest of the parts are upon their growth : and tho' afterwards it contribute somewhat beneficial to nourishment , yet in the beginning , when all the slender delineaments , are but just form'd , contain a kind of fermentaceous quality in themselves , and neither require nor can endure a strong fermentation , there is no need of its assistance . beside the brain also many other parts do but very slightly appear , till some time after the first foundations are laid , and some parts not till after the birth of the infant , as the teeth , tho' they were all delineated at the beginning . for as nature , the parts being already delineated , presently acts by their assistance as her ●…eed requires , so does she perfect the organs not by growth , but as the necessity of use requires their perfection . and as we may collect what parts are form'd by their action , tho' they cannot be discern'd by the eye , so we may collect that those parts are of special use which are first finished , among which are the heart . xvii . and thus it is apparent , that the embryo is generated out of the prolific principle contained in the bubble , that it is afterwards nourished , first by the seed of the woman , and the melted remainder of the mans , afterwards with that seminal nourishment and blood , and lastly with blood alone . xviii . this opinion of ours is contrary to theirs , who alledg that man is produc'd and form'd out of the specific principle alone , that is , out of the spirituous and efficacious part of the seed , but that the whole mass of the seed beside , is altogether unprofitable , and therefore flows out again after conception . true it is , that the first lineaments or threads of the whole body are form'd out of the egg alone , infused into the womans egg and collected in the bubble ; but it is as great a mistake , that after the separation of the prolific principle , and the real conception , that the rest of the seed flows out as unprofitable , as being repugnant , . to reason . . to the authorities of the best physicians . . to experience . . reason . because that when the seed is received into the womb , and once conception happens , the orifice of the womb is so exactly closed , that nothing can flow out again . . authorities . for hippocrates expresly declares , that if a woman after copulation does not conceive , the seed of both sexes flows out again : but if she conceive , the seed never fl●…ws out again . for that being once cordially embraced , the womb is closed up , the orifice being contracted by reason of its moisture , and as well the womans as the mans seed are mixed together . so that if a woman has had children , and observes when the seed first began to stay in her body , she shall know the day she conceiv'd . the same hippocrates in his treatise de natura pu●…ri , has these words . if the geniture of both parents stays in the womans womb , then first , because the woman is seldom at rest , it is mingled , condens'd and thickens with heat . the words of galen are , if the seed remains in the matrix , the woman will conceive . and in another place , i have read all the physicians that have writ of this matter , which i find to affirm the same thing , that if a woman will conceive , of necessity the mans seed must remain in her body . in like manner macro●…ius . the seed , says he , that after injection does not come forth again in seven hours , may be pronounc'd to stay in order to conception . which most of the ancients , both greeks , and arabians , in all their writings assert , as having learn'd it from manifold observation . among the moderns , fernelius , ludovicus mercatus , and several others , maintain the same doctrine . . experience . for galen writes that he has often been told by persons experienced in those affairs , that mares , bitches , asses , cows , goats , and sheep , manifestly retain the seed in their wombs ; as also , that he himself has frequently made tryal of it , and always observ'd in all creatures that retain'd their seed after conception , and became impregnated , that the seed was still found in the womb upon dissection . which if galen found to be always true in brute animals , why not in women ? but use confirms the same , for women certainly know themselves to be with child , if they observe their privities to continue dry after copulation , and that none of the seed comes away from them . ask a hundred women one after another , and they will unanimously confess that to be a certain sign of their conceiving , and being with child ; and they should certainly know by that sign when they conceived , but that after copulation in the night they fall asleep ; or after copulation in the day time , taken up with other business , they never take exact notice whether the seed comes from them or no. which not being diligently observed by 'em , they seldom know certainly when they conceiv'd , and begin their reckoning from the time they miss'd their flowers , and so are frequently mistaken in their accompt . xix . but neither the foresaid reason , nor the authorities of the most famous physicians , nor the acknowledgments of the women themselves , could prevail so far , but that harvey will still maintain , that the seed contributes nothing to the growth and forming of the parts , and for that reason asserts , that the seed either does not enter the womb , or being entered , flows out again , without prejudice to conception . into which error he has also drawn regius , and several other philosophers . the reasons that confirm him in his opinion , he takes from ocular testimony , as having dissected several do●…s , hinds , and many other brute creatures , yet never found any seed in their wombs , tho' he believes several of those creatures to have been with young . in bitches , conies , and several other animals , saith he , i have made tryal , that there is nothing to be found in the womb for several days after coition , that i am convinced that the birth does not proceed from the seed , either of male or female injected into the womb in coition , nor from the menstruous blood , as the matter , according to aristotle , neither that there is any conception presently after coition ; and that therefore it cannot be true , that in a prolific coition there is any matter prepared in the womb , which the virtue of the male seed coagulates like rennet , for there is nothing at all to be seen therein for several days . and in another place , exercit. . in the cavity of the womb , saith he , i never , could find any seed of the male , nor any thing else that render'd toward conception : and yet the males every day copulated with the females , and i dissected several of those females , and this i have always found to be true by the experience of many years . now when after frequent tryals , i still met with nothing in the cavity of the womb , i began at first to dou●…t , whether the seed of the man could by any manner of way , either by injection or attraction , enter the place of conception . and at length often repeated inspection confirm'd me in the opinion , that nothing of seed ever reached those places . and from hence at last he concludes that the mans seed neither contain'd in it self the active power of forming , nor was the matter out of which the thing was to be form'd ; nor that it entered the womb , or was therein detain'd : and that he might describe the principle and subject of conception , he flies to quality without matter , to species without subject , and an idle conception of the womb without the brain . for , saith he , because there is nothing sensible to be found in the womb after conception , and yet there is a necessity that there should be something to infertilize , and that cannot be corporeal , it remains that we have recourse to meer conception , and conception of species without matter , that no man may question but that the same thing happens here , which happens in the brain . and a little after , as we from the conception of a form or idea in the brain , produce another like it in our actions . so the idea or species of the parent being in the womb , by the assistance of the forming faculty begets a birth resembling it , while he imprints upon his work a species which he has in himself immortal . and so he concludes that conception is produced in the womb by the receiving of species's without , and that the womb it self , while it stirs up the forming faculty according to that idea conceived in it self , is the principal cause of formation , whereas the whole formation is accomplish'd in the egg , both in and out of the prolifick principle of the seed ; and the womb affords nothing but a convenient place and cherishing receptacle for the seed . xx. now tho' deusingius contradicts harvey , yet he seems to be in a great quandary , and shunning charybdis for fear of falling into scylla , proposes the question quite otherwise than harvey , but confirms his opinion with no more solidity at all . for he writes that the seed of the male , being injected into the privities of the woman , and as it were by infection , changes as well the accidental as substantial temper of the womb and whole body , and confers such a disposition upon the body and the womb , by which it is wrought to the top of maturity , and impregnated , as fruits are ripen'd by the summers heat : so that tho' afterwards the whole mass of the male seed flow forth of the womb after coition , or tho' the spirituous portion also exhale into nothing , yet the spirituous substance of the womans body receives such an impression from the said temper , as the spirituous portion of the man's seed first made by vertue of its own proper nature . in which words the learned man seems to ascribe to the seed of man in conception no other effect , than that it changes the disposition of the woman and her womb , and contributes to it an aptitude to form and find materials , but that the seed of the man after coition comes away again , as altogether useless : as if that change of temper , and preparation to maturity , were to be made in coition , so suddainly , and as it were at a jump , by the only injection of the male seed ; and that the woman , not long before ripe for man of her self , through the increase of her own proper heat , and of blood and spirits , did not become fit for the generation of eggs and conception , and that conception did not in a short time happen after coition , but only upon a great and preceding preparation , and a long alteration of the womans whole body , caus'd by the frequent injection of the man's seed . besides , the comparison is ill , that the seed of the man should mature the woman , as the sun ripens the fruit ; because a woman is not matur'd by the man's seed , but by her own inward heat , and so produces such fruit , that is , her own seed included in the egg , to cherish and ferment the prolific principle separated from the man's seed , and infus'd into the egg , and to set it at liberty ; as also for the generating of the tunicles and membranes that enfold the birth , and for the most proper and convenient nourishment of the new-form'd birth . xxi . so that harvey's inspections into the conceptions of brute animals , not only deluded himself but deusingius , regius , and several other learned men , who suffered themselves to be led astray before they had throughly examin'd the matter . i acknowledge my self to be an admirer of harvey's experiments , and his extraordinary ingenuity and industry in the dissection of beasts , and give him great credit ; and i believe that in most beasts dissected after coition , he found no seed in the womb : now it does not follow from thence , what he would infer , that the seed in coition does not enter the womb , and that it comes away again presently after coition , and yet conception happens , and therefore that the seed is useless in conception . for that those inspections of harvey do not certainly prove that the seed was not detain'd in the womb , when conception was over , or at the time of conceiving : for tho' he never could find any seed in the wombs of those creatures , which he dissected , yet that concludes nothing of certainty , nor proves that those beasts were impregnated , or that there would have been a conception from former coitions , had they been permitted longer life . and certainly there are many arguments that destroy both his reasons and the arguments drawn from his experiments . xxii . . the seed injected might come away again after coition , either of its own accord , as happens in women that do not conceive ; or shogg'd out , and so there might be no conception . for he himself writes , that does and hinds do copulate every day for a whole month together , and therefore they many times copulate in vain : after which vain coition the seed flows again out of the womb : for generally those creatures conceive upon the last copulation , especially those that bring forth but one at a time , because that after conception they admit the male no more . now if harvey in his dissections did not light upon one of those does which had not yet admitted the least conceiving copulation , or at least had not as yet conceiv'd , 't was no wonder he found no seed in their wombs , as being shaken out after coition . thus i remember about ten years ago , in the company of several others , i saw a mare , that as soon as the horse had covered her , cast out the seed again ; but the horse continuing to cover her for three or four days together , at length the last time she retain'd her seed , and would not admit the horse to cover her any more : so that if the mare had been open'd the first or second day , there would have been no seed found in her womb : but if she had been dissected after the last coition , by which she conceiv'd , without doubt there would have been found seed in her womb . and so would harvey have found , had he light upon does that had conceiv'd . for tho' in such a vast herd of deer several perhaps might have conceiv'd , it does not follow that he dissected those that were impregnated ; altho' he might have accidentally fallen upon the one , as well as the other . . while those creatures , after a long chace , are wearied , frightned , and at length kill'd , 't is not to be wonder'd at , that tho' they should have conceiv'd two or three days before , if the seed scarce yet melted should fall out of the womb , the orifice being open'd , in that vast conturbation of spirits , both before and after they are taken . for daily experience tells us , that many women upon terrible frights , have not only cast forth the seed conceived , but even the birth it self already form'd . . if bitches , conies , and other creatures urine and dung while they are killing , for fear of death ; nay , if the fear of punishment only work the same effects upon some , no wonder that the females of those creatures , a few days or hours after coition , should shed their conceiv'd seed out of their wombs , while they are killing , and so that no seed should be found in their wombs . . the seed included in the womb , to the end that something may be produc'd out of it , undergoes a great alteration in the womb ; nor does it altogether retain that form of substance which it had when it was first injected ; and so perhaps harvey did not believe it to be seed , either being already melted , or else imagining it was not there , because so little . xxiii . from what has been said , it appears that harvey's experiments cannot prove those things which he labours to maintain by them . and therefore it is not for any to suffer himself easily to be perswaded , that the seed is of no use in conception , but that it flows out again from the womb , either before or after conception . and therefore i think there is more credit to be given to galen in this particular , who being inform'd , as well by his own , as the experiments of others , found the thing to be otherwise . moreover , i do not believe we ought to deny our credit to rational women themselves , who by speaking satisfie us , that in women that conceive , the seed does not flow forth out of the womb ; of which dumb and irrational creatures are not able to give any account . lastly , i cannot think there is any credit to be given to the speculations taken from the sole inspection into brute beasts , there being little of certainty in 'em , as being explain'd and wrested , rather according to the preconceived opinion of the inspecter , than according to truth . more than all this , harvey himself writes , that about the eighteenth , or at most the twentieth day of november , he has seen , sometimes in the right , and sometimes in the left horn of a does womb , a transparent colliquated matter , and crystalline , contain'd within its own proper tunicle , and in the middle bloody fibres , and a jumping point . which matter , since it was not rain'd down from heaven , i would sain know what else it could be , but the seed of the female inclos'd in the egg , together with the jumping point , and increas'd by the mass of the dissolv'd masculine seed , encompassed with the chorion and amnion ? now that he did not find the same matter in many others , no question the reason was , because he seldom lighted upon those creatures that had conceiv'd . xxiv . and therefore there is no doubt to be made , but that the seed after conception , neither flows again out of the womb , neither is it , according to aristotle , rarified into spirit , and dissipated , or that it vanishes any other way , but that it is detain'd within the womb , and thus with that , together with that other seed contain'd in the womans egg , the birth is first of all both cherish'd and nourish'd . xxv . in the mean time i would not have any man think that i propound things absurd , while i affirm that the birth is delineated and form'd out of the seed , and in the beginning by the same seed is also nourished ; and so one and the same seed serves for two several uses . for in the seed there are two distinct parts ; some spirituous , out of which the birth is delineated and form'd ; others thicker and less spirituous , from whence is taken the next matter requisite for the first nourishment of the form'd parts , their increase and greater perfection ; yet the birth can neither be form'd out of those , nor ●…ish'd by them : for the same thing does not form and nourish , but divers parts of the same thing . the same thing happens in the seed of man , and all creatures producing living conceptions , as in the seed of a plant , wherein theophrastes acknowledges two parts , one spirituous , upon which the prolific or procreating power depends ; the other thicker , that nourishes the spirituous part , by vertue of which the seed of the plant springs forth , and casts out some leaves , tho' not set in the earth , as containing in it self the nourishment first requir'd . but now let us return to the bubble from whence the first nourishment of the embryo led us astray . xxvi . that the first and sole foundation of the birth is wrought in this bubble , out of the crystalline humour contain'd therein , and surrounded with a peculiar invisible pellicle , hippocrates has observ'd , by that time the seed has been six days old : for he writes that he has seen the internal pellicle or little skin , ( that is the bubble ) whose innermost liquor was transparent , out of the middle of which somewhat thin shot it self forth , which he thought to be the navel . xxvii . as to the time of formation , there is some dispute about it among physicians . hippocrates tells us , that the seed being receiv'd into the womb , ought to have some appearances upon the seventh day , and that if the abortion thrown out within that time , be put into water , and diligently view'd , all the first foundations of all the parts may be manifestly discern'd therein . others affirm this formation of the parts not to be accomplish'd so soon as seven days , but after a longer time . strato the peripatetic , and diocles caristius , by the report of macrobius , in his comment upon scipio's dream , asserted that the human figure was form'd within five weeks , or about the thirty fifth day , to the bigness of a bee , yet not so , but that all the members , and all the designed lineaments of the whole body appeared in that epitome . aristotle averrs , that the little body of the birth settles as it were in a little membrane upon the fortieth day ▪ which being broken , the birth it self appears about the bigness of a large emmet , with all the members distinct , and all other things , genitals and all . which opinion of aristotle may be easily reconciled with that of hippocrates : for he computes from the time that the seed was injected into the womb to the whole , and manifest by visible formation of the birth . which time he asserts to be in all forty days . hippocrates begins his computation from the time that the birth begins to be form'd into members ; that is to say , after the seed being first melted in the womb , and the prolific principle being separated from it , and fall'n down to the egg through the tubes , and there collected in the bubble , ( all which is done within the first days , ) at length it begins to be dispers'd for the delineation of the parts . moreover , aristotle describes the perfect and visible ; hippocrates the rude and scarce visible formation of all the parts : these requiring more , the other fewer days . fernelius , agreeing with aristotle , writes that he has seen a perfect birth within the fortieth day ; but does not tell us how big it was . others more modern , say , they have observ'd it as big and as long as the little finger , within that time , toward the end of the third month , about a handful long , and toward the fifth about a foot long ; which however does not seem to be very probable , when i have seen the contrary with my own eyes . but without question those modern authors were deceived i●… this , that they did not understand the exact beginning of the conception , as is apparent from the following histories of abortive births . xxviii . harvey writes , that in a female conception as big as an hen egg , he found the birth as long as a good big bean , with a pretty big head , which the brain out-grew , like a kind of comb ; and that the brain was like curdl'd milk. instead of a scull there was a membrane somewhat resembling leather ; and the face appear'd shap'd like a dogs , without any nose to be seen . xxix . some years since i had an opportunity to see an abortion of a few weeks , upon which i made these observations . the bigness of the abortion , together with the membrane , was about the quantity of an hen-egg . the chorion loose , wrinkled , and somewhat rough and hairy without side , sprinkled with many very small veins , all which met together at the top of it , to which there stuck a small , fleshie , long , shapeless , and bloody mass , from whence the said veins seem'd to derive themselves . furthermore , the same chorion was easily separated from the amnion , and that with a very slight handling , except in that part where the said little piece of flesh stuck . but within the amnion a certain watery dissolution , somewhat viscous , and plentiful enough . in the middle of which there swam a small embryo every way free , and no where sticking to the amnion . the trunk of this body was hardly so big as the half of a small pea slit in two . at the top of which the head was fasten'd to a most slender neck , about as big as a silk thread . the head was very big in comparison of the trunk , equalling the fourth part of the whole trunk ; wherein black eyes were very conspicuous ; the nose did not swell out , but in the place of it there appear'd a certain white line . nothing of the ears was to be seen , as neither the shape nor opening of the mouth , only a small overthwart line offered it self to view in the same place . instead of a scull , a thin membrane gi●…t the brain , which shew'd like the diminutive white of an egg. the trunk did not seem distinguish'd into two bellies , but seem'd to consist all of one belly , and in the inner part of it certain small bowels , covered with a thin transparent small membrane , shew'd themselves , but so confusedly , that they could not be distinguish'd one from the other . a little below the middle of the trunk a slender whitish small branch issued forth , which was the navel , but so short , that the length of it hardly exceeded half the breadth of a slender straw . moreover , there appear'd above , certain obscure delineations of the arms ; below , of the thighs and legs , in which the fingers and toes were only distinguish'd by small little lines . this woman , when she miscarried , thought her self to have been gone seven or eight weeks of her time . xxx . two years after that , another woman miscarried : the abortion was about the bigness of a small hen-egg . without a fleshie particle stuck fast to the membranes ; out of which fleshie particle , the vessels of the chorion deriv'd themselves , as i have observ'd in the preceding abortion . but this was a little bigger , as being about the bigness of half a nutmeg . the chorion being open'd , no liquor flow'd forth ; for there was nothing contain'd between the two membranes , nor could the allantois or urinary tunicle be seen among ' em . nevertheless the chorion did not stick to the amnion , but only was as it were placed upon it , and was easily separated from it , with little handling , unless where the little piece of flesh was joyn'd to it on the outer side , for there the amnion was fasten'd to the chorion . within the amnion the dissolution was found to be moderate as to quantity , in the middle o●… 〈◊〉 i found a small embryo , with a large head in comparison of the whole , because that all the rest of the little body seem'd to be three or four times bigger than the head , which was no bigger than a small pea , and joyn'd with a small neck about the thickness of three silk threads twisted together . in the hinder part of this lay the brain , like a white comb , and the whole head was surrounded with a whole skin , under which was the soft brain stirr'd up like the white of an egg. in the part before little black eyes were apparently conspicuous , but no ears appear'd . a white little line mark'd out the place for the nose and mouth . the rest of the body shew'd it self rudely delineated into a trunk and small arteries ; but was much more soft than in the foregoing abortment , like a thicker sort of slime , that would not endure the least touch without suffering an injury . perchance this extraordinary softness proceeded from some corruption , and because the embryo had been dead for some time ; for the lady had been ill three or four weeks before she miscarried , not knowing she was with child . xxxi . in the year . in december , the same lady again miscarried , after her husband thought she had been six weeks gone . the abortment was about the bigness of a small hen-egg . the fleshie particle outwardly cleaving to the membranes was much bigger than in the foregoing abortments , extending it self half way the chorion . within the membranes there was a sufficient quantity of dissolv'd juice . upon the dissolution swam the slender embryo , about the bigness of a great emet , where the head , manifestly to be distinguish'd , appear'd fasten'd to the small trunk , with two diminutive black little points , designing the place of the eyes : the trunk was somewhat bow'd like the keel of a boat , wherein some bowels seem'd to appear , but so confusedly as not to be distinguish'd : and for arteries , there were none visible . besides this little embryo , a little crystal bubble still swam upon the same dissolv'd juice , ( such as i found in the foregoing abortments together with the embryo , ) about the bigness of a small filbird , of a most transparent colour , wherein i could not perceive any delineations of the embryo : perhaps out of this the female birth might be afterwards delineated ; which they say is later brought to perfection than the male , and so the production of twins might happen . xxxii . now if the embryo in the eighth or ninth week be no bigger than a pea or a tare , and about the fortieth day be no bigger than a large emet , certainly their demonstrations are to be accompted very ridiculous , who shewing some diminutive dry'd abortments to be seen , endeavour'd to perswade their spectators that one is the conception of six or eight days , the other of thirteen days or a fortnight ; when as they are much bigger than those by me seen and describ'd ; and that it is altogether very probable , that scarce any thing of the form'd embryo can be discern'd by the eye before the fortieth day . besides that , it is manifest from the first form'd embryo , that the whole mass of the male and female seed cannot be wasted in forming so small a body , when out of the least drop of it such a small body may be form'd as big as a large emet : therefore the rest of the mass , which flows not out of the womb , nor is wasted in forming the parts , cheris●…es and nourishes those parts soon after , and contributes to their growth . but because that residue of the seed is soon consum'd presently , therefore a plentiful milkie juice supplies its room , which then begins to flow into the amnion , and that plentifully when the umbilical vessels are grown to their due bulk . xxxiii . from what has been said , it is apparently manifest , that the birth is form'd , not of the whole mass of the seed , but only of the most spirituous and thinnest part thereof , collected first like a transparent crystal into a diminutive bubble , as has been already said before . and now what others have observed , and i my self have seen in reference to this bubble , let us now in few words take notice . xxxiv . riolanus animad vers . in laurent . tit . de formato foetu , sets down this observation in reference to the crystalline bubble . lately , says he , there was brought me the production of one month , like a small hens egg , so wrapt about with its membranes ; of which the outermost was , as it were , like small flocks , and very fibrous , the beginning and foundation of the placenta . this membrane being slit , three little baggs were conspicuous within , contiguous one to another like little clusters of grapes . within those vessels was contain'd a transparent water : and in one of the bladders which was the middlemost , was to be seen a little body like an emet , and a fine slender thread produc'd from it . that little body resembled a birth without form , and not to be distinguish'd , as far as could be discern'd by the eye , most nicely beholding that miracle of nature : but the ruddy thread mark'd out the navel . xxxv . this passage does not a little illustrate our understanding of the bubble . but i except against one error therein , arising from a preconceived opinion , that the embryo was forthwith nourish'd by the navel : and i believe that riolanus was very much out as to that same thread , which he alledges to be the navel . for as it is apparent from our second preceding relation , if in that embryo seen by my self , newly broken forth from the bubble , and narrowly inspected by my own eyes , to which i give more credit than to the sayings of others ; and then more perfectly form'd , the navel scarcely swell'd out to the breadth of half a small straw , nor any farther cast forth any thread , how much less could the navel ▪ thread be any farther extended from this same rude , undistinguishable , and scarcely begun birth . furthermore , at the beginning the parts are increas'd swifter or slower , according to the more or less necessity of their use . and in regard that at the beginning there is as yet no necessity of their use , in regard the birth does not as yet want umbilical blood , hence it comes to pass , that at the beginning it is extended to a conspicuous length , but afterwards by degrees grows out of the birth ; as we shall make appear cap. . xxxvi . the same riolanus adds another observation of the same nature , out of carpus's commentaries upon mundinus , wherein carpus observes three little bubbles touching each other . so also platerus , quaest. med. quaest. . writes , that in an abortion about the bigness of a filbird , he found three little bubbles within a thin amnion , and believes them to be the foundations of the three principal parts , the heart , brain , and liver . for my part i never saw so small an abortion , about the bigness of a filbird , nor ever read of any one besides platerus that ever saw such another . besides , the citations lately produced out of hippocrates , aristotle , and riolanus teach us , that the opinion of platerus cannot be true , from whence it is apparent that the birth is wholly delineated , form'd , and to be found in one bubble only : in the other two riolanus found a transparent water ▪ carpus believes that embryo's would have also been found in those bubbles full of transparent water , had they stay'd longer in the womb , but female ones , which are later form'd . which , according to the experiments of hippocrates and aristotle , in some measure seems probable . at least , this is most certain , that in and out of the transparent liquor of one bubble , the birth is delineated and form'd . and therefore i am perswaded that three bubbles , as those learned persons saw 'em , are very rarely to be seen , but that generally there is but one in the conception , unless when a woman conceives twins , or three children at a time ; to which there must be added a fourth bubble in women that conceive more , like the scotch-women , who frequently conceive four at a time . xxxvii . now i am the more confirm'd in this opinion , by an abortion that was brought to me at the same time that i was writing and inquiring into these things , by a noted midwife , in which i found not three , but only one bubble surrounded with a thin cobweb-like membrane . this lay hid between a plentiful seminal colliquation , which was watery , somewhat thick and viscous , wrapt about with two membranes , the chorion and the amnion , and swam at the top of it , free , and no where joyning to the amnion . but to those external membranes , in one very little part , there stuck without side , a certain small , fleshie , soft , formless , and bloody mass , about the bigness of the twelfth part of the abortion , which being somewhat endammaged in the outermost part of it , seem'd to have been torn from the womb. the bubble contained a transparent water , clear as crystal ; wherein i could observe neither any blood , nor any thing else , unless it were some very small little lines , hardly discernable , which were without doubt the outside lineaments of the embryo . the woman that thus miscarried , knew not that she had conceiv'd , but being struck with a suddain and more than ordinary dread , cast that matter out of her womb without any pain , and little straining . xxxviii . about the same time i saw another very young conception upon the miscarriage of a minister's wife , wherein i found in like manner one only bubble very transparent and crystalline , about the bigness of a filbird , wherein there appear'd no little lines , either bloody , white , or of any other colour . to the exteriour membrane of that wrapt about the colliquation , there stuck also very close , as in the former , a little fleshie and bloody particle , endammaged without side , and as it were torn from the womb . from this most tender little mass , i apparently observ'd certain blood-bearing little vessels to derive themselves and to spread themselves very numerously thorough the chorion . but in the inner part of the amnion , besides the seminal watry colliquation , upon which the bubble swam , i could not observe any thing bloody , nor any small vessels in the substance of it . these two membranes were easily to be separated one from the other , neither was there any liquor contained between ' em . xxxix . the magnitude of these two abortions , the foregoing and this , was about the bigness of a hen-egg , and their membranes contained more of the colliquation than half an egg-shell would hold ; which in regard it could not altogether with the bubble proceed from the mans seed , of necessity the womans seed must be mixed with it , tho' the bubble without all question sprang solely out of the mans seed . xl. taught by these two experiments , i am apt to believe , that there is but only one bubble in the conception generally , and seldome any more , unless when more births are to be form'd . but tho' hitherto i never saw any more , yet i am loth to contradict the experience of riolanus , carpus , and platerus , or to doubt of the truth of it : and perhaps it may be my chance to see more at another time . xli . in the formation of the birth , the more curious question yet remains ; which parts of the body are form'd in the first place , which in the second , which in the third , and which in the last place . aristot. l. de invent. writes that the heart of creatures endued with blood is the first generated , which he observ'd in eggs , after the hen had sate three days and as many nights , as he asserts l. . de hist. animal . ent is of aristotle's opinion , believing the heart first to be form'd , and to be the efficient cause of the forming the rest of the parts . the seed , says he , emitted in copulation into the womb by the male , constitutes only the heart in conception ; for no part of the creature consists of seed besides the heart . and in another place , he says , that the heart moves not only after the birth is form'd , but also from the beginning , and is the efficient , not the material cause of the formation . with ent seems regius to agree , l. . philos. natur. others believe the brain , others the liver , others that they are all three form'd together ; and afterwards the guts , the spleen , and lungs . and this is the opinion of galen , l. . de usu partium , which many follow . the humour , says he , that smears the inner surface of the womb , is turn'd into a membrane , wherein the forming spirit being every way enclosed , puts forth its natural motions , procreating three points , answering to the three principal parts , which being swell'd and distended by the violence of the heat , form their bellies , the heart , the breast , the brain , the head , the liver , the abdomen . then the other parts are delineated and form'd together , and then by degrees flows the thin blood to their nourishment . others with bauhinus , believe the umbilical vessels to be first produced , as being chiefly and first of all necessary in respect of nourishment . others affirm the bones to be first form'd , as being the basis and necessary foundation of the whole body . and thus one judges one way , another another way , of a thing so obscure . but who , i would fain know survey'd nature at her work , that he should be able to know all these things so exactly ? if the embryo in forty days be no bigger than an emmet , how small must it be upon the thirtieth day ? within which time nevertheless all the delineations are perfect , tho' not discernable to our eyes . who in that small body shall determine which part is formed first , which in the second , and which in the last place ? these are mysteries which the sublime creator thought fit to conceal from our understanding : so that if we make any farther inquiry into 'em , galen will reprehend us . if thou inqutrest , says he , over nicely how these things are made , thou wilt be convinced that thou understand'st neither thy own weakness , nor the omnipotency of the workmaster . xlii . in the mean time , if it be lawful in a matter so obscure to make any conjectures , i believe that all the solid parts are delineated and form'd together , because they do not mutually depend one upon another , but are all the immediate works of nature . moreover one cannot be , or act without the other : a body cannot be without a more solid foundation , which is afterwards to be bony . the heart cannot act without veins and arteries , nor the brain without nerves , nor the stomach without guts , &c. for there is no reason why one part should be form'd before another . in the foresaid bubble the matter is contain'd which is proper for the generation of all the parts , which wants no farther preparation ; and the architectonic spirit may equally delineate and form at the same time all the parts out of the same matter . and wherefore should it form the heart , as ent would have it , sooner than the other parts ? to prepare matter for the generation of the rest ? that 's done already . certainly it cannot be said that the heart generates and forms other parts , when it only prepares matter for the nourishment and growth of the whole , from which not their generation proceeds , but their greater perfection being generated to perform their several offices . for if the heart at the beginning should generate other parts , why does it not produce new parts after the birth of the infant , when it is stronger , and operates more powerfully ? that it prepares nourishment for all the parts after the child is born , is confessed by all , why should it not do the same at the beginning ? shall it have any other action assigned it at this , than at another time . but you will say the heart is first of all conspicuous , the rest of the bowels and all the other parts appear later , and therefore is first form'd . now who can discern in an embryo , at the beginning , no bigger than an emmet , what parts are already form'd with the beating heart ? which tho' it be the defect of our sight , yet reason sufficiently teaches us , that all the parts are delineated together , since the harmony of all together is so great and so necessary , that they cannot subsist or act one without another . and indeed it seems but probable that the forming spirits contain'd in the bubble , and beginning the formation of all the parts more vigorously perform their work , and more speedily strengthen and perfect all parts already delineated , after they are at more liberty from the thicker colliquation , as being assisted by the heat of the heart , excited and kindled by a particular fermentation : but certain it is , that before that assistance they began the formation of all and singular the parts : of which , tho' such and such first appear , in the forming whereof most spirits were employ'd , and of which there is the greatest necessity for their use , however this does not exclude the delineation of the rest of the parts , which our sight cannot discern . xliii . here if any one will object that perhaps the spermatick parts are delineated together , but that the bloody parts are afterwards of necessity to be produc'd . i answer , that when we speak of the formation of the parts , we speak of the first delineations , or out-lines of all the parts , and all those we say are form'd out of the seed alone ; into which the bloody nutriment is afterwards infused , by which they acquire a greater bulk and bigness . yet in the mean time there is no bloody part in the whole body , which is not intermixed with spermatic threads : and so no part can truly be said to be form'd out of the blood , and to subsist without a spermatic foundation . this was the ancient opinion of hippocrates . all the members , says he , are discerned and augmented together , not one before or after another : only those that are naturally bigger , are seen before the other , tho' they were not form'd before . and in another place , there is not in my opinion , any beginning of the body ; but all the parts seem equally to be both beginning and end together . for the circle being drawn , there is no end to be found . now what parts are first visible , how the order of formation proceeds gradually , as far as the eye can discern , is elegantly described by harvey , tract . de generat . animal . whom the reader may do well to consult , together with antony everard in his lib. de ortu animal . xliv . but now seeing the form'd parts came once to associate to themselves , and assimilate the nourishment brought 'em , and so begin to grow by nutrition ; seeing the heart also begins its natural action of sanguification from its smallest point or beginning : some more curiously inquire ; whether the brain , which is very soft in the embryo , makes animal spirits , and by their assistance performs animal actions . i answer , that as the actions of many parts are idle at first , as of the lungs , eyes , ears , teeth , and stones , &c. of which there is no absolute necessity at the beginning ; so the actions of the brain , liver , and spleen being more necessary , begin at the beginning , but so weakly , by reason of the infirmity of the organs , that they cannot be discern'd . but by degrees the more perfect they grow , the more perceptible they are . and hence it is probable that the brain at the beginning may begin to make animal spirits , but very few and very weak , because there is less need of 'em at the beginning : but the stronger the brain grows , and the more need of spirits there is , the stronger and more vigorous spirits it makes . as is apparent by that time a woman has gone half her time , when the child begins to stir , which motion cannot be perform'd without those more plentiful spirits . and from that time the brain is so corroborated , that at length it begets more plentiful and vigorous spirits fit to perform the chiefest animal actions . which principal actions however are idle in the birth inclosed in the womb , where there is no occasion or necessity of imagination , thought , or memory : but the infant being born ; the brain increasing in strength , begets more vigorous and efficacious spirits . therefore children as they are weaker of body , so are they weaker in their intellectuals : because the faculties of the soul do not well perform their offices till the organs are perfect ; only the feeling and moving faculties begin to act from the time of the childs quickning . for from that time the motion of the infant is peceived by the mother , and the birth sympathizes with the mothers pains . which cardanus proves by pouring cold water upon the belly of the mother , for thereby the infant will beforc'd to move in the womb , and by that means he tries whether women with child are quick or no. xlv . i shall here add one thing more , which is controverted among the philosophers whether the infant wakes and sleeps in the womb ? avicen utterly denies any such thing . however women with child will tell ye , that they manifestly feel the motion of the child when it is awake , and the resting of it when it sleeps . but we are to say that sleep is the rest of the senses for the repairing and renewing the animal spirits wasted by watching , occasioned by the contraction of the pores and passages of the brain . on the contrary that wakefulness is a convenient opening of the pores of the brain , and flowing in of the animal spirits through them into the organs of the senses , sufficient for the performance of their actions . but neither of these can be said to belong to the birth included in the womb . for first ; the spirits are not wasted , but only few , and those weak are made , and therefore the rest , which is in the infant unborn , cannot be call'd sleep , because it proceeds not from the causes of sleep , that is to say , the wast of the spirits , and the contraction of the pores of the brain , nor has it the end of sleep , which is the restoration of decay'd and wasted spirits . secondly , the motion of the infant cannot be said to be waking , because it wants the true causes of waking , which is the opening of the pores of the brain , and an influx of spirits into the organs of sense , sufficient to perform the actions of the senses . the first cannot be , by reason of the extream moisture and softness of the brain : nor the latter , by reason there is not as yet generated a sufficient quantity of spirits . moreover the motion and feeling of the infant does not presuppose a necessity of waking : for that men grown up , and matur'd by age , when fast asleep many times tumble and toss in their sleep , and sometimes walk and talk , and being prick'd feel and contract their injured members , and yet never wake . therefore we must conclude that the infant in the womb cannot be truly said to sleep or wake , but only sometimes to rest and sometimes to be mov'd . xlvi . here perhaps by way of a corollary some one may ask me , what is that same architectonic vertue latent in the prolific seed which performs the formation of the parts ? in the foregoing chapter we have discoursed at large concerning the enlivening spirit implanted in the prolific seed , as it is the subject of the first forming spirit ; but because no spirit of it self and by its own power , seems able to perfect generation , unless it have in its self some effective principle , by virtue whereof it produces that effect ; hence the question arises what that is that affords that active force to the spirit , and power to form a living body , and endues the matter with all manner of perfection , and produces order , figure , growth , number , situation , and those other things which are observed in living bodies ? which is a thing hitherto unknown , and has held the minds of all philosophers in deep suspense . of whom the greatest part have rather chosen tacitly to admire the supream operator and his work , than to unfold him , and so affirm with lactantius , that man contributes nothing to his birth but the matter , which is the seed , but that all the rest is the handy work of god , the conception , the forming of the body , the inspiration of the soul , and the conservation of the parts . in which sense , says harvey , most truly and piously does he believe , who deduces the generations of all things from the same eternal and omnipotent deity ; upon whose pleasure depends the universality of the things themselves . but others , who believe that the bounds of nature are not so slightly to be skipped over , nor think that in the inquiries after the principles of generation , there is such a necessity to have recourse to the first architect and governour of the whole universe , but that the first forming and efficient cause created by god , with the things themselves , and infus'd and planted within 'em , is to be sought out of the things themselves , more arrogantly have presum'd to give us a clearer explication of the matter by philosophical reason , yet differing in their opinions , which are various and manifold . xlvii . for galen calls this architectonic power , sometimes by the name of nature ; sometimes natural heat , sometimes the inbred temperament , sometimes the spirit , which he affirms to be a substance of it self moveable , and always moveable . aristotle distinguishing between the heat or spirit of the seed and nature ; asserts the artichectonic power to be that nature which is in the spirit of the seed ; and therefore distinct from the spirit it self , which is inherent in the spirit as in its subject , and acts upon the spirit as its matter . this nature in the spirit of the seed was also acknowledged by hippocrates ; saying , that it is learned , tho' it has not learnt rightly to act . not that it is rational , but because , as galen explains it , it acts of it self all that is necessary to be acted , without any direction . hence deusingius defines it to be a certain immaterial substance arising out of the matter so determin'd to the matter by the supream god , that it can neither be , nor subsist , nor operate without it . this same architectonic vertue , others , with avicen , call the intelligence ; others , with averrhoes and scotus , a coelestial force , or a divine efficacy . iacob scheggius calls it 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , o●… 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , active or forming reason ; and says that by the word reason , or 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 ; he understands a substantial form , which is not to be apprehended by sense , but by the understanding and reason . and so while he seems to speak something , he says nothing at all . xlviii . the platonics call it a general soul diffus'd through the whole world , which according to the diversity of materials and seeds , produces various generations ; as a plant from the seed of a plant , a man from the seed of a man , a horse from that of a horse , a fish from that of a fish , &c. but plotin , the great platonist , distinguishes this same architectonic vertue from the platonic soul of the world , as produc'd from that by which it is produc'd : and therefore he calls it nature flowing from the soul of the world ; which he says is the essential act of it , and the life depending upon it . themistius says ; that the forming power is the soul inclos'd in the seed , potentially enliven'd . deusingius , in his original of the soul , calls it nature in the seed ; that is , as he explains himself , a soul potentially subsisting in the seed , being in it self the beginning and cause of motion : but in a body already form'd , he calls it the soul actually subsisting . and so without any necessity at all , distinguishes one and the same thing into two , and gives it two distinct names , as it either rests or acts , and according to the diversity of the subject to be form'd , or else already form'd . just as if a man distinguishing between a painter lazily sleeping , or painting awake , should call the one , nature latent in his spirit , as one that could paint if he were awake ; and the other a real painter , as one actually painting : as if the painter that slept were not as much a painter , as he that actually painted . whereas , as it appears by the effects , that which is able to form a body at first out of the seed , and that which actually forms , were not one and the same thing : and so by a certain continuation the form of the thing formed remains . this opinion of his deusingius seems to have drawn from the institutes of the platonists ; who distinguish between the soul , and being a soul , that is , between the substance of the soul , which is said to be in the seed , and the appellation of nature , and the soul which acts at this pr●…sent , and is the form of the form'd body . fernelius calls the plastic power a spirit ; but he does not mean such a common spirit , which the physicians say is rais'd by the preparations of the bowels out of the humours ; but some other spirit of far sublimer excellency : for , says he , this spirit is an ethereal body , the seat and bond of heat and the faculties , and the first instrument of the duty to be perform'd . and lib. . de abdit . c. . he believes it to be something that flows down from heaven : for , says he , the heaven without any seed produces many , both creatures and plants , but the seed generates nothing without the heaven . the seed only prepares aptly and conveniently materials for the begetting of things ; the heaven sends into the matter prepar'd form , and consummate perfection , and raises life in all things . a little after he adds , one form of heaven within its power comprehends all the forms that ever were or can be of all creatures , plants , stones , and metals , and impregnated with those innumerable forms , casts as in a mold , and generates all things out of it self . xlix . others believe the plastic vertue to be a certain power flowing into the seed from the soul of the mother . others call it a vegetative soul ; and make no distinction between this and nature ; but say that fertile seed of necessity must be enlivened . this soul of the seed iulius scaliger and ludovicus mercatus stiffly defend . and sennertus following their footsteps , institut . med. lib. . cap. . has these words : they seem all to me to be in an error , who deny the soul , which is the cause of formation , to be in the seed : for if you grant the forming power to be in the seed , you must allow the soul to be likewise in it . for in regard the powers are not separable from the soul , of which they are the powers , it is impossible that the powers proper to any thing should be in a subject , wherein the form is not from whence the power slows . and since we come to the knowledge of the latent essence by the operations , what 's the reason we do not attribute a soul to the seed , that sufficiently manifests it self therein by its operations . but they are two : the enlivening of the seed and the conception ; and the forming of all the parts that are necessary for the actions of life . for every soul , as is manifest in the seed of plants , is preserv'd while the soul is in it , and remains prolific for some time ; and while it is sound and uncorrupted , in a proper place , and with convenient nourishment , operates as living , and exercises its operations upon the matter at hand ; which is not only to be seen in some creatures by the action it self , but in the regenerating of some parts , especially in plants . for the same operations are observ'd in the seed , and in plants sound in all their parts , which shew the same agent in both . for it is altogether the same operation whereby the soul latent in the seed forms the body of the plant out of the matter attracted , and afterwards every year restores the fallen leaves and gather'd flowers , and thrusts out new branches and new roots ; and therefore it is a sign and argument of the same faculty , and of the same soul. and this not only in plants , but also in the seeds of perfect creatures , must of necessity be allow'd to be done : for as the flesh is not made out of blood , unless the flesh it self enliven'd change the blood into flesh , much less shall a creature be made of seed , if the seed want a soul. and a little after he adds ; for the body of creatures being the most excellent and perfect , it follows that what is not enlivened cannot be the principal cause of the enlivened body , but that the body enlivened is produced by a body enlivened as the principal cause . and certainly these arguments of sennertus are of great weight to prove that there is a vegetative soul in all generated bodies : which is also stiffly maintain'd by deusingius , de gener. foet . in utero , part . . sect . . l. but because a doubt may here arise , from whence the seed has this soul , it will not be amiss to add something for the clearer illustration and confirmation of the said opinion . we must know then that ▪ all and singular the parts of a living animated body , ought to participate of that soul , and to live by it ; and hence that which is separated to the perfection of the seed out of the several parts , ought also to participate of the same soul , which is also to intermix with the mass of the seed . and because out of all and every part , something of most spirituous parts , like atoms , is allow'd to the making and perfection of the seed ; hence it comes to pass , that the epitome of the whole animated body endu'd with the like soul , is contain'd in the seed : and that soul , the seed being deposited in a convenient place , is separated from the thicker parts of the seed , by the heat , with that same matter of the seed wherein it inheres , that is to say , the most spirituous part divided from all and every the other parts , and rows'd into action , and so throughout forms a resemblance to that form which is separated together with that same subtile part of the seed ; unless prevented and hinder'd in its operation , or that it be extinguish'd and suffocated by any defect of the heat or circumfus'd matter . li. but it may be objected , that the forms of animated beings are indivisible , and hence that no parts of the soul can be separated from the single parts , but that those parts meeting together in the seed , constitute the whole and entire soul : to which i answer ; that the forms of animated beings are not of themselves divisible ; however they may be divided according to the division of the matter , so that the matter be such , wherein the soul can commodiously lye hid , and out of which it may be rais'd again to its duty , by the natural heat temper'd to a convenient degree . this is apparent to the eye in a willow , wherein any bough being torn off from the tree , the soul is divided according to the division of the matter , and as it remains in the tree it self , so likewise in the bough ; as appears by its operation . for that bough being planted in a moist ground , the present soul acts in it forthwith , and produces leaves , roots , and boughs , and the mother tree it self shews no less the presence of the soul in it self by the same operations . so likewise in creatures , that same spirituous essence which is separated from all the several living parts to be carried to the seed , participates of the same soul of the parts out of which it is separated , as being able to afford a convenient domicil for the soul , ( seeing that where such a domicil cannot be afforded , the living soul fails ) and so being mix'd with the seed , it causes the seed to be potentially animated , if the substance of the seed be rightly tempered ; which soul , potentially lying hid therein , the seed being deposited in a convenient place , being afterwards freed from the fetters of the thicker substance wherein it is enclos'd , is rais'd into action ; and acting forms out of the subject wherein it inheres , like parts to those out of which the separation was made , as being of the same species with the soul out of which it was separated . lii . and therefore when it is said by aristotle , and other philosophers , that the soul lies hid potentially only in the seed ; this is not to be understood , as if the essence of the soul were not present , but in reference to its being intangled in the other thicker matter of the seed , so that it cannot act till disintangled from it , the seed being deposited in some convenient place , by the heat which dissolves the said matter ; but so separated , it acts forthwith : and out of its spirituous subject separated from the parts of the creature , delineates and forms what is to be form'd , and increases it with the next adjacent nutriment . for the seed being of the number of efficients , and seeing every agent acts , not as it is potentially but actually such , it must not be denied but that the soul is actually in the seed , tho' by reason of the impediments its action does not presently appear . liii . but here it may be question'd , whether that soul which forms the birth be only in the man's seed , or as well in the womans ? i say that it is only in the man's seed : for if part of the soul should proceed from the man , part from the woman , then the soul would prove a compound thing , whereas it is meerly simple . or if it should be deriv'd all from the male , and all from the woman , then there would be two principles of formation , of which one would be superfluous . for there would be no necessity that the acting principle of the male should be joyned with the acting principle of the female ; for that the latter having an acting principle in it self , and a place convenient , as the womb , convenient nourishment , and all other things convenient , would not want any other efficient principle of the male , but might conceive in it self , and form the birth out of its animated seed with the coition of the male. and in creatures that lay eggs , a chicken might be hatch'd out of wind-eggs without the cock's treading . neither of which were ever heard of . liv. aemilius parisanus , tho' he understood not this mystery exactly , yet seems to have observ'd something obscurely , and therefore he constitutes a twofold seed ; he had better have said , twofold parts of the seed : one generated in the genital parts , which he denies to be animated ; the other not generated in the genital parts , but divided from the whole , which he allows to be animated . lv. others , who will not allow in mankind any other soul particularly than the rational , assert that that alone perfects the lineaments of all the parts out of the seminal matter conveniently offer'd , and is the architect of its own habitation ; and stiffly uphold their opinion with several arguments , and so tacitly endeavour to maintain that the rational soul is ex traduce , or by propagation , no otherwise than as the body is propagated . concerning which may be read that most acute tractate of the generation of living creatures , written by sennertus . lvi . but these principles most philosophers , and all divines oppose with great heat , and affirm the rational soul not to be propagated , but to be created and infused . to whose opinion we readily submit ; because the soul is not of that nature that it can produce any thing of it self ; it has nothing to do in the formation of the body , nor with any natural actions , it is not to be divided into parts , nor corruptible as the rest of the body , but immutable , and separable from the body which it inspires . besides that , it is not created like the bodies of creatures , which were commanded to be produced out of earth and water , according to their kind , wherein the vegetative soul of every one is included : but after the whole body of man was form'd alive out of the earth , god is said to have breathed into him the breath of life , and then he became a living creature . whence it is manifestly apparent , that the rational soul of man , inspired by god , was not form'd out of earth , water , or any other corruptible matter , like his corruptible body , which was form'd out of clay , before the breathing of his soul into him : but that it proceeded incorruptible and simple from the immediate operation of god , without any parts , by the separation of which it could be dissolv'd and dye , as the body for the same reason perishes with its vegetable soul ; and subsists of it self when its temporal habitation is fallen . for which reason man is not only said to live naturally , like other creatures , but after the image of god , which sort of living is not ascrib'd to any other creatures . lvii . but these latter , tho' they seem to discourse rightly and truly of the creation and infusion of the rational soul , yet if they do not likewise admit a vegetative soul in man , they are under a gross mistake , nor do they unfold the first efficient principle , concerning the explanation of which the question is here , and not of the original of the rational soul. against those therefore that will not admit a vegetative soul in man , i bring these two powerful arguments . first , seeing that the rational soul is not propagated by generation , but created , of necessity it must be infus'd , and that either into a living or a dead body . not into a dead body , for that soul cannot inhabit a dead body , nor enliven it , for its life is different from the life of the body ; which perishes while the soul departs out of the body , and lives to perpetuity : therefore it is infus'd into a living body : what then rais'd life in the body before the infusion of the rational soul ? it will be said perhaps , that at the same time that the parts are to be delineated , the rational soul is infus'd , and that it is which introduces life ▪ and is life it self . i answer , not when they are to be delineated , but after all the parts are compleatly delineated and form'd , then the rational soul is infus'd , according to the testimony of the scripture it self : where it is said that god first form'd man out of the dust of the earth ; ( observe the word man , therefore a living creature , or a creature endued with a vegetative soul ; ) and then inspired into him the breath of life , and he became a living creature ; as much as to say , that then was inspired into him his perpetual living and immortal soul. therefore ▪ as then , so also afterwards the rational soul does not form and enliven the body , but is infus'd into the body form'd and living : i say living , for that which forms the body , of necessity enlivens it , and lives it self : for such a wonderful structure cannot be form'd by a dead thing ; nor by heat alone , which only serves to attenuate and melt the substance of the seed , and rowse and set at liberty the forming spirit , lying hid and entangled within it , and excite it to action , not able of it self to form the parts of the body , nor to adjust the order and shape of all its parts . and therefore it is not the rational soul , but this same enlivening spirit ( which galen calls nature , we the vegetative soul ) rais'd out of the seed it self wherein it is potentially , is that which out of it self , and the subject wherein it abides , and out of which it proceeded , forms and enlivens the body , and all its agreeing parts ; into which being form'd and living , the rational soul is afterwards infus'd , and united to it , to determine and temper the motions of the corporeal soul , till the body , proving at length unfit to entertain it any longer , it departs out of it ; not being the occasion of death , of it self , but chas'd and expell'd from its habitatation by the death of the body : so no way guilty of the death of the body by its recess , as by its access it contributed nothing to its life . this is apparent from hence , for that the immortal soul cannot give mortal life , of which it is destitute it self , to a body corruptible and separable from it . for whatever gives a living form to a body , that also gives a life and form like to it self , as is apparent in all brutes and plants : therefore if the rational soul were to give a form to the body , it would of necessity give an immortal form like its own , such a one as is not in the body . lviii . moreover , it is hardly to be believ'd , that when the parts came first to be delineated , that the rational soul should be present at that beginning a●… the first agent ; and more improbable to be believed , that when the embryo first delineated is cast out of the womb by ▪ abortion , no bigger than an emmet or a small pea , from a body hardly discernable , a rational soul should be cast forth at the same time , that should be liable to give an account of good and evil actions at the last * day , or else to perish with it . nor is it for us to judge of heavenly matters above the reach of our understandings , especially of the time of the infusion of this rational soul : though they seem to determine something probable concerning it , who judging rightly according to truth , that the rational soul is created by god 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , or immediately , assert with st. austin , that the soul is infus'd by creation , and created by infusion : that is , that it was not first fram'd in heaven to be sent into the form'd body ; but that it is united to the body at the moment of creation , and created at the very moment of infusion . but whether that creation and association happens at the beginning of the forming of the body , or whether in the first , second , third , or fourth month , or in any other month after the birth began to be form'd ; or at what time the body may be fit to receive the soul ; that is not our business so accurately to enquire into ; for that the body must be fit to receive the soul , and that if the body undergo any material change of its temperament and confirmation , presently the soul takes its flight , as galen acknowledges . but our apprehension is not sufficiently perspicacious for us punctually to understand that precise time , which is only known to god the creator of the soul : and therefore says willis , when all things were rightly dispos'd for its reception , it was created immediately of god , and pour'd into the body : and therefore it is only for philosophers to inquire into the original of that same perishing life in the body of man , which is the habitacle of the rational soul in this vale of misery for a time ; which life , upon good grounds , we affirm to be far different from the life of a rational soul , nor can arise from it . the second argument which i produce , is this ; the rational soul is infus'd either into the seed , or into the birth when form'd . the first is not true , for then upon any effusion of fertile seed , not follow'd by conception , a soul would be lost ; and so all divines would commit a heinous sin of public soul-murder , in suffering young lusty men to marry women above fifty , knowing there can be no production from such unequal matches . to which , if it be answer'd , that the seed of the man never proves fertile but when mix'd with the seed of the woman . i answer , that the efficient power is all in the man's seed , and that the womans seed is only material , and the next alimentary principle . if therefore that efficient power first forming the birth , were the rational soul it self , it ought to be solely in the man's seed ; and in that case the divines and law-givers could not exempt themselves from soul-murder ; from which however all men readily excuse 'em , even those that hold the soul to be propagated . if the latter be true , let the opposing party tell us , what was the first moving or efficient cause in the seed , which began to move and enliven the seed before the infusion of the rational soul. of necessity it must be something else besides the rational soul , and therefore the vegetative soul. but philosophers teach us , that in every living compound there can be but one soul , and that in man comprehends the vegetative within it self ; and that the latter is only an accident , and tempering of the substance , that is to say , the innate heat , and such a disposition of the heart , brains , and other bowels , as also of the spirits themselves , as is in a condition to act : and therefore there cannot be two distinct souls in man ; one vegetative , the other rational . but tho' aristotle of old , and many philosophers now teach the same doctrine , it is not to be thence inferr'd that the doctrine is true : they are men , and may err. the foregoing reasons sufficiently demonstrate the thing to be otherwise , and abundantly inform us , that the life of the body would be perpetual , if the rational soul were once to enliven it : for wherefore should it be less able to do it in the end , than at the beginning , when it can suffer no diminution of its faculties ? and if at the beginning it disposes the matter for life , why should it not proceed and do it without end ? moreover , seeing that a vegetative soul is admitted among brutes as the only mistress and enlivener of the organical body , wherefore may not such a soul be admitted in the body of man , which is no less corruptible than the body of the beast ? to this we may add , that the diversity of actions , the necessity of two souls in man , is apparent : for the flesh covets against the spirit , and the spirit against the flesh. and this intestine war every man has experience of in himself : for the corporeal soul abiding in the body , inclines a man to sensual pleasures ; the rational , which is of a higher original , dehorts us to abstain from mischievous lust , and invites us to holiness , and raises our thoughts from things perishable and earthy , to things divine and incorruptible . this civil war medea felt in her self , whence she cried out , — video meliora , proboque , deteriora sequor — the better things i see and do approve ; the worse i follow after , seek , and love . lix . lastly , the corporeal soul , tho' it not only apprehend things in their simple capacity , but laying several things together , makes conclusions after its own manner , as appears from the actions of dogs , apes , elephants , &c. yet are its actions far inferiour to those of the rational soul. for this not only beholds the idea's conceiv'd by the fancy of that corporeal soul , but also judges whether they are true or false , good or ill , disordered , or in order : and often stops the fury of the corporeal soul , unsteadfastly roving through various phantasms , and recalling it from these or those conceptions , directs it to others , and at its own pleasure bounds it within certain limits , lest it should stray from the truth , and by that means governs and moderates its actions . lx. for the better illustration of this mystery , there will some farther light appear in that which follows ; tho' indeed the whole cloud is dissolv'd by the soveraign iudge , which is the holy scripture , which declares that there is a vegetable soul both in men , as well as in beasts . of brutes , it is manifest in these words ; let the earth produce every living creature according to its kind , cattel , and reptiles , and every beast of the field according to its kind . and the same is to be deduc'd from gen. . v. , , , . levit. . c. . and iob . v. . in all which places the scripture speaks of a living soul produced out of the earth or corporeal matter , and joyned to the living body , therefore corruptible , and liable to perish upon the dissolution of the mix'd body . and this fort of soul in men the sacred scripture not only acknowledges , but distinguishes from the immortal rational soul , calling he one simply , a living soul ; the other the spirit given by god. the first is apparent from several texts of scripture ; gen. v. . exod. . v. . levit. . v. . deut. . v. . ●… reg. . v. . where elias desired the death of his soul. and in the gospel of st. iohn c. . v. . the good shepherd lays down his life for his sheep . which certainly cannot be understood of the immortal rational soul , which never dyes ; but of that soul which gives life , as well to brutes as men ; and at the beginning form'd the organic body , and being it self corporeal , is produced out of corporeal matter , and perishes again together with the body which it form'd ; and upon the perishing of which , the rational soul infus'd from above , immediately takes its flight , as not having any habitation in the body of man longer than life endures . this immortal rational soul , the holy text , to distinguish it from the vegetative soul , which is corruptible like the matter from whence it proceeds , calls for the most part a spirit , and sometimes only the soul. thus david , psalm . v. . thou wilt not leave my soul in the grave . and psalm . v. . into thy hands i commend my spirit . thus eccles. . v. . the spirit returns to god that gave it . thus stephen , acts . v. . lord iesus receive my spirit . and matth. . v. . and when he had cried with a loud voice he yielded up the ghost ; repeated by st. iohn , c. . v. . all which latter texts cannot be understood but only of the immortal soul. lxi . but because it is apparent from what has been said , that there are two souls in man ; what shall we answer to those that object , and say , there cannot be two souls in man , because several forms cannot actuate the same matter ? we say that there is but one soul that immediately actuates the same matter , and gives form to the species , that is the vegetative soul ; but that the rational soul , which is of a sublimer original , only dwells in the body , but never form'd it at the beginning . so that there are not two , but only one form that actuates the matter . which is manifest from hence ; for that when the body form'd perishes , the forming form perishes likewise with it ; but the rational soul neither perishes , nor is corrupted with it . therefore this neither is , nor was the forming form , but something else infus'd into the body already form'd , and subsisting of it self , which by vertue of the forming form abides in the body ; and when that fails , presently forsakes the body , and subsists entirely of it self , without being united to it . lxii . but here another question arises ; whether , if a vegetative soul be to be allow'd , which indifferently enlivens plants and animals , there be not also a third peculiar sensitive soul to be allow'd , that feels as well in man as in beasts , and performs operations different from those of the vegetative soul ? to which i answer ; that the vegetative soul is the same that feels in those creatures , which have those mediums and apt organs necessarily requir'd for feeling ; as brains , eyes , ears , &c. but where those organs are wanting , as in plants , they are not said to be sensible , but only to live as vegetables . we must therefore yield , according to sacred scripture , and for the reasons already alledged , that there is in man a vital , vegetable mortal soul , distinct from the rational immortal soul ; and that that is the soul which is the chief actress in the formation of the birth , the same also which many call the architectonic power , or the plastic efficacy . lxiii . and thus i think i have sufficiently demonstrated that the architectonic power is the vegetative soul it self , and that it may subsist in a living man conveniently , together with the rational soul. and now one would think there were no more to be said as to this particular ; but because we have already made an excursion somewhat too far beyond the limits of our port , before we return back , let us spread our sails , and steer a little farther into the ocean , that we may shew a safer course to others that sail in this turbulent sea , and are in continual danger of shipwrack among the shelves and rocks of error and mistake . the first doubt that occurs in the history of the vegetative soul , is , where to assign it a seat in the body of man , and other perfect creatures ; which has occasioned great disputes among philosophers . lxiv . that it abides in all parts of the living body , scarce any one will deny , as being apparent from its actions in all parts of the body . so that the peripatetics asserting it to be equally diffus'd into all parts alike , say that it is in all , and all in every part. that is to say , that one and the same numerical vegetable soul extended through the whole body enlivens the whole . but because it is divisible with the matter wherein it abides ; therefore that which abides in the parts that are torn from the whole , not only constitutes a part of the soul which enlivens the whole , but constitutes the whole soul in that part so torn off ; which either dyes with the part torn off , for want of nourishment , as when any animal part is cut off , for then all that whole soul which enliven'd that part fails and fades away for want of nourishment : or else , having convenient nourishment operates in the dismembred part , and performs the act of enlivening . which is apparent in many plants ; as for example , of a willow bough , which being torn from the tree , and again planted in the earth , will grow as well as the tree from which it was pull'd ; and therefore every bough enjoys the whole soul , as the mother-tree retains the whole soul , and so both the one and other grow and increase alike , not by vertue of any part of the soul , but of the whole soul , as is apparent by the action : for that vivification and nutrition is perform'd in all the boughs , which cannot be perform'd by a part of the soul , but by all the soul. and so the foresaid maxim of the peripatetics may be rightly expounded , which nevertheless has hitherto , by many philosophers , been too hastily rejected as false and impossible . lxv . among those that have not rightly apprehended , the learned willis , seems to have been one , who in his . chap. de anim . brutor . thus writes . the corporeal soul , says he , in more perfect brutes , and common to man , is extended to the whole organical body , and vivifies , actuates , and irradiates both its several parts and humours , so that it seems to subsist in both of them actually , and to have as it were its imperial seats . but the immediate subjects of the soul are the vital liquor or the blood , circulated by a perpetual circulation of the heart , arteries , and veins , and the animal liquor or nervous iuice flowing gently within the brain and its appendixes . the soul inhabits and graces with its presence both these provinces ; but as it cannot be wholly together in both at once , it actuates them both as it were divided and by its parts . for as one part living within its blood , is of a certain fiery nature , being enkindled like a flame . so the other being diffused through the animal liquor , seems as it were light , or the rayes of light slowing from that flame . and a little after , there are therefore corporeal souls according to its two chief functions in the organical body ; viz. the vital and the animal ; two distinct parts , that is to say , the flamy and the lucid. lxvi . from this text of willis it appears , that the most famous person conceived a new opinion of the soul , but less congruous to reason . for first , he alledges that the soul , besides the parts of the body enlivens likewise the humours and spirits , wherein he very much deviates from the truth . for that the humours and spirits do not live , but they would live were they enliven'd by a soul. secondly , seeing that life cannot be ascribed to the fluid nourishments continually passing away , nor joyn'd to the whole in continuity , but only to the real parts of the body : willis seems tacitly to take it for a thing not to be question'd , that the blood and animal spirits are the true parts of an animated body , no less than the solid parts adhering to the whole in continuity , which that it is not true , we have demonstrated in the first chapter of this book . thirdly , he asserts that the blood and animal spirits are the immediate subjects of the soul , the contrary to which is apparent , for that the immediate subjects of the soul are the parts themselves of the body , among which neither the blood , nor spirits , nor any other of the humours are to be numbered . fourthly , contrary to reason he constitutes two parts of the body , one fierie or flammeous , another lucid , and ascribes to each particular seats , to the one the blood , to the other the animal liquor ; for thus the soul that had no feet before , will have two feet in this our age , and with one foot shall tread upon the blood , with the other upon the animal liquor . yet lest the soul , having broken one leg by accident should chance to fall , provident dr. willis has provided her a third leg. but besides these two members , says he , of the soul , fitted to the individual body , a certain other portion of it , taken from both , and as it were the epitome of the whole soul , is placed apart , for the conservation of its species . this as it were an appendix of the vital flame , growing up in the blood , is for the most part lucid or light , and consists of animal spirits , which being collected into a certain little bundle , and having got an appropriate humour , are hidden up among the spermatic bodies . and thus the soul that formerly knew neither how to walk or stand , now shall stand more firmly supported with three leggs . and yet with all her three leggs she will halt , not without danger of falling , and therefore if any one could furnish her with a fourth leg , then she would not only stand more stoutly , but proceed equally in all her actions , without halting , like a strong fourfooted horse . but setting the jest aside , it is apparent from what has been said , that the learned willis did not rightly understand the maxim of the peripatetics , and for that reason miserably mangl'd and divided the soul , indivisible so far as it abides in the whole , into several parts at his own pleasure , whereas it is the same and of the same nature in all the parts . if any one should here object , that the seed is also potentially animated , and that from thence it is manifest , that the humours may live and be animated as well as the parts of the body , which we have so strenuously deny'd ; i answer that the seed is no nutritive humour like the blood , and animal liquor , nor is any longer a part of the individual body , iohn , or peter , from whence it is separated , but a specific juice , containing in it self a compendium of the whole man , and the ideas of all the parts , and therefore the soul may lie hid therein , as in all the parts of the whole body , till at length separated from its entanglements by heat , it declares its being present by its enlivening actions : which enlivening actions never proceed , nor can proceed , from any nutritive humours , or redundant after nourishment . lxvii . but seeing the philosophers of our age leave no stone of enquiry unturn'd , nor are ever at rest , till they have found out something in their most obscure searches , whereby to perswade themselves and others that they are within reach of the truth . i would have them now explain to us what this vegetable soul is , which is the first efficient and protoplastic principle in the formation of the birth : for otherwise , if we were to acquiesce in the name alone , the efficient principle might be affirm'd to be rather a chimera than an efficient principle . if perhaps any one shall say with aristotle , that the soul is the beginning of motion . or , that it is the first act of a natural body potentially having life . or with ferneli●…s , that it is the perfection of an organic body , and whatever shall give life to that body , and introduce vital actions . or with sennertus , that it is an act and substantial form , by which such a body is animated . or with some of our modern philosophers , that it is the first matter of fermentation and formation , and that life is nothing else but fermentation ; these are all meer words and meer chimeras . for by such words the essence of the soul is no way unfolded : nor does it appear , what that beginning of motion , or what that first act is ; nor what that perfection , or substantial form , or first matter of fermentation is . in man alone we know the rational soul , its divinity , and its immortality only by revelation , and faith , and by its wonderful and divine operations . but no man unfolds that substantial form , that first act , that first matter of fermentation , by which all animate beings obtain life , and are thence said to live , nor what that first act , that form or matter is ; but all men acquiesce in the name alone of a vegetable soul. lxviii . this same soul i call the vivific spirit produced out of corporeal matter , surpassing all other spirits produced out of matter . now altho' this definition of mine be sufficient to denote the substance it self of the soul , or rather the subject wherein it abides , nevertheless it will not satisfy many who desire a farther explication of the nature of this spirit , which however it is better to contemplate in thought , than to express in words . for how , or with what knowledg instructed , it forms and joyns the parts of the body to be form'd , so fitly , and with so much decency of order and shape , he only knows who alone , and first of all created all things at the beginning . what it is that rowses it , and frees it from the incumbrances wherewith it is surrounded , and brings it upon the stage of action , has been already sufficiently explain'd ; that is to say , the heat acting in convenient place and time upon the seed ; for that without such a heat it cannot be dissolved or waken'd out of the thicker matter . lxix . regius thinks he has found out a way to unfold this gordian riddle more clearly and after another manner promising to explain this obscure mystery of nature , as do many others , by manifest reasons . he writes that the formation of the birth is perfected by the heat as well of the womb as of the seeds , by which their particles are agitated in the womb ; and being agitated by reason of their shapes and magnitudes which they have acquired in the seminary passages tempered and shap'd after a certain manner , of necessity become in the womb a perfect prolific principle of the creature to be form'd , furnished with alimentary iuice , and cloathed with little membranes , in some measure resembling the seeds of plants . then he adds that this explication of the formation of the birth is so manifest , that there is no farther necessity of framing in the womb or seed any idea , fantasie , or principle of a soul or any other faculty , to be the author of formation . but the most learn'd gentleman , who at first sight promises something of a delphian oracle , in these words does but explain the lesser obscurity by the greater obscurity , and swelling with an extraordinary self-conceit , he is pleased with his own invention , as to believe that never any man ever did or ever will invent any thing more subtilly and ingeniously ; when as there is nothing in it but vanity and ostentation . for what others call the soul of the seed , the vegetative soul , the plastic power , the architectonic vertue , &c. that he calls certain shapes and magnitudes of the particles of the seeds , more difficult to be apprehended than plastic power , or vegetative soul. and altho' perhaps some persons may believe that the artificial formation of other things without life may in some measure be conceived by his mechanic explication annexed , yet does it not from thence appear , how the parts of our living body are generated out of the diversity of the shapes and magnitudes of the particles of the seed ; what should occasion the heart to be form'd in the middle of the breast , and not in the abdomen or head , why there should be in that particularly eleven valves and no more ; wherefore not two hearts in one birth ; how the parts receive life from the principle of the birth , and what introduces motion and actions , &c. all which , with an innumerable number of other things , he that will refer to the shapes and magnitudes of the particles of the seed , ought first to tell us what they are , and how they are mixed . who does not this , proposes his shapes and figures as meer imaginary chimeras , and clears up no obscurity , but wraps us up in more darkness , and while he pretends to tell us something of novelty and better , says nothing at all , but intangles an obscure thing in newer but obscurer terms . lxx . lately tho. willis has set forth the substance and nature of this soul quite otherwise , de an . brut. c. . where after he has asserted the soul of brutes , which we call vegetative to be corporeal , and extended through the whole body , and divisible together with the matter wherein it abides , at length concludes , that the soul lying hid in the blood or vital liquor , is either a certain fire or flame . but that we have affirm'd the soul of a brute , says he , to be not only corporeal and extended , but that it is of a certain fiery nature , and its act or substance is either a flame or a breath , near to , or a kin to flame , besides the large testimonies of authors both ancient and modern , reasons and arguments almost demonstrative , have also induc'd me to it . as to what appertains to the suffrages of others , that i may not seem to insist upon the authority of a single gassendus , who has maintained this hypothesis , i shall here cite many both ancient philosophers and physicians . for not to mention democritus , epicurus , la●…rtius , lucretius , and their followers , hippocrates , plato , pythagoras ; aristotle , galen , with many others , tho' disagreeing about other things ; yet in this opinion , that the soul was either a fire , or something analogical to it , they all shook hands ; to whom , among the moderns , fernelius , heurnius , cartesius , hogeland , and others also have joyn'd themselves ; and lately honoratus faber has delivered in express words , that the soul of the brute is corporeal , and its substance fire . lxxi . but while the famous thomas willis , with all those most ingenious philosophers and physicians , asserts the soul to be fire , he names indeed a body of the greatest activity , but such a one as consumes and destroys all things in which and upon which it acts : whereas the soul by its presence does not destroy those bodies in which it is and acts , but preserves 'em in their soundnss , excites the members to their functions , and defends 'em from corruption , till those bodies , wherein it abides , are destroy'd by some other cause , together with the soul it self . moreover , among all those famous men , not one could ever teach , what it is that forces or instructs that fire in the generation of the creature to adapt and joyn all and singular the parts in such an exact and admirable order together , and in every one to perform such various and determin'd operations ; as the making the chylus in the stomach , blood in the heart , animal spirits in the brain , sight in the eye , hearing in the ear , taste in the tongue : why through its extraordinary activity and rapid motion , it does not hinder the formation of the organs , and rather destroy 'em being form'd , then form 'em it self , and produce variety of actions out of each . lxxii . moreover , the foresaid thomas willis , pretending to explain the soul yet more perspicuously , defines it a little after to be a heap of contiguous particles existing in a swift motion . and then to shew the nature and original of those particles , he thus proceeds , cap. . in mechanical things , fire , air , and light are chiefly energetical , which human industry is always wont to use , for the more stupendious and no less necessary works . in like manner we may believe , that the supream work-master , to wit , the great creator , in the beginning did make the greatly active , and most subtile souls of living creatures out of their particles , as the most active , to which he also gave a greater , and as it were a supernatural virtue and efficacy from the most excellent structure of the organs , most exquisitely labour'd beyond the workmanship of any other machine . lxxiii . but suppose the substance of the organ , wherein the soul most nearly resides to be made out of such principles , and so the organ of the soul to be well compos'd , what is this to our enquiry ? the true existence of the soul consists not in the substance of the organ , but in its own substance , and appears by its act or operation . as the sight consists not in an eye well compos'd of good substance , but in the act of seeing , and perception of the visible rayes ; which act of sight the soul accomplishes by means of the organ of sight well form'd . but now i would fain know what that is which gives life to that heap of particles , constituting the substance of the soul , and by its presence forms and enlivens the other parts , and excites 'em to so many various , wonderful , and distinct operations ? when it is said that the soul is a heap of most subtile particles , or a fire , then only by an impropriety of speech , the thing containing is designed for the thing contained , that is , some most subtile subject wherein the soul most nearly resides . for that properly it is something else besides fire , is apparent from the contrariety of the actions : for the fire destroys , the soul preserves : the fire destroys bodies form'd ; the soul both forms and produces things not form'd . the fire is sensible of nothing ; the soul by means of the sensitive organs , sees , hears , and tasts , &c. hence the most learned willis , tho' a most stout asserter of his own opinion , at length is forced to distinguish the soul from its corporeal subject : for , says he , as soon as any matter is dispos'd to receive life , by the laws of the creation , the soul , which is the fo●…m of the thing , and the body , which is said to be the matter , began to be form'd under a certain species , according to the character imprinted in ' em . lxxiv . therefore the form , that is the soul , is something different from that same matter , which is the next subject or habitaculum of the soul. in like manner , speaking of the principles of the soul , as to the first beginnings of the corporeal soul , says he , this , as a shell-fish , forms and ●…its its shell to it self , exists somewhat a little sooner , and so more noble than the organical body : because a certain portion of animal spirits , or most subtile animals , or a little soul not yet inkindled , lyes hid in the seminal humour , which having gotten a proper fire place , and at length being kindled from the soul of the parent acting or leaning to it , as a flame from a flame , begins to shine forth and unfold it self , a little before the first ground-work of the body is laid . this orders the web of the conception , and agitates the apply'd matter , &c. lxxv . now i would have dr. thomas willis explain what he means by that little diminutive soul not yet enkindled . for a heap of animal spirits , or any atoms whatever , can be nothing but the nearest matter wherein it abides : for such a subject does not live , unless there be in it some living thing to enliven that heap . for such a subject , in generation , neither knows how , or was ever taught to form , delineate , compose , and enlarge all the parts in such exact order . which what it is we know not , only we find it by its effects . hence willis himself acknowledges , that the soul cannot be perceived by our senses , but only we understand it by its effects and operations . from which words of his it appears , that whatever dr. willis said before of fire , and a heap of animal spirits and atoms , they are only meer and most uncertain conjectures , which denote not the soul it self , but only either its next subject , wherein it abides , or by a similitude of thinnest body of swiftest action , the manner , in some measure , of their actions . for to assert that the soul is a heap of most subtile atoms , or a fire , is the same as to assert , that the sight is fire , because that by the means of the most subtile moveable fire , its action is accomplish'd , nor can be accomplish'd without it . whereas it is not that same medium into which the visible rays are imprinted as the subject , and with it conveigh'd to the eyes , but the perception of those rays that make the sight . as therefore that percipient is something else quite different from the air , by means of which the visible rays are convey'd to the visible organs . so the soul is somewhat else , which is different from the fire , or any other heap of atoms , by means of which it subsists and operates in the body . lxxvi . from whence it is apparent how absurd that is , which dr. willis adds , cap. . the existency of the corporeal soul depends altogether upon its act or life . the word depends is ill ; he should have rather said , becomes known . for by the act it self , or life , we only discover , that such a soul is present and acts , to enliven the body wherein it abides . for example ; when i write any thing , by that act it is known that the hand of a writer performs that act : however , the hand that writes is quite different from the act , which is the writing ; and does not altogether depend upon that act ; only by that act the presence of the agent is made known . wherefore it is not well added by dr. willis , the essence of this begins altogether from life , as it were from the firing of a subtile matter . i say he asserts this erroneously , for that the soul does not begin from life , which nevertheless lies as it were imprisoned in the seed , till with its spirituous subject , wherein it resides , it remains wrapt up in the thicker particles of the seed ; from whence being set at liberty in a convenient place by the heat , it begins to act and perform its duty , and enliven , form , nourish , and increase the body where it resides ; and thus by these actions we discover , that such an enlivening soul is in the body . lxxvii . of the affections or passions of this soul many things might be written , which however we purposely omit , lest our digression should be too tedious . in the mean while we recommend to the readers what the learned willis propounds upon this subject in his hist. de anim. brut. from cap. . to cap. . where he writes so elegantly and splendidly concerning the passions , that he does not only shew the sharpness of his wit , but carries away the laurel from all others that have wrote before him . lxxviii . we shall only add one question more , seeing that the vegetative soul is corporeal , whether it be nourish'd by those nourishments which are brought for the support of the body wherein it abides ? it was an ancient saying of hippocrates , that the soul always grows till death . hence some have concluded that the soul wasts like all the other parts of the body , and is repair'd from time to time by the nourishment , together with those parts wherein it resides . but seeing the nature of the substance of that soul is unknown to us , and for that reason in the mean time reaches us , that it abides in some subject which is the nearest , as in some subtile spirit , and by that means enlivens the body , we think that same saying of hippocrates is rather to be understood of that same nearest subject of the soul , without which most certainly it cannot subsist , than of the soul it self ; concerning whose substance , what , and of what nature it is , and whether it want nourishment , we can determine nothing certainly . when the flame of a lamp is cherish'd and continued , we do not nourish it with a flame like to it self , but something that nourishes the subject to which it adheres , as oyl with oyl ; which subject failing at length , the flame fails , which however is somewhat distinct from it subject , for oyl is not flame or fire ; neither is fire oyl . but it is a diminutive fire latent in the oyl , which being kindled by another flame , issues forth out of it by degrees , but cannot subsist without it , and so there is a necessity of recruiting , not the flame of the lamp with another flame , but the subject of it , that is the oyl , to the end it may be continued . in like manner 't is not the soul , but it s nearest subject , which is to be nourish'd , and so by the nourishment of that the soul is continu'd . but that dr. willis believes the contrary is apparent from these words of his : as the thicker particles of the nutritive iuice repair the losses of the corporeal bulk , so the more subtile particles of it repair the waste of this same soul. and thus he believes , that not only the near subject , but the soul it self to be nourish'd : which is left to every man's liberty to think what he pleases . lxxix . in the mean while there are such eager contentions about the original , seat , subject , essence , substance , and the whole history of the soul , the most acute philosophers , could never yet find out and tell us what this same life or soul is , concerning which so much has been discours'd and written , and which is the prime actress in the generation of all creatures , and forms the whole that is to be form'd . here therefore it is that we are all at a loss ; here we find how ignorant we are ; here we perceive how vainly we waste our time , in prying into those mysteries which the most sublime creator would not have us understand : here we observe the arrogancy of many , who in the unfolding such secrets of nature , with a haughty ostentation endeavour to shew their knowledge and their learning , when they utter nothing but meer empty words . certainly it behoves us in mysteries of this nature tacitly to acquiesce , and patiently to be contented with our ignorance , and rather to admire the power of the almighty , than to be too scrutinous into forbidden mysteries , mindful of those verses of lucretius : multa sacro tegit involucro natura : neque ullis fas est scire quidem mortalibus omnia : multa admirare modò , necnon venerare : neque illa inquires quae sunt , arcanis proxima : namque in manibus quae sunt , vix nos ea scire putandum est . usque adeo procul à nobis praesentia veri . the sense of which is this : nature , much under vails seems to conceal , nor was it fit , she all things should reveal . it is not just , proud , foolish man should know all things she does within the orbs below . nor is it fit man should be made so wise : lest knowing all , he should her skill despise . some of her works as wonderful she made ; and some , the worship of the gods invade . things near , if hid , we may not search into : the more remote , less lawful are to know . those things with which we daily do converse , their very names we scarcely may rehearse . so far off still , truths presence seems to stand , we scarce the name , much less the thing command . chap. xxx . containing the history of the birth contained in the womb. and first of the placenta or uterine liver , and the cavities call'd acetables . having thus finish'd the history of the seed and conception , together with that of the formation of the birth ; now let us proceed to the history of the birth when form'd , and contain'd in the womb. i. upon opening the womb of a big-bellied woman , there presently appears a fleshie substance , which fallopius from some resemblance which it has to a cheescake , calls the uterine cheescake , or placenta ; others from its resemblance in use , colour , and substance , call it the uterine liver . ii. this liver is a bowel after its own manner fleshie , soft , consisting of innumerable fibres and small little vessels , and blood between , condens'd in dead people , by means whereof the birth adheres to the womb , but more especially to the bottom of it . iii. at first the seed of the man being injected into the womb ( if conception happen ) is every way enclos'd by the whole circumference of the womb , and is found contiguous to it . then by the nourishing heat of the womb it is melted and dissolv'd , and so the prolific spirituous part being separated out of it , it retires forthwith through the uterine tubes toward the ovaries , there to imprint upon the ripe egg the seal of fertility . this egg in the ovary is surrounded with two little pellicles , of which the one is thicker and stronger ; the other thinner and weaker , as in birds an outermost hard shell , and an inner thin membrane grows in the egg out of the seed of the hen. to the outermost of these membranes , at the very first beginning certain downy lineaments form'd out of the female seed are seen to adhere : to which also , at the very same first beginning , a certain ruddy soft substance joyns it self , which seems to arise from the substance it self of the womb , in the same place where the egg slips through the tube into the womb , by means whereof it adheres by and by to the womb , and is furnish'd by the womb with some blood-conveighing vessels , which it imparts to the chorion , as being those vessels which are discern'd in the chorion , before any formation of the birth , nor can be derived thence from any other part . these downy beginnings of the placenta , or uterine liver , increase by little and little through the affusion of that same blood to this very bowel , whose substance at the end of the third month is notably conspicuous . within the inner membrane is included the whole colliquation of the seed , together with the crystalline bubble , wherein the birth is form'd out of the prolific principle infus'd into it ; which being form'd swims upon the colliquation , free and adhering no where to any membranes , and for some time is nourish'd with that alone . iv. afterwards , when the increasing embryo begins to want a more plentiful nourishment , the extremities of the umbilical vessels grow out more and more , and are extended toward this liver ( which from that time begins to be more manifestly conspicuous , to the end they may draw a firmer alimentary iuice from thence , and carry it to the birth , as the plants by means , of their roots suck nutritive iuice from the earth . but how these vessels cross the membranes , and come to this liver , see chap. . v. harvey , in an abortion cast forth about the bigness of a hen-egg , observ'd withal in the outward and upper part of the chorion , as it were a thin slime , or a certain down , denoting the first rudiments of the growing placenta ; and in the inner part of the same several roots and branches of the umbilical vessels , but never the chorion sticking to the womb . but the reason why he never saw the chorion slicking to the womb , perhaps might be , either because the matter to be pour'd forth out of the womb for the increase of the placenta , was not yet increas'd to a sufficient quantity ; or because the fleshic particle , which we have seen sticking to the chorion , in the expulsion of that conception , was not torn from the womb , but from the chorion ; and so the chorion coming forth together with it , was not by harvey seen to stick to the womb . but those roots of the vessels which harvey took for the umbilical productions , seem not to have been the little branches of the umbilical vessels , in regard the navel could not be grown out to that length in that time , nor reach so far , but were rather little vessels extending themselves from that same fleshie substance sticking above to the chorion , with which the umbilical vessels are wont to intermix themselves . see the abortions in the preceding chapter . vi. by what has been said , it is sufficiently apparent , that the beginning of the placenta , or uterine liver , is not generated out of the impurer part of the menstruous blood flowing from the womb , the more pure part in the mean season passing to the birth through the umbilical vein , ( as many have erroneonsly asserted : ) seeing that the first threads of it are delineated out of the womans seed as well as the chorion and amnion ; to which afterwards the nourishment is brought , not from the more impure , but from good blood pouring in . and therefore they were grosly mistaken , who judg'd it not to be any bowel , but only a heap of menstruous blood collected and coagulated without the vessels , and preserv'd in that place for the nourishment of the birth , whereas both in respect of its beginning , its fibrous substance , and its use , it appears no less to be a bowel than the other liver seated in the right hypochondrion . besides that , the upholders of this opinion do not consider , that the blood cannot subsist without corruption nine months together out of the vessels in the womb , or any other hot and moist place ; and daily experience teaches us , what terrible mischiefs follow upon the extravasation of the blood tho' it be good , if it stay in the place but a few months . vii . fabricius ab aquapendente calls this liver a fleshie substance , and a fleshie mole ; not that it is simply flesh , but a bowel that has a peculiar and proper fibrous contexture , and a flesh convenient for it self , whose first threads are delineated out of the womans seed ; and afterwards a peculiar fleshie substance thicken'd out of the vital blood , which first flows from the mother more plentifully thither through the uterine vessels , and afterwards is forc'd thither from the heart of the birth through the umbilical arteries . for when the umbilical vessels are come to the uterine liver , a certain spirituous nectar , or vital spirit , flows out together with arterious blood from the heart of the birth , which as it increases , nourishes , enlivens , and excites to action all the parts of the birth , and its membranes , the spirituous blood of the mother assisting and affording the greatest part of the matter , so does it enlarge and nourish this placenta or uterine liver . viii . this liver in a single conception is alway single ; and in the conception of twins , both births have one common liver containing the navels of both ; but sometimes each birth has a distinct and proper uterine liver . however , wharton believes that both twins have a peculiar placenta , but so contiguous ; that they seem to be but one . but that the opinion of wharton express'd by the word always , is not generally true , experience teaches us ; by which it appears , that sometimes the contrary happens . and therefore we are certainly to conclude , that in the conception of twins there is sometimes one liver , sometimes two . but for what reason , and in what cases there happens sometimes one , and sometimes two , is a mystery hitherto unreveal'd , and unknown to all practisers ; which nevertheless we shall endeavour to unfold in the next chapter , when we come to discourse of the state of the membranes in twins . ix . the substance of it is peculiar to it self , soft , loose , brittle , thin , furrow'd with several furrows , and as it were here and there slightly divided ; yet in the mean time altogether fibrous , being a contexture of innumerable threads and diminutive fibres , and infinite little branches of diminutive vessels , and swelling with coagulated blood pour'd in , not much unlike the looser parenchyma of the liver , tho' less firm , and easily dissolv'd and mangled by a slight attrition . and such a sort of substance , as well at other times , as particularly in december . we shewed to several doctors of physic and students , in a woman that dy'd after she had been six months gone . and lately in the placenta's of two live women , from whom we extracted the births when they could not be deliver'd of themselves : which placenta's , after the extraction of the birth , were separated whole from the womb , and drawn forth together with the membranes . x. it is of a dark ruddy colour , not unlike the colour of the spleen ; somewhat more ruddy , seldom paler . xi . the shape of the whole uterine liver is for the most part circular , sometimes long , or quadrangular , seldom triangular ; but unequal in its circumference . but the bigness and thickness various , according to the condition of the body and the birth , and the time of the womans going . for in abortions of thirty and forty days it hardly appears about the roots of the navel , hardly then extended thither . but after that the spirituous blood flowing thither in greater quantity , it grows and enlarges every day , till at length it comes to its perfection , about a foot in breadth , or so much as may be extended between the two thumbs and fore-fingers extended in compass : about two or three fingers thick in the middle , but thinner in the extremities . nicolaus hoboken , an accurate inspector into these placenta's , writes that he never saw any one thicker than a thumbs breadth , or very little more . nevertheless we are to observe that there is some variety in the breadth and thickness , being found sometimes to be thicker , and sometimes thinner in all secundines . xii . in the hollow part next the birth , the superficies of it is equal and concave like a small platter . upon the gibbous side unequal with several excrescencies , with which it fastens it self to the inside of the womb , no other substance interceeding , the fungous or spungy parts here and there slightly swelling out at the time of impregnation , and rests upon it with its open pores . and the womb also , at that time more spungy , opening its pores and the extremities of its arteries , joyns immediately to the placenta , yet without any mutual anastomoses of the veins or arteries either of the one or the other ( concerning which several anatomists have written several fancies contrary to truth , meerly upon the score of conjecture ) and so it transfuses the alimentary blood and milky juice into this placenta , which after delivery , the said placenta being torn away and separated , for many days together flows from those openings or little holes . xiii . in the middle , or about the middle , and sometimes toward one or the other side a diminutive little umbilical gut is sasten'd to it , with its vessels included , by means whereof there is a necessary communication between the placenta , and the birth ; of which more c. . xiv . a vein , and two umbilical arteries are inserted into it , which are intermix'd with roots in the substance of it , with a wonderful folding , and are thought to joyn together with some anastomoses . but the ramisications of the arteries are generally more numerous , more serpentine and knotty , but less and more ruddy : the ramifications of the vein less in number , but larger and thicker , less contorted , and of a darker colour . however the bigger part of the roots is not joyn'd by anastomoses ; but the arteries pour forth the blood which is brought from the heart of the birth into the parenchyma of the placenta ; which together with a good part of the blood flowing through the small vessels of the womb , being altered by the uterine liver , and endu'd with a slight fermentaceous quality , the gaping roots of the vein assume and convey to the birth . xv. it has been the common opinion , according to the sentence of galen , that the diminutive branches of these small arteries and veins are not only joyn'd together by anastomoses between themselves , but also with the extremities of the vessels of the womb ; and hence , after delivery , by their being broken off from the falling uterine liver , there happens a great flux of blood. but we observe in brutes , that certain vessels attracting nourishment out of the little placenta's of the chorion , are manifestly extended into the pores of the little pieces of flesh swelling out from the womb , but that no anastomoses descend from the womb or its protuberances into the placentulae of the chorion , nor that there are any placentulae between the vessels of these placentulae and the womb. which it is probable to be no less true in human conception , and that no blood-bearing vessels run out from the womb into the placenta , but less that they joyn together by anastomoses with the umbilicals ; seeing that the blood descends like dew , only by degrees from the ends of the uterine arteries , gaping at the time of the womans being ingravidated , where it is prepared for the nourishment of the birth , as we shall shew hereafter . xvi . wharton seems to assert , that several vasa sanguifera are extended from the womb it self no less than from the navel of the birth , into the placenta , however that they are intermix'd with ' em . for he says that the placenta is divided into two halves , easily separable one from the other . of which two halves , the one manifestly looks toward the parts of the womb , and the other towards the parts of the embryo . and that all the uterine vessels , distributed toward the placenta , terminate in that same half which looks toward the womb , and there are consumed into little hairy strings , and do not at all pass thorough the other half . also that the umbilical vessels which run forward toward that half of the placenta which is fixed to the chorion , are all exhausted into small hair in the same half ; neither do they pass into the opposite medietie contiguous to the womb . but this most famous person presupposes a division of the placenta , never to be found , and never demonstrable ; and thence erroneously concludes , that the diminutive vessels running from one place to another , reach no farther than the one half ; whereas there are no vasa sanguifera that descend from the womb to the placenta , and for that it is most certain that the umbilical vessels penetrate through the whole . but as for those diminutive vessels that are derived from the little piece of flesh affixed to the chorion at the beginning of the conception , they are distributed through the whole chorion , before the formation of the birth , and seem to have none or very little communication with the placenta : concerning which , 't is very much to be doubted whether they proceed from any continuation of the vessels of the womb . to which obscurity the most accurate inspection of the famous nicolaus hoboken , have given us a very great light , who never could observe any productions of the blood-bearing vessels from the womb into the placenta , whenas he has inquir'd into , and laid open , with great study and industry above other men , all the mysteries of the placenta and the whole secundine ; published in a treatise , de secundin human. adorn'd with cuts delineated with his own hand , and exposed to the view and judgment of all men. xvii . the same wharton believes , that there are also lymphatic vessels intermix'd with the veins and arteries in the uterine liver , and that then enters together with them the navel of the birth . but he adds , that thorough those the milkie iuice poured forth from the womb toward the placenta , is conveighed to the birth . but we have prov'd it already that there are no such conspicuous vessels extended from the womb to the birth ; and that if wharton by accident saw any little whitish vessels carried from the placenta to the womb , through the umbilical diminutive gut , 't is very probable he might be deceived and mistake the milkie vessels for lymphatics ; as differing very little either in shape or thinness . unless we should say , that the lymphatic vessels do not only and always carry the lymphatic iuice , but the chylus also in various places , where the chylus is offered , and so that the same thing may likewise happen in the placenta , as it often happens in that large pectoral vessel , called the thoracick chyliductus . in the mean time hoboken , a most accurate observer of these things never could find any lymphatic vessels in the liver , neither did they ever occur to me , tho' i have diligently sought after them . xviii . some there are who assert , that there are also certain small diminutive nerves , and that there is a certain nutritive iuice conveighed through those for the benefit of the birth . but i would fain know of those people , whence those nerves have their original , from the father or the mother , or from the birth ? the first cannot be , by what we have said already , in regard there are no vessels that extend themselves out of the placenta into the womb. and that the latter cannot be true , is apparent from hence , because it is contrary to reason and all belief , that any nerves should be extended so far from the most soft substance of the brain of the birth , and that they should run from the body of the womb it self , through the whole length of the navel to the placenta : besides that in the delivery , by the breaking of those nerves the birth it self would be greatly endangered . lastly , because there are no nutritious juices carried through the nerves , neither can be carried through 'em , as we shall shew more at large l. . c. . we have said a little before , that the vessels and pores of the womb , do gape a little toward the placenta , and empty their juices into it like a kind of dew . this many strenuously deny in women : and yet at the same time they grant that the vessels of the womb are opened into the uterine caruncles of beasts , and pour forth their alimentary juice into their little caverns , which is again suck'd up out of them by the little branches of the umbilical vessels , and out of those cotyledons is carried to the womb , as we find true by ocular testimony . but it is not worth while to use many words in refuting the opinion of these men , as contradicting not only the sight it self , but one another , seeing that they allow alimentary juice to the placenta's or cotyledons of beasts , and yet deny them to the placenta's in women ; whereas there is the same use and necessity of the same part in both , and for that it is apparent by what has been already said that the alimentary juice is no less in the cotyledons of women than of beasts . xix . the place where the placenta sticks to the womb cannot be certainly assign'd ; for sometimes it is joyn'd and firmly adheres to it in the right side ▪ sometimes in the left , and sometimes at the hinder part of the bottom of the womb ; and where it is fastened within to the chorion , there it admits the entrance of the umbilical vessels . but when it begins to increase , in the first months it sticks as closely to it , as the unripe fruit to the tree . but the bigger the birth grows , and the nearer to delivery , so it still parts the more easily from the womb , and at length , when the fruit is quite ripe , after the expulsion of the birth , falls off from the womb. xx. by the general vogue of the ancients it is said to adhere to the womb by acetables , concerning which acetables however there is a very great dispute . . some think 'em to be the protuberancies of the vessels of the womb , like to hemorrhoids or warts , with which the embryo is nourish'd . but this is derided by erotian in his onomasticon . . others with diocles assert'em to be certain mamillary processes , swelling out from the body of the womb into its cavity , during the time of ingravidation , for the nourishment of the birth : which is also exploded by soranus ephesius . . others with protagoras , back'd as they say , by hippocrates and galen , affirm that the acetables are the orifices of the vessels swelling with overplus of blood , dispersed through the inner tunicle of the womb ? and thus van horn asserts 'em to be a certain arterious larger sort of little pipes gaping into the cavity of the womb. which opinion was started long before by spigelius , but rejected by nicolas massa . . formerly they held that the kernelly pieces of flesh , resembling the leaves of the herb wall-penny-wort , were placed between the chorion and the womb , adjoyn'd to the orifices of the vessels , and took them for the cotyledons . . riolanus writes that the placenta is fastened to the sides of the womb by an innumerable number of fibrous productions , and gives the name of cotyledons to these fibres : and besides these affirms that there are no other apparent cotyledons in women . fallopius , arantius , and many other quick-sighted anatomists , deny that there are any acetables or cotyledons in a womans womb ; with whom also harvey agrees : who describes the cotyledons in beasts , but deny women to have any , or that they have any thing like ' em . on the other side silvius stoutly maintains that there are acetables in women , and affirms that they are to be seen in a woman near her time , or but newly delivered . with whom carolus gemma , and laurentius agree , galen indeed asserts that women have cotyledons , but he confirms it only by the authority of other anatomists ; and says they are the orifices of the vessels of the womb ; or rather the closing together of the vessels of the womb and the birth by anastomosis : which opinion we have already refuted . in such a dissention of learned men , tho' it be hard to assert any thing of certainty , yet the truth is to be inquired into , in regard it seems a thing not to be doubted , but that women have acetables , in regard that hippocrates , who neither could deceive nor be deceived , as macrobius testifies , makes mention of 'em ; which he would not do to no purpose nor by mistake . first then let us consider what these cotyledons are , and next , whether they are in women with child ? xxi . certain parts appearing in the womb of a woman with child , are called by the greeks 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , and that from a two fold resemblance . first from the likeness which they have to the herb cotyledon , which the latins call venus-navel , in english wall-pennywort , an herb , whose leaves are somewhat thick , smooth , full of iuice , round , unequal in compass , and a little hollow in the middle . secondly , from the likeness which they have to the cavity of the hip-bone , which is call'd 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , and contains the head of the thigh-bone . from which resemblance , they are also call'd by the latins acceptabuld , because they receive something into their hollowness ; but more frequently acetabula , because they are like to little sawcers , wherein they use to bring vinegar to the table . xxii . from this derivation of the name it manifestly appears , that hippocrates and the rest of the ancients , by cotyledons never meant any protuberancies of the vessels , or any other fleshie or mamillary excrescencies , or fibrous ligaments , but some certain things that were hollow , or else their cavities themselves : and therefore they were all under a gross mistake that took those protuberancies for cotyledons . xxiii . we are now to enquire in what creatures they are to be found ? i answer ; that they are to be found as well in women , as in any other creatures that produce living births , only different in figure and shape . for in women , if we do but accurately consider the matter , there are not many , but one cotyledon , and sometimes two in women that have conceived twins . for indeed the whole uterine placenta , which is convex toward the womb , hollow toward the chorion , is all together , somewhat thick , full of juice , round , unequal in the circumference , exactly resembling the herb wall-pennimort , or else the figure of a little sawcer . of this womans cotyledon , hippocrates makes mention sect. . aph. . those women , who being moderately corpulent , miscarry at the end of two or three months , without any manifest occasion , their cotyledons are full of slime , and therefore by reason of their ponderosity , are not able to contain the birth , but are broken . for if great store of flegmatic slimy humours lye heavy upon the placenta , being soften'd and becoming lank in the gibbous part of it , where it sticks to the inner spunginess of the womb , of necessity it must be unloosned , together with the birth , which by its means , sticks also to the womb. now hippocrates speaks of cotyledons in the plural number , not that he would have one woman , that has conceiv'd but one birth , have more cotyledons or placentae ; but because he is discoursing in the plural number of women in general , who tho' singly , they have but one , yet many together have several cotyledons . this , if many famous anatomists had more attentively consider'd , and among the rest our most quick-sighted harvey , they had not so unwarily deny'd cotyledons in women , nor rejected so easily the authority of hippocrates in that particular . and therefore , according to the first resemblance , cotyledons are in women . xxiv . but according to the latter resemblance , they are to be found in most beasts that bring forth living productions , who during their impregnation , have several little pieces of flesh , somewhat thick and hard , spungy and prominent , rising from the womb in time of impregnation toward the inner cavity , and sticking close to it , and like a honycomb , hollow'd into several little conspicuous cells , containing a certain alimentary iuice , as is to be seen in ews , cows , and several other creatures . and some there were that took these little fleshinesses of the womb ▪ others those little diminutive holes before mention'd for real cotyledons : when as neither the one nor the other have any resemblance with the cavity of the hip-bone . but those single fleshinesses of the womb are encompass'd by another thin ruddy soft piece of flesh adhering to the chorion , and furnish'd with the innumerable small extremities of the umbilical vessels , entring the little diminutive holes of the protuberant caruncles of the womb , and hollow toward the little fleshiness of the womb : which thin hollow fleshinesses adhering to the chorion , and embracing the thick protuberant fleshinesses of the womb , are the true cotyledons , having a hollowness like the cavity of the hip-bone : and as the one comprehends the head of the thigh-bone , so these in like manner comprehend the protuberant fleshinesses of the womb : and hence they are called loculamenta , or pigeon-holes , that is , distinct places , each one of which receives a caruncle of the womb . but these fleshinesses of the chorion in those beasts that have 'em , supply the place of the placenta , and receive the juices received by the caruncles of the womb , and conveigh them through the umbilical vessels to the birth . for that every one of the thin extremities of the umbilical vessels adhering to them , are inserted into the several diminutive holes of the caruncles of the womb , fill'd with a certain nutritive slimy juice , as a honycomb is fill'd with honey , wherewith several beasts seem to be nourish'd in the womb . which little vessels , when they are drawn forth out of the diminutive holes of the caruncles of the womb , the said slimy juice is to be seen sticking to their roots , and is extended out of the holes , like small white threads . nevertheless 't is very probable , that that same juice being condens'd by the cold in dead animals becomes so thick , as the lymphatic juice is congeal'd into a gelly , but that in living and warm creatures it is not so thick or viscous , but thin and fluid , to the end it may the more easily glide through the most narrow vessels into the cavity of the amnion , and so reach to the birth . but we must observe by the way , that those little fleshinesses of the chorion at the beginning of the impregnation , are difficultly to be separated from the caruncles of the womb : but the embryo increasing , as it were come to maturity , are dissolv'd and loosen'd by degrees , and at length fall off of themselves , and in the delivery are expell'd , together with the birth ; and the protuberancies swelling from the womb , decrease again by degrees , and contract themselves . xxv . the use of the uterine liver in a woman is , partly to support the milkie umbilical vessels , which attract the milkie watery iuice out of the pores or diminutive holes of the womb : partly after a peculiar manner to concoct and prepare the blood , flowing as well from the mother , through the uterine arteries ; partly from the birth , through the umbilicals , to render it more serviceable for the nourishment of the birth . this was harvey's meaning , where he says , moreover the placenta concocts the nutritive iuice coming from the mother for the nourishment of the birth . but what alteration or concoction the blood undergoes in human concoction , that has hitherto not been so clearly understood , neither has any one written concerning it . for our part , we think it very probable , that the uterine liver dissolves the thicker and salt particles of the blood , and intermixes it with the sulphury , and so makes the necessary bloody ferment for the blood of the embryo , without which the blood in the heart of it cannot be well dilated , and performs that function alone , which in men born the liver and spleen perform together . for as in man born , the arterial blood is forc'd through the splenetic artery into the spleen , and therein concocted , after a particular manner , is conveigh'd through the splenetic branch and the vena porta to the liver , to the end it may be mixed with the venal blood coming from the mesaraic veins , there to be concocted again after a new manner , and to acquire the perfection of a fermentaceous liquor , and that obtain'd immediately imbibes the venal blood flowing from all parts , as also the chylus gliding through the subclavial vein , with it's fermentaceous quality , so that coming to the heart , it may be there dilated and turn'd into spirituous blood ; in like manner , in the birth , the blood is forc'd out of the iliac arteries through the umbilical veins into the placenta , to the end it may be mingled with the blood flowing from the womb , be digested and acquire some slight kind of fermentaceous power : and so it is carryed through the umbilical vein , to the liver of the embryo , and flowing through that into the vena cava , is there mix'd with the blood and the chylus , ( generated out of the liquor of the amnion suck't in at the mouth of the birth ) flowing from the vena cava : and so all that mixture being prepar'd and imbib'd with a slight fermentaceous quality , passes gradatim to the heart , and is therein dilated and made spirituous . probable therefore it is , that as in the embryo , the lungs are quiet , so that the liver and spleen do not as yet officiate , as in a man born , which is manifest , . from the bulk of the liver , too bigg for the body of the embryo ; . from the colour of the embryo , too bright , and perfectly ruddy , which in men born , when it officiates , is black and blue . xxvi . those bowels therefore , not being able as yet sufficiently to dissolve , and prepare them to a fermentaceous height , in the birth , by reason of their weak and tender constitution , provident nature therefore has substituted in their place for the time a uterine liver , which supplies the office of both from the time that the blood begins to flow from the birth , through the umbilical arteries into the uterine liver , till the delivery . for as in the birth it is requisite the blood should be less sharp , and consequently ought to be concocted not in both , but in one ventricle of the heart ; so likewise the fermentaceous liquor that is to be mixed with it , ought to be less acrimonious , and by the same consequence ought not to be prepared and concocted in the liver and spleen as in man born , but only in the uterine placenta , to the end it may be more mild and temperate when it enters the birth . xxvii . now there are four reasons to be given , wherefore the placenta sticks to the womb. . that thereby the birth may be more firmly contained in the womb . . that the watry milkie juices descending from the womb of the mother , may be conveniently conveyed through the proper milkiy umbilical vessels , passing through the uterine liver into the umbilical diminutive gutt , and thence into the concavity of the amnion . . that the placenta it self may not be nourished only by the blood of the birth , flowing through the umbilical arteries , which is very small at the beginning , but also and that chiefly with the mothers blood , and so may grow the faster , and be made fit for the performance of its duty ; there being a necessity for some dissolution at the beginning , of the salt or tartarous particles in the blood , by means of a certain slight formentaceous liquor , to promote more swiftly the increase of the solid parts . vid. l. . c. . . to the end there may be a more copious contribution of the mothers blood , flowing out of the little vessels of the womb , into the uterin liver , that that same larger quantity of blood may be mixed in the placenta with the lesser quantity of arterious blood , flowing thither from the iliac arteries of the birth , through the umbilical arteries : and being there concocted may be endued with a slight fermentaceous quality , and so falling into the heart , may be presently dilated and altered into spirituous blood. for as in man born , to the end the blood may be made right and good , twenty or more parts of the venal blood are mix'd in the vena cava , with one part of the chylus flowing through the thoracic ductus chyliferus , before they come together to the heart : so ought it to be done in the birth : which not having so much blood of it self to mix with a convenient portion of the chylus , necessarily for the supply of that defect , there is required a portion of the mothers blood , which together with the arterious blood of the embryo , flowing thither from the iliac arteries , being conveniently prepared , is communicated continually to the birth , through the umbilical vein . xxviii . here it may be objected , that that same blood will flow either into the umbilical vessels , or into the substance of the uterine liver . that the first is not true , is apparent from hence , that there is no communion by anastomoses between the vessels of the womb , and the umbilicals . if the latter should be true , then the extravasated blood would grow corrupt , which would occasion inflammations , apostemes and other mischiefs ; therefore , &c. now the former being granted i answer to the latter , that the concoctions of the other bowels , and many other parts , instructs us , that it cannot be true by any means : for the chylus being pour'd forth into the glandules of the breasts is not there corrupted , but concocted into milk : the venal blood pour'd forth into the substance of the liver , acquires a fermentaceous quality without any corruption , and is carryed to the vena cava ; the blood also pour'd forth into the kidneys , despoyl'd of a good part of its serum , without any corruption , is convey'd to the vena cava : so also the blood which flows into the uterine liver , is not therein corrupted , but is concocted after a peculiar manner , and undergoes some necessary alteration , which having suffered , it enters the roots of the umbilical vein . xxix . beyond all controversy therefore it is , that the blood flows from the womb into the uterine liver . which we find by the flux of blood that happens for many days in time of travail by the tearing away of the uterine liver from those open'd extremities of the vessels of the womb , which before gaped into it . xxx . but besides the blood , there is a watery , viscous , milkie liquor which flows from the womb to the hollowness of the amnion , which is seen to flow forth at the time of delivery and presently afterwards . so andrew laurentius relates , anat. l. . quest . . that he had seen several women in travail emit a great quantity of milk from the womb . schenkius also reports out of bauhinus , that capellus , the physician , saw a woman who discharg'd half a cup full of milk out of her womb and bladder . and hence deusingius concludes , that the milkie juice flows from the womb into the uterine liver , that is into the milkie umbilical vessels passing through that liver . which opinion is confirm'd by this , for that often in women in travail about the end of the flux , the secundines grow whitish , and become as it were of a milkie colour ; which presently ceases through the sucking of the breasts . but whether that milkie juice flows from the womb into the substance it self of the placenta , is much question'd by some . others say , that partly through the ruddy and bloody colour of the parenchyma of the placenta ; partly , for that never in the whole placenta that milky humour , or any thing like it , was to be found by any anatomists , the contrary is to be asserted . in this obscurity the more accurate dissection of brutes gives us some light , by which we find a certain whitish viscous humour settled in their uterine caruncles , into which the roots of the milky umbilical vessels , adhering to the little vessels of the chorion , are inserted , and receive that juice , and convey it to the birth . so it seems also probable , that some such like milky iuice , in women , flows through some peculiar milky vessels to the womb into some proper caruncles riveted into the inner porous substance of the womb it self : and that the milky umbilical vessels passing through the placenta , are inserted into 'em , which receive that liquor , and carry it to the amnion . for as in brutes certain spungy excrescencies grow out from the womb receiving that juice , so likewise it is probable that in a womans womb , there are certain little spungy caverns for the same use , tho' not conspicuous as in brutes . for if there be a milky liquor to be found in the uterine caruncles of brutes , which in dead creatures becomes thick and viscous through the cold , and thence sufficiently to be seen , without doubt also , within the porous substance of a womans womb , there must be some little caverns by which that milky juice flowing from the womb is particularly collected and receiv'd . and as from the veins of the womb , and the arteries gaping toward the placenta , the blood is pour'd into the bloody parts of the uterine liver , and carried from them through the umbilical vein to the liver of the birth , so it is likely that the milky juice is carried from the little milk-bearing cells of the womb into the umbilical milky vessels . but because those uterine cells of the milky juice have not hitherto been observ'd by any person , this is no proof that they are not there ; for the lymphatic vessels themselves , the milky mesenteries and pectoral vessels lay conceal'd for many ages ; and yet it cannot be said but that they were there . so likewise at this day the production of the urinary passage in the birth without the navel , and the milky vessels running toward the breasts , are not conspicuous , tho' it be most certain that the urine of the birth flows through that passage into the allantoides , seated between the chorion and the amnion ; through this , the milky chylus is carried to the breasts . moreover , anatomists have seldom an opportunity in a breeding woman to observe the substance or constitution of the womb , or of narrowly surveying the uterine placenta when whole ; or if any such opportunity were offer'd , no body has hitherto thought of looking after those milky uterine cells : and besides the passage of the milky vessels through the placenta , being broken by reason of the softness of the substance , and the flowing forth of the blood , cannot be seen . to which we may add , that in women , for some time dead , those milky cells of the womb , and milk-bearing vessels of the womb are impossible to be discern'd , as they might be discover'd in the bodies of such as come to a suddain end , and presently open'd . we must conclude therefore , that as in brutes the maternal milky iuice is collected in the little cells of the caruncles of the womb ; so also in women that juice is receiv'd by certain little caverns of the womb , fix'd into its inner substance , which is porous in certain places while the woman is breeding , tho' they do not swell out in that manner , nor are so manifest as in brutes . for if there were no such things as those little milky cells , to what use should those milky vessels be , as well those of the mother extended to the womb , as the umbilical vessels of the birth ? which nevertheless that they are both there , i do not think is at all to be question'd : for that there are uterine milky vessels , has been found by the more quick-sighted anatomist sometimes since ; as we shall shew more at large in the next chapter . so likewise that there are umbilical milk-bearing vessels , is apparent from hence , that there is a milky juice contain'd in the little gut , flowing from thence to the hollowness of the amnion , which when the whitish colour sufficiently declares that it is not carried through the vasa sanguifera , of necessity it must come thither through the milky vessels extended from the navel of the birth toward the womb . but because this juice is not so white as the milk of the breasts , but of a more watery colour , wharton therefore will have it to be call'd rather gelly , and that , because it is somewhat clammy and clear , and being cold congeals like gelly , and that not only in the amnion , but in the little gut ; for it is found in both . but gualter needham will oppose both what has been said , and what is to be said in the next chapter , who labours altogether to perswade us , that this same milkie or chylous juice is carried not through any milkie vessels , but through the arteries , together with the blood toward the womb ; and there again being separated pure from the blood , is emptied into the hollowness of the amnion . as if there were any understanding or provident separating faculty in the arteries , by whose instinct they knew how to carry that milky juice forc'd into 'em by the heart , together with the blood , afterwards , in the time of child-bearing , and at no other time , pure and unmix'd , without any other blood , directly to the womb , and perhaps to the breasts , but no where else : and there to separate it with so much prudence from the blood , and send it from the ends of the arteries toward the hollowness of the amnion , to the end this thicker and more slimy juice should flow from those ends , but the arterious blood which is much thinner and fluid , out of a particular favour , should be detain'd in its own vessels . most stupendious miracle of nature ! but perhaps it may be objected , choler in the liver , serum , matter , tartar in the kidneys , in spontaneous and procured loosnesses , as vicious humours are separated from the blood , and ejected forth , what wonder then that the same should happen to the chylus , as to the womb ? i answer , that those separations of the said humours from the blood in the liver , kidneys , and other parts , are made by the force of the bowels fram'd to that end ; of which , the whole constitution of the substance and the pores is such ; as likewise the peculiar fermentation proceeding from thence , that those bowels being sound and well , of necessity must make those separations , and cannot act otherwise : in like manner as the peculiar fermentaceous iuice generated in the duodenum by the power of the liver and sweetbread , separates the whitish chylus from the alimentary mass concocted in the stomach . but if the chylus were to be separated from the arterious blood near the womb , it must be done without the help of any bowel , or without any peculiar fermentaceous iuice generated in any bowel particular ordained for that use ; for no such bowel is there at any time to be found . add to this , that not any such separation whatever could bring it to pass , that that same milky juice should be determin'd to certain particular parts , as the womb and breasts , and that at particular times , of breeding and giving suck , and at no other time . for the heart is the one and only general thruster forth of the arterious blood , and that continually , without any distinction of parts or times , but to all parts and at all times . lastly , this is also to be consider'd , that those said chylous and milky humours before that separation from the blood ; really and actually ought to have been in the arterious blood , and to have been mix'd with it : whereas on the contrary , never any true chylus either actually or potentially is contain'd in the blood that passes through the heart , nor there dilated ▪ and so thrust forward into the arteries , as we shall shew l. . c. . chap. xxxi . of the membranes enfolding the birth ; and the humours therein contained . i. next the uterine liver follow two membranes enfolding the birth , and as it were enclosing it in an egg , chorion , and amnios , which because being both joyn'd together , they are expell'd out of the womb together with the placenta , presently after the birth of the child ; are by the latins call'd secundae or secundine , seconds or secundines ; by the greeks 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 and 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , as being things that come forth in the second place . ii. the chorion is an exterior membrane encompassing the whole birth , thick and interwoven with several small diminutive fibres , like threads , smooth within , and somewhat rough without ; here and there sprinkl'd with a little fat , and where it sticks to the bottom of the womb by the help of the placenta , furnished with several vessels proceeding from the first caruncle described c. . as also from the uterine liver , and umbilical vessels : of which those are to be seen in great number in the chorion before the formation of the birth ; but these , after the navel is grown out to its full length from the birth , enter the membrane , and are intermixed with the former , and so being strengthened with this membrane as with a coverlet , pass forward to the uterine liver annexed to the chorion . iii. nicholaus hoboken , besides the chorion , describes another membrane , thin and transparent , not having any visible branches of vessels , very like the amnios sticking to the chorion , and easily separated from it with the nails , without the help of a penknife ; but sticking very close about the region of the placenta sticking to the chorion . this third membrane between the chorion and the amnios , needham was the first that found out , and call'd it very fitly the urinary membrane , rationally affirming it to supply the place of the alantoides in brutes , and that between that and the chorion , the urine of the birth was collected and kept till delivery . and thus by this invention of the most famous needham , and the confirmation of the same by hoboken's inspections into the secundines , all those doubts are most splendidly removed concerning the alantois of women , and the place where the urine of the embryo is contain'd , and preserv'd till delivery . i my self , by needham's directions , have sought for and found it ; and so laid aside all those doubts which have puzl'd me before concerning the alantois in women . this membrane , when others also saw , they took it for the inner part of the chorion , and so asserted the chorion to consist of a double membrane , to which opinion many other anatomists gave their consent . iv. the amnios is the inner membrane , next enfolding the birth and sostly enclosing it , hence call'd by the names of amiculum and indusium , the cloak , or shirt , gently resting upon the chorion , yet no where joyn'd to it , but only in one very small place in the upper part at the caruncle describ'd c. . this is very thin and single , soft , smooth , and transparent , distant from the birth with a loose space , furnished with little vessels hardly visible , issuing from the foresaid caruncle , and the umbilical vessels . this membrane aquapendens thought to be double ; who perhaps lighting upon the urinary membrane before mentioned , thought it to be a part of the amnion . now these small vessels by reason of their extraordinary exility , are very rarely to be discern'd by the eye , and therefore hoboken , and some others thought it had no vessels ; but erroneously , when life , nourishment , and growth , teach us that it cannot want vessels ; seeing that in the spiders web-like , and glassy tunicle of the eye , there are no vessels conspicuous ; and yet they are no less nourished with blood than other parts , and those vessels are sufficiently conspicuous in the net-like tunicle wrap'd about the vitreous humour . needham writes that these little vessels are manifestly to be discerned in a new ejected and warm amnion , but vanish as soon as it comes to be cold . wharton moreover allows the amnios lymphatic vessels , which in regard they are at no time to be seen , nor any way useful therein , whether they be there or no , i very much doubt . v. sometimes at the time of delivery it happens that a torn-off part of this amnios will stick to the head of this birth , and that the child is born with it , as if he had a caul or cap upon his head , for which reason such births are called galeati , or with caps or cauls on them . from this cap the midwifes make great observations upon the future good or ill fortune of the infant , according to the diversity of the colour , and diligently preserve it , as a fee belonging to themselves , by that means to scare and terrify the parents of the infant with their fictions and stories , and procure the more money for it from the parents , whom they ridiculously make believe that if the infant did not eat that cap in powder , or else carry it about him all his life time in a box , he should prove unfortunate or else epileptic ; or be continually haunted with spirits and hobgoblins : but if he did eat or carry it about him , that then he should be happy and fortunate . vi. but we are to observe , that when a woman has conceived twins , they are for the most part wrapt about with one chorion ; but that each embryo has a distinct amnion , and that there is contained in each amnion , a distinct milkie humour , as we find in chessnuts and almonds , the outward shells of which , tho' they include two kernels , yet each kernel has its proper tunicle whereby they are separated one from another . now if it happen that the amnions of twins are broken by any blow , fall , bruise , or through any other means ; or else were not sufficiently distinguished at the beginning , then the embryo's in those parts where they touch one another grow together , and a monster comes to be brought forth . but many times it also happens , that the distinct embryo's are ensolded in distinct cho●…ons . vii . the reason of this was formerly altogether unknown ; but since the discovery of womens ovaries and eggs , it is easily explain'd . for as we often see in hen eggs two yolks , with their distinct whites , separated by a very thin membrane , included in one hard shell , and from such eggs impregnated by the cock and set under the hen , rarely two and well form'd chickens hatch'd , but frequently one monstrous chicken , with four wings and feet , and two heads ; for that the membranes being broken , the two chickens being hatch'd together grow into one . so it may happen in the eggs of women , that two eggs may be included in one harder shell , which constitutes the chorion : and then if the membranes of the amnios are strong enough , the twins remain separated one from the other , and navels issuing from each , are inserted both together into one placenta adhering to the chorion , and at length brought to maturity , come forth apart in the delivery , and when the latter is come forth , there follows but one secundine , which contained 'em both in the womb : neither can there be two placentae , because but one placenta can be fasten'd to one chorion . but if the membranes of the amnios were very weak and broken , then the twins immediately resting one upon another , grew together by reason of the extream softness of the bodies , and so being joyn'd together come forth monstrous in the birth . but if it happen that two distinct mature eggs impregnated with the male seed , slip out of the womans ovaries through the fallopian tubes into the womb , then each embryo comes to be included in distinct membranes , chorion , and amnion ; and each also , ( of necessity to receive the navel of each embryo ) have a distinct placenta adhering to its proper amnion ( as in brutes that bring forth several at a time , every embryo has a distinct and peculiar placentula ) and come forth apart at the time of delivery , their proper secundines following each ; unless by chance the placentae stick more closely to the womb ; and then at length being both together loosen'd , both the secundines follow after the delivery of the twins : and sometimes we have seen one twin follow the other not till the next ; or two days afterward . as in twins , so it is when a woman has conceived three or four children at a time , which births are here very rare , but frequent in scotland . from what has been said also arises the solution of that doubt concerning the number of placentae in twins , when one , and when two or more are necessary : that is , one , when twins are comprehended in one chorion ; two , when each are included in their proper chorions : which two nevertheless lye so close many times to one another , that they seem to be but one at first sight . for the umbilical vessels of each twin , passing thorough their proper chorion and amnion , ought to be presently inserted into the placenta growing in the exterior part of that chorion ; to the end that by its means the embryo may stick to the womb. but they must not be inserted into the placenta growing to the chorion of another birth , as being that which those vessels do not immediately enter , nor so much as tend toward it . viii . these two membranes , the chorion and the amnios , are vulgarly thought to be productions of the membranes of the abdomen of the birth . for that the umbilical vessels proceeding from the abdomen of the birth , are included within two membranes , constituting the little gut : of which the innermost , which is the thinner , is thought to be produced from the peritoneum ; the outermost , which is the thicker , from the carnous membrane these membranes being dilated to the end of the navel , and expanded about the birth , out of the innermost the amnion is said to be form'd , out of the exterior the chorion : and this is the opinion of harvey . hippocrates also seems to intimate the same thing , where he says , out of the navel extended are form'd two membranes . who also saw in the conception of a singing wench , a membrane produced from the navel which contained the conception . if any one object , that these membranes are generated before the parts of the birth are delineated . i answer , that the threads of the first delineation , tho' they are not visible to the eye , are yet in being . for in a hen-egg we observe a little ruddy dancing poynt ( which is thought to be the heart ) which cannot beat unless it receive something thorough the veins , and force it through the arteries ; and yet tho' neither the one or the other are visible , yet reason teaches us , that they are in being . in like manner in a human birth , tho' all the first lineaments are not to be seen , yet they are there , and the navel may be produced out of them , together with the membranes infolding the birth . if any one shall say that in a hen-egg there are membranes before the navel is delineated , nay before the egg is set under the hen : i answer , that in an egg , before the delineation of the parts , all things requisite ought to be in readiness ; which cannot be contributed by the hen toward their delineation ; as in creatures that bring forth live conceptions they are prepared by degrees together with the delineation . for these receive from the womb of the dam more nourishment over and above to supply their growth ; from which nourishment also these membranes delineated out of the female seed receive their growth . these opinions of harvey pleased me also formerly , but after i saw , in the abortions described c. ▪ these membranes already form'd , nay very large and strong , before the formation of the birth begun , while the procreative matter is collected in the crystaline bubble ; no threads at all being as yet extended from the bubble ; and also in the beginning of the embryo already form'd , a foundation hardly conspicuous to bud forth out of the belly , nor any the least delineaments of the vessels extended from it through the colliquation or dissolv'd matter , toward the membranes ; but the embryo altogether free , nor joyn'd to any part swimming upon the colliquation ; and both membranes already sufficiently strong , and wrap'd about the whole dissolv'd matter , and furnished with conspicuous vessels , i thought my self obliged to recede from that opinion , and not without reason ; in regard it was impossible that such strong membranes , so conspicuous and so large , should be generated out of any invisible string ( of which harvey speaks ) which never any person could so much as dream to be form'd out of the bubble at first collected together . ix . therefore these membranes do not arise from their beginning ; but are generated in the womens ovaries themselves out of the female seed ▪ as we have said c. . and are encompassed with eggs. which eggs being afterwards discharged into the womb , their outward membranes swell , and the chorion grows thicker ( like leather steep'd in water ) and being very much dilated , constitute these two membranes , the chorion and the amnion . and as the outward shell of a hen or other birds egg , before it be laid , sticks with a little branch to the ovary ; so also in a woman these membranes by means of a caruncle sticking to the chorion , adhere not to the ovary but to the womb it self at the very beginning ; as appears in the abortions describ'd c. . and perhaps in that very part where the egg descends out of the tube into the womb ; and embrace the whole dissolv'd matter together with the crystalline bubble collected therein ; and so within their walls , through the benigne cherishing of the uterine heat , the architectonic spirit latent in the bubble , is set at liberty , and roused into action . as for those slender small vasa sanguisera , which from the beginning are seen dispersed through the chorion ( as we have observed in the forecited abortions ) i have observed them to be produced not from the birth then not as yet form'd , or from the crystalline bubble , furnished as yet with no blood or blood-bearing vessels ; but from that fleshy , spungy , and plainly rubicund particle , which at the upper part stuck to the chorion , and seem'd to be endamag'd without-side , and as it were torn from the womb ( so that it might appear that the chorion stuck to the womb by means of it ) which seem'd to receive those little vessels from the vessels of the womb by continuation , and so send them to the chorion . x. besides the foresaid membranes , there is in brutes that bring forth living conceptions , a third membrane found in form of a bagg , very thin , and furnish'd with no visible vessels . this by galen and the ancient physicians is called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , from 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , a kind of pudding , like the gut wherein puddings use to be made . for according to suidas , 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 ; is taken for 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 a gut. hence the latins call it the farciminal , or pudding membrane , and sometimes the intestinal or gut membrane ; tho' it does not in all creatures retain the shape of a pudding or gut , but in many resembles a broad swath . xi . it is a most thin membrane , smooth , hollow , soft , and yet thick , without any vessels conspicuous to the eye , by no means enfolding the whole birth , extended to the utmost extremity from one horn of the womb to the other , waxing slender at the extream parts that enter the horns of the womb , till it end in a point . xii . it rises with a narrow beginning , where the urachus or passage of the urine , continuous to it , opens into its hollowness , and presently dilates it self . xiii . it is seated between the chorion and the amnion , from which it may be easily separated . xiv . it s use is to collect the urine of the embryo , flowing out of the bladder through the urachus , and to preserve it till the time of delivery . from which use of it , needham calls it in all creatures which have a placenta , the urinary membrane . xv. its bigness and figure varies according to the difference of creatures . for in some it resembles a gut in shape and bigness , in others a broad swath , and is much larger , as in a cow , much more in a mare , in which creature it is every way fastened to the chorion , and enfolds the whole birth together with the amnion . but as for its bigness and shape in sows , coneys , doggs , and some other creatures , gualter needham exactly describes upon view . l. de format . foet . and in the same place adds the whole discourse concerning it , and the manner of finding it out in brutes . xvi . now seeing that urine abounds in the conceptions of all creatures that bring forth living births , while they remain in the womb , and that there is a necessity for the same to be discharged out of the womb , and reserv'd somewhere till the time of delivery , the question is whether this membrane alantois , be in all creatures , especially in women ? aquapendens says , that women , cats , and bitches are destitute of this membrane , as also are all other creatures that have teeth in both jaws : and that the urine of their conceptions is collected in no peculiar vessel , but flows out of the urachus between the chorion and the amnion , and is there reserv'd till the time of delivery . but our modern more quicksighted anatomists have found it now in many of those creatures who were deny'd it before . yet do these very much question whether it be in women . harvey who overlook'd it in brutes , denies any such thing in women . on the other side , highmore not only allows it to brutes , but admits it in women ; and assigns it in them the same use , which it is vulgarly said to have in brutes : that is , to receive the urine of the embryo through the urachus , and reserve it till the time of delivery : and agreeing with vesalius , says it is easy to be found , if in a bigg-bellied woman the dissection should be begun from the placenta , otherwise by reason of its extream slenderness it is easy to be broken . but here needham well observes , that vesalius at the time that he wrote , had never dissected any woman with child ( as he confesses himself in the same place ) and therefore made a judgment of women by what he observ'd in doggs : and describ'd a human embryo wrap'd in the secundines of a whelp . but afterwards , when he had dissected a woman with child , he changed his opinion , and number'd but two membranes in a woman , that is to say the amnion and alantois , reaching the chorion not under the name of a membrane , but of the whole conception . in this obscurity , the quicksighted needham gave us great light , who describes not any farciminal or pudding-like membrane , such as the alantois in many beasts , but a bagg quite of another fashion , wherein the urine of the conception is collected and reserved till the time of delivery . the secundines , says he , being received by the midwife , let 'em be laid in their proper posture , as well as may be . then taking a small packthread , follow it as far as the amnion . this is fastened to the packthread a little below the placenta , the rest hangs free . if the amnion be fresh , you shall find the little veins of it ; otherwise they vanisht , the blood being run out , and the membrane cold . this being left about the packthread , go to the next membrane , which if you prick withoutside about the placenta , or tear the extream edges with your fingers , you shall find to be easily divided into two ; of which the outermost is porous and spungy , and full of little veins ; the innermost very slippery , and extreamly transparent , but void of veins and arteries . that i take for the chorion , this for the urinary tunicle . it cannot be call'd a folding or facing of the former , because of the dissimilitude of the substance ; but whether we look upon the situation , figure , or substance of it , it is the same with the urinary membrane of all placenta breeding animals . but it is not shap'd like the alantois , neither is there any membrane of that figure in a woman . from which words it is apparent that there is no such alantois allow'd to women as in beasts . but this also appears over and above , that needham rightly and truly asserted the inner thi●… membrane next adhering to the chorion , to supply the place of the alantois in women , and that the urine flow'd out of the bladder of the birth through the urachus , between that and the chorion , where it is reserved till the time of delivery . and this invention of gualter needham's , nicolas hoboken found out , confirm'd , and describ'd , in most secundines , lib ▪ de secund. human. xvii . within the amnion , besides the embryo , is contained certain milkie liquor in great quantity , very like to watery milk , somewhat oylie , which harvey calls the colliquamentum , or dissolv'd matter , in which the embryo swims , and which sticks to it , when first born , all over the body , and is usually washed off by the midwife with warm water , or wine and butter . xviii . but here i think it necessary to distinguish between that liquor wherein the embryo at its first delineation swims , and that wherein it swims afterward . for the first is the seminal residue of the mans and womans seed , and is well and truly call'd the dissolv'd matter . but the latter is that , which when the former is consum'd , and the navel being now brought to the uterine liver , flows through the umbilical vessels , and is a juice meerly milkie , but watery , not to be call'd by the name of colliquamentum . here by the way , we may take notice of the error of fabricius , and some others , who thought that same unctuous uncleanness sticking to the body of the child new born , to be an excrement of the third concoction , made in the whole habit . as also of that mistake of claudius de la courvee , who lib. de nutrit . foet , writes that it is nothing else than an excrement , falling from the brain through the mouth and nostrils . but it was nothing but the ignorance of the nature and use of the milkie liquor contained in the amnion that produc'd these errors . xix . concerning the liquor in the amnion , there are two different opinions of the physicians : while some think it to be the urine , others the sweat of the conception . but neither of the two have hit the mark. xx. that it is not urine , appears by this , for that this liquor is found in the birth new form'd , in great abundance , whereas so small an embryo never discharges any urine . nay , for that it is found in the amnios before the birth is form'd ; whereas there can nothing of urine flow from the crystalline bubble . xxi . that it is not sweat , is hence apparent , that before the birth is form'd and perfected , or else from the beginning of the formation of the birth , it is impossible that sweat so unctuous , and thick , and in so great abundance should flow from so small an embryo , which exceeds in quantity , ten times or more , the little body of the embryo . moreover , if this liquor were an excrement , whether urine or sweat , or any thing else , it would encrease as the birth grows . but ocular inspection teaches us the contrary . for in sheep it so manifestly abates by degrees , as the birth enlarges , that a little before the lamb is yean'd , there is hardly any remaining ; tho' it abounded at the beginning . lastly , sweat and urine are acrimonious excrements , wherein if the tender embryo , covered with an extraordinary thin and soft skin , should swim for nine or ten months together , it would be much injured by that acrimony . as we find the skin of new born i●…fants to be many times very much corroded by the sharpness of the urine : tho' their skin be much harder and firmer than the skin of the birth in the womb. xxii . riolanus , anthropog . l. . c. . acknowledges this liquor to be the sweat of the birth ; but c. . he says it is the steam of the arterious blood fuming from the heart , and so turn'd into that water that surrounds the birth . which if it were true , that liquor ought to be at the beginning , whereas there is none or very little blood as yet , neither can be any or very little , but is more and more increased as the birth enlarges : whereas on the contrary it abounds very much at the beginning , and from that time forward abates by degrees : and how little is to be found in sheep after yeaning , has been said already . xxiii . therefore this liquor contain'd in the amnios , is no excrement , but an alimentary humour , and nourishes with its matter , out of which at the beginning is taken the nourishment of all and singular the parts of the embryo : and hence follows their encrease . for it is the next nourishment wherewith the birth is nourished at first . for therein it is found to swim , before the uterine liver manifestly appears , from which at length being enlarged , the umbilical blood-bearing vessels manifestly suck forth blood ; with which alone , if the birth were to be nourished , it would for some time at the beginning want all manner of nourishment , neither would there be any alimentary matter to supply the first growth of the parts . but hence also it appears to be a nutritious humour , and to be taken in at the mouth by the birth , for that in colour , tast , and consistency it differs little or nothing from that liquor which is found in the stomach of the birth . xxiv . in the first forming of the birth this liquor is nothing else but the seed of the woman ( like the white of an egg ) inclosed in the egg , mix'd with the residue of the mans seed being dissolv'd . afterwards when the umbilical vessels are grown to their just length , and entered the uterine liver , then is the milkie juice carried thither through the milkie umbilical vessels from the milk-bearing cells of the womb , whose whitish colour , sweetish tast , and likeness of substance little differ from the chylous liquor , somewhat mix'd with the lympha , and which is found in the pectoral chylifer channel , and its receptacle . whence it is altogether probable , that it is the purer part of the chylus , somewhat watery by its mixture with the lympha , carried from the mother to the hollowness of the amnios , through the passages mentioned in the foregoing chapter ; nay it is pleasing to the tast , like watery milk ; for which we do not take so much the judgment of our own tast , but harvey's proof from this , that almost all brute creatures that bring forth living conceptions , lick it up from their young ones newly brought forth , and swallow it ; whereas they never touch the excrements of the birth . wharton writes , that it is a liquor poured forth from the nerves within the amnion ; perchance , because that being deceived by the white colour , he took the milky vessels to be nerves . needham thinks that it is a milky liquor carried thither through the ●…eries , somewhat mixed with the nervous liquor : which opinion we resute , l. . c. . xxv . nicolas hoboken also asserts this liquor to be carried thorough the arteries , tho' after another manner . for tho' up and down in other places of his book de secund . human . he writes that he could not observe any blood-bearing vessels in the amnios : yet in his treatise de secund . vitul . he writes that the arteries possess in a plentiful number the tunicle of the amnios , and that in that place there is a great correspondence between them and very many small glandules , not only in great number besieging the outer parts of the little string , but the inner parts of the amnios : so far forth as by means of those little glandules , the arterious blood carried thither , is affected and prepared , that the said liquor may be thence conveighed to the hollow of the amnios . but he does not add what alteration it undergoes , nor does he any way prove that correspondence which he supposes by conjecture . moreover in many parts , by means of the glandules the lympha is separated from the blood , as choler in the liver , the splenetic juice in the spleen , &c. but it was never heard that any juice which is not in that blood ▪ could be separated from it , or that the arterious blood could be changed into milkie juice . xxvi . here we meet with one difficulty , that is to say , that the milkie vessels , as well those that come from the mother to the womb , as those that run from the birth to the womb , are never to be seen , but no man will make a wonder of this , who sees how easily all blood-bearing vessels , even the chyle-bearing pectoral channel , which is somewhat bigger , ly hid when empty ; and sometimes the lymphatic vessels being empty'd disappear , so that they neither be discern'd or found any more . he also that has observ'd how invisible those passages are through which sometimes in the dropsy the serous humours of the abdomen , and in the flowing of the whites , that vast sink of the vitious humours is emptyed through the womb , from the liver , mesentery , and other vessels of the abdomen . so also these milkie uterine and umbilical channels , without question , are very small , and in dead women evacuated , and thence they have hitherto so long layn hid , that they have scap'd the sight of the anatomists . of which nevertheless there have not long since been some discoveries made , which some persons not dreaming of the milkie vessels , have taken for lymphatics , others for diminutive nerves . xxvii . charleton reports that vanhorn , a famous anatomist of leyden , in an epistle to thomas bartholin , wrote that he observ'd two milkie branches descending toward the separation of the great artery , extended to the seat of the womb near the crurals . something also to this purpose has anthony everard observed in coneys : for he writes that in a coney with young , he observ'd some milk-bearing channels , arising from the descending trunk that run along together with the spermatic vessels to the parts serving for generation . deusingius gives a clear ocular description of these vessels ; de hum . corp. fab. p. . c. . for , says he , that there are milkie vessels also belong to the womb , conveighing alimentary iuice to the birth , we have not only in another place , by most solid arguments demonstrated ; but observ'd by ocular inspection in bitches whelps innumerable diminutive milkie branches running through the broad ligaments of the womb , to the horns themselves , and the whole body of the womb. moreover we observ'd in the year . a little milkie branch entring together with the umbilical vessels through the navel of the whelps contained in the womb. and as in other creatures so there is no question to be made but there is in women . but tho' we have not hitherto seen these milkie conveighances to the womb , however it suffices for the demonstration of the truth , that they have been discovered by more quick-sighted anatomists ; and that also it may be demonstrated by most certain arguments , that of necessity they must be there , tho' they are seldom conspicuous . . because there is a great similitude in colour , tast , and substance between the liquors of the chyle-bearing pectoral channel and the amnios . . because in breeding women , a certain chylous milkie liquor flows in great abundance from the womb . as has been observ'd and seen by andrew laurentius , zacutus , lusitanus and others . . for that colour'd liquors being swallowed down , come presently to the womb , which cannot penetrate thither so suddainly through any other than the milkie vessels conceal'd and devious from the rest . thus writes iohn heurnius , that upon the giving of saffron in broths , a woman brought forth a child stain'd with a saffron colour . also henrie ab heer 's reports , that a woman having swallowed saffron , within half a quarter of an hour brought forth a child stained with a yellow colour . which colour could not possibly reach so soon to the womb and the birth , unless together with the chylus , it were carried thither , through certain milkie vessels devious from the rest . for if the saffron were first to be concocted in the heart , and then to be carried thither with the blood , it would lose its colour . or grant it still to be retained , yet it would require the interval of some hours before it could come to the womb . concerning this matter see some other things said c. . whereby the remarkable experiment try'd by herdotius in a bitch with puppy , this same devious passage of the milky juice to the womb is made very apparent , and there illustrated with other observations . xxviii . here we are to take notice of the mistake of curveus , who writes , that at the beginning there is a humour in great abundance collected between the chorion and the amnios , and that that being filter'd through the membrane of the amnion , penetrates to the inner hollowness of the amnion ; and that this inner iuice differs not from the other , but only in its thinness caus'd by the same filtration . whereas the humour , which is found without the amnion , is not contain'd simply in the chorion , but between the chorion and the urinary membrane ; neither is there any at the beginning in that part to be filter'd , whereas from the very beginning the moisture moderately abounds in the amnion ; and whereas the inner juice is not thinner , but much more thick and viscous than that which afterwards increases between the chorion and the urinary membrane . moreover , the milky juice of this amnion , being boyl'd , grows to the consistence of a gelly , but the other without the amnion thickens without any boyling . the first is apparent by the experiment of rolfinch , lib. . dissert . anat. c. . where , says he , we boyl'd the humours wherein the birth swims with a gentle heat , when the thinner particles being consum'd , that which remain'd at the bottom was clammy like glue . the humours upon the tongue taste somewhat sweetish , so that this glutinous substance is grateful to the taste ; neither is there any thing of luxivious or salt in it . but it does not only grow thick and viscous by boyling , but also the cold congeals it to a moderate thickness and viscosity , by which i have seen this juice thicken'd in the umbilical intestine to the thickness of a perfect gelly , and in the amnion to the consistency of the white of an egg. xxix . now tho' it may seem to be a thing unquestionable that this milky iuice is carried through some milky vessels from the mother to the womb , and from that through the milky vessels of the placenta , within the hollowness of the amnion , yet from what part of the mother , and from whence these milky vessels proceed toward the womb , has been hitherto discovered by no body that i know of . some by uncertain conjectures believe that they are extended thither from the thoracic chyle-bearing chanel , others from the chyle-bearing bag , others from the sweet-bread . of which , if any clear demonstration could be made out , the question would be at an end . ent most couragiously endeavours to dispel this cloud of darkness , apol. digress . . where he writes , that this liquor is deriv'd from no inner milky vessels , but that it flows from the womans breasts to the womb , and that the birth is nourish'd with the mothers milk , no less within than without the womb : and for this reason he believes the teats of brute beasts to stand so near the womb ; to the end the milk may flow from them more easily to the womb . but as for the passage which way , he takes no great care : for he writes that the milk descends from the breasts through the mamillary veins , and from thence into the epigastrics , joyned to them by anastomosis , and through those flows down to the womb . but that he may not seem to contradict circulation altogether , he says , that it may happen without any prejudice , that there may be a flux contrary to the usual circulation through some veins , if there be a new attractor . he adds , that it is for this reason that the milk is generated in the breast so long before delivery ; that is so soon as the woman quickens . so that if the milk did not flow to the birth , the woman would be very much prejudic'd , and the blood being detain'd for three or four months together would be corrupted . lastly , he a●…nexes the authority of hippocrates , who says , aph. . . if the breasts of a woman with child suddainly fall and grow lank , she miscarries . for , says ent , when the milk fails in the breast , there can be no nourishment afforded to the birth in the womb , which for that reason dies , and is thrown out by abortion . xxx . but tho' these things are speciously propounded by ent , yet there are many things that subvert the learned gentleman's argument . . because that milky liquor abounds within the amnion , before any thing of milk be generated in the breasts . . because it is impossible that the blood should be carried upward , and the milky juice downward at the same time through the mammillary and epigastric veins . . because that between the mammillary and epigastric veins there are no such anastomoses as he proposes . . for that the milky liquor of the breasts passing through those blood-conveighing passages , would lose its white colour by its mixture with the blood , and so it would not be found to be white , but red in the amnion . . for that the feeble heart of a small embryo could never be able to draw this milky juice from the mothers breasts : besides that , there is no such distant attraction in the body of man , and whether there be any such at a nearer distance , is much to be question'd . . for that the milk , from the one half of the womans time , till the time of delivery , never remains in the breast , but entring the mammillary veins , together with their blood , is carried in the order of circulation to the vena cava , as the chylus reaches thither through the subclavial vein , which is the reason it is neither corrupted , nor does the woman any prejudice at all . . as to hippocrates his affirming the lankness of the breast to be a sign of abortion ; for this in a woman shews that either the chylus is defective , or that it is all carried to the heart , and none to the womb or breasts . hence hippocrates concludes , that if formerly the chylus flow'd in great abundance to the breasts , they dry up of a suddain , as appears by the lankness of the breasts , much more will that fail which is carried in a lesser quantity to the womb , for the nourishment of the tender birth , and that through much narrower vessels , and so of necessity the birth must dye for want of nourishment , and be cast forth by abortion . xxxi . from all which it is apparent , that milky iuice , let it come from what parts it will to the womb , it does not come from the breasts ; and that their opinion i●… most probable who believe it flows from the chyle-bag , the pectoral passage , and other internal chyle-bearing vessels , tho' there has been as yet no clear demonstration of those passages . xxxii . veslingius either not observing , or ignorant of the nourishment of the birth at the mouth , ascribes to this milky liquor of the amnion a use of small importance . for he says that it only preserves the tender vessels of the embryo swimming upon it , in the violent motions of the mother ; and when the time of delivery approaches , that it softens and loosens the maternal places by its efflux , to render the passage of the infant more easie : moreover , he thinks it to be the more watery part of the womans seed , as we have said before cap. . xxxiii . the amnios , urinary membrane and chorion , at the caruncle in abortions describ'd cap. . sticks close one to another ( where they transmit the umbilical vessels toward the uterine liver ) but every where else they lye loosely only at the beginning of the conception ; and when at length the umbilical vessels have pass'd those membranes , then through the flowing in of the urine of the birth through the urachus , the urinary membrane begins to recede from the chorion ( which till that time seemed to be the inner part of the chorion ; and between that and the chorion the urinary serous humour begins daily to increase , as the birth grows ; so that near the time of delivery it is there to be found in great quantity . xxxiv . this urinary liquor riolanus denies to be there , and affirms that there is no liquor to be found without side the amnios . and so veslingius seems never to have distinctly observ'd it ; for he says that no humour can be collected together between the membranes of the birth , by reason of their sticking so close together . but ocular inspection teache●… us that there is no such close connexion , but only a loose conjunction or imposion one upon another . the whole mistake seems to have proceeded from hence , that it was not known that the urinary membrane containing the urinary liquor , lay hid between the chorion and the amnion , and drew back , and was extended from the chorion upon the flowing in of the urine of the birth . whence many question'd whether any liquor could be contain'd in that place : which cloud is now dispell'd by needham's late discovery of the urinary membrane . xxxv . we have many times seen the said urinaceous humour contained between the chorion and the urinaceous membrane , manisestly separated from the liquor of the amnios in such brutes where it is collected in the alantois : and in bitches , the demonstration of the separation is easie to be made . for if you take a puppy by the head , as yet wrapt up in its membranes , you shall see these humours by the means of the membranes of the alantois and amnion separated one from another , and the serous and turbulent hamour inclos'd in the alantois , and so to remain between the chorion and the amnion , but that the other milky juice is contain'd within the amnion . then open the chorion with the alantois , presently the outermost milky juice flows forth , but the other milky juice remains in the amnion . and thus we must conclude that the serous urinary humour in human conceptions is collected and reserv'd between the chorion and the urinary membrane , but that the other milky juice is enclos'd within the amnion . and that we lately demonstrated in a woman that had almost gone out her time , suddainly choak'd with a catarrh ; finding the watery urinary liquor to a great quantity inclos'd between the chorion and the thin urinary membrane , which we then thought to be the alantois ; the other milky juice residing within the amnion ; tho' there was not so great a quantity of it . this was the first body where i thought i had seen any shadow of an alantois , but afterward , by the preceding demonstration of needham , i perceiv'd there was no alantois in women , like the alantois in beasts ; but that the urinary membrane supply'd its place . xxxvi . now what this serous humour is , contain'd between the chorion and the urinary membrane , till our very times , both physicians and anatomists , have been in great doubt : and this in certainty begat opinions . according to the first , many believ'd that it was not some excrement , but a kind of humour like butter-milk , less nourishing than that contain'd in the amnion ; and that the purer part of it serv'd for the nourishment of the birth , and was carried to it through the little fibres of the umbilical vessels extended thither according to harvey's observation : but that the more unprofitable part was reserv'd for the preservation of the birth till the delivery ; by its softness to defend the birth from external injuries , and to moisten and make slippery the privy parts in time of travail . according to the other opinion , others thought that this humour was the urine of the child , discharg'd through the urachus , and receiv'd by degrees between the chorion and the urinary membrane , there to be reserv'd till the time of delivery , to moisten the female parts , and render them slippery , for the more easie passage of the birth . for the latter of these opinions we give our voice ; because it is altogether necessary , that all the parts of the birth being form'd , the kidneys should perform their duty , and separate the superfluous copious serum from the blood . for the nutriment of the birth , that is the blood and the milky juice , is very serous , that being the more liquid and fluid , they may pass with more ease to the birth , and be the better digested by the new-form'd bowels . but it was requisite that superfluous serum should be separated from the profitable juice , to forward the growth of the parts , which would otherwise be altogether serous , and render the birth distended with an anasarca . now the kidneys separate that serous excrement , out of which it slides through the ureters into the bladder , wherein it is to be found in great quantity in embryo's of five or six months growth , wherein all things appear more clearly to the eye . but it flows not out of the bladder through its orifice , because at that time the overstraitned sphincter does not transmit the urine : for such was the supream creators pleasure , lest the urine flowing out of the genitals , should be mingled with the milky juice which the birth takes in at the mouth , and defile , corrupt , and render it unfit for nourishment . and therefore another passage was provided for it thorough the urachus , rising from the bottom of the bladder toward the navel . which tho' in men born it be consolidated in the shape of a ligament , like the umbilical vein growing out of the liver of the birth ; yet while the birth is included in the womb , it is always penetrable , and sufficiently conspicuous as far as the navel ; and conveys and pours forth the urine out of the bladder between the chorion and the urinary membrane , there to be reserv'd till the time of delivery . xxxvii . they that do not agree with us in this opinion , are wont to say , that this serous humour is found very plentiful between the membranes at the beginning of the formation of the birth . even deusingius himself following the opinion of harvey , writes ▪ that then it exceeds in quantity a hundred times any other humour contain'd in the amnion , and therefore it cannot be urine ; but that of necessity it is a humour very requisite for the nourishment and security of the birth , tho' not so good as that other which is contain'd in the amnion . but these are meer figments altogether contrary to experience . for in the beginning of the formation of the birth , this humour appears not at all , but about the fourth month a very little is to be seen ; and from that time forward , as the birth and the reins increase , and the kidneys do their office , so much the more it augments . but herein appears their mistake , that while they labour to defend their opinion with great heat , they do not distinguish between the serous humour excluded out of the amnion , and the milky juice abiding within the amnion ; and by means of the urinous membrane , and the tunicle of the amnion it self , separated from the serum it self . moreover , they do not take notice that the milky juice is that which from the beginning of the birth is most plentiful , neither unpleasing to the taste or smell ; and is so consum'd for the most part in many brutes , that there is nothing hardly remaining at the time of the birth . whereas on the other side , the other serous humour is not to be seen at the beginning of the formation ; but afterwards appears in a small quantity , and so augments by degrees . neither has it any thing of a whitish colour , but gains both colour , taste and smell , as it increases , and at length , at the time of delivery , comes away in great quantity , and with a strong smell . wherein if the birth had immediately swam in the womb , the tender little body had suffer'd no small prejudice without side , by reason of its acrimony ; nor less within side , for that being continually swallow'd in at the mouth down the stomach , it must needs have extreamly afflicted the embryo . xxxviii . the less attentive consideration of this matter deceiv'd riolanus also , who did not observe that there were two and two plainly distinct humours , of different natures , contain'd between the membranes , but took 'em both together for one and the same humour , which he thought resided within the amnion . which mistake of his is apparent by what has been said already . chap. xxxii . of the navel-string , its use , and the nourishment of the birth . i. the membranes infolding the birth being open'd , the navel comes to be seen , so call'd from umbo , signifying the boss of a shield , because it is in the middle of the belly , or the center of the lower belly ; by the greeks call'd 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , and by aristotle 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , the root of the belly . some , with galen , have asserted it to be the center of the whole body , which vesalius places better in the joyning together of the share-bones . ii. the navel-string is a membranous winding and unequal chanel rising from the mediety of the abdomen of the birth toward the uterine liver , conspicuously long , and when the birth is fully mature three spans , rarely half an ell in length ; and about a fingers breadth in thickness . which longitude and laxity was requisite at first , to the end the birth now become stronger in the womb , should not break the navel with its tumbling and kicking ; but come more easily into the world without breaking it , and the remaining secundines sticking to it , be more easily drawn forth . iii. it turns back for the most part above the breast , and produces it self toward the left from the hinder part of the head to the forehead , and hence proceeding to the uterine liver , is joyn'd to it by the vessels contain'd in it , and the membranes . sometimes it proceeds forward toward the right side , hence it winds about the neck , and so descends to the placenta . sometimes i have observ'd it turn'd back above the breast , toward the hinder parts and back , never coming at all to the neck ; for nature wonderfully varies in its situation . even very lately i found it above the breast and head , and evolv'd about the left foot. rarely as skenkius observ'd in a difficult labour of his own wife , that the navel should wind about the neck of the birth , with two or three circumvolutions . more rare what hoboken observes of a birth , whose navel was wound four times about the neck , the head being next the placenta ; which birth having broken the membranes , came forth with the secundine altogether . iv. the navel-string consists of vessels , and a little pipe containing vessels , call'd the diminutive gut. the umbilical vessels , which proceed from the birth , are usually reckon'd to be four ; one vein , two arteries , and the urachus . but to these the milky vessels are necessarily to be added , through which the milky liquor is conveyed from the little caverns of the womb into the hollow of the amnion . v. a vein larger than the arteries rises from the liver of the birth , out of the cleft of which it goes forth to the foundation of the vena cava , of which it is a sprig ; and thence passing the navel , it runs through the navel-string to the placenta , into which it is ingrafted with many roots . harvey deduces its first original from the heart , but erroneously ; for it comes not to the heart , but by the means of the vena cava . and so its original is rather to be deriv'd from the vena cava , and the original of the vena cava from the heart . vi. it has been hitherto the vulgar opinion , that the blood flowing from the placenta , is pour'd forth into the liver of the birth , and there farther concocted to the highest perfection of blood. on the other side , harvey writes , that there is no use of the liver in the embryo , and that therefore this vein passes entirely through the liver directly to the vena cava ; and so that the umbilical blood suffers no alteration neither in the liver , but flows directly through that into the vena cava , and thence to the heart , there to be dilated into a more spirituous blood. riolanus asserts quite another thing , that the umbilical vein is twofold in the liver , and equally communicates as well to the porta , as the cava , and that he learn'd it by manifold experience . dominic de marchettis testifies also , that he once saw the same thing : and frederic ruysch , that he discover'd and shew'd it in the liver of a calf newly calv'd . and so they believe that some part of the umbilical blood is emptied into the liver , and the other half pour'd forth into the vena cava . at first sight reason seems to perswade us to give great credit to harvey . for that the ferment , which in men born , by reason of the harder nourishments that are to be dissolv'd , ought to be more sowr and sharp , is made in the liver and spleen : but in the birth , where in respect of the softer nourishment it ought to be more mild , it is made in the uterine placenta , so that there is little or no use of the liver and spleen ; nor of the lungs ; but that those vessels chiefly grow , and are reserv'd for future uses : and hence it may seem probable that the blood passes directly through the liver to the vena cava , without any remarkable alteration , and thence directly to the heart . this glisson seems more strongly to confirm , who describes a certain veiny chanel in the liver , which easily admits an indifferent probe ; open in children new born , and embryo's ; in men grown always shut ; which tends directly to the vena cava , and is given to that end that it should bring the stream of blood flowing through the umbilical vein into the vena cava . which last cannot be true , seeing that all the spermatic parts , of which one of the principal is the liver , are delineated together ; and that this liver is first conspicuous among the rest of the bowels , afterwards the heart , long before the umbilical vein , and in a short time grows to a remarkable and conspicuous bigness . but tho' the aforesaid reasons seem very plausible for harvey and glisson's opinion ; yet that riolanus and ruysch were much more in the right , i could easily prove by my own observation . for that i might understand this matter more certainly , i resolved to try an experiment upon a still ▪ born infant : to that purpose having open'd the abdomen with the breast , i blew through a straw thrust into the umbilical vein , and observ'd that presently i blew the heart and the lungs , yet so that the liver also receiv'd somewhat of the breath ; without doubt through the lateral little branch taken notice of by riolanus and ruysch , and inserted into the liver or vena porta ; which tho' in the first months it be so slender , that it is hardly discernable , nevertheless 't is most likely that afterwards this little vessel increases with the rest of the parts , and contributes more blood to the liver , towards its swifter growth , the better to prepare and fit it for its future office ; which for some time it begins in the womb before delivery , as is apparent from the gall , which is found in the gall-bladder of a child born perfect , but in an abortion of six or seven months , and in the excrements of children newly born . for the liver does not presently after the delilivery , as it were , skip to its office of bilious fermentation , but is us'd to it by degrees in the womb . vii . the umbilical vein therefore conveys the blood prepar'd in the placenta to the birth ; the return of which into the placenta is prevented by several valves looking toward the birth , and sustaining the violence of the blood , endeavouring to flow back . nevertheless these valves , by reason of their extraordinary slenderness , can hardly be demonstrated ; but that they are there , we have just reason to conclude , because the blood cannot be squeez'd with the finger from the birth toward the placenta , but may easily be squeez'd toward the birth . nicholas hoboken writes , that he could find no genuine valves in the umbilical vein , but that he observ'd several winding inequalities ; and near the placenta saw a caruncle , or rather a little membranous separating fold , so situated according to the length and depth of the vein , as to terminate the veiny spreading forth of the branches , and seem'd to supply the place of a little valve ; which he calls analogous to the valve . viii . here we are to take notice of the mistake of john claudius de la curvee , who believ'd there was nothing conveyed to the birth through the umbilical vein from the uterine placenta , but that quite the contrary , the blood flow'd from the birth to the placenta ; because this vein grows from the birth first , and proceeds to the placenta , therefore , says he , the blood must first flow into the placenta , and so be carried toward its own end inserted into the placenta . but not only the foresaid valves plainly demonstrate curveus's error , but also the trial made by a ligature , of which in due place . besides , his reason drawn from the original of the umbilical vein , is of no moment ; for the beginning of the production does not argue the beginning of the use ; but its aptitude for any farther use . thus the vena cava , according to harvey , is produced from the heart , nevertheless the blood does not flow from the heart , into the hollow vena cava , but out of the vena cava into the heart : thus the roots of plants grow downward into the earth ; nevertheless the nourishment is conveyed from them out of the earth to the plants , and not out of the plants into the earth . ix . the umbilical vein does not seem to be order'd after the same manner in brutes as in men. for fabricius observes in a bitch and a cat , beside the vein already mention'd , two other umbilical veins that pass away to the mesenteric veins , and open themselves into them . one near the stomach , the other near the thick guts . but highmore writes that he has found in cows an umbilical vein always double . perhaps also there may be some difference in other creatures , which we leave for others to enquire . x. the umbilical arteries , being two , derive their original from the internal iliac branches of the great artery , at the beginning of the spreading of the branches ; from which being stretched forth upward toward the sides of the bladder , and having got the vein in their company , they enter the navel-string , and pass through it with a much more winding and looser chanel than the vein , and so these three vessels , sometimes in order lightly twisted , sometimes opposed one to another only like a triangle , pass thorough the milky gelly contained in the navel-string , pass to the uterine liver , into which they are ingraffed with innumerable roots , and form therein a most wonderful texture , and net-like fold , which bartholine seeing , says that those vessels close one among another in the placenta , with a wonderful anastomosis ; which nevertheless is not very probable , neither can any body demonstrate the truth of it . neither carpus nor fabricius make any mention of any anastomosis ; but only they observe about a spans distance from the birth , a more confus'd contexture of these three vessels , and a ruder contorsion . i my self formerly more accurately intent in the examination of the navel , found and shew'd sometimes a certain slight , sometimes no contorsion at all , but that these vessels , as it were , placed in a triangle , and almost at an equal distance , disjoyn'd one from another , passed directly through the gelly of the pipe of the navel-string , as has been said . xi . harvey writes , that these arteries are hardly to be found in the embryo for the first months , but that the umbilical vein is conspicuous long before these ; and hence he believes that these arteries are form'd later , and sometimes after the vein . but it is more probable that these three vessels are form'd and grow together , seeing that the parenchyma of the uterine placenta cannot be sufficiently enlivened without these arteries , and rows'd into action ; and also that there could be no use of the umbilical vein , unless the vital blood were carried first through the arteries to the placenta . but the reason why they are later conspicuous , is this , because they are much less and slenderer ; for which reason , in most other parts , the small arteries are not so discernable as the veins : but that the largeness of the said arteries is not always alike , but narrower near the little nodes of the pipe of the navel-string , so that they seem to knit themselves into little knots , is the observation of hoboken . xii . through these arteries blood and vital spirit is conveyed , not from the mother to the birth , ( as many with galen believ'd , ) but from the birth , by the pressing forward of the heart to the uterine liver , for the further colliquation , after a more specific manner , of the blood flowing from the uterine vessels , and to the end it may be concocted with it , that so matter may be prepared and better fitted for the nourishment of the birth , which being carried through the umbilical vein to the bowels of the birth , may be more conveniently dilated in the heart of the embryo , and acquire new perfection of blood. xiii . ocular inspection clearly demonstrates this motion of the blood. for if the navel of a living embryo ( as may be experimented in beasts ) be ty'd in the middle , the pipe of the navel-string being opened , presently the arteries between the embryo and the liver , are seen to swell , and to be depriv'd of all motion ; whereas on the other side the vein swells between the ligature and the placenta , and flags toward the birth : which shews that the arterious blood is forc'd from the birth to the placenta , and the venal blood from the placenta to the birth . or the same thing may be try'd after another manner without a ligature , if you squeez the blood with your fingers through the vein from the placenta toward the birth , for so it easily moves ; but it cannot be forc'd the contrary way by reason of the resistance of the valves : but the blood is with great difficulty forc'd through the arteries to the birth , whereas it flows readily , and of its own accord , to the placenta . xiv . many there are that write several things of the anastomoses of the arteries with the veins , and of the veins with the arteries , quite repugnant to ocular inspection , seeing that no such anastomoses can be found in the placenta . which hoboken has accurately taken notice of , who by the injection of liquor has perfectly examin'd this matter . xv. now what is to be thought of the union of the umbilical veins and arteries with the womb , let us briefly enquire . ga'en and aristotle teach us , that the orifices of the umbilical vessels are united with the ends or orifices of the vessels of the wombs . so that the roots of the umbilical vein draw blood from the veins of the womb , and the arteries spirit from the arteries . to which opinion aquapendens , sennertus , and several other famous men , have submitted their consent : others , confirm'd by ocular inspection , deny this union of the vessels , with whom we also agree . for there are several arguments to shew that there are no union or anastomoses of the umbilical vessels and the womb. . because such a union of the vessels would bind the birth so strongly to the womb , as not to be dissolv'd in time of travail . or if by the violent strainings of the woman in labour , it should be violently torn away , there would happen so many and such pernicious wounds by the rending of the several united vessels , that the effusion of blood would soon be the death of the woman in travail . . because the blood may descend by degrees into the placenta through the gaping vessels of the womb , to be prepared therein for the growth and nourishment of the child . but never any anatomist hitherto could observe any farther productions of the vessels of the womb , either toward or into the placenta , so that whatever has been written concerning this matter , has been written by conjecture . . because that such a union of the vessels of the womb and the umbilicals being granted , there could be no use of the uterine placenta : for the blood flowing through that continuity , nothing of it could either come into the substance of the placenta it self , or be elaborated therein . . because the umbilical veins do not proceed to the womb , but spread their roots only through the uterine liver , and from thence , and not from the womb , immediately assume the alimentary blood which is to be carried to the womb ; as plants by means of their roots suck up their alimentary juice out of the earth . . because the arteries draw nothing from the womb or its arteries , but convey vital blood from the birth to the placenta , and end there in little branches . . because in the beating of the umbilical arteries , the measure is altogether different from the pulse of the mother . . because it has sometimes happened , that the mother being dead , the birth has sometimes supervived in the womb ; which could never be , if the birth should receive its vital blood from the arteries of the mother . for the mothers pulse failing , the birth must dye either sooner , or at the same time . xvi . hence the mistake of vesalius and columbus is apparent , who following galen , thought that the umbilical vessels were not only joyn'd together with the uterine vessels , but also by continuation were deriv'd from them , and extended from the womb to the birth . which error is easily evinc'd by this , not to repeat what has been already said , that in the abortive embryo seen and describ'd by us , the beginning of the navel-string did not arise from the womb , but from the birth . besides that , in chickens the beginning of the umbilical vessels , manifestly arises from the chicken it self , which being separated into several branches , are extended from the chicken to the yolk of the egg. in like manner as in vegetables the roots are not extended out of the earth into the plants , but out of the plants into the nourishing earth : which is more apparent in onions , which being hung up without the earth , send forth roots from themselves . xvii . from the foresaid opinion proceeded another as absurd , that the umbilical veins and arteries were generated and form'd before the rest of the bowels , as bauhinus endeavours to perswade by divers reasons , as if the bowels could not be form'd without blood conveyed from the womb. whereas among the more acute philosophers it is undoubtedly concluded that they are form'd of the prolific part of the seed , and that after their formation already finish'd , the nourishment of the said vessels proceeds to the farther part from those bowels , and hence they first grow to a greater length , and are extended to the placenta . xviii . but here some one will make a query , how those vessels , when they have grown out to that length , from the belly of the birth , as to reach the membranes , can penetrate through the chorion and amnion to the uterine liver . i answer ; 't is done after the same manner as the roots of plants and trees penetrate into the hard earth , and sometimes enter walls and stones , which water cannot penetrate . for so the sharp and slender ends of the umbilical vessels , insinuate themselves by degrees into the pores of the membranes , and pass through 'em , tho' the humours contain'd within the membranes cannot pass thorough . but afterwards , when those vessels adhering to the pores grow out more in length , the said pores are also more and more dilated , to which the vessels are already united and indissolubly joyn'd . xix . riolanus makes mention , out of avicen and varolius , before the generation of the veins and umbilical arteries , of two capillary vessels , which he calls the dorsal roots of the birth ; which are from each horn of the womb , inserted into the upper and hinder part of the coagulated seed , through which necessary blood is supplied to the formation of the parts , in the mean while that the umbilical vessels are strengthened ; and which afterwards vanish when the foundations of the parts are laid . but that these are mere figments is apparent from hence ; because the birth is neither form'd nor generated out of the coagulated , but melted and dissolved seed , and out of the subtile part of that , which is call'd the flower . besides , these dorsal roots would be to no purpose , when the parts ought to be delineated out of the prolific flower only of the male seed , which is apparent from the egg , wherein tho' there be no blood contain'd , nor can be supply'd from any other place , yet the parts are form'd , and being form'd generate blood out of the obvious alimentary matter , wherewith all the delineated parts are nourish'd , increase and come to perfection . we should now speak of the milky umbilical vessels , but that we have so largely discoursed of 'em already , cap. . however , this i add , or rather repeat , that gualter needham seems to acknowledge no milky vessels in this place , for he assigns another way to this milky liquor : for that being concocted in the stomach of the mother , and mix'd with the blood , and circulated with it through the sanguiferous vessels , it is in that manner carried to the womb , and there mix'd with the blood of the birth , and then that part of the maternal blood , that wants not any farther concoction and fermentation , is converted into the blood of the birth , but that the rest of the nutricious milky juice , that wants a farther concoction , is separated from it , and laid up in the amnion , as matter of future nourishment , to be carried through the mouth into the ventricle of the stomach , and there to be digested . which opinion we have refuted more at large cap. . xx. the fourth umbilical vessel manifestly conspicuous , is the urachus or urinary vessel , a thin , membranous round little body , having a little hollow passage quite through it , rising from the bottom of the bladder to the navel , in the midst between the vein and the arteries . xxi . this in most brute animals of the larger size , being manifestly pervious , and by the observation of hoboken , furnished with no valves , is carried to the urinary membrane above describ'd ( for in lesser animals the passage of it is hardly discernable ) between which and the chorion , the urine of the birth is emptied into it , there to be reserv'd till the time of delivery . hieronymus fabricius writes , that this vessel in most brute animals , where it rises out of the bladder , is but only one passage or chanel ; but where it farther extends it self without the abdomen toward the alantois , it is divided into many small fibres , which is the reason that the urine flows into the pipe of the navel-string , but does not easily flow back into the urachus , tho' you endeavour to force it back . so likewise needham observes , that in the bladder of larger beasts there is a liquor found like to that which is contain'd in the alantois , and that if a pipe be adapted to the bladder , the wind will be blown into the alantois . xxii . but in man the extension of the urachus is observ'd no farther than the navel only , beyond which no farther progress of it was ever demonstrated by any anatomists . and hence it has been concluded by most , that the urachus is only extended to the navel , and serves for the ligament of the bottom of the bladder , and that it is not pervious quite thorough . which arantius asserts in downright terms : in my opinion , says he , that which seems in the human bladder to bear the form of a chanel or urachus , is no other than a ligament of the bladder , which being somewhat broader at the bottom , lessens by degrees , like an awl : so that when it comes to the navel , it vanishes quite away , having no cavity all the while ; but only as i conjecture , appointed to bind the bladder to the peritonaeum , and to sustain it , lest when distended with urine , it should compress the neck of it at the subjected parts . so pareus writes that he could find no passage of the urachus in man by all the art he could use . thus also needham reports that he could not find the least footstep of an urachus in the navel-string of a man ; much less any cavity of it . but reason teaches us that the use of this ligament is the less necessary , seeing that the bladder is so closely joyn'd to the region of the share , that it needs no other ligament , and therefore that this part is design'd for some more noble use , of which avicen , and fabricius ab aquapendente better perceiv'd , who say that the urachus does not terminate in the navel , but pass through it , and go out of it , and proceeds farther together with the umbilical vein and artery , and that is to the membranes enfolding the birth , and that in brutes it opens into the alantois , and conveys the urine out of the bladder of the birth , and by consequence in man it opens between the chorion and the urinary membrane . xxiii . but the reason why it is not conspicuous without the abdomen is this , for that perhaps either no body was sufficiently diligent in the farther search of its progress : or else that because of the extream thinness and transparency of its substance it is not visible ; which is the reason also that the chyliferous and lymphatic vessels , when they are emptyed are hardly to be seen by any body , and therefore by the most skilful anatomists hitherto overlook'd , whereas when they are full they are at this day easy to be found . add to this that in human bodies when dead , so thin and slender a vessel , thorough which the serous humour only passes , which never stays in it , may easily grow lank and flagg , and so by reason of its transparency be hardly discernable from its neighbouring parts . xxiv . lately , when i was more diligently examining the navel of an abortive birth , of about seven months gon or more , i observ'd a vein and two umbilical arteries not twisted one within another , but that a certain thick whitish gelly , moderately condens'd , was contain'd in the pipe of the navel string , carried thither , no question , through the milkie umbilical vessels , passing the placenta out of the milkie caverns of the womb ; and that the said vessels as it were plac'd in a triangle , pass'd directly through the placenta , and was as it were supported by the gelly it self . i saw no other vessels conspicuous in the said pipe of the navel-string ; but when i cut the navel-string athwart , i observ'd in the middle of that triangle , a little drop of serous liquor spurt out , and the string being a little more hardly squeez'd from the birth outward , six or seven little drops follow'd : and these , as i perswaded my self , came out of the urachus invisibly crossing the white gelly , together with the other vessels . xxv . now that the urine flows from the birth through the urachus , the examples of many grown to ripe years sufficiently inform us , the passage of whose urine being stopp'd through the ordinary channel , it evacuated through the navel , being as it were unlock'd again . of which there are very remarkable stories to be found in fernelius , laurentius , cabrolius , hildan , highmore , and many others . if this happens in people that are of ripe years , whose urachus is dry'd up into a ligament , how much rather may it be ascertain'd that the same thing happens in the birth , in which this vessel is more open , nor any way dry'd up . moreover in an embryo miscarried in the fifth , sixth , or seventh month , the bladder is always found swelling , and almost full of urine , out of which , if the urine were not emptied the next following month through the urachus , the bladder would of necessity burst in a short time . for every day more or less of the serum is separated in the kidneys from the blood , and conveighed to the bladder , and as the birth increases , so much the more serum is separated of necessity . xxvi . they who have not well considered these things , have subscribed to an ancient opinion , which they endeavoured to defend with many reasons . among the rest bartholinus writes , that in the dissection of a very young birth he could not find the urachus to be pervious , nor could he thrust in a probe , which was a sufficient demonstration that the urachus was not pervious . but whoever has observ'd the narrowness of the urachus in men , will never wonder that a common probe cannot be thrust into such a streight vessel : and so much the rather , because at its exit out of the bladder , it passes among the membranes with a winding channel . so that if any one could thrust in a sharper and smaller probe , yet it would never pass directly along , but break out at the sides of the thin vessel . besides bartholin , harvey also asserts that he never saw the urachus pierc'd or containing any urine in it . so likewise anthony everard observes that neither in coneys , doggs , or hares , he ever saw the urachus pierced , but always solid and impassable , and doing the office of a suspensory ligament . upon which regius relying , believes also the urachus not to be perforable . but these mistakes are all refuted by what has been said before . xxvii . claudius courveus observing that of necessity part of the serum must be separated from the blood which is made in the embryo , and that it does not flow through the genitals into the milkie iuice contained in the amnion , with which the birth is nourished , and believing with the rest that the urachus was not perforable , he endeavours to prove that the embryo , all the time that it is enclosed in the womb , discharges no urine out of the bladder , but that the bladder collects all the urine , and is able to contain it till the delivery . but how much courveus was mistaken , this one thing informs us that in miscarriages of four or five months , the bladder is then found swollen with serum , and always very full ; which if it be so full in these first months , in which by reason of the smallness and tenderness of the bowels there is less blood made , and consequently less serum separated , what shall become of that serum which is separated in the last months when the bowels are stronger , and the serum is separated in greater quantity ? shall it be stuft into the bladder fill'd in the first months ? surely the bladder must of necessity burst , before the birth be come to be six months in being . beside the infant being born , very often makes water , which is a sign that the serum flows in great abundance to the bladder , and hence also that of necessity it was evacuated out of the bladder through the urachus while it was detained in the womb , by reason of the passage of the genitals not being then open . this also is demonstrated by the effusion of the serous filth preceding the birth , which is nothing else but this same urine collected between the chorion and the urinous membrane , which flows out upon the breaking of those membranes by the kicking of the birth . xxviii . alexander maurocordatus proposes quite another way for the evacuation of the serum , which abounds in the birth . for he writes that it is not transmitted through the urachus , which he asserts to be hitherto so falsly call'd , but through the continuation of the umbilical vessels and the womb , to be evacuated thorough proper places . but this figment is grounded upon a salse hypothesis , that is , the continuation of the umbilical veins and arteries , and the womb ; which we have refuted a little before . moreover if there be no use , as he presupposes , of the urachus , through what passages , i would fain know , shall the urine come from the bladder of the birth to the veins of the mother ? shall it return out of the bladder through the arteries to the reins ; and from thence shall it return through the emulgent veins , to the vena cava , and liver , and so with a contrary stream through the umbilical vein fly back to the mother ? xxix . for the security of the umbilical veins there is a covering wrapt about 'em , which is call'd the little gut , or the little rope , or pipe of the navel-string ; and many times the whole production of the navel-string together with its vessels , is understood by the words intestinulum , or funiculus . this is a membranous hollow round part , of an indifferent thickness , consisting of a double tunicle ( of which the innermost is thought to proceed from the peritoneum , the outermost from the fleshy pannicle ) as well comprehending as cloathing the umbilical vessels ( in which vessels , by reason of the blood contain'd , there are several spots conspicuous without side of the tunicle , from the vein broader and darker , from the arteries red or black and blue ) with which it is twisted like a rope : tho' this contorsion be in some greater , in others lesser ; and sometimes we have seen the whole navel-string contorted or twisted , the vessels ascending directly thorough the gelly contain'd in its hollowness . in the hollowness of this part there is a certain whitish humour drawn from the little caverns of the womb through some little milky vessels , and pour'd forth into this cavity between the umbilical vessels , and is found diffused round about 'em , and ready to descend from thence farther into the amnion . xxx . it is thought to enjoy some very few nerves like the chorion and amnios , for it is not altogether void of feeling . xxxi . it has in several places little knots , like little bladders full of whitish iuice , which riolanus thinks to be generated from a portion of the fleshy covering , in that part thicker for the stronger binding together of the umbilical vessels , by which means nature took care , lest the blood should flow to the birth with too great violence , and overwhelm the tender body . but wharton more judiciously observes , that those little knots , are little teats , through which the milkie iuice flowing into the hollow of the navel-string , distills into the concavity of the amnion . others believe 'em to be dilatations or burstings of the arteries , but contrary to all reason , when dilatations of the arteries are caused by some certain violence , but these little knots are generated of themselves ; seeing also that in that part there can hardly be so much violence offered to the arteries , by which they should be dilated into burstings . moreover seeing those dilatations , call'd aneurismata , are diseases of deprav'd conformation , therefore they would not be in the navel-string of all births ; whereas those knots are in all births , in some more , in some less , and are not preternatural tumors , nor so loose as those dilatations . add to this , that they do not , like these , vanish or flagg , upon the effusion of the blood , nor are they like them , sometimes greater , sometimes less , but always of an equal bigness ; and by the conspicuous spots , are equally distinguished from the membrane of the navel-string , whereas those dilatations are not to be discern'd from the rest of the skin by any variety of the colour . some , but without any ground , think those knots to be raised by the contorsion of the umbilical arteries . and nicolas hoboken , believes that these knots may be observed not only in the covering , but also in the vessels included therein . and hence he asserts three sorts of knots , some in the string , others in the umbilical vein , and others of the arteries themselves . the knots of the rope or tunicle , he takes to be the protuberances of the membrane it self , caused by the twistings of the veins and arteries . that the knots of the arteries are round or orbicular , but the knots of the vein , sideways only . and he calls the inequalities of the largeness of the blood-bearing vessels knots . but commonly when we talk of the nodes of the funi●…le , we mean only those which are conspicuous without in the intestine , and presently obvious to the sight . xxxii . from the plenty of these knots , the superstitious midwives are wont to foretel what number of children the married couple shall have ; and if there be very few knots , then forsooth they pronounce barrenness for the future . by their distance one from another they judg of the intervals between child and child , and by the variety of the colour , of the difference of the sex , and foretel many things as to the prosperity or ill fortune of the infant . which is not only familiar among our modern midwifes , but seems to have been formerly practised by physicians themselves ; for that eucharius , rhodion , and avicen , make mention of these kind of knots . xxxiii . the navel , when the infant is born , is ty'd with a strong thread near the abdomen , and about two or three fingers breadths from the ligature is cut off and so left , till what remains beyond the ligature , being dry'd up or putrified , falls off of it self , and the exit out of the abdomen be closed up with a strong skin drawn over it . from that time forward those umbilical vessels within the abdomen of the infant , degenerate into ligaments , tying those parts from whence they proceed to the navel . xxxiv . but as to the cutting of the navel-string aforesaid , aristotle warns us that there is great care to be taken , which consists in leaving a just length . for the navel-string being drawn too far out , and so ty'd exactly near the skin , and then cut off , many believe to be the cause in a male child of shortning the yard ; and in a female , of difficult labours when she comes to bring forth . but if too long a part of the navel string be left , that the caul will easily afterwards slip down into it , and so cause the umbilical burstenness . the truth of the latter we have found by experience ; but as to the former , we cannot affirm any thing of certainty . xxxv . now seeing that the use of the navel is to conveigh the arterious blood through the arteries from the birth to the uterine liver , and the same after preparation , together with the maternal blood flowing thither , again to carry through the vein to the birth . xxxvi . hence it was a thing decreed among philosophers and physicians ▪ that the birth in the womb was not nourished by any other nourishment than the blood brought through the navel . which opinion seems to be confirm'd by the authority of hippocrates , who seems to be of the same opinion . others altogether reject this ancient opinion , and inform , that the birth in the womb is not nourish'd by the navel , but through the mouth ; and confirm their opinion also by the authority of hippocrates who l. de princip . & de nat . puer . plainly writes , that the birth in the womb is nourish'd through the mouth ; and these believe that the uterine liver only prepares after a specifick manner , that same blood which forced thither through the umbilical arteries from the birth it self , and so remits it through the vein to the birth , but that no blood comes to the navel vein through the womb. xxxvii . but to decide this question so long controverted , my iudgment is , that these two opinions are to be joyn'd together , and that we are to assert , that the birth is nourish'd partly by apposition , and by the mouth , partly by the navel . xxxviii . at the beginning before the perfect formation of the umbilical vessels and the uterine liver , the parts delineated are increased and augmented first by apposition out of the remaining seminal matter , now dissolv'd into a colliquamen , upon which the little embryo swims ; in the same manner as plants , when they first begin to germinate from the seed , take their nourishment and growth from the remaining part of the seed ; as we see in onions hung up in the air , which send forth their leaves upward , and cast forth their roots downward ; and the same thing we find to be done in pease and beans , germinating without the earth in a moist air : for this matter is already prepared for the nourishment of the birth , neither has it need of any farther concoction , as being most natural to the tender parts already delineated , thus first of all the birth is nourish'd by the apposition alone of the seminal dissolution , after that , partly by apposition , and partly by some part of the seminal dissolution taken in at the mouth , and first chang'd into blood in and from the heart . xxxix . but afterwards , the bowels being somewhat corroborated , and the seminal dissolution being for the most part consum'd , and the uterine liver being come to greater perfection , the navel with it ▪ vessels being extended to it , and thence the milkie iuice now largely flowing into the amnion , the birth is nourish'd by the mouth and navel . the three ways of the nourishment of the birth , are prov'd by most solid reasons . xl. nutrition by apposition which is the first of all , appears from the swift increase of the parts , whereas as yet the bowels are so tender and weak , that they cannot contribute so much blood to so swift a nourishment . xli . nourishment at the mouth is proved by six reasons . . because the stomach of the birth is never empty ; but full of a milkie whitish liquor , and a juice like to it is always contain'd in the mouth of it ; as is to be seen in brutes . the same thing happens also in a chicken while it sticks in the egg , in the mouth and craw of which there is a certain matter like coagulated milk ; that is , from the white of the egg taken in at the mouth . . because there are excrements contain'd in the gutts , which the infant born evacuates at the fundament . which without doubt are the remainders of some nourishment taken in at the mouth ; whereas such excrements could not abound in the guts from blood alone ; which some nevertheless have maintain'd contrary to reason , who are refuted by riolanus . . because the stomach presently after delivery , could not so soon go about its office of concoction , had it not bin at all accustomed to it in the womb. . because the birth could not undergo so great a change without a manifest prejudice , as that having bin nourish'd in the womb for so many months with umbilical blood alone , so soon as born , it should immediately , and as it were at a jump , be nourish'd by milk taken in at the mouth , and swallowed down into the stomach . . because an infant is no sooner born , but it understands to suck the nipples , which it could never do , had it not bin accustomed in the womb to take in something at the mouth , either by sucking or chewing . . for that not a few new-born infants puke up a milkie nourishment , before they have suckt the nipple , or taken in any thing at the mouth forth of the womb ; which could not be in their stomachs , unless they had taken it in at the mouth of the womb. a manifest example of this i saw in my youngest daughter ioane , who an hour after she was born , puk'd up a great quantity of white milk , to the admiration of all the women that were present ; in regard the infant had not then either suck'd the nipple , or taken in any thing at the mouth . xlii . harvey de gener . proves this nourishment by a strong argument taken from sucking . the birth , says he , so soon as , nay before , it is born , sucks , as if it had done it for sometime in the womb. having try'd it as yet sticking in the birth before it could either cry or breath , it has taken hold of , and suckt the finger put to the mouth of it . xliii . this nourishment is also confirm'd by the authority of hippocrates . lib. de carn . where he shews it to be done , by arguments drawn from the dung , which infants evacuate as soon as born , and the first taking of the nipple . xliv . if any one should ask with what sort of nourishment it was nourish'd at the mouth : we have said enough already as to that point ; that is to say , first of all with the dissolved seminal liquor , afterwards with the milkie iuice contained in the cavity of the amnion . this milkie juice harvey found in the stomach of an abortion : and olaus rudbeck has this observation concerning this matter . having dissected , saies he , all the kittens of one cat , we found in the mouth , stomach and gullets of every one a mucilage and viscousness like to that which was within the body and the amnion . xlv . now this same iuice is by degrees taken in at the mouth by the infant and swallowed , not forced into it ; for by that means such a quantity would flow into the mouth of it , that the stomach would in a short time be distended , and prejudice the infant . not that there is any reason to fear with hennigius arniseus , lest the birth should be choak'd by the copious liquor wherein it swims , should it open its mouth ; for in regard that it does not breath in the womb , it draws nothing within the lungs ; and if it should breath , it would be as soon stifled , with the mouth shut as open . xlvi . here nicholas hoboken puts the question , whether the birth takes in that first nourishment , by sucking or only by swallowing , without any foregoing or joynt act of sucking . but this is a doubt of no such great moment to require a laborious solution . for when any liquid thing is taken in at the mouth to be swallowed , after the common manner of speaking , it is said to be taken in by sucking or supping , whereas many times it is done neither way , only it is pour'd into the mouth , and so swallowed . and so there is no question , but that the alimentary liquor slips into the mouth of the birth ; in the mean time it is likewise as probable , that the time of delivery approaching , the same thing is done as it were by sipping , and so swallowing ; whence it comes to pass , that the birth being accustomed to that kind of sipping , as soon as it is born , striving to sip , easily learns the way , and manner of sucking . which was harvey's opinion , de gen . animal . if the embryo , says he , swimming in the said liquor , opens its mouth , of necessity the water must enter its iaws , and if it move other muscles ( which is known by its motion in the womb , which may be felt without by the hand ) what if we should think it to be the same use of the organs of the iaws to sup up that liquor ? but that he may the better describe the same manner or action of supping , and that it does not touch the liquor , by drawing it toward the inner parts of the mouth , he adds the manner how the new-born infant begins the action of sucking . neither , says he , does the infant suck , by compressing the nipple with its lips , as we by supping , but as if he would swallow it , he draws it all into his chaps , and by the help of his tongue and pallate , as it were by chewing , fetches out the milk. for while he endeavours as it were to chew , he sucks in the same manner as he did in the womb. and this is that manner of sucking which hippocrates means , when he writes , that the birth sucks in the womb. riolanus unwarily denies , that the whitish liquour contained in the stomach of the birth , is the chylous juice , but says , it is an excrement of the third concoction of the stomach : or a flegm that falls from the head ; neither of which it can be said to be . and therefore claudius de la courve , well refutes him in these words , lib. de nutrit . foet . if in the third month , as he observes , this nourishment whatever it be , be generated in a certain quantity , in how great abundance shall it be generated in the sixth , seventh , and ninth month ? but how much , if that mucous humour contained in the stomach be the excrement of all the bellies ? so much , as neither the stomach of the child , nor the intestines would be able to contain . xlvii . the nutrition of the birth by the umbilical blood , these three arguments chiefly prove . . the insertions of the umbilical vessels into the placenta annexed to the womb ; into which out of the body of the womb , the maternal blood flows through the open'd orifices of the vessels ; and is therein prepared , and so conveighed through the vein to the birth . . the great quantity of blood ascending through the umbilical vein to the birth ; within a living animal , by tying the navel string with a thread , and pricking the vein between the ligature and the placenta , is presently seen : whereas but very little can be forced through the small umbilical arteries , from the birth toward the placenta , for that four times as much is drawn out of the placenta through the vein , as is carry'd through the umbilical arteries . . necessity : for the birth encreasing wants much nourishment ; but its tender and weak bowels can concoct and prepare but little ; hence it requires some purer and already concocted nourishment , by which it may be speedily nourished , and by its admixture the nourishment taken in at the mouth , may be chang'd into blood. moreover in an embryo the chylus taken in at the mouth , ought not to come alone to the heart , but mixt with the venal blood , as in men born it is carryed to the subclavial veins , and in them and the vena cava is mixt with the venal blood , endued with a fermentaceous quality , and so comes to the heart . xlviii . this nutrition seems to be carryed on in the same manner in a chicken , whose bill adheres to the white ; but its navel string or its vessels enter principally the yolk ; which is instead of the mothers blood prepared in the uterine liver . but the more the pullet increases , so much the more the inner white abates , truly supplying the place of the female seed , which the chicken consumes by little and little with its bill lying in it . now that being for the most part consumed , the outward white is also consumed , supplying the place of the milkie liquor . and then also the yolk is manifestly wasted , as being that into which the umbilical vessels are inserted ; the vein of which is a branch of the porta . which is an apparent sign , that the chicken at the beginning tender , and requiring less nourishment , is nourished at first with the inner white only by apposition , then by the mouth . afterwards when it wants more copious nourishment , then it is also nourish'd with the exterior white at the mouth , and also with the juice of the yolk by the navel . and the like procedure and order of nourishment , happens in human birth ; which before the sufficient perfection of the uterine liver , and umbilical vessels , and while the parts are yet very tender , is nourished with the seminal colliquamen , remaining after the delineation of its parts ; afterwards wanting a more copious quantity of nourishment , the uterine liver now increasing , the umbilical vessels being perfected , and the milkie vessels extended to the pipe of the navel-string , and the amnion , it is nourished with the milkie juice at the mouth , and with blood by the navel , and so at that time enjoys a double nourishment , out of which being mixt together , perfect blood is made in the heart . for at the first the seminal dissolution sufficiently nourishes the embryo , as being most analogous to it , and nearest to its original , and already prepared , and wanting little concoction . but afterwards , when the dissolution being consumed , the birth comes to be nourish'd with the milkie juice , which is less analogous to it , and therefore has need of some concoction in the stomach and heart , then of necessity , some other former juice must be mixed with that juice in the body of the birth , endued with a certain fermentaceous quality , which when it cannot be performed by the overweak liver of the birth it self , of necessity it must be drawn through the navel from the uterine liver . this nourishment proceeds in like manner in plants . for examples sake , throw a branch of a willow into a pond , first it is nourish'd with only viscous water , in the mean time besides leaves it casts forth roots from it self to a certain length , so that at last they reach the earth , and insinuate themselves into it ; and so from thence receive a firmer alimentary nourishment , which causes the willow to shoot out in bulk . thus also the embryo is for some time nourished with a seminal colliquamen , and a more serous milkie iuice taken in at the mouth , in the mean time the roots of the umbilical vessels from its navel-string , put themselves forth till at length they extend themselves into the placenta , as it were into the earth , and so from thence receive a firmer alimentary juice , prepar'd therein , and conveigh it to the birth , for its swifter and larger growth . these things thus said enjoyn silence to riolanus , who concludes that the birth is nourish'd only by the navel . but , says he , the birth being every way surrounded with waters , if it should take its nourishment in at the mouth , it could not be but that it must swallow its own urine again together with its nourishment . these more modern authors have observed , that neither the mouth nor nostrils are open in an embryo four months gone . for which reason we acknowledge no other way of nourishing the birth , but by the umbilical vein , that conveighs blood to the liver . xlix . but riolanus together with the ancients was deceived in that , because he minded not the difference of substance and place ; between the milkie iuice inclosed in the amnion , and the urine without the amnion , contained between the urinary membrane , and the chorion . as also for that without any farther inquisition , he admitted a false proposition , grounded only upon the opinion and relation of others , as most true , that the month of the birth continu'd shut till the four months end . what has been said , may suffice to convince claudius courveus also , who by many reasons endeavours to maintain , that the birth is by no means nourish'd with the umbilical blood , but only with the liquor of the amnion , whose vain labour in the proof , any one may see that reads his book . l. but before we leave the history of the navel-string , there is one thing to be inquired into that concerns physical practice , that is to say , seeing that ascitic dropsies are frequently cured ( according to the directions of hippocrates and other ancient physicians , and the consent of experience ) by tapping which is usually done a little below the navel , somewhat toward the right or left side , the question is , whether that tapping may not be more safely begun in the navel it self , to the end the serum included within it may flow out . andrew laurentius , with whom bauhinus consents , maintains the affirmative with so much heat , that he prefers the opening of the navel far before the other way of tapping , and affirms that the included serum may be easily evacuated through the umbilical veins . this opinion of his he confirms with four stories of ascitic patients , of which three were perfectly cur'd by the breaking of the navel of its own accord , the fourth by the artificial opening of it . then he adds not only the manner of the operation , but also divers reasons to uphold it ; of which the first is this , where nature tends , there we must follow her , but many times she attempts that evacuation of her own accord through the navel , therefore , &c. but laurentius mistakes in speaking so generally of this section of the navel , as if it were convenient in every ascitis : for we are indeed to follow where nature tends ; if she seeks passages that are natural : but seeing that in an ascitis , nature seldom tends to the navel , which swells in very few that are troubl'd with that distemper , therefore that operation is not convenient generally in all , but only in some few . for in others whose navel does not swell of its own accord , that section would be not only unprofitable , but also prejudicial , since it would be dangerous to cut the consolidated navel , where nature intends no evacation of the serous humours that way , whence painful convulsions must be expected , and a gangrene greatly to be feared , especially in a body ascitic and full of ill humours . moreover if the navel did not swell before of it self , being opened by art , there will nothing of the serum flow out that way from the cavity of the belly ; because nature does not tend that way , and therefore such a section would be unprofitably , dangerously , and unadvisedly undertaken ; lastly laurentius judges erroneously that the serum which flows out of a swollen navel being open'd , flows out of the umbilical vessels ; seeing that the serum contained in the cavity of the abdomen , cannot enter the piss-bladder by any passages , and to ascend through that and the urachus to the navel ; nor can it enter the heart , and so be forced through the iliac and umbilical arteries : nor can it enter the liver it self , and be conveighed thither from thence through the umbilical vein , by reason of several little valves that stop the ascent of all manner of liquor from the liver toward the navel : nor can it enter the milky umbilical vessels , altogether dryed up , soon after the birth . therefore that evacuation cannot be made through any umbilical vessels , but from the cavity it self of the abdomen ; out of which , in some ascitics , the serum collected in great quantity , through the pressure of the muscles of the abdomen , sometimes insinuates it self into the navel , taking the same way through which the umbilical vessels pass thither , by which means the skin being loosned in the navel , there happens a watery humour , which being opened , the watery serum flows out , yet not without danger to the patient , seeing that as hippocrates witnesses , such a suddain evacuation is very dangerous , and it is a hard matter for the physicians to stop it in such a case . laurentius orders the navel to be ty'd , or else to clap a silver pipe to the hole of the section ; by which means the rapid colours of the serum may be stopped , and let out at the pleasure of the surgeon . but this advice savours of unskilful theory ; seeing that not only reason but experience teach us , how difficult a thing it is to tye the navel , when grown flatted upon the flowing out of the serum ; or to thrust in a silver pipe , and keep it there ; for if it be done with a swath brought about the loyns , it puts the patient to more pain ; if by a ligature about the pipe , then the part ty'd will suddainly dye and corrupt , and the ligature will be unloosed . chap. xxxiii . in what parts the birth in the womb differs from a man grown . i. this difference consists in the diversity of biggness , figure , situation , number , use , colour , cavity , hardness , motion , excrements and strength of the parts . this variety is conspicuous either in the whole body , or in the ventricles , or in the joynts . ii. for the whole body is considerable . . the small bulk of all the parts , . the ruddy colour of the whole , . the softness of the bones , of which many are as yet cartilaginous and flexible , so much the more , by how much the birth is distant from maturity . iii. in the head there is a great variety of difference . . the head , in proportion to the rest of the body , is large , and the figure of the face nothing so well ordered . . the bones of the scull are softer , and the top of the head is not covered with a bone , but are spread over with a membrane . . the bone of the forehead is divided , as also of the lower jaw , and the wedge-fashioned bone , is quadripartite . . the bone of the hinder part of the head is divided into three , four , or five bones . . the brain is softer and more sluid , and the softness of the nerves is extraordinary . . the little bones of the hearing , are extreamly hard and large . . the teeth lye hid within their little holes . iv. in the breast there is no less difference to be observed . . the breasts swell out , and a serous kind of milk flows from the breasts of newborn infants , as well male as female , sometimes of its own accord , and sometimes being squeez'd though very gently . but no little glandules appear conspicuous , only there is to be seen some sign of a little teat . . the vertebres want the spiny processes , and are formed out of three distinct little bones , the mutual concourse ▪ of which forms a hole , which admits the descending spinal marrow . . the heart is more conspicuous in biggness , and furnished with larger little ears . . there are two unions of the bigger vessels , not conspicuous in grown people , viz. an oval hole through which there is a passage open out of the vena cava into the pulmonary vein , fortified with a valve by a part of this vein , and a channel extended from the pulmonary artery into the aorta . . the glandule under the channel-bone adhering to the vessels , appears of an extraordinary bigness , and as it were with a threefold little glandule . . the lungs are ruddy , thick and bloody , and heavier than usually , so that being thrown into water , they presently sink . v. the difference in the lower belly , consists in these things . . the stomach is more contracted ; though not empty , but full of a milky liquor . . the umbilical vessels go forth of the abdomen . . the cawle , hardly conspicuous looks like a spiders webb . . the intestines equal or exceed the length of the little body seven times . . in the thin guts are contained flegmatick and yellow excrements ; in the thick guts , hard and blackish ; and sometimes greenish . . the huge bulk of the liver not only fills the right hypochondrium , but extends it self to the left side , and so covers all the upper part of the ventricle . . the spleen is very small . . the gall bladder swells with the yellow or green choler . . the sweet-bread shews it self remarkably large and white . . the kidneys are vaster in bulk , and seem to be composed of a cluster of many kernels . . the suppositious kidneys are also very large , nor do they lye night the kidneys , as in grown people , but rest upon the kidneys , and encompass the upper part of them , as it were with a large bosom . . the ureters are wide , and the bladder distended with a great quantity of urine . . in females , the womb is depressed , the tubes longer , and the stones conspicuous for their largeness . vi. in the ioynts there are these differences to be observed . . in the tenderness and softness of the bones . . because the little bones of the wrist and the back of the foot are gristly , and not firmly joyned . chap xxxiv . of the situation of the birth in the womb. when i take out a mature birth out of a dead mother , i cannot but admire how so large a body should be contained within so small a prison , and move it self , which being once drawn forth , no art of man can thrust in again . now therefore let us observe how the birth is contained in the womb. i. the situation of the birth is not always alike , but many times found to be various , which proceeds partly from the birth it self , partly from the time that the woman has gone , and her growing near the time of her delivery . the head is contained in the upper part of the womb , with the arms and thighs contracted together , the knees nearest the elbows , the hands in some plac'd upon the knees , in some upon the breast ; in others folded together ; the feet are turn'd back inward , so that they touch the buttocks with the soles , rarely with the heels . whence it comes to pass , that the legs of newborn infants are bow'd inward , and their feet in the same manner , which fault is easily afterwards amended by swathing , by reason of the softness of the parts . sometimes the birth lies toward the side , and assumes to it self an overth wart situation , which is easily perceived by the woman laying her hand upon her belly , as also by the swelling out of the side , and the weight falling that way . ii. sometimes , one , two , or three weeks before delivery , the birth turns it self with the head downward , and lyes much more toward the lower , preparing for its exit ; which tumble is performed in a short time , though not without some trouble to the mother , who takes that alteration for a certain sign of her approaching labour . iii. about the time of delivery the birth changes its situation several ways ; while by kicking and moving it self to and fro , it seeks to come forth . hence i believe it is that several excellent anatomists , who perhaps have viewed such kinds of births in women at such times deceasing , do not agree in the manner of the situation of the womb in the birth ; while some describe the arms , others the thighs , or other parts after this or that manner situated in this or that place . iv. fernelius asserts that there is a different situation of males and females ; affirming that males lye with their faces toward the abdomen or inner parts , and females quite the contrary ; and that hence it is , that the bodies of drowned women swim with their bellies downward in the water , and men upon their backs . which opinion riolanns derides as ridiculous , and without reason . charles stephens reports , that twins observe a contrary situation ; and that one looks toward the forepart , the other toward the hinder part . but this rule is uncertain , as is apparent from hence ; for that sometimes twins have bin born with their abdomens , breasts , or foreheads growing together , which could never happen if they lay back to back . chap. xxxv . of the delivery . i. the birth being conceived in the womb , abides within that dark domicil , till it comes to maturity ; that is , till it has acquir'd strength anough , so soon as it is set at liberty , to endure the violence of the air and the alteration of nourishment . but how long it is , before it acquire that maturity , and how long it is before it ought to come into the world , is disputed among the learned . that there is a certain time prescribed by nature to all other animals is vulgarly known ; so that the contest is only concerning man. hippocrates and aristotle seem to ascribe no certain time to the birth of man ; for they affirm that a woman may bring forth from the seventh to the eleventh ; with whom agrees the greatest part of the crowd of physicians . but most commonly human births are detained in the womb nine whole months together , before they come to their just maturity ; which maturity nevertheless may sometimes happen in seven months : so that within both those times women may be delivered of sound and mature children . such as are born before the seventh month , are not ripe , neither can they be preserved alive ; because they cannot brook the violence of the air , nor alteration of nourishment : wherefore , says aristotle , the birth that comes forth sooner than the seventh month , is no way to be preserved alive . but because there has happen'd an exception to this general rule of aristotle's , i think that instead of by no means , he should have written very seldom . ii. for that some have lived that have been born before the seventh month , the relations of physicians testifie . avicen reports , that he saw one born within the sixth month , that lived well : cardan writes that the daughter of peter soranus , being born in the sixth month grew up to maturity . spigelius writes , that in zeland he knew a certain letter-carrier , who by the publick testimony of the city of middleburgh , under the certificate of the magistracy , was born in the sixth month , so small , so tender and weak , that he could not endure swathing , but was wrapt up in cotton to defend him from the cold. we also knew a girl that was born within the sixth month , whose head when she was born , was no bigger than a large apple , and the whole body so small , that the nurse could hardly touch it , nor could it be swathed according to the usual manner ; which afterwards grew up to a just proportion , and is now at this time living about eighteen years of age. iii. montuus reports that he knew a cupbearer to henry king of france , who though he were born in the fifth month , yet lived to a florid age. francis vallesius tells us of a girl born in the fifth month , that he knew when she was entring into her twelfth year . in like manner ferdinand mena makes mention of two that were born in the fifth month. but certainly this is to be understood of the end of the first month. and so all these examples quoted from men of credit , and confirm'd by their testimonies , sufficiently demonstrate , that sometimes a child born before its time , may be so cherisht and hatched up by care and art , as to be preserved alive . but these are accidents that rarely happen , from whence no certain conclusion can be drawn . for it 's a wonder , when a birth so immature , so tender , and so weak , happens to live any time . iv. hippocrates also denies that they can live who are born in the eighth month : perhaps because he often observed it so to fall out in greece . for which regius gives this reason ; because that the birth being a certain critical evacuation , it cannot be done safely and soundly but in a critical month ; such as is the seventh : so that if that crisis of the birth happen in the eighth month , then of necessity some powerful preternatural cause must intervene , so much to the prejudice of the infant , that it cannot live . but if only the critical months , the seventh , fourteenth , &c. are only to be accounted wholesom , what shall we say to a birth of nine months , which however is no critical month , and yet most frequent and most wholesom ? what to the tenth month ? certainly there is no effervescency of the body of the infant , as there is of the humours , which boyl at certain times , and break forth critically ? and therefore since there is no solid effervescency in the solid parts of the birth , neither is there here any bad or good season of critical evacuations to be observed , and thence no reason that children born in the eighth month , should be thought less likely to live , than those that are born in the seventh ; seeing that dayly experience teaches us , how that children born in the eighth month , live as well as they that are born in the seventh . for if they are born in the seventh month , and can be ripe so soon , why not in the eighth ? why shall not the latter brook the violence of the air , and the change of nourishment as well as the former ? rather , why not better ▪ seeing they are more mature . in vain do many here alledge the great toil and tumbling of the birth in the seventh month more than in other months , by which he is so weakened and tvr'd , that he cannot brook the labour of expulsion in the eighth : for these are idle dreams refuted by the women themselves , who assure us that they perceive that extraordinary motion no more in the seventh , than in the sixth or eighth , as vainly others fly to the numbers of days , hours , and minutes , confining the exit of the child to certain numbers , when the incertainty of the days of delivery frequently delude those numbers . lastly , the astrologers in vain endeavour to reconcile this matter by the benigne or malign aspects of saturn , as if saturn rul'd always ; or at least that there were no children born in the eighth month , but under his reign ; whereas such births frequently happen under the dominion of other benign planets , which seem to be secured from saturn's injuries by their clemency and benignity . besides , asto the influences of the stars , how unknown and meerly conjectural they are , not only the fallacious , uncertain , and contrary judgments of astrologers so frequent in their writings demonstrate , and of what little prevalency and efficacy they are , experience teaches ; so that whether they have any power over things here below , is not without reason questioned by many . and hence though many , in explaining the meaning of hippocrates , concerning the children born in the eighth month , by him pronounced short-liv'd , have laboured very much , and have studyed to underprop and adorn his sentence with many fictions and pretences of truth , yet not only frequent and daily observation , but the authority and experience both of the ancients and moderns overturns all they have rear'd beyond the limits of greece . for galen says , they are in a very great errour , that will not acknowledge the eighth month for a due and natural time of delivery . in like manner aristotle asserts that children born in the eighth month live and grow up . nevertheless he adds that the words of hippocrates may be interpreted in the best sence . but many dye in several places of greece , so that very few are preserved : so that if any one there doth live , he is not thought to be born in the eighth month , but that the woman has mistaken her reckoning . pliny writes that in egypt and italy , children born in the eighth month do live , contrary to the opinion of the ancients , and that vastilia was happily brought to bed of caesonia , afterwards the wife of caius . among our modern authors , bonaventure saw three safe that were born in the eighth month. so it is credibly reported , that the learned vincent pinelli , together with his sister , were born twins in the eighth month , as was also cardinal sfondrati , and both his sons . cardan brings five examples of great men all born in the eighth month , who lived ; and asserts moreover , that in egypt generally they live that are born in the eighth month. which if it has befallen so many princes , we may easily conjecture that the same as frequently happen among the ordinary people , who seldom reckon so exactly . riolanus relates that in the iland naxus the women are usually brought to bed in the eighth month : and avicen gives the same relation of the spanish women . we find the same to be true in holland ; and that it is so likewise in france , england , scotland , and all the northern countries , is very probable , because we never hear of any complaint against the eighth month in any of those places . v. now the reason why some are born in the seventh , some in the eighth , and others in the ninth month , is to be ascribed to the difference of regions , seasons , dyet , passions of the mind , temperament of the seed , womb , and woman her self , by means whereof the heat of the womb increases sometimes later , and sometimes sooner ; so that sometimes there is need of a swifter , sometimes a slower ventilation . paulus zachias seems to accuse . hippocrates and aristotle of a mistake for appointing so many uncertain limits for sound delivery : and believes that there is a certain time for the delivery of men as well as of beasts ; that is to say , the end of the ninth , and beginning of the tenth , and that all other births either on this side , or on that side , are all preternatural , occasion'd by some morbifick cause , which is the reason of so many weak and distempered children . which if it were true in those that are born before the nine month term , then certainly the mother or the child would be affected with some morbifick cause , either before or after the birth ; whereas in children that come in the seventh month , which frequently happens , any such bad affection rarely happens , but that the mother and the child equally do well , as if the birth had bin delay'd till the end of the ninth month ; nor is the child more sickly or weaker , than those that are born at the end of the ninth month , which are many times as sickly and weak , as those that are born in the seventh . now as to those that are born beyond that term , it has been controverted among several , whether any such thing happen , and whether a woman bring forth after that time . in the mean while , it is a rule hitherto held certain , environ'd with many probable reasons , and the authority of great men , that some women may be brought to bed in the eleventh , twelfth , thirteenth , and fourteenth month , and that the children are duly born , by reason of the weakness of the infant , or the mother ; the coldness of the womb , scarcity of nourishment , or some such like cause , which may occasion nature to delay the appointed time of birth , as many famous philosophers have perswaded themselves and others : hippocrates expresly asserts that children are born in the eleventh month. aristotle admits the eleventh and no farther , they that lye longer than the eleventh month , seem to lye hid ; that is , that the mother has mistaken her reckoning . petrus aponensis , otherwise called the conciliator , by the report of cardan , asserts himself to have been born in the eleventh month ; as if he had kept his mother's reckoning in her womb. homer makes mention of one born in the twelfth month. pliny speaks of a certain woman that was brought to bed in her thirteenth month ; and avicen of another that was brought to bed in her fourteenth . of which we have another example in alexander benedict ; i omit other women that went two and twenty months ; nay some that went two , three , four whole years , of which iohn schenkius quotes examples , i fear me too fictitious , out of several authors . vi. but indeed these are all idle stories without any grounds , and prov'd by no certain experience , but taken up from the discourses of tatling gossips , to whom some overcredulous learned men have given too much credit , to the end they might underprop these vanities with some supports of probability . for as i believe it to be most certain that the time of delivery may be for certain causes delay'd some few days beyond the term of nine months , so i believe it impossible that it should be put off one , much less many months , seeing that in whatsoever constitution of a woman , the increase of heat becomes so great in the infant , that it requires ventilation by respiration ; and for that cause the birth must seek relief without the narrow straits of the womb. so that it is manifest those serious maintainers of that opinion drew too hasty a conclusion from the false relations of silly women . for if we narrowly prie into the matter , there lies a snake in the grass ; either wickedness in the woman , or simple error in the reckoning . wickedness in the woman ; who if she have no children , upon the death of her husband , that she may enjoy her estate , leagues her self with another man , and being by him got with child , pretends to be delivered , eleven , twelve , thirteen months after the death of her husband , that so she may lay the child to him in his life-time ; which is a sort of wickedness so frequent , that the courts are full of these contentions : which is the reason that these lateward births seldom happen but among such kind of widows , rarely among women that live with their husbands . there may be also a simple error in the reckoning , for that women generally compute their reckoning form the first suppression of their flowers : though it may happen from other causes that their flowers may cease three or four months before conception . so that if a woman begin her reckoning from the first suppression , she must of necessity mistake , and through that mistake the child shall be said to be born in the eleventh or twelfth month , that came at the appointed time of the end of the ninth . aristotle believes that error may proceed from the swelling of the vvomb . women , says he , are ignorant of the time of their conception , if when the womb was swelled before , as it often happens , they afterwards lye with their husbands and conceive , for they believe this to be the beginning of their conception , because it gave such a signal . vii . through the same error in reckoning , children are said to be born in the fifth or sixth month , which nevertheless are not born till the ninth . for that some vvomen for the first two or three months of their being with child : have their flowers upon them still at the set times ; but afterwards they stop ; and so they begin their reckoning from that suppression wherein they greatly err , beginning their account from thence , when they are three or four months gone : and so a child shall be said to come in the sixth month , that was duly born in the ninth , and this error is apparent from the just proportion of the child , and the strength of its parts . viii . when a woman draws near her time , the birth turns it self , and the head declining , plants it self before the privity , distending upwards the rest of the body : which turning happens a week or two before the delivery . then the orifice of the vvomb , like a blowing rose begins to open and dilate it self , and to prepare a passage for the birth that is about to come forth ; moreover the infant kicking and sprawling to and fro , breaks the membranes wherein it is infolded , and so the humours included therein flow forth , which loosen the privy parts , and render the passages slippery ; to make the passage easie for the birth to pass thorough . for it rarely happens that the child is born and comes into the vvorld with the membranes whole and entire , which once i saw in an infant that was very weak . ix . this sprawling is painful to the womb , and this pain communicated to the mind in the brain , presently the animal spirits are sent in great quantity through the nerves to the pursing fibers of the womb , and the muscles of the abdomen , which being contracted together , cause a strong expulsion of the birth . x. the infant comes forth with the head formost according to nature , says hippocrates . lib. de . nat . puer . xi . whatever other manner it offers it self to come forth in , that birth cannot be said to be natural ; and the more hazardous it is , by how much the posture of the child is more unusual . for if it offers one thigh or one arm , it makes a stop , unless that member be thrust back and the birth turn'd . if two thighs be offered together , the delivery may go forward , but with great difficulty , if the buttocks offer themselves first , the delivery goes not forward , unless very seldom , sometimes the birth comes forth doubled , but with great difficulty and great danger . if the sides or belly offer themselves first , the delivery is impossible . how the mature and large birth should be able to pass through the straits of the bones of the pelvis , stuft with muscles and other parts , galen admires , but dares not explain . but it is done , by reason that the bones of the share , the os sacrum , and the hip-bone , their cartilages being loosen'd , separate a little one from another , as we shall shew more at large . l. ●… . c. . xii . however it be , or at whatever time the delivery happens , nature expels the birth out of the womb through the uterine sheath , or at least endeavours to do it , and that is the only passage appointed for the expulsion of the birth . i say , or at least endeavours to do it : for sometimes it happens , that that same passage being stopt , the child cannot be expell'd by nature , but must be drawn forth by the skill of the surgeon ; and that through the passage already mentioned by the hand , either of the midwife or surgeon , or by the assistance of hooks , which we have tryed with success in many women , or else by section made in the womb and abdomen , which is called the caesarian delivery , concerning which francis rousset has written a famous treatise . but it is rarely seen that nature her self attempts expulsion , through unwonted passages . of which nevertheless bartholin relates a most remarkable story , lib. de insolit . part . viis . of a woman that evacuated several little bones of a human birth , first of all out of her navel swelling and dissected , next out of an ulcer in her left ilium , and this not all at once , which increases the wonder , nor all together , but at several times , and at several years distance ; and those so many , that it was thought they were enough now for the bodies of twins . to which story he adds a long and splendid explanation ; and moreover out of several authors brings many other examples of corrupted births , evacuated out of the navel , hypochondriums , ilium's open'd , the fundament , and other unusual passages ; for which we refer the reader to bartholin himself . xiii . in the mean time , there are the admirable and stupendious works of nature , seeing that the birth must of necessity slip into the cavity of the abdomen ; through the broken , ulcerated , or any other way torn and lacerated womb ; or else the conception in the tube must have miscarryed thither , out of the tube , being broken through the thinness of the membrane of the tube , before it could cause those exulcerations by its corruption in the parts of the abdomen . but because many such women have been restored to their former health , this is most of all to be wondered at , that those inward wounds and ulcers of the womb and tube , should heal again of themselves , and that the birth putrifying in that place , should not withal putrify the guts , bladder , mesentery , and other bowels of the abdomen , and rather hasten the death of those unfortunate women , than such an unwonted delivery . xiv . we are now to return to the causes of delivery , among which in a natural delivery we have reckoned the kicking and stirring of the infant , which is assigned to three causes , that is to say , the narrowness of the place , the corruption of the nourishment , and the want of it . xv. the narrowness of the place signifies nothing to the purpose : for there are many women , who having before brought forth very large births , afterwards are delivered of a little one , and then a great one again . now the place was big enough for that same little one to have stay'd longer , and there was nourishment sufficient in it for its larger growth , where there had bin a great one before . moreover as the infant grows , so its domicel the womb enlarges , which if any cause obstruct , the birth dies before matur'd , and abortion happens . xvi . nor can any such thing be prov'd from the corruption of nourishment ; seeing there is no corruption of it , but that it is as equally good at the end , as at the beginning . if any one affirm the urine of the birth to be mixed with the nourishment , we shall remit him to the preceding , , . chapters . besides , the birth could not be rendred more vigorous , by the corruption of the nourishment , to kick and sprawl , but weaker and more infirm . some there are who with regius add over and above , that the nourishment becomes unpleasant to the birth by reason of its corruption , and therefore refusing such ungrateful nourishment it kicks and spurns , and seeks to get forth . but there can be no depravation of the nourishment , and therefore this opinion presupposes some acute judgment in the birth , to distinguish between the goodness and badness , pleasantness and ungratefulness of the nourishment . but what judgment an infant has , i leave to any one to consider . for we find children new born take sack , milk , oyl of sweet almonds , ale , syrups , powder of bezoar , &c. without any distinction , and therefore 't is not likely it should be able to distinguish the taste of nourishment in the womb. xvii . neither can it be defect of nourishment which causes this sprawling ; which would rather occasion weakness and immobility : for all living things languish for want of nourishment ; and motion ceasing by degrees , at length they dye . moreover we see many infants new born that are strong enough , and yet for the first two or three days , receive little nourishment , which if they had wanted in the womb , they would not have been so strong , but weak and languishing , and would have been greedy of nourishment when offered . and to this , that in many women with child that have hardly bread to eat , the birth doth not only sprawl , but is so weak , that its motion can hardly be felt in the womb : but let the mother feed heartily , the birth is refreshed , and moves briskly in the womb. which is a certain sign that the stronger motion of the infant proceeds from a sufficient supply of nourishment , and not from want of nourishment , which would rather retard than promote delivery . xviii . claudius courveus finding these causes , did not promote delivery , has contriv'd another , which is , redundancy of excrement , which he says is sometimes so much , that the birth constrained by necessity of evacuation , never leaves kicking till it get forth . which fiction of courveus is contrary to reason and experience . the one teaching us that there is no obstruction to hinder the birth from evacuating in the womb. and it is apparent that very little excrement can redound , in regard the infant takes no solid nourishment in the vvomb . then experience tells us , that a new born infant does not piss all the first day , and for three days together many times never evacuates by stool , which it would do as soon as born , were the opinion of courveus true . xix . therefore there must be another cause of this strenuous kicking and ensuing labour , which is the necessity of breathing and cooling . for at first the heat of the embryo is but small , shewing it self like a little spark , that has no need of cooling but of augmentation . now this heat encreasing ; the actions and motions of the birth encrease . at length this heat encreases to that degree , that it wants ventilation and cooling : which being deny'd the infant begins to be more and more disturbed by the heat , and through that disturbance vehemently to move and kick , and by means of that motion to excite the uterine humours to an effervescency , and make way for it self into a freer air. but that increase of heat happens also in a small birth , which has stay'd its due time in the vvomb , as well as in a large infant . so that the cause of calcitration and delivery is the same in a small as in a large infant if ripen'd in the vvomb . xx. thus in very hard winter weather , suppose a man almost nummed and frozen to death , should be enclosed and shut up in a narrow close chamber every way stopped up ; and there should be a great fire made in that chamber . first the heat of that place would excite and augment the remaining heat of the enclosed body . hence the enclosed body would begin to come to himself again , and the heat would extreamly refresh and revive him . and set at liberty his benumm'd and frozen ioynts , so that he might be able to walk and eat . but afterwards the heat of the body encreasing beyond due mediocrity , though he had the choicest and most plentiful nourishment by him , he would begin to be troubled and sweat . lastly , extremity of heat encreasing that anxiety : he begins to turn himself every way , and violently breaks open the dore for more air , afraid of being stifl'd . xxi . thus in the birth this same necessity of refreshment and respiration , is the only true and chief cause of calcitration and delivery . for when the heat of the heart is so encreased , as to generate hotter blood to be now twice dilated in both ventricles , of necessity , it must be cool'd by respiration in the lungs ; which respiration being deny'd , the infant is suffocated , as many times it happens when it sticks in hard labours before it can be expell'd . now that the necessity of breathing forces the birth to calcitration , is apparent from hence , for that as soon as it is born and enjoys a free air , it presently breaths , and oftentimes cries ; to which respiration it is not forc'd by the ambient air , but by the necessity of respiration , besides which there can be no other cause imagined , that can compel the infant to breath . xxii . harvey believes this necessity of respiration , is not the cause of calcitration and delivery ; for proof whereof he puts two questions to be resolved by the learned . first , how the embryo comes to remain in the womb after the seventh month ; whereas being expelled at that time it presently breaths ; nay cannot live an hour without respiration ; but remaining in the womb , it abides alive and healthy beyond the ninth month without the help of respiration ? to which i answer what i have hinted before , that according to the temper of the woman , her seed , her womb , her dyet , the heat augments in some births sooner , in some later , which if they encrease to that bigness in the seventh month , that refrigeration by respiration is necessary , then the birth breaks its prison by calcitration , and such a birth , whatever harvey thinks , cannot abide alive and sound till the eighth or ninth month ; for the birth that abides so long in the vvomb , is not come to that degree of heat in the seventh month , as to want refrigeration . xxiii . harvey's other question is , how it comes to pass , that a new born child , covered with all its membranes , and as yet remaining in its water , shall live for some hours without danger of suffocation ; but being stript of its secundines , if once it has drawn the air within its lungs , cannot afterwards live a moment without it , but presently dies ? to this question of two members i answer , that the first part perhaps may be true of an immature birth thrown forth by abortion , by reason of its small heat requiring little refrigeration : but of a mature birth , brought forth in due time , it cannot be true ; there being so much heat in it , as must of necessity be cool'd by respiration ; and therefore such a birth being included within the membranes , cannot live for some hours , as harvey supposes , nor half an hour , no not a quarter of an hour ; and this the country people know by experience , that a colt or a mare , being once brought forth , if it remain included within its membranes , i will not say an hour , or half an hour , but a very little while , half a quarter of an hour or less , is presently stifled , and therefore they take care that some body stand by , while the dam has brought forth , to break the membranes , which if no body be present , the dam often does with her mouth : and which all other creatures that bring forth living conceptions generally do , else the birth is stifled . but grant the birth may live half an hour within the membranes , this makes not against us . for the external air presently refrigerates the air included in the membranes ; which being so refrigerated , the birth for some time may enjoy the benefit of the cool air : but not long , for that the hot air sent from the lungs with the vapourous breath would in a short time fill the the whole capacity of the membranes , and so the birth for want of cooler air must of necessity be stifled . xxiv . to the latter part of harvey ' s question i answer , that so long as no air is admitted into the lungs , the birth may yet live without respiration , because a small quantity of blood may be forced out of the right ventricle of the heart , into the thick lungs ; and hence the dilated blood in the right ventricle , is not carryed to the left ; but through a channel , by which the pulmonary artery is joyned to the aorta in the birth ; it flows into the aorta , into which for some time , as being less hot and spirituous , it may flow without refrigeration , because it is not therein dilated again . but when by the inspiring of the air , the substance of the lungs becomes to be dilated , then the compressions of the vessels being all taken away , the spirituous blood in great quantity is forced from the right ventricle of the heart , into all the open vessels of the lungs , which unless it should be somewhat thickned by the inspiration of the cold air , could not flow to the left ventricle , there to be again dilated , but would stuff up the whole body of the lungs , and so the creature would be stifled . and this is the reason that when the birth has once breathed , it cannot afterwards live , though never so little a while without respiration . and therefore that is certainly to be exploded which bauschius , the writer of the german me●…icophysical ephemerides , cites out of patterson hayn , written to him by gerges , a certain hungarian shepherd . in hungary , says he , a woman near her time , in the year . began to fall in labour , insomuch that the child had already thrust forth his head without the womb. but the birth having cry'd twice or thrice , was drawn back into the womb , and there remained a fortnight longer , after which the woman was duly brought to bed . now how far this idle story is from truth , a blind man may see . for when the birth has once thrust forth its head without the vvomb , unless either by the force of the womb ; it s own striving , or the hand of the midwife , the whole body either come forth or be drawn out , the orifice of the privity so strengthens it self about the neck of it , that it is presently killed . but by reason of the extraordinary narrowness of the capacity of the womb , it can never return back to the inner parts , especially after it has sent forth two or three cries . this let who will believe , and let patterson hayn , and gerges the shepherd believe it as long as they please , who have suffered such a fable to be imposed upon by tattling gossips , and ventured so slightly to divulge it for a truth . xxv . lastly it maybe objected against our foresaid opinion , that it is not probable that the necessity of respiration forces the birth to a stronger calcitration , when the birth in the womb breaths sufficiently , considering the proportion of its heat . for vessingius , resting upon the authority of hippocrates , writes that the lungs of the birth enclosed in the womb , by a gentle dilation draws something of air , and for proof of this , he alledges the infants being often heard to cry in the womb. examples of which are produced by albertus magnus , libavius , solin , camerarius , sennertus , bartholin , and deusingius . also the learned velthusius believes , that in this case the air penetrates to the places where the infant lies , and that it is attracted by the infant by inspiration . nay the honourable robert boyle , in experim . physic. mathem . exercit. . seems to confirm this crying by a most memorable example . i knew a certain lady , says he , who was with child some years since ; at what time her friends bemoan'd her condition to me , that she was very much terrified with the crying of her little infant . xxvi . but whoever they were , they were all in an errour that wrote of the respiration , and crying of the birth in the womb. for first the relations of these things are taken from the vain stories of idle and unskilful women and men ; who either conceive whimsies of their own ; or else on set purpose perswade others into a belief of these vanities . either to move the rich to pity ( for generally the poor are they that only hear these noises ) or else to get themselves a name among the vulgar , by establishing some prophecy upon these feigned wonders . but we shall hardly read of any person of reputation , that ever heard this imaginary crying . secondly , it is impossible there should be any breathing or crying in the womb , without any air ; but which way shall it come thither . for the mouth of the womb is so closely shut , by the testimony of galen or hippocrates , that it will not admit the point of a probe , nor the least air or water . of which though some make a doubt , yet we found to be true , in the year . when we opened the body of a young woman that was poysoned , in whose body we found the womb swollen with a birth above a hands length ; and the mouth of the womb not only most closely contracted , but also stopped up with a glutinous , clammy , flegmatick humour , that would not admit the sharp end of a bodkin , unless it should have been forced through the glewy substance . the same thing we found in december . in a woman seven months gone that dy'd suddainly . moreover besides this closing up the mouth of the womb , the birth is also so exactly enclosed in its membranes , that no liquor contained within can distil forth , nor any external air penetrate withinside . vvhich difficulty gualter needham observing after he has related a story as it was told him of a child that was heard to cry in the womb of a noble woman , l. de format . foet , writes , that the air cannot come from without to the birth , but that it may be there generated by the fermentation of the humours latent within ; as wind is bred in the stomach , guts and other parts . but this being in some measure granted , how is it possible that the birth going about to cry , should draw in that or any other air , when it swims upon the milkie liquor of the amnion , which would fill up the mouth of it ? for should it breath in the air , it would be choaked , in regard the liquor in the mouth would slide down into the lungs , through the rough artery , together with the air , and fill up the middle fistulous part of the windpipe . certainly t is a wonder that those learned men who have written concerning this uterine crying , have not made this observation upon it , that the sound which is heard in the belly of a woman with child , which they that hear perhaps take for the crying of the infant , proceeds only from the wind that roars in the guts , compressed and straitned by the bulk and weight of the infant : as we hear sometimes a wonderful whistling of the wind , impetuously forcing it self through the narrow holes of windows , such a one as once i remember i heard my self , with several others , exactly resembling the sighs and groans of a man in sorrow , or in some great danger ; so that all that heard it were frighted , and talked of nothing but spirits and hobgoblins , that bewayl'd some terrible misfortune that was to befal them ; whereas after half an hours search we found the winding hole , through which the wind passing , made that lamentable noise , which cea●…d upon stopping the hole . and thus t is no wonder if the vapours passing through the streights of the compressed guts , sometimes make a whining noise like the crying of an infant , as you shall hear in the lower belly , noises of the wind resembling perfectly the croaking of frogs , and the hissing of serpents . therefore , says aristotle , the infant never cries till it be come forth out of the womb. xxvii . here perhaps an important doubt will arise , if it be so that the birth promotes its delivery by vehement kicking , occasioned by the necessity of respiration , and so provokes nature to expulsion , what 's the reason , . that sometimes a very weak birth , that wants no respiration , is forced out of the womb in the fifth or sixth or seventh month , ( in which seventh month however many mature births sufficiently strong and lively , and wanting respiration are born , though it may happen that many births unripe , very weak , and unable to brook the change of air and nourishment , may be and are frequently born in that month. ) . that a birth that dies in the vvomb , consequently requiring no respiration , is cast forth by female labour , seeing that in neither of these cases , there is any need of strong calcitration to promote delivery . i answer to the first , that sometimes a birth may be sound in the womb , according to the time that it abides there after formation , though not ripe , that is so weak as not to be able to brook the changes of air and nourishment ; and that of such a birth a woman miscarries by abortion , not through the necessity of respiration , or provoked by sprawling , but by reason of a cause far different , either the flowing in of too much flegm , or too violent agitation of the womans body , or through the rapid , disorderly and violent motion of spirits and humours , as in the passions of anger or fear , by all which cause the placenta is loosned from the vvomb , or the birth is killed ; which then becomes heavy and troublesom to the vvomb , and provokes it to expulsion , and to the end that trouble may be expelled , presently the spirits are sent in great quantity to the contracting fibers of the vvomb and muscles of the abdomen , which by drawing both the one and the other together expel the birth . to the second i say , that the birth being dead , for some times the pains of travel cease , because the kicking and motion of the birth ceases : neither does the vvoman come to be in travail again , unless her pains are mov'd by medicines that procure a strong fermentation in the humours : or by the putrefaction of the birth , or the dissolution of the placenta , or that the sharp humours bred by the retention of the secundines sharply boyl among themselves , or that the weight and corruption of the dead infant , give some particular trouble to the vvomb , and so by the means of a more copious flowing in of the animal spirits , excite it to new striving , and a more violent expulsion . of delivery that happens after the death of vvomen with child , or dying in labour , enough has been said , c. . the end of the first book . the second book of anatomy . treating of the middle belly or breast . chap. i. of the breast in general . vve come now to the middle belly , the chambers or throne of the royal bowel , to which the concocted and refin'd nourishments are offered as junkets , to make out of them with its princely blast a wholesom nectar for the whole miscrocosmical commonwealth , and distribute it to all the parts through the little rivulets of the arteries . i. the middle belly is vulgarly called thorax 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , to leap ; because it contain the leaping heart : and it is that concavity , which is circumscribed above with the clavicles ; before , which is placed the sternon or breast-bone ; behind , with the bones of the back ; the fore parts of which are called the sternum and breast ; the hinder parts the back . ii. the structure of it is partly bony , partly fleshy ; it ought to be partly bony , to the end the breast may remain expanded ; lest there should be a falling by reason of the softness of the fleshy parts , and so the most noble bowel , the heart , together with the lungs , should be compressed and hindered in their motion . it ought to be partly fleshy , that it may be conveniently mov'd in respiration , which the heart can by no means want . and for the preservation of that expansion , and the more convenient liberty of motion together , it was requisite that it should be composed of several bones ; and that those should be joynted together with gristles , and that there should be muscles not only between each , but that they should be covered over with many . iii. the shape of the breast is almost round , somewhat depressed before and behind , and extended to a convenient length . iv. the largeness of it is different according to the bulk and size of the persons and difference of sex , as being of less extent in women , especially virgins than in men ; for that men having a hotter heart and blood , and more laboriously employed require a greater respiration , and dilatation of the lungs , that the hot blood flowing into the lungs , into the right ventricle of the heart , may be the sooner refrigerated therein . but the narrowness of the breast is never well liked , for when the lungs in respiration have not sufficient liberty to move in the hollow of the breast , they often hit more vehemently against the adjoyning ribbs , and thence , because they are very soft parts of themselves , they become languid and feeble , and the vessels being broken by that same bruising one against another , occasion spitting of blood , and the corrupted blood setling in the spungy caverns breeds an ulcer , whose companion is generally an ulcer with a lingring feaver . for this reason great care is to be taken of infants , not to swathe their breasts too close , which prevents the growth of the ribbs , and the dilatation of the breast . sometimes it happens in young people , that nature being strong of it self , dilates the narrow hollowness of the breast , by bowing and removing some ribs out of their natural place , and causing a gibbosity , makes more room for the motion and respiration of the lungs . but to avoid that deformity , there are some artists that by the help of some convenient instruments , do by degrees compress those gibbosities that they appear no more , which is a cure frequent among us . but then i have observed that those bunch-back people being so cured , by reason of the breasts , being reduced to its former streightness , become asthmatick , and in a short time spit blood , and so fall into an incurable consumption . and there we advise the hunch-back'd never to seek for cure , life being more desirable with the deformity , than death with the cure. v. this middle venter consists of parts containing , and parts contained . vi. the containing are either common or proper . as for the common , see l. . c. , & . vii . the proper containing are the muscles of the breast , describ'd l. . several bones , the sternum , the shoulder-blades , the clavicles , all described l. . the breasts , the diaphragma , the pleura , or membrane that encloses the breasts and entrails , the mediastinum , or doubling of the membrane of the sides . viii . the parts contained are the heart , with its pericardium , the lungs , with a portion of the trachea , or rough artery , the greater part of the gullet , a portion of the trunks of the aorta artery , and the hollow vein , the thymus , or glandule in the throat , with several other smaller vessels . moreover the neck , because it is an appendix to this belly , is usually number'd among the parts of this belly . chap. ii. of the breasts , and the milk. i. the two breasts , as well in men as in women , are spread upon the middle of the thorax , of each side one , above the pectoral muscle drawing the shoulder , and cover it , by that means perfecting the handsom shape of the body . ii. these by one general name the greeks call 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , those of women by a particular name 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 : by the latins they are called mammillae , and ubera , though some will have mammae to be proper to women ; mammillae to men ; and ubera to beasts . iii. they are but small in men ; but of a larger size in women , for the convenience of giving suck . but among women likewise there is a difference in the bigness ; because that before the flowing of the monthly courses , and in old vvomen they swell out very little or nothing . but in middle ag'd women , they are lesser or bigger according as the women breed or give suck ; or as they are such that neither breed nor give suck : for that the one require larger breasts than the other . in several parts of india , as in the kingdom of senega , the women are reported to have such large breasts , that they reach down to their bellies , and being raised up , they can fling them over their shoulders . here at utrecht we formerly saw a nurse that had such large breasts , that she could suck her self ; and if the child lay upon her shoulders , she could conveniently give it the nipple . monstrous were those breasts mentioned by bartholine in his hist. anat. in these words : a woman , says he , of note in helsingore carryed about her , breasts so large and ponderous , that they hung down to her knees : and when she sat , she rested her weighty burthen upon her knees . iv. now the bigness of the breasts is chiefly to be considered by the physician , when he comes to the choice of a nurse . for this reason moschius , an ancient physician writes , that a nurse with moderate breasts is always to be chosen , for that great breasts do not breed plenty of milk , and too small denote frigidity . but though it may be so generally , yet experience tells us , 't is no certain rule . for we have known many women that had very small breasts ; yet every time they were with child , their breasts swell'd to a moderate bigness , and so continued all the time they gave suck , yielding great store of milk ; but after the child was weaned fell again . others again we have seen , and those not a few , that having large breasts , bred a great deal of milk ; and it is the common opinion , that great beasts breed more milk than small ones . this in cows the country people pretend to know by experience , who will therefore give more for a cow that has a large udder , than a small one . v. they were formed two in number , partly that there might be sufficient nourishment , for a double off-spring , partly that , if one should prove defective through any distemper or any other accident , the other might supply the want . vi. they are seated in the middle of the breast , not in the abdomen as in brutes , for the convenience of giving suck , that they might be ready for the infant in the arms of the mother . the rabbins , by the report of buxtorf , feign other idle reasons for their situation where they are ; thus rabbi abba , that the upper region of the breast was ordained for the breasts , that the child might be discreet and prudent , and suck understanding from the heart of the mother . rabbi iehuda alledges it to be done , lest the child should see the privities of the mother ; and r. mathana , that he might not suck in a nasty place . vii . the shape is hemispherical , the substance soft and white in women ; in cows and other creatures not so white , and sometimes enclining to yellow . riolanus notes , that the substance is ruddy under the armpits in women with child , and such as give suck , which we could never observe . viii . they are composed of many glandulous bodies different in bigness , little pipes and chanels meeting together , joyn'd and compacted with a good quantity of fatt spread over them , which are also swath'd about with a fleshy membrane , and knit with muscles underneath . riolan and wharton , contrary to ocular testimony , deny this multitude of glandules , and aver that the whole breast is composed of one sole glandulous body , divided into no distinct globes ; yet in the mean while they grant that in breasts that are not sound , little globes may be discerned ; which certainly would not be perceived in breasts unsound , unless they were really in sound breasts , which are less tumid . ix . there is one large glandule seated in the middle , which the rest that are lesser surround : also infinite folds of milky vessels are scattered among the glandules , by means of which the milky juice is not only conveighed to all the said glandules , but also the lesser pour forth their milk into the great glaudule . moreover there are larger and copious pores in the glandules themselves , in which as in so many cells the milk is reserved till the time of giving suck , unless it be so thin and so plentiful , as to flow out of it self . x. over the great glandule lies the teat , which is a little , round spungy body , cloathed with a thin skin , and penetrable with many little holes . xi . in this the milky channels of the glandules terminate ; and thorough the little holes of it , as through a little pipe the milk is poured by sucking into the mouth of the infant . xii . it is endued with an exquisite sense of feeling ; and the gentle handling of it is delightful , but a boysterous rubbing of it painful ; and besides by handling and sucking it falls and rises , like the nut of the yard . xiii . the colour of it is red in virgins , more livid in those that give suck ; but in women that are past child-bearing it grows black . xiv . the bigness of it is various ▪ in some as big as a mulberry , in most no bigger than a sweet bryar berry ; in others lesser : but more prominent at the time of giving suck , than at other times . xv. the circle that surrounds it is called areola , pale in virgins , in pregnant women brown , in old women black . xvi . the breasts have five sorts of vessels : . nerves , from the upper intercostals , which being carryed to the teat in great number , occasion its quick sence of feeling . . arteries for nourishment , the innermost , from the subclavial branch of the great artery ; the outermost from the axillarie branch . . veins , to bring back the blood remaining after nourishment ; far bigger and more numerous than the arteries ; and those double , running out from the exterior and interior parts of the breasts to the subclavials and axillary branch of the vena cava , and discharging themselves into it . through these , in nurses , sometimes a copious quantity of milky matter is carryed from the breasts to the subclavial veins , in like manner as the chylus through the chylifer pectoral channel , and for that reason chiefly these veins are so large and numerous , because it is their business to conveigh the blood remaining after nourishment , but also part of the milky liquor redundant in women giving suck , to the subclavial veins , which liquor also remaining after the child is wean'd , is not corrupted in the breasts , but is carry'd thither through these veins . . milky vessels . . lymphatick channels . one of the innermost arteries and veins descending from the subclavials ( which are called mammarie ) creeps on both sides toward the lower parts under the straight muscles of the abdomen : which are met by as many arteries and veins from the lower belly , coming from the epigastrics ; which are said to close by anastomoses with the former , under the middle of the said muscles . by means of which , as it was formerly believed , there is a great correspondence between the womb and the breasts , as also that the blood is carryed from the womb toward the breasts to be turned into milk. but the meeting of these vessels is meerly fictitious , for we never could find it our selves , neither could any body else ever shew us any such thing . sometimes indeed their ends approach nearer one to another , but they never unite . besides that the circulation of the blood has long since refuted that opinion . see more concerning this . l. . c. . & l. . c. . xvii . that there are lymphatick vessels in the breasts , there is no reason for any one to question ; but whether so numerous as wharton says he has observed them may be doubted . probable it is , because the milky vessels contain a very watery milky liquor , that he thereby deceived took many milky vessels for lymphaticks , which made him describe a great number of those vessels . but those milky vessels are filled with a watery juice , when the woman giving suck being a hungry , has taken much watery nourishment , and then the milk that is suckt out of the breasts proves very watery . xviii . the milky vessels , quite different from the veins and arteries are for the most part observed to be intermixed with the glandules of the breasts , springing from the whole circumference of the lower part , and closing together in the middle of the breasts ; which communion and continuity nevertheless with the chylifer channels absconding within the trunk of the body , could never be made manifest hitherto by all the diligent enquiry of anatomists . because that in dead bodies though but newly hang'd , these accesses or small channels of communion lye hid in like manner as the passages of the stones into the parastates , and out of the seminary vessels into the urethra , and such like passages , through which we find that nature orders several translations of humours in living bodies . however there is no question to be made , but that in the inner parts , they pass no less through the membranes and muscles to the breasts , than through the arteries and veins . and therefore they are not conspicuous , but lye hid , because the chylous juice abides not within 'em , no more than urine in the ureters , but by the compression of the muscles of respiration , and the parts through which they pass , is presently and swiftly thrust forward and passes through them . in like manner as the milky vessels of the mesentery , the chylus being empty'd into the receptacle , swiftly vanish , and are no more seen , before new chylus causes 'em to swell again , which because it stays not long within them , affords but a short view of them . nor is it to be wondered at , that these small milky channels , being extended toward the breast , should escape the eye , when the pectoral chyle-bearing channel it self , running out indifferent large all the length of the spine , could neither be seen nor found by the most curious and quick-sighted anatomists of so many ages , which nevertheless in our time , rather chance , than art or diligence discovered . perhaps some such accident may bring to light these chyle-bearing channels of the breasts . for that they are there , reason , use , and the effects sufficiently demonstrate , and hippocrates describes them under the name of little veins , when he says , that in women after delivery , the little veins of the breast become larger , to draw the fat chylus from the belly , from whence the milk is bred . however there is no question to be made , but that they are there , though the ocular testimony of some accurate anatomists may be wanting for proof . yet antonie everard observes to us that he remarked a manifest deduction of the milky vessels to the breasts : for says he , some of these channels arising from the descending trunk , running out above the muscles of the abdomen , under the fat , afforded matter for the milk to the glandulous substance of the breasts , which afterwards form'd little pipes sufficiently conspicuous , out of which the milk is carryed into the common channel , and suckt through the nipple . thus also pecquet at monpelier in the year . before the most experienced riverius , found out and demonstrated in a bitch that gave suck , near the third upper rib , a milky channel reaching to the breasts , out of which a great quantity of milk was pour'd forth . which experiment he often prov'd in bitches that gave suck by the like effusion , always of great store of milk out of the vessels being opened , as often as he began his dissection from the outward parts near the first ribs of the breast . he had also before observed this little branch to proceed from the forked separations , which however was not inserted into the subclavial channel , but turned away as it were by stealth toward the armhole , between the muscles of the breast . nor was it a lesser small branch , which theodore schenkius observed running with a direct course without the abdomen , to the teats in a dissected bitch that gave suck , which being squeezed pour'd forth its juice into the nipple . ludovicus de bills describes in his belgic apology , certain little vessels descending from the lymphatick circle situated in the neck toward the glandules of the breasts , which he thinks to be milky vessels but erroneously , not distinguishing between the lymphatick and milky . so that contrary to reason , the ocular testimony of the said persons ascertains us of the production of milkie vessels to the breasts . as antony everard found out in coneys little pipes , extended from the descending trunk to the breasts , which in those creatures seem to be seated in a lower place ; so in a woman certain little branches seem rather to be extended from the ascending pectoral trunk , to the breasts seated in the breast it self . this appeared in our secretaries wife four or five weeks gone , who happening into our practice while i was more accurately studying this point , was complaining that she had very little milk in her breasts , and that if the infant suckt any thing hard , she felt a pain very troublesom from her breasts to her back , about the middle region between the shoulder-blades , but somewhat lower ; and that she had some slight sence of the same pain as far as her loyns ; but when the child did not suck , she felt no pain at all . without doubt these were some impediments , by reason of which the milky vessels had not free passage to the breasts , and hence the child drawing in their upper part , and no sufficient chylus following out of the pectoral channel , that sucking occasioned some pain from the breast to the milky pectoral channel : as is more especially apparent from hence , that though this woman were in pain upon the drawing of the infant , yet she felt but very little milk in her breasts , and so was forced to provide another nurse for the infant . the same i observed in the wife of a collegue of mine , who being brought to bed in september . complained that she could not endure the drawing of the infant , by reason of the pain she felt at that time , extending it self to her back between the shoulder-blades , and thence to the loyns . afterwards i observed several examples of the same nature . all which things make it probable that the milky mammarie channels are derived from the milky pectoral channel . xix . from what has been said it is apparent how much they are in the wrong , who affirm that the chylus is carryed with the blood through the arteries to the breasts , and out of them separated again from the blood and changed into milk. as thomas consentinus , with whom gualter needham agrees , asserts , that the milk is separated from the blood , which is carry'd through the pectoral and mammary arteries : which he endeavours to prove , . by the manifold ramifications of the arteries , which are observed in the glandules of the breasts . . by the anastomoses of the epigastrick vessels , with the mammary vessels . . by the extraordinary bigness of the mammary arteries conspicuous in women that give suck . but these arguments are not so sinewy , as to sustain a new opinion of so much weight ; for that much more copious ramifications of arteries are conspicuous in the brain and its membranes , in the lungs , and several other parts , and yet they shew no sign at all that i know , of any milky or chylous matter contained in the arterious blood. in like manner the anastomoses of the epigastrick vessels with the mammary , teach us nothing certain concerning this matter , which have been said to have been found by many ▪ but were never by any yet demonstrated . as for the bigness of the arteries , that does not proceed , as he supposes , from the plenty of milk matter , but because the glandules swelling with milk , somewhat compass the ends of the arteries , so that the blood flowing into them , cannot flow out again so freely and swiftly , as when a woman does not give suck ; and therefore being detained with them in great abundance , causes 'em to appear more turgid and swollen than at other times . but i wonder consentine makes no mention of the veins , which in women that give suck , are much more numerous and bigger than the arteries . several other arguments of lesser note are urged by consentine , but because they are diffused in the following discourses here and there , i say no more of them at present . and thus this new opinion falls to the ground ; that besides the blood the chylus also , being actually such , is carryed and circulated through the veins and arteries , and afterwards separated again from it . xx. the primary office of the breast is to make milk ; the secundary office is to cover the breast , and preserve it from the external cold ; and in women to contribute toward the beauty of their structure . xxi . now the milk is a white and sweet iuice , prepared in the breasts for the nourishment of the infant . xxii . as to the matter of the milk , there are great disputes among the learned . for seeing that the spirituous blood is carryed through the arteries , and the chylus through the child-bearing vessels to the breasts ; and for that they are conspicuously full of veins , a question arises , whether the milk be bred out of the arterious or veiny blood , or menstruums ; or out of the best or less pure alementary blood , or out of the chylus . xxiii . aristotle and galen affirm that the matter of milk is the blood that used to be evacuated at the monthly purgations . which opinion they seem to have taken from an aphorism of hippocrates , if a woman that is neither with child , nor has brought forth have any milk , her flowers are stopp'd . and these are followed by all the ancient and modern physicians and philosophers , inforced with these arguments . . that upon the stopping of the flowers , the milk breeds not only in women with child , and delivered , but also in virgins . of which sort of virgins breeding milk , vega , gorrheus , schenkius , and others produce various examples . . because women that give suck , never have their flowers ; or if they flow in great quantity , the milk decreases or dries up altogether . . because they whose flowers cease through age , never have any milk in their breasts . xxiv . but from this opinion supported by so many arguments and authorities , these five absurdities follow , . that when milk is bred , the flowers must of necessity stop . but quite the contrary , we have a thousand times seen nurses and mothers , that have had their flowers in great quantity at fixed times , without any decrease of their wonted plenty of milk , which all phisicians in their practice will testifie as well as my self . but the reason why the courses stop in women that give suck , is not , because milk is generated out of them , but because a great quantity of chylus daily flows to the breasts , and more sparingly to the heart of the wo●… that gives suck , whence it happens that there is blood enough generated for the nourishment of the body ; but no redundancy that requires monthly evacuation . . that then the milk would most abound , when there is most plenty of menstruous blood that stops ; least , when but little . and yet in the first month , when that blood most redounds in women , and is least wasted by the embryo , then is there no milk bred : but in the last months of a womans time , when the grown birth chiefly consumes the superfluous blood , and there is least redundancy of it , then the milk breeds in the breast ▪ moreover in childbed-women when the menstruums flow plentifully , there is yet great store of milk in their breasts ; and that increasing nevertheless the menstrua do not stop . . that there should be so much milk generated , as there is redundancy of the said blood. and yet there is no man but easily observes the inequality of that proportion of a small quantity of blood , that redounds every month , and of the great quantity of milk drawn from a woman every day . and then again what shall we say of sheep , cows , goats , and such like animals , that never have any menstruous blood , and yet every day yield great quantities of milk. . that milk should only breed in ripe women , that either have or may have their flowers . but new-born infants not only female but male , evince the contrary . out of whose breasts we have seen milk to flow for some days , nay , for some weeks together , or else easily squeezed out with a slight compression of the finger . and the same thing cardan observed , and schenkius reports to have been seen by camerarius ; and indeed any body that will , may observe it in new-born infants . dry old women also are an argument to the contrary , whose courses generally stop by reason of their age , of whom nevertheless the writers of physical observations , besides aristotle , relate that several have had great store of milk. boden also , henry ab heer 's , and others give several examples of the same thing . . that milk never breeds in men , because they have no redundancy of menstruous blood. but yet aristotle and avicen testifie the contrary . who both teach us that men many times give a great quantity of milk. they that have travelled the new world , report that they have found some countries there , where the men had the greatest store of milk , and gave the children suck . which testimonies of these experiments vesalius , eugubius , alexander benedict , bartholine , stantorellus , cardan , gemma and several others confirm by examples . nor will that distinction here avail , which bauhinus , spigelius , and ludovicus mercatus alledge , that the same mens milk is no true milk , but a juice like to milk , and therefore to be distinguished from milk. for it is not probable that so many eye-witnesses , all prudent men , that understood what they did , could be so deceived , as not understand when they tasted milk. besides that , it is bred in the breasts , and differs nothing at all from womens milk , neither in colour , smell , taste or substance , and the children are as ▪ well nourished with it , as with womens milk , as the histories testifie . xxv . others to avoid all the aforesaid difficulties , alledge that it is not necessarily bred out of the menstruous blood , but out of some redundancy of the alimentary blood. but these men while they endeavour to shun carybdis fall into scylla . for several arguments altogether destroy this opinion . . it is impossible that a woman that gives suck , should live with so much loss of blood : for take but from any man for a few days together , a pint or half a pint of blood , it cannot be done without an extraordinary emaciation of the body , destruction of the strength , and vigour of the body , and hazard of life : or if an excess happen in the flowing of courses , it overweakens the party to a high degree . now is it probable that a woman should yield so many pints of milk bred out of the blood every day , for whole months and years together , without any emaciation or decay of strength or health . if you answer that they are sometimes so weakned , that they are forced to wean the child . i answer that does not happen by reason of the great quantity of blood changed into milk , but because the chylus is carryed in too great quantity to the breasts , and there is changed into milk , while the lesser portion is carryed to the heart , and passes into blood , the consequence of which defect must necessarily be emaciation and weakness of the body . . if the seed which is generated out of the blood being evacuated in a moderate quantity , debilitates the whole body , shall not the milk much more enervate the natural strength , being daily drawn out in great quantity ? but this is not done . . if after any great and often iterated evacuation of the blood , decay of strength , cachexy , dropsie , and other cold distempers follow , shall women that give suck , with whom this continual evacuation of milk lasts for whole years together , be free from those dissempers , and enjoy a more sane habit of body ? . if every suddain alteration be dangerous , why , when women wean their children , at what time plenty of milk fails of a suddain , and by consequence also , the evacuation of blood ceases , why i say do they not fall into some pernicious plethora ? which however never happens . you will say perhaps that some , women eat less at that time . i answer that they are not without an appetite for all that , nay , and that most women eat as well , and as much after weaning as before . if you say , that same superfluous blood is evacuated at the monthly periods , that evacuation is too thin and rare , in respect of the whole quantity of blood changed into milk , which before was wasted every day . . if the blood , that flows into the parts in greater quantity through the arteries , and distending the parts , causes stronger pulses therein , why does not that happen in the swelling milk-bearing vessels of women ; wherein nevertheless there is no stronger pulsation perceived . . if the blood flowing plentifully to the breasts , should be extravasated therein , and tarry till changed into milk , it would not be changed into milk , but into matter , and breed an aposteme ; as happens in impostumations of the breast . . by the laws of nature , there is no return from privation to habit. shall the chylus alone be excepted from this general rule ? and lose its whiteness , and all its other qualities , so to pass into blood , afterwards to quit again the qualities of blood , and reassume its former qualities of blood ? whether the blood now concocted for the nourishment of the solid part , shall lose its more perfect condition , and be changed into a milky substance , to be again concocted into blood by the birth ? nature does nothing in vain , neither does she tread the same path backward and forward in any of her operations ▪ neither does the motion of concoction run retrograde to crudity , but only advances to the greater perfection . can a ripe fruit grow green again , to be ripen'd again ? so the blood made out of the chylus , cannot run retrograde into a milky chyle , to be concocted again into blood. some one will say perhaps with plato , that nature uses here deceit , to alienate man from seeding upon blood , otherwise that milk differs nothing from blood , but in colour . but what need any such artifice to delude new-born infants , who while they suck , never see what colour the milk is on : or if they did , were not able to distinguish one from the other . why is not the same abuse put upon lyons , wolves , tygers and leopards , to whom cruelty is natural ? neither let any man object that while the seed is generated , the blood in the same manner passes into a substance , again to be changed . for then it is not changed into a chylous , or any other cruder or worser substance , to be again reduced into blood , but into a far better , out of which not only some parts must be nourished , but the solid parts of the birth are to be generated and formed . . seeing that the nourishment swallowed , requires several hours time to change it into blood , how comes it to pass that nurses presently after they have eat and drunk , presently after feel a copious quantity of liquor flow to the breasts , before any blood could be generated out of the said nourishment ? what is the reason that the milk attracts to its self immediately , and retains the faculty , quality and odour of what the nurse swallows , whereas no such thing can be perceived in the blood , nor in the parts nourished with the blood ; thus if you give a purge to the nurse , the physick sooner purges the infant than the nurse . perhaps indeed by long use and time , and the many times ●…repeated eating , concoction and preparation of the same thing , some such alteration or quality may be imprinted in the blood , and the solid parts nourished by it ; as in that beautiful damosel fed with poyson , that was offered to alexander , whose body by long use and feeding upon poysons , became so venemous , that she infected and killed all that lay with her . now that milk easily imbibes the qualities of the meat which the nurse swallows ▪ walter charleton proves admirably well ; for , says he , beyond all others , is that experiment for the demonstration of the milky ways ; for let the nurse drink milk but slightly tinctur'd with saffron , and within half an hour after , more or less , the milk that is milk'd out of her breasts , shall have the smell , taste and colour of saffron . he also reports an observation out of prosperus marinus , concerning a roman woman , out of whose nipple the surgeon drew a little branch of succory , which she had eaten the day before , and so proves that not only the chylus , but thicker substances may sometimes also pass together with the chyle to the breasts . thus aristotle reports that sometimes swallow'd hairs come to the breasts and nipples , an example of which alsaharavius reports that he saw in a certain woman . . if a woman go long without meat or drink till she be very hungry and dry , milk will not breed in her breasts , tho' there be no want of blood in the vessels . which tho' bartholine denies , from the observation of hogheland : yet i have osten seen it to be true with my own eyes . and if at that time the infant suck , it shall not draw any milk , for want of chyle in the milky vessels , but blood from the ends of the little arteries and veins , open'd at that time more then usually , by the vehement drawing of the child , till the woman eats and drinks again , and new chyle come to the stomach . of which we have a manifest example in a lady of this town , who in the year gave suck , but not being able to eat or drink for three or four days together , by reason that her husband lay dangerously ill , she not only had no milk in her breasts , but upon the strong drawing of the infant , it was found that pure blood follow'd out of her nipples . afterwards when her husband recover'd , and that her grief abating , she began to eat and drink well , and good chylus came again into her stomach , she had immediately plenty of milk in her breasts . a certain sign that that milk was not generated out of the blood ; out of which however otherwise it might have been made before , when there was chylus ; which nevertheless was at that time suckt out of the breasts pure and ruddy , and not chang'd into milk. xxvi . to these arguments it may be perhaps objected , that a cow for the first days after it has calv'd , sends forth a bloody milk ; which is a sign that milk is generated out of the blood. i answer , that at first , presently after the birth , the milky pores of the breasts are not yet so dilated that chylus sufficient may be able to flow through them to the dugs , and then the little veins of the udders are open'd by the drawing of the new calv'd creature , and a small quantity of blood flowing out of those veins , dyes the milk of a ruddy colour ; but when the milky pores are sufficiently open'd and dilated , and that the chyle flows freely to the dugs , there is no farther violence done to the said veins by drawing , and then that mixture of blood ceases , and the milk breeds in great quantity . xxvii . there seems one difficulty more remaining , how it comes to pass , if the milk be not made out of the blood , that in creatures which give suck , the arteries , but especially the veins , are much larger and more swollen in the breasts , than in those creatures that do not give suck . but to this we have answer'd already in the question , whether the chylus be carry'd to the breasts by the arteries ; and where the vessels of the breast are enumerated ? xxviii . conringius , to avoid these rocks without shipwrack , affirms the milk to be made of the more imperfect and crude blood , which is not yet concocted to perfect redness ; nor very spirituous ; or much circulated through the heart , by the evacuation of which , the natural strength is not much injur'd ; which , by reason of its serosity , easily slips to the teats , and is quickly augmented by drink . but there are five difficulties to be objected against this . . that the chylus assoon as it is dilated in the heart , presently acquires perfect redness ; so that the blood which is bred therein , may be said at first to be less spirituous indeed , but not less red , than other blood that has oftner circulated through the heart ; of which , more , c. . . that the cruder part of the blood , by reason it is more thick , cannot be carry'd so swiftly through the vessels , and be separated from the more refin'd blood , and flow to the breasts alone , not being able to move it self apart , and separating it self from the rest of the mass. . that in nurses that feed upon wholesome diet , the milk is not very serous , but fat and thick ; whereas otherwise by reason of its crudity , it would be always serous . . that upon suck the more spirituous and thinner parts would more easily follow , than the crude and thicker ; and hence would arise a swift decay of the strength . . that our bodies are not truly nourish'd with serous and thin blood , as is apparent in a flegmatic cachexy and anasarca , but with fat and well concocted nourishment , such as milk is , as is apparent from hence , for that children so long as they suck , and are nourish'd with milk-diet , are better nourish'd , and grow more than after they are wean'd : and for that milk also greatly nourishes grown people , upon whom otherwise serous and crude nourishment brings a cachexy , or else they are evacuated for the most part by urine and sweat ; nor do they contribute much to the strength of the body . all which things instruct us , that no blood , whether menstruous , alimentary , or crude , can be the matter of milk. and therefore this doctrine inculcated for so many ages , is to be rejected , and we are to seek another matter for its generation . xxix . this matter , wharton and charleton , the better to find out and describe , divide into two parts , one chylous , the other spermatic ; and this they say is much less in quantity than the other . the one they say is transmitted to the dugs through the arteries of the breast ; but that this is carry'd thither through the nerves . but here they are under a double mistake . first , because they do not consider that there is no chyle nor chylous humor contain'd in the arteries ; because the chylus , when it passes the heart , there loses its own form , and takes the form of blood , and never returns to chylus again . secondly , because they think that the visible and thick alimentary humors pass through the invisible pores of the nerves : which we have at large refuted , l. . c. . and l. . c. . xxx . hieronymus barbatus describes a quite different matter of the milk , while he endeavors to prove by many reasons , that milk is neither made of blood or chylus , but only of the serum , as being that wherewith he thinks that all the spermatic parts are nourish'd : for that the serum swimming upon the blood , by the heat of the fire thickens into a jelly , whence it is apparent that it is not only chang'd into milk , but agglutinated to the parts that are to be nourish'd . which last assertion , which is the foundation of the learned gentleman's argument , is contrary to experience . for that serum swims upon the cold blood drawn from the vein , being set in the sun , or to the fire , will exhale to dryness , but never turn to a jelly , unless it be faulty . the lymphatic iuice , which as he thinks , differs nothing from the serum , thickens to a jelly , but how much that differs from the serum , see l. . c. . lastly , tho' milk be not made without serum ; yet that the serum is only the menstruum in which the milky particles are mingl'd together in fusion , and not the primary matter of milk , is so apparent from the substance it self of milk , as also from the butter and cheese that are made of it , and are far different from the serum , that no man in his wits can question it . xxxi . malpighius writes , that it may be doubted whether the milk in the breasts may not be made of fat. . because nature heaps together a great quantity of fat about the glan dules of the breasts in nurses and women that give suck ; which seems not meerly to be done for ornaments sake . . because in milk when made , there is much butter contain'd which may be separated from it . but this opinion is levell'd by the sole plenty of milk , which is daily drawn from all creatures that give suck ; as in women , but more especially in cows , sheep and swine . for this same plenty is so great , that if all the fat of the breasts should be dissolv'd into milk in one day , it would not suffice for half the quantity that is drawn out , nor the breasts remain in their perfect condition . besides if milk were made of the clammy fat of the breasts in those that give suck , why should not the same thing happen in virgins , and such as do not give suck ; whose breasts are many times no less fat and tumid , than of those that are nurses ? as for the milk's containing butter in it , that proves nothing to the purpose , for that the chylus contains butter in it , and the blood has oyly parts mixt with it , when neither the one is made of any fat in the stomach , nor the other of any fat in the heart . xxxii . martian , ent , giffart and deusingius much more truly assert that the chylus is the matter of milk : with whom we also concur , and affirm that the milk as well in men and infants , as in women , is made of the chyle . the truth of which is confirm'd by an exact co●…sideration of the substance of the chylus and the milk. for if the milky substance of the chylus be narrowly lookt into , how very little does it differ from milk ? between watery milk and chylus there is little or no difference in colour , taste , or substance . only the serosity of the chylus being somewhat separated and wasted in the glandules of the breasts , and there will be excellent milk , and that so much the fatter and thicker , by how much the less of serosity there is in the milk , or more dissipated within the glandules of the breasts . but if that serosity of the chylus be not sufficiently separated , then the pure chylous liquor thin and white , and nothing different from the chylus contain'd in the chyliferous pectoral channel ( distils out of the breasts , as we see in new born infants , as well male as female , in whom by reason of the loosness of the pores and chylifero's channels , the chylus flows freely to the breasts ; and because the tender and languid glandu'es of the breasts , are not sufficient for the farther preparation of that chylus , hence the chylus reaching thither , flows out of its own accord , or with a slight compression . xxxiii . but why and how the chylous iuice is chang'd into milk in these glandules , has not been enquir'd into by any one that i know of . the reason is this all the glandules through the whole body , are design'd to separate out of the blood any lymphatic liquor , spittle in the mouth , somewhat bilious in the liver , lixivious in the spleen , &c. and to endue it with a certain slight , subacid quality , and being so endu'd , to mix it with the blood , chylus , and other humors , to the end they may separate 'em by means of a slight kind of effervescency from other unprofitable humors , and somewhat coagulate and thicken 'em , to prevent the flight of the most subtle sulphureous spirit , and also so to operate , that the sweet sulphury , milky spirits being somewhat more inspissated and clos'd together in the fatty condensed liquor , may be yet more sweet and white . xxxiv . for the same reason also , the milky juice ( with which in its passage through the inner milky vessels something of the lymphatic juice is here and there intermix'd ) comes to be more perfected in the kernels of the breasts ; that in them its sweet sulphury spirits , through the mixture of a little never so slightly subacid , may be a little more thicken'd or fix'd , and so being more united , may become fatter , whiter , and more fit for the nourishment of the infant , which , that it is so , appears from hence ; for that when that liquor of the mammary glandules , which is to be mix'd with the milky juice infus'd into 'em , becomes vicious through any defect , or over-acid , then also the milk is corrupted in the breasts , or grows sowre ; nay and is sometimes coagulated to the hardness of cheese , and causes both inflammation and exulceration of the breasts . see more of this l. . c. . xxxv . here a question may arise , if these things be true , and that the milk is not made of the blood , but chylus , how it comes to pass that in a great flux of blood the milk fails ? i answer , that it does not always fail for that reason , if the woman eat well : and if it do fail , the reason is , because that nature more intent to relieve the greater necessity , forces the whole chylus , or the greatest part of it , and converts it into blood , to repair the strength of the whole body , transmitting very little or none of it to the breasts . to this we may add , that upon the failing of the blood , there fails also a requisite influx of animal spirits , by means of which the breasts are loosen'd , and the chyliferous passages preserv'd open ; and so the breasts falling for want of those spirits , or compressed by the weight or thickness of the adjacent parts , the passage of the chylus into the breasts is stopt up , which causes the milk to fail . xxxvi . neither does the foremention'd aphorism of hippocrates contradict this opinion of ours ; if a woman that is neither with child , nor has lain in , have milk , her flowers have left her . for she has not therefore milk , because that superfluity of menstruous blood flows to the breasts , and is there turn'd into blood ; but because the vessels being sufficiently fill'd with blood , by means of some lustful thought , or libidinous handling of the breasts , part of the chyle , not necessary for the begetting of blood , flows through the said passages to the breasts , and is there turn'd into blood ; and so that superfluity of blood , that should have been evacuated by menstruous evacuations , is prevented by nature , to the exoneration of a good part of the chylus in the breasts , and turning it into milk , before it be made blood : as frequently it happens with nurses , who have not their courses for that reason for the most part , and yet are not burden'd with any redundancy of blood. whereas if that milk , in the woman mention'd by hippocrates , should be made by the menstruous blood restagnating , then all women when their courses stop'd or stay'd , would always have milk in their breasts ; when it rarely happens but among salacious and prurient women , excited by much lascivious titillation and venereal thoughts , and consequently the motion of the animal spirits , which loosen the breasts , and open the pores of the chyliferous passages , and so make free way for the chylus to the breasts . in like manner as by libidinous contrectation and sucking the chylus may be carry'd to the breasts of some men who can never be suspected of menstruous evacuation , and there be turn'd into milk : and of such men giving suck , there are various examples among the physicians , of which bartholine has collected some together , l. e. anat. reformat . c. . after the same manner is the story of mesue's woman to be explain'd , who spit blood , when the milk fail'd in her breast ; which blood was stopp'd when her milk came again . because the chylus that was wont to flow to the breasts , flow'd to the heart , where there happen'd to be too great a quantity of blood , which for that reason burst out of the vessels of the head and lungs , and was evacuated at the mouth . but afterwards , the greatest part of the chylus flowing to the breasts , and the milk returning , then upon the ceasing of the repletion , the spitting of blood likewise ceas'd . here also lastly may be objected the example of cows , who having been foddered all the winter with hay , at length coming to feed upon grass , nevertheless their milk does not alter and grow fat , till two or three weeks after , and it contributes another somewhat ruddy colour and grateful taste to the butter , which would come to pass the first or second day , if the foresaid proposition were true , seeing that the chylus is altered at the beginning . i answer , first , that what is alledged is not true ; for it is not three weeks time before the alteration of the milk , but the first , second or third day ; and it is manifestly apparent in the colour and taste of the butter made the fourth day , tho it be not perfectly conspicuous at the beginning ; because the preceding chylus was not then wholly wasted , but mixt with the latter . besides the very substance of the udder cannot be so soon dispos'd to give such a sudden alteration to the milk : seeing that disposition depends upon the blood which nourishes that substance : hence it follows that as that nutrition , so the great alteration of the disposition proceeding from it , procures its effect by degrees , but not in one or two days . xxxviii . this opinion of ours concerning the chylous matter of milk , wharton seems to prove but in part ; for he joyns to it another matter , of which never any man hitherto makes mention . for he affirms the milk to be made partly out of chyle , and partly out of a certain iuice flowing from the nerves , which is mingled with that chylus . but seeing there is no such cavity in the nerves , through which such a manifest , thick , fatty , whitish iuice can be thought to pass , but only invisible porosities , through which no such plentiful iuice , which is to be turn'd into milk , can possibly flow to the breasts of women that give suck , 't is apparent that no liquor can come from the nerves for the generation of milk. which is manifest from hence , for that through the copious conflux of that animal liquor through the nerves to the breasts , there would be a great dissipation and waste of animal spirits in women that gave suck , and an extraordinary decay of strength ; whereas women are more chearful , & better in health when they give suck than at other times . xxxix . these things being thus affirmed , there remains a notable question to be examin'd , that has so deterr'd most learned men , that they have rather chosen to pass it over in silence , than to meddle with it . what it is that forces the chylus ( that was wont to flow to the heart ) through the chyliferous channels to the breasts , for the generation of milk ? deusingius believes , that the menstruous blood , through a certain singular quality contracted from the womb , rarefies , and as it were ferments all things in the body , and causes a disposition proper for the generation of milk. this , he says , is communicated to infants by the nourishing heat of the womb. but that in men and virgins , it is occasion'd by the frequent handling of the breasts , in like manner as in little kids , whose dugs being compress'd by the hands , there presently follows milk. but these plausible reasons fall upon the rocks by me formerly propos'd , and suffer a total shipwrack . nor is that any thing truer which deusingius adds , that the chylus is forc'd toward the breasts in women with child , by a compression of the stomach and sweet-bread made by the growing infant . for which why does not the same thing happen in other tumors without the abdomen , and when the dead birth sticks in the womb , at what time there is the same compression . some will say perhaps , that there is not the same lactific disposition infus'd by them into the breast . which is of no moment , for if the aforesaid compression of the stomack were requisite to concur with such a disposition , then such a compression ceasing from the birth after delivery , no chylus would come to the breasts , and so there would be no milk generated therein ; much less in virgins and men that give milk , in whom such a compression by the birth , could never happen . but these things being all contrary to experience , fall without refutation . some have recourse to the providence of nature ; others to other invalid reasons : and thus this mystery has hitherto remain'd in obscurity . but for the better discovery thereof , we are first to consider , that besides the chylus and an apt conformation of the breasts , there is requir'd toward the generation of milk , a free passage of the chylus to the breasts , which we easily conceive in infants newly born by reason of the softness and the loose porosities of the parts . but what should open that passage in people grown to maturity , which had been stopp'd up for many years , he that can tell this , unlooses the gordion knot . suck or handle the breasts of a hundred men , virgins and women that do not give suck , as long as you please , you shall not find the milk come to all , perhaps not to any , or only to one or two . but why not to all ? because say you , the breasts of the rest are not sufficiently loose or porous . but the same women when afterwards with child evince these reasons , in whom there is then to be found a sufficient laxity of the dugs . xl. therefore there is another cause to be sought after , which i take to be a strong imagination , and an intent and frequent cogitation of milk , of the breasts , and of their being suckt ; which works wonders in our bodies ; not simply of it self , but by virtue of the appetitive power , or of the passions of the mind , which occasion various motions of the spirits and humors . thus the imagination and thought of an extraordinary danger makes a man tremble , fall down , grow cold , and fall into a fit , and sometimes occasions the hair to grow grey on a sudden . glad thoughts revive and warm the body . obscene thoughts occasion blushing ; and thoughts of terror occasion paleness . venereal thoughts diffuse heat through the whole body , loosen the genitals of women , stiffen those of men , and open the seminary passages , otherwise invisible , in such a manner , as to occasion spontaneous nocturnal pollutions . this intent imagination and desirous thought of giving the infant suck , is the reason why the chyliferous passages to the breasts are dilated and open'd , especially if some other external causes contributing to the same purpose , cherish and excite those strong imaginations , as lascivious titillation of the breasts , the stirring of the child in the womb , or sucking of the nipples : for according to the various influx of the animal spirits , the parts are sometimes streightned , sometimes loosen'd , as every body knows ; and according to that various constriction or dilatation , the blood and other humors flow more or less into the parts : and are sometimes the occasion of heat , softness , redness ; sometimes of constriction , coldness and paleness . among these impuls'd humors is the chylus , which is continually thrust forward by the muscles of the abdomen , through some lactiferous vessels , and so through those vessels that tend to the breasts , provided that a special influx of the animal spirits have loosen'd those parts through which those vessels are carry'd , and has render'd those vessels penetrable , by removing all manner of constriction . now that this is the true cause , is apparent from that man mention'd by santorel , who , upon the death of his wife , when his poverty would not give him leave to hire a nurse , that he might still the cries of the infant , would often lay the child to his breasts ( no doubt with an ardent desire to give it suck ) and so at length through that intent , continual cogitation , and often iterated sucking of his teats , the chyliferous passages were loosned , and his breasts afforded milk sufficient for the nourishment of the infant . the like accident hapned at viana , where the woman of the bores-head was brought to bed not long after the death of her husband , and soon after her delivery dy'd , very poor her self , leaving the infant sound and healthy ; of which the grandmother taking compassion , and not able to hire a nurse , by reason of her poverty , undertook to bring it up by hand , in the th . year of her age ; at what time putting the crying infant to her breasts , and giving it her nipples to suck , through that force of imagination and eager desire to suckle the child , her breasts began to give milk , and that in a few days so plentifully , that the infant wanted little other diet , to the great admiration of all that saw the infant suckled with the milk of an old woman , whose breasts had been fallen for many years . many such examples of old women giving suck , bodin relates in his theat . natur. and the truth of this cause is no less evinc'd by lascivious and prurient virgins , who are full of libidinous thoughts , and therefore often handling their breasts , sometimes without the loss of their virginity , come to have milk in them ; of which sort of milk-bearing virgins of undoubted honesty , i happen'd to see two ; bartholin witnesses another seen by himself ; and we find several examples of women yielding milk in vega , schenkius , caster , castellus , and others , collected by bauhinus . neither will any man question but that such like lascivious thoughts of their own breasts , and handling 'em , has also produced milk in the breasts of men. but in women with child , the stirring of the birth in the womb excites every day more and more those thoughts of suckling the infant , and hence when the infant begins to move sensibly , then the milk begins to appear in the breasts . xli . i shall add a manifest domestic example . my own wife in march . had in her lying in a sufficient quantity of milk , according as she was wont to have ; but the infant for six or seven weeks was so weak , that it could not suck , so that every one thought it would have died , and she not dreaming any more of suckling it , her milk dry'd up : but when afterwards the child recover'd and was able to suck , and my wife had no milk in her breasts , the child was of necessity to be put out to nurse : but the nurse proving bad , my wife , nine months after her delivery , sent for the child home ; and while another nurse could be found , would often lay the crying infant to her breast , wishing her self in a condition to suckle it . the next day the child was sent to another nurse ; but that evening , through that same strong imagination and thoughtfulness , her breasts that had been dry'd up for above eight months , began to swell and be full of milk , so that had not the nurse been hir'd , she could have suckl'd the child her self , which proves that strong thoughts and imaginations are the first cause that move the chylus to the breasts . but some will say , if this were true , then in those women that have no milk in the flower of their age after being brought to bed , such ardent desires to give the child suck , would bring milk into their breast , but no such thing happens , tho' they desire to suckle the infant . i answer , that all thoughts are not so intent and strong as to move the affections of the mind , without a vigorous stirring of which , the animal spirits are not so impetuously mov'd : and hence the thoughts of suckling the infant , tho' they frequently occur to the womans mind , yet if they do not happen with a violent and continual intentness , the animal spirits cannot be so copiously determin'd toward the breasts , as to be able to dilate and remove the impediments of the vessels tending thither . besides that many things may happen which may hinder the passage of the chylus to the breasts , notwithstanding the present ardent desire and strong imagination of suckling the infant : as scarcity of chylus , thickness of the breasts , obstruction of the kernels by viscous humors , by exulceration , fall , blow , or other mischance , or a natural streightness of the milky vessels tending to the breasts , or compression from the neighbouring parts ; and then the effects of thought and imaginat on are frustrated . xlii . hence it appears why child-bearing women have such plenty of milk the third , fourth or fifth day after delivery : because that being tir'd with their labour , for the first two or three days , they do not much employ their thoughts upon any thing ; and for want of appetite , eat little , and breed less chylus , but the next days following , when they eat more , and the infant begins to cry more , then they also continually think of giving it nourishment , and desire to satisfie the crying of the child , and through this affection , the passages being loosen'd by the determin'd influx of the animal spirits , the chylous iuice that was formerly carry'd to the womb , is now turn'd to the breasts . xliii . to conclude , i shall only add one question worth examination : why upon the weaning of the child , the chylous iuice is no longer carry'd to the breasts , but the milk is dry'd up ? it is because the woman lays aside all thought of giving suck , which the more speedily she does , the sooner and the better are her breasts dry'd up ; for that then the more copious influx of the animal spirits to the breasts , fails ; by which the glandules of the breasts , and the chyliferous vessels tending thither , were dilated ; and hence the glandules then fall and are contracted , and the said chyliferous and milky vessels are compress'd by the weight of the adjacent parts ; so that there can be nothing more through those convey'd to the breasts , and then that part of the chylus that was wont to be convey'd thither , in women with child is convey'd to the womb , in others to the heart , there to be chang'd into blood ; which because the body does not want in such abundance , hence it comes to pass that women are less hungry and thirsty than when they gave suck , and so they breed less chylus , and what blood is bred superfluous in the mean time in women with child , contributes to the birth , in others is evacuated through the womb. xliv . but some will say , where remains that milk , which upon the first weaning remains in great plenty in the breasts , and is not suckt out ? why is it not coagulated and corrupted , and consequently does not breed inflammations and apostemes ? i answer , it is carry'd by degrees through the mammary veins , to the hollow vein , and so to the heart , in like manner as the chylus pour'd forth out of the chyliferous pectoral channel into the subclavial vein , flows together with the veinal blood to the heart . but whether that milky juice be carry'd to the heart through the mammary veins extraordinarily in women giving suck , especially such as abound with milk , i leave to consideration ; seeing that the remarkable number and bigness of the veins , and the small number and bulk of the arteries seem to perswade the contrary . xlv . in opposition to this opinion of ours , one notable doubt arises ; how it comes to pass that in cows , mares , ews , goats , and other creatures the milky chylous iuice flows in such abundance , and so constantly to the udder , seeing that being depriv'd of rational souls , they are no way capable of imagination , thought , intellect , memory , will , iudgment , &c. true it is our modern philosophers that follow cartesius , acknowledge no such noble actions as these in brutes ; or if they seem to perform some actions like to these , they believe they neither can nor ought to be number'd into the rank of principal actions , as not being perform'd by a rational soul , but affirm 'em to proceed only from a certain kind of motion of the spirits induc'd by the objects , and flowing from the propriety of the disposition of the parts . and thus they alledge that in brutes certain dispositions of the spirits and the rest of the parts are induced by the objects , from which certain kind of motions result , in reference to which the pores sometimes of these , sometimes of those parts are opened and shut through the greater or lesser , slower or swifter , stronger or gentler influx of the spirits . and in this case now proposed by us they would thus argue , viz. in a cow , by reason of the great commotion of the birth in the womb , or the pain of bringing forth , the pores are opened about and toward the udder , and so by the influx of animal spirits the passages before shut are dilated , so that the chylous milky juice is at liberty to flow thither more freely through its proper vessels . which laxity of the milky passages continues long after bringing forth , because of the continu'd opening of the pores wider than usual toward the udder , and the more copious influx of the animal spirits , and continued by the tickling motion about the udder induced by the grasping of the calf that sucks , or the hand of the milkmaid . but in regard the object cannot of it self induce any sensitive motion , unless it be first known either as good or evil , and this knowledg and perception presupposes something knowing , far different from the object to be known ( for being taken without knowledg and preception , no motion can be said to be made by its means ; as in those that are troubled with a catalepsie , into whose organs both sensitive and moving , tho well form'd and furnished with blood , heat , and spirits , tho the objects fall , they cause no motion , because they are not perceiv'd ; and consequently there are no new determinations of the spirits to various parts , nor no alterations of motion . ) furthermore seeing the property of the disposition of the parts , necessarily presupposes some peculiar disponent , which induces to that proper disposition , and alters it according to the nature of the thing ; and even the motion of the spirits it self presupposes also some first mover , perceiving and knowing the object ( for nothing knows , moves , and disposes it self without a cause ) it sufficiently appears , that such an explanation neither suffices nor satisfies , especially if we consider over and above that most brute animals perceive and distinguish pains , smells , and tastes , covet things grateful , perceive , know , and avoid things grateful as such , know their friends from their enemies , &c. which most certainly are no operations of the disposition of the parts mov'd by objects ; but of somthing perceiving the objects , and so disposing the parts to perform such and such actions . as in man a brain well form'd and temper'd , and full of animal spirits is not the primary cause of the principal actions , but the rational soul , which makes use of the brain and spirits as instruments , and so disposes the brain , that sometimes these , sometimes other pores are more or less opened and shut , and fewer or more plentiful spirits sometimes determin'd after this or that certain manner through those open pores ; and consequently these , sometimes others , and many times several principal functions operate together . or as an organ sufficiently furnished with pipes , bellows , and wind , cannot by virtue of any object , or by its own proper disposition sing any musical songs , unless by the assistance of the organist , who directing the keys with his fingers determines the wind sometimes into these , sometimes into other pipes , and so produces a grateful harmony . thus also in brutes , besides the objects and the proper disposition of the brain and other parts ▪ there must be of necessity something else over and above , which perceives the objects , and produces such wonderful operations out of those parts . it is here in vain alledged that simple natural affections , as hunger , thirst , joy , sadness , want in brutes no other instructor , than the instinct of nature : concerning which tho. willis writes many things , but little to the dilucidation of this matter . as if that same natural instinct did not want an instructor as well in brutes as in men : for as man is never a hungry , but when he perceives that troublesome vellication of the stomach ; who will believe that brutes are sensible of hunger without that vellication ? or if they perceive by instinct without any other teacher , let us know what that instinct is which perceives without a teacher , and how it operates that perception ? which if it be not that rational soul , of which brutes are depriv'd , what is it ? we will call it for the present something analogous to the rational soul , which in brutes operates a kind of understanding , memory , knowledg , with something of obscure judgment after their manner , or some such like thing . for brutes are not mov'd , nor do they act like engines mov'd by clock-work , as most of our modern philosophers endeavour'd to inculcate , regius , and florentius schuyl among the rest . for engines mov'd by clock-work neither feel pain , nor hear , nor see , nor come when they are call'd , nor fly those that threaten 'em ; all which operations are observ'd in beasts : and then says isaiah , the ox knows his owner , and the ass his masters cribb . and ieremiah , the kite knows his time , the turtle , the swallow , and the stork , know the seasons of their coming . thus a dog knows his master and the servants from strangers , fawns upon his friends , barks at his enemies , and after his manner understands and executes the commands of his master . he dreams in his sleep , and barks in his dream . in hunting also he seems after a manner to argue ; for coming where three ways meet , after he has examined two , and finds the game not gone either of them , he takes the third without farther examination ; as if he had thus reasoned with himself , the game must be gon either that way , or that way , or this : but neither that way , nor that way , therefore this way . thus rocarius reports a notable story of a dog that belong'd to a peculiar friend of his , which happened in the court of cardinal alexander . this friend of his went a hunting alone one time with his dog , and following his game with great heat in a solitary wood , fell at length into a deep pit , where he had perished inevitably but for his dog : for the dog having lost his master return'd immediately home , fill'd all the house with his howling and whining , and by running out a doors and returning again , intimated a kind of eager desire that some body should follow him , which the cardinal observing , and perceiving that the owner of the dog was missing , ordered some persons to follow the dog , and by him being led directly to the pit , there they found his master and drew him out . who taught this dog to leave his master to seek for human help , to return home , to testify his sadness by his whining , to urge the servants to go along with him , to carry them to the pit , and to shew them his master fallen into it ? only the object : oh the wonderful force of objects that reaches beasts to reason in this manner . a mare knows her enemy the wolf , and stoutly defends her foal from his seisure . eagles being to encounter harts as rocarius testifies , first by their fluttering up and down gather the dust into their feathers , then flying over the hart , they shake the dust into the eyes of the stag , to the end that being blind he may run headlong and fall from the precipice . a wild outragious panther , by the testimony of the same author , whose young accidentally fell into a pit , from whence she knew that only human help could recover them , as it were guided by some kind of reason , besets a road leading three ways expecting some man to pass by ; at length lighting upon an unwary traveller , she fawn'd upon him , and laying her paws upon him , gently lead him , willing as he was to go , to the pit ; out of which , after he had taken her young ones , the cruel , yet grateful , wild beast , for the kindness done her , guarded the traveller through the midst of the desart , back again to his road , and dismissed him without the least harm . the cruel and hungry lion in gellius knew androclus again that had formerly pull'd a thorn out of his foot , and was so far from tearing him , that by his outward gestures he shewed him all the kindness imaginable , walk'd about the city with him , and obey'd him as his servant , for being formerly his surgeon . the doves carried out of holland into england , and there kept prisoners a while , flew back , when set at liberty , into holland , and in two days return to their old dove-house , as monsieur abeels , a merchant , well known among us , can testify . a stork makes cruel war with another stork for having possessed her nest , and in conclusion either wounds or kills her , and throws her chickens and her eggs out of the nest : and the same bird knows by the constitution of the air , when 't is seasonable to fly into remote regions , and when to return . the singular subtlety of apes is discovered by their actions . the elephant does many things to a miracle , as if endu'd with reason . i omit the wonderful industry of ants , or to tell with what art birds build their nests , spiders spin their webs , and bees build their combs , and gather their honey . all which things could never be done without some kind of understanding , knowledg , memory , and judgment , or at least something analogous thereto , tho they are not perform'd with equal perfection in all creatures ; for as that same analogous reason , is in some more excellent and vivacious , as the organs are more or less fitted ; so some beasts differ from others in acuteness of wit , in understanding , memory , docilitie , and stupidity . hence our saviour himself ascribes to some creatures a sort of knowledg or understanding , where he says , be wise as serpents , but innocent as doves . now i would fain know how simplicity of mind or prudence can be in such creatures without some kind of understanding . tho these operations are more imperfect in brutes than in men : in whom also they are sometimes sufficiently imperfect of themselves ; as in men that have been exposed in desarts , and bred up by wild beasts ; who being afterwards taken by the hunters , have differed little from wild beasts but in shape , of which we have several examples in pliny , goulartius , dresser , camerarius and others , who nevertheless by convenient education and exercise attain the highest pinacle of perfection ; which slight shadow only of perfection , tho far different from rational perfection , most manifestly appears in brutes , which nevertheless ought of necessity to have some cause . and therefore it is apparent from the reasons foregoing that no motion can be raised up in brutes , unless good or bad be perceiv'd , and if they be in such a manner perceiv'd , there must of necessity be within 'em something perceiving and knowing . nevertheless it does not follow from hence ( what our adversaries inferr ) that if there be any understanding and knowledg in brutes , therefore they must have a soul , and that no less immortal than the soul of man. for that they have a feeling and perceiving soul must be granted , but that it is immortal like the soul of man we plainly deny . for the difference of those souls , and the difference of the original teach the contrary . scripture therefore , reason , and experience teach us that there is something to be allow'd to beasts which is analogous to reason , but mortal however . which is perspicuous from this one thing , that some creatures run mad , as apes intoxicated , dogs and other creatures distempered with a hydropholie ; which madness could not happen to creatures that understood better in their natural condition , for natural ability and impotency must be referred to the same subject . and here that inference is of no value , that a mad-man , is not mad according to his rational soul , but according to the inner sences which the beasts have common with him , which operate rightly or amiss , as the organs are well or ill disposed ; and so brutes also run mad according to those sences , and not according to any soul. this objection does no way destroy the existence of some kind of mortal soul in brutes , in some measure analogous to the immortal mind , and as it were a kind of shadow of it ; but rather it proves in man besides the rational incorruptible soul , that there is yet within him another corruptible soul , common to brutes , perfecting the operations of the internal senses , called the vegetative and sensitive , which of necessity must be in man , as we have proved l. . c. . the learned willis labours very much in discovering and explaining the percipient , and after he has largely unfolded it , how the images of objects are form'd and imprinted in the brain , by the running backward and forward , motion , repercussion . &c. of the spirits , at length altogether doubtful , says he , however we are yet to enquire what kind of power that is , which sees and knows such like images delineated there , and also according to those impressions there received chooses , desires , and exercises the respective acts of other faculties . but that he may disingage himself out of this perplexity , he says , . that there is an innate knowledg in brutes , infused by the supreme creator , and implanted in their principles or natures from their first formation , for certain uses necessary for the propagation of life , which vulgarly uses to be call'd natural instinct . . that there is within 'em a certain acquir'd knowledg by the impressions of sensible things , by imitation , experience , human teaching , and by other means learnt by degrees , and which arrives in some to a higher , in some to a lesser degree of perfection . in the following paragraphs he discourses at large concerning both these sorts of knowledg , and thus he believes he has sufficiently extricated himself out of his labyrinth , when in the mean time he never does nor can explain , what or what sort of being , or what thing that natural instinct is , and whence that acquir'd knowledg proceeds , which cannot proceed but from something knowing , which something knowing had he explain'd together with natural instinct , all this cloud of obscurity had been scattered : but now relying only upon names and words , he leaves his readers as much in the dark as they were before . all which things when galen had excellently well consider'd , he writes , that brutes are not altogether void of reason , capable of affections : and believes that s●…me sort of reason , tho to some less , to others more liberally is to be allow'd to brutes . wherein galen agrees with aristotle : in men , says he , there is wisdom , prudence , and art , so likewise in some brutes there is a certain other nature of this sort : and in another place , there is in some beasts urbanity , savageness , clemency , cruelty , fortitude , sloth , confidence , anger , malice , and an image of prudence . thus also by the report of bodin , the most learned philosophers , chrysippus , porphyrius , dion , solin , plutarch , and others have confirm'd a sort of reason allow'd by nature to beasts . with whom hugo grotius assents , l. . de veritat . relig. even beasts exercise some actions so orderly and well directed , that they seem to proceed from a kind of reason which appears cheifly in ants and bees : but is manifest also in other creatures , that fly things hurtful , and seek those things that are profitable . this sort of brutish reason aristotle calls reason by participation , or passive understanding . neither is this opinion contradicted by that other text of scripture , be not like the horse and mule that wanteth understanding . for there , by understanding is to be understood an acute and rational understanding . thus we usually say of men that are blockish , fools or mad-men , that they want understanding ; because their intellects are not so acute ; whereas nevertheless they know and distinguish objects after their manner , as appears by their actions . moreover , seeing that both men and brutes do know , these perfectly , the other less perfectly , of necessity we must distinguish between the rational intellect , which belongs only to men ; and the intellect of brutes , far inferior and more imperfect than the other , and which never can be brought up to the perfection of rationality . xlvi . but what that something analogous to the rational soul , is , no man could hitherto sufficiently unfold . iulius caesar thinks he has discover'd a sufficient explication , by calling it common sence , which is in the midst between all the external senses , and collects their multiplicity into one . others think it to be nothing that subsists of it self , but only an accident and modification of substance , that is to say , such a disposition of the brain and spirits induc'd by heat , which causes beasts to live and feel after their manner . but after that manner the mediums are only to be understood by which the act of perceiving is perform'd nor does it teach us what that medium is which perceives such mediums in brutes after their manner . for example , when a man sees , he wants heat ( for a congeal'd eye does not see ) and a convenient disposition both of the brain and eye : but there is some other thing which causes him to see visible things through these mediums , that is , the soul. but seeing brutes also feel and perceive things visible , audible and tangible , of necessity also in them , besides heat and convenient organs , there must be something percipient and analogous to reason , by which the act of perceiving is perform'd . now whatever that is , it manifestly appears , that it is something singular in brutes , which was created by the supream god at the beginning , together with the world , and infus'd and mix'd with the matter of the world , which in brutes is again extracted out of matter , and proceeds into manifest act : but in the mean time the most excellent of the matter is produc'd exceeding the common condition of the mixt matter , which so manifestly operates those nobler actions in brutes , and frequently in some seems to imitate the actions of the mind . and this is that which we think is to be understood by analogous to reason , which we can better admire at than explain . xlvii . yet no man in his wits will call this analogon the rational incorruptible soul , since it proceeded from corporeal corruptible matter , and is propagated by generation , and not only operates imperfectly , but is also corruptible , and perishes with the body : whereas the rational soul did not proceed from the matter of the body , but was created apart by god , and by him infus'd , operates perfect actions , is incorruptible and immortal , and is separable from the body , and not only extends its actions much farther than that corruptible analogon , but to infinity . according to that of the heathen prince of philosophers , it remains that the mind alone comes from without , that she is only divine ▪ for no corporeal act communicates with her actions . for she contemplates not only the substances of things , but things also divested of their substances . she comprehends knowledge , beholds the invisible god , reaches to the seats of the blessed , dives into the nature of offices of angels with admiration ; she contemplates her self , and knows what she is joyn'd to the body , and what abstracted from it ; views things long past as present ; examines futurity , and what will never be , possibilities and impossibilities , and endeavours to comprehend things innumerable and infinite . none of which operations are perform'd by the analogon . which being corporeal , contemplates only things corporeal . concerning this matter has the learned willis written most elegantly ; who after he has alledged the knowing faculty of the corporeal soul to be fancy or imagination , which comprehends corporeal things under an appearing image only , and not always under a true one , at length in these words , but indeed , says he , the intellect presiding over the imagination , beholds all the species deposited in its self , discerns or corrects their obliquities or hypocrisies , sublimes the phancies thence drawn forth , and divesting it from matter , forms universal things from singular ; moreover it frames out of those some other more sublime thoughts , not competent to the corporeal , so it speculates both the nature of every substance , and abstracted from the individuals of accident , viz. humanity , rationality , temperance , fortitude , corporeity , spirituality , whiteness , and the like ; besides being carry'd higher , it contemplates god , angels , its self , infinity , eternity , and many other notions far remote from sence and imagination . and so as our intellect , in these kind of metaphysical conceptions , makes things almost wholly naked of matter , or carrying it self beyond every visible species of matter , it considers them wholly immaterial : this argues certainly , that the substance or matter of the rational soul is immaterial and immortal . because if this aptness or disposition were corporeal , as it can conceive nothing incorporeal by sence , it should suspect there were no such thing in the world. xlviii . therefore the foresaid analogon is the more excellent spirit instructed by nature , produc'd out of corporeal matter , far exceeding the condition of other spirits produc'd out of matter , which aristotle affirm'd to participate of the nature of the element of the stars : alledging that there is contain'd in every seed a certain spirit nobler than the body , which in nature and value answers to the element of the stars , by which the formation of the birth in brutes , and other actions are perform'd . this is that vivific spirit , which no man hitherto could perfectly describe . which being drawn forth out of the matter by heat dissolving the matter , acts again upon the matter , and variously disposes it , in such a manner , that besides many other actions , it produces the nobler actions in brutes . but this disposition of the parts , which is an effect of this spirit , or rather of nature latent in the spirit , and the medium by which it operates , modern philosophers , contrary to reason , constituted to be the efficient cause of the said operations ; and so have made the fabrick of brutes like the fabrick of engines moving by clock-work ; not considering that the appropriated disposition of wheels and other parts in them , proceeded not either from the engine it self , or from the concoction , blowing or motion of the air , fire or other matter , but from the hand of some artificer , who by that disposition carries on that motion which he design'd in the engine . for example sake , the wheels and other parts of a clock are so dispos'd as to show the hours , yet will it be of no use as to that purpose unless the artificer pulls up the weight at prefix'd times , and makes the clock go slower or faster , according as the weights are either lighter or heavier , which he hangs on . so in brutes , though the parts be proportionable and well dispos'd for the performance of actions , yet unless there be something to change and excite those parts to their design'd operations , they will act nothing . so that action proceeds neither from the innate disposition of the parts , nor from the objects ; but from hence , that it knows and perceives the objects and incites the dispos'd parts to various operations ; which being but slightly consider'd by some , was the reason that they understood not that the propriety of parts in brutes requir'd likewise some more noble artificer to direct that disposition , and to be the cause and author of it , and of the foresaid nobler actions . and by reason of these operations of the fancy in brutes , as in mankind , proceeds that more copious influx of the animal spirits in brutes , and consequently their continu'd generation of milk. xlix . hence it appears how ill they argue , who denying all knowledge and understanding in brutes , alledge , . that brutes , seeing there can be no thinking substance assign'd to 'em , are depriv'd of all sences . . every thinking substance is immortal . . there is no sence without conscience . . no conscience without the thing thinking . . no thing thinking without any rationality . . no rationality without immortality . l. the first is to be contradicted by every ploughman ; for who will presume to deny , that beasts do excel some more , some less in all the five sences ? who dares say , that their organs of sence were assign'd 'em to no purpose by the supream creator ; or that they know not what is hurtful , and what is for their benefit and advantage . to the second , we have already answered , that though such actions cannot be perform'd without some thinking substance , yet is it not requisite that that substance should be immortal , but something analogous . the third and fourth we grant to be true ; yet we must distinguish in the mean time between the thing thinking , which is imperfect and mortal , &c. and the thing thinking , which is immortal and perfectly rational ; of which , the first is but a certain analogon , or slender shadow ; which proves the falshood of the fifth , when some thinking thing may be without perfect rationality ; though , as the sixth says , no perfect rationality can be without immortality . and so much for these things ; having been more prolix in the examination of lactification , by reason of the obscurity of the subject . and here might be added a farther discourse of milk , as it consists of diverse parts , caseous , butirous , and serous ; but i shall stop here , for fear of transgressing too far beyond my bounds . chap. iii. of the diaphragma . i. vve now go to the inner containing parts of the middle belly , among which comes first to be consider'd that same remarkable inclosure which the greeks call diaphragma , from 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , to distinguish ; by the latines , septum transversum , or the overthwart inclosure , because it distinguishes the trunk of the body into two bellies . aristotle calls it 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , or the girdling , 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , and 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 : but macrobius calls it disseptum . by hippocrates and many of the an cient physicians , it is call'd 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 and 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , that is the mind ; because that being out of order , the mind and senses are disturb'd : and for that the sences go beside themselves when it is inflam'd . ii. it is a muscle serving for the use of respiration with other muscles of the ribs , in shape almost circular , and much varying in situation from the rest of the muscles , answering in bigness to the overthwart largeness of the lower breast . iii. it consists of a fleshy substance , in the middle for the better strengthning of it , membranous and nervous , to which mediety run forth fleshy fibres from the periphery of the breast , as to the center ; to which center all wounds that reach , are esteemed mortal . but galen affirms , that wounds in the fleshy part of it , are not mortal ; which holler , iacotius and alexander benedict confirm by examples , and which we have also experienc'd in practice . iv. it is invested with a double membrane ; the uppermost of which is the expansion of the pleura , to which the mediastinum and pericardium stick close , and sometimes , but very seldom the lobes of the lungs , by means of little fibres . the lower membrane joyns to the peritonaeum . v. being fasten'd to the ribs on both sides the lower part of the sternon , and to the cartilago mucronata , it is spred over the thorax , and about the vertebrae of the loyns , it is stretched forth first into two fleshy , then two tendinous portions , strongly fasten'd to the said vertebrae , and descending to the os sacrum , through which the great artery descends , with the nerves of the sixth pair apply'd to the ribs , and the vein azygos ascends . from these portions , many with galen , describe its original ; others from the sword shap'd gristle ; others with fallopius , from the extremities of the ribs ; others , with vesalius and sylvius , from the middle membranous center into which the nerves enter . which last opinion displeases , to whom that membranous part seems rather to be one general tendon of all the fibres standing round about : but the insertion of the nerves into the nervous part , shews the contrary , as being always inserted into the head of the muscle . vi. it is penetrable about the middle on the right hand for the passage of the vena cava , on the left hand for the passage of the gullet and stomach-nerves . as for the aorta , that does not penetrate the diaphragma , but resting upon the vertebrae , it is comprehended by it , as it were within a semi-circle . vii . it has two arteries , call'd phrenic arteries , from the trunk of the great artery adjoyning to it : it has also two veins , call'd phrenic veins , carrying back the remainder of the blood after nourishment , which it inserts into the trunk of the hollow vein . it receives three remarkable nerves , dispersed through the whole substance of it ; from the fold of the nerves of the neck , and the branches of the second vertebral pair in men , and the brachial nerves descending through the mediastinum , the principal occasions of the consent of the diaphragma with the head , and by reason of their commixture with the small nerves of the iaws and lips tending to the muscles , the authors also of sardonic laughter . to these from the lower part little nerves joyn themselves from the costal and stomachical nerve passing thither . all these nerves are inserted near its middle membranous part , which is not here the tail , but the head of this muscle , as toward which the circumference is drawn with the ribs annex'd . viii . in breathing inward , it becomes flat , and from a convex laxity falls level , but is stretch'd out with any stress ; but in fetching the breath , it is as it were stretch'd out with violence , and attracting the ribs by that same distention , it begins and ends expiration with some violence ; which ribs presently following , the tension ceases , and a laxation ensues . for this act of breathing is just as we see in a casting-net , which is thrown spread abroad into the water ; but being drawn up again , is contracted by the inner ropes of its circumference . thus in breathing inward , the diaphragma spread abroad in expiration , contracts its circumference by its fibres together with the ribs annex'd to it , and so returns to its loose convexity . in like manner as in ringing , when the bell goes up , the rope is upon the full stretch , but coming down again , the rope falls loose and to spare to the ground . but it is not necessary that the tension or stretching of the diaphragma should last so long as expiration lasts ; for the ribs being drawn by one forcible violence , presently follow without any farther violence , and by the gentler contraction of the intercostal muscles , the sacrol●…mbal and triangular assisting , are reduced again nearer one to another . thus any one may try upon himself , that the first part of expiration is done with some force , the rest follows more gently without any violence : which is remarkably observ'd in deep sighs , and violent fetching the breath . from whence it is apparent that the diaphragma is the primary muscle that causes expiration . iohn swammerdam assigns to it a use altogether contrary ; i say contrary , nay and impossible too . for he writes that the diaphragma by extending itself , dilates the breast , and procures ●…reathing inward , which sylvius also inculates in his praxis medic. the same also iohn de bruyn , a most learned professor of philosophy in our academy , and iohn mayo , an englishman , in his tract of respiration , endeavours in a long discourse to maintain the same thing , when as the action of all muscles whatever , and consequently of the diaphragma , is the same ; that is , to contract themselves , and to bring the part fasten'd to them , toward their head , and hence also it is impossible ▪ that among all the rest of the muscles , the diaphragma only should be able by extending , to dilate both it self , and the ribs which are fasten'd to it , and that without the assistance of the other muscles serving to inspiration ; for it is a thing unheard of and contrary to the nature of musculous fibres , to act by extending . if he meant , that the same dilatation of the thorax was caus'd by the contraction of the diaphragma , then he contradicts reason and experience in such a manner , that no man can excuse him any longer . for seeing that the diaphragma must of necessity bring the ribs toward its head , and the head of it being the middle membranous part , and that situated in a higher medium , and a more elevated place , than the ribs annex'd to it below , of necessity while it contracts it self , it must bring the lower ribs inward towards its head , and so must streighten , not dilate the capacity of the breast . moreover , 't is another mistake of his to think that the diaphragma in the act of drawing in the breath , drives the bowels of the abdomen downward , whereas they are mov'd upward , as any one may find in himself , and find true in the dissections of living animals . reason also teaches us , that in the act of breathing inward , the convexity is reduc'd to a flatness , because the sides of it together with the ribs annex'd , are mov'd outward and upwards , and hence also the muscles and bowels annex'd to the diaphragma , must of necessity ascend upward and outward . moreover swammerdam himself writes , that in expiration the abdomen is forc'd inward and downward , and therefore in drawing the breath inward , which is the contrary motion , it heaves upward . lastly , he adds ; that in expiration the diaphragma ascends upward , whereas at that time in the middle , where it adheres to the mediastinum , which is annex'd to the sternum-bone and the vertebrae of the back , it is mov'd neither upward nor downward , but descends every way in compass downward , and then returns to its former oven-like convexity . ix . riolanus disputes whether the motion of the diaphragma be natural or animal ; and seems to conclude , that the motion of it is natural , because it does not depend upon our own will , and follows the condition of respiration . but his opinion is repugnant both to truth and experience , as we shall shew , ch. . and seeing it is perform'd by the muscles of the thorax , of which the greatest part composes the diaphragma , of necessity the motion of the diaphragma is animal . in vain also does riolanus distinguish between it free motion , when it is mov'd of its self ; and its violent motion ; when it follows the motion of other muscles : which motion does not consist in acting alone , but in being able to act . and therefore when the diaphragma , or any other muscle ceases to act for a time , and for a while follows the motion of other muscles , we must not presently deny the motion of it to be animal ; for it is able to move its self at pleasure at any time : and if it cease from its motion , or follow the motion of other muscles , this also proceeds from its own will , because it can do otherwise . chap. iv. of the pleura , mediastinum , and thymus , or canel-bone-kernel . i. the pleura is a membrane hard , white and strong , spred under the ribs and their muscles , and girdling all the inner parts ▪ of the thorax . ii. lindan over-curiously enquires into the etymology of the name , and thinks it to be call'd pleura erroneously , seeing that 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 signifies a rib , and not a membrane ; and therefore with aretaeus and ruffus he would rather have it call'd the girding membrane . certainly 't is a frivolous thing to be so nice in etymologies of this nature , when we know what the thing is , and what all physicians for so many ages have meant by the pleura ▪ membrane . but such criticks as these seem more desirous to know the bones , than taste the kernels . iii. it is thought to be double , which doubling seems to be more conspicuous about the vertebrae of the back , and in the mediastinum . however riolanus denies any such doubling , with whom some others agree ; because it is not easily demonstrated beyond the mediastinum . on the inside , where it looks toward the lungs , it is very smooth ; but on the outside , being more rough , it sticks fast to the mid - pleura muscles , the ribs , the sternon , and the vertebrae of the back ; but not immediatly to the bones , but by means of the periosteum , with which those bones are most neatly cloath'd . iv. inwards , sometimes in one , sometimes in both sides , it often sends forth from its self nervous diminutive fibres , by means whereof many times the lungs ( and that in healthy people ) are annex'd to the pleura , without any inconvenience to respiration . v. both above and below it is pervious with several holes , for the passage of the great artery , the hollow vein , the gullet , and several other vessels . vi. it is furnish'd with arteries , veins and nerves from the intercostals . vii . it is said to have its original from the bones of the spine , from which it ascends on each side , through the sides to the sternon ; under which the membrane of each side joins together , dividing the lungs and the capacity of the breast into two parts , and constituting that fence in the middle of the breast , which is call'd mediastinum ; which conjunction of the membranes of each side is then most conspicuous when the sternum bone is torn from it . viii . between these membranes , from the clavicles to the pericardium , some there are who assert a certain cavity , wherein vicious humors frequently gather'd together , occasion several distempers , believing that cavity which they made by tearing the membrane from the sternum-bone , to have been there before . which is a perfect mistake . for that , if you begin the dissection from the hinder part , the ribs being loosen'd , then you shall find the doubl'd pleura annex'd , without any cavity between . ix . the mediastinum receives arteries from the innermost mammary arteries , and sends forth veins to the mammary veins , and the vein without a pair , which are seen upon removing the sternum . moreover it inserts a vein call'd the mediastin , into the subclavial branch of the hollow vein : which vein is sometimes single and larger , and sometimes double and slenderer . x. the use of it is to sustain the heart as it hangs , and to defend it from injuries , also to divide the breast and lungs into two parts ; that the one being endammag'd or out of order , the other may perform the office of respiration , also to contain the diaphragma upward , lest the bowels hanging from it , the liver and stomach should draw it too much downward with their weight . xi . to this same mediastinum , about the throat in the uppermost part of the breast , grows the thymus , close joyn'd to the divisions of the subclavial arteries and veins ▪ which is a glandulous , soft , spongy and whitish body , bigger in women and moist bodies , than in men and dry bodies . this part in new born infants is distinguish'd with a small triple kernel , and seems to have some assinity of substance with the sweet-bread : in people grown up , the moisture being consum'd , it is much thinner . wharton saw in an abortion in the sixth month , the lower part of the thymus grown to the pericardium , and thence being bifork'd as it was , under the canel-bone without the breast , ascending the sides of the weazand . so likewise in calves , it adheres at the lower part to the pericardium ; whence it increases into a bigger bulk , and being divided , leaves the thorax above , and ascending both sides of the weazand , runs forth to the maxillary kernels , and sometimes to the parotides . xii . and in these creatures it is very great , call'd lactes , and coveted as a dainty bit. xiii . it has also little arteries and veins from the iugulars , so small , that they are hardly to be seen in dissection . xiv . wharton allows the thymus nerves from the sixth pair , and the subclavial contexture , which he thinks do empty into this kernel their nutritive liquor defil'd with some impurity and extraordinary acrimony , and resume it again when refin'd . but this is an erroneous opinion ; for wharton takes the lacteal vessels to be nerves , and describes 'em as such : which in these glandules are never more commodiously to be seen , than by inspection of a calf newly , calv'd , and fed with milk , in the same manner with those that are scatter'd among the kernels of breasts that give suck . moreover wharton does not observe what juice is contain'd in the thymus of a new-born birth , that is to say , whether chylous or milky , such as harvey found therein ; and deusingius saw plentifully flow out of it ; and such as you shall find in sucking calves kill'd an hour or two after they have suckt . which juice does not flow thither through the nerves , but through the lacteal vessels , to be brought to more perfection therein , and so to be transmitted through the subclavial veins to the hollow vein and heart . but because this juice in grown people , by reason of the narrowness of the lacteal passages tending thither , as being dry'd up , flows in very small quantity , or not at all , into the thymus , hence in such people , that part is very much diminish'd and contracted , in like manner as in womens breasts when they grow dry . therefore there are no nerves that are manifestly carry'd into the thymus , as being of little use to this part , neither sensible nor wanting the sence of feeling . tho perhaps it may permit some invisible branches of nerves , to bring about some private effervescency for its own nourishment . xv. wharton affirms that he has often seen lymphatic vessels running through this part , and emptying themselves into the subclavial vein . nor do they pass thither without reason ; seeing that in the preparation of the milky matter , that lympha is requisite to raise a fermentaceous effervescency in the heart . chap. v. of the pericardium and the humour therein contain'd . i. the pericardium ( as it were thrown about the heart , which hippocrates calls 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , the sheath or little capsule of the heart ) is a membranous covering , every way enfolding the heart , whereby it is contain'd within its seat , and defended from all external injuries . it is contiguous to the heart , but so far distant from it as the convenience of pulse and agitation requires . ii. it arises at the bottom of the heart from the common outward tunicles taken from the pleura , enfolding the vessels of the heart , which being about to enter the heart , leave it for the forming of the pericardium . iii. riolanus allows it a double membrane , the outermost of which he will have to be deriv'd from the mediastinum , but the innermost from the tunicle of the vessels of the heart . but it would be too great a difficulty to demonstrate that duplicity . moreover the outermost tunicle of the vessels of the heart is derived from the pleura , as is also the membrane of the mediastinum . besides that it would be absurd that from one single pleura two tunicles should meet together toward the forming of the pericardium ; one from the tunicle of the vessels , and another from the mediastinum , and that in the mean time the mediastinum should remain a peculiar membrane . the same riolanus , inconstant to himself , writes in his animadversions upon laurentius , that the pericardium rises from the pleura , in the doubling of which it is contain'd ; and in his animadversions upon bauhin , that there is not a double , but only one single tunicle of the pericardium : forgetting perhaps what he had written concerning their duplicity in his anthopograph . l. . c. . iv. the outermost part is ty'd to the mediastinum with several little fibres , and appears conjoin'd , and continuous to it about the bottom of the heart , where it gives way for the greater arteries and veins to pass through . the lower part of it sticks to the center of the diaphragma . v. for nourishment it has such slender arteries , that they can hardly be discern'd . it sends forth little veins to the phrenic and axillary veins . it also admits diminutive nerves from the left branch that turns back , and the sixth pair passing to the heart . vi. it contains within it a serous liquor , ruddy in bodies naturally constituted , bred from the vapours sent from the heart , and somewhat condens'd in the pericardium , to the quantity of one or two spoonfuls . this is the true cause of its generation ; and therefore they are not to be heeded , who think it to be produced from drink , spittle , fat of the heart , or any other causes . nicholas stenonis however believes it to be emptied out of certain lymphatic vessels into the peritonaeum . vii . this liquor moistning the heart withoutside , and rendring it slippery , makes its motion also more easy , and prevents overmuch driness . but the long want of it causes driness , and many times a consumption . the want of it proceeds , when through some wound of the pericardium , exulceration , or some other solution of continuity that same sweat of the heart condens'd therein , flows out of it , and cannot be contain'd therein . yet some practitioners have observ'd then , when it has flow'd out through some wound of the pericardium , that wound being cur'd , it has bred again , and the patients have recovered their health . of which we have many examples alledged by galen , cardan , beniverius , peter salius , and others . this liquor is found as well in the living as deceas'd , as appears by the dissection of living creatures ; which clearly convinces matthew curtius , who will not allow it in living animals . viii . in diseased bodies we have found it of a more watry colour , sometimes like urine , at other times like troubled water , but much more in quantity . for i have met with many anatomies in our hospital , in which i have found half a pint of this liquor at a time . in the year . in the body of an english man that had long fed upon ill diet , and so falling into a flegmatic cachexy , at length died , we shew'd to the spectators at least two pints contain'd in a distended and very much loosen'd pericardium , which was observ'd by several as an unusual accident . this liquor i always found to be less in quantity , and more ruddy in men of a hot temper , in whom the vapors exhaling from the heart are more thin , and but a small quantity condens'd in the pericardium , and such as were condens'd were sooner attenuated by the violent heat of the heart ; and sooner exhale through the pores of the pericardium . on the other side i observ'd it more watery , more plentiful , and pale in colder complexions , in whom through ill diet , a diseased constitution , or some other causes , their heat was less strenuous . for which reason thicker vapors sent from the substance of the heart , and collected and condens'd in greater quantity in the pericardium , were not so soon dissipated for want of sufficient heat . hence ▪ vesalius affirms it to be more plentiful in women than in men : and riolanus observ'd it more plentiful in old men than in young men. x. moreover we observ'd that a greater quantity of this liquor does not cause the palpitation of the heart ; which is generally asserted however by most physicians , from galen's opinion . for in all those , in whom after they were dead i found a greater quantity of this liquor in the pericardium , during all the time of their sickness i observ'd no palpitation of the heart at all , not so much as in the englishman before mentioned , but on the other side , a languid and weak pulse . neither does the plenty of that liquor cause such a narrowness of the pericardium , as is vulgarly believed , that the heart cannot move freely within it , and therefore palpitates . but on the other side we always found , that the pericardium was thereby rendered so broad and loose , that the heart might move more freely therein , than in lesser liquor . so that the plenty of this liquor does not cause palpitation , which is rather excited by any liquor tho but small , which contrary to custom suddenly and violently dilates , or by its acrimony , corruption , or griping quality molests the heart , and stirs it up to expel so troublesom an enemy . chap. vi. of the heart in general . see table . i. cor , the heart , seems to take its name from currere to run ; for which reason the belgians call it hart , or hert , that signifies also a hart or stag : because as that beast excels all others in swiftness and motion , so does the heart surpass all other parts of the body in the same qualities . which belgic word nevertheless seems to be deriv'd from harden , which signifies duration , or from hard , which signifies hardness , either because its motion lasts all a mans life-time ; or else because it exceeds the muscles , and other parenchyma's in hardness of substance . riolanus deduces the word cor from the greek 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , contracted of 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , from 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 to burn , because from thence the fire of our body proceeds . and so the belgic hert , may be deriv'd from heert , which signifies a hearth . meneti●…s derives it from 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , to shake , or brandish . chrysippus deduces it from 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 or 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 signifying strength , or from 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 to be strong in empire , because it performs most strenuous actions , and governs all the other parts of the body . ii. however it is the principal of all the bowels , the sun of the microcosm , the principle of the actions of life , the fountain of heat and vital spirit , and the primum mobile of our body . which being vigorous and active , all the natural functions of the body continue in a vigorous and flourishing condition ; when that languishes , they languish ; and when that fails , they cease altogether . for in this is contain'd the fuel and flame of natural heat ; while all those parts of the body grow stiff and numm'd with cold , to which the blood is hindred from coming from the heart ; and that blood grows cold that is absent longest from this fountain of heat , and the wast of natural heat can be repair'd in no other part of the body than in this . all which things are confirm'd by the testimony of the sences , for that if you put a finger into the heart of a dissected living creature , so extraordinary a heat is felt therein , as the like is not to be felt in any other part of the body . iii. this heat , tho so excelling from the principle of heat it self , as it is , and tho it be implanted and fixed within it ; yet certain it is , that it is maintained and augmented by the humours infused into its ventricles , and there fermenting , and is continually fed by that continual fermentation or effervescency of humours discharged into it . lime-stone burns through the mixture of water , by reason of its fermentation or effervescency ; what wonder then if the heat of the heart be presently inflam'd by the fermentation of humours flowing into it ? and that flame should be more or less according to the greater or lesser fermentaceous effervescency , which greatly depends upon the aptitude of the matter to be fermented ? for the innate hot spirits of the heart , act upon the matter that flows in , and ferment it with its heat , and cause it to boyl , and so renew the flame that would extinguish by degrees , till it went quite out . iv. it is seated in the middle of the breast , surrounded with the pericardium and mediastinum , somewhat reflexed with the point toward the left , by reason of the diaphragma , and fasten'd to it in none of the adjoyning parts , but hanging only from the vessels going in and out at the bottom , to which it is united . but its pulsation is felt most in the left side , below the pap , because the sinister ventricle arises toward the fore-parts of the thorax with the aorta , which both together strike the left side . but the right ventricle lies deeply seated toward the right side , and therefore its pulsation is less felt without upon the right side . it is very rare that the heart changes this situation , and that the right ventricle lies in the left side , and the left ventricle in the right side , and beats in this . yet riolanus affirms he observ'd this situation in a man of forty years of age , and in the queen mother of lewis the xiii . v. the substance of it is firm , thick , compact ; some thinner and softer in the right side , thicker and more compacted in the left side ; closer and harder at the point : yet at the end of the point where the left ventricle ends , thinner , as consisting of the concourse of the inner and outer membrane . vi. this substance galen affirms to be interwoven with a threefold sort of fibres , whom most anatomists follow . but if the fibres of the heart be diligently considered , and sunder'd by degrees ( which may be done as well in a boyl'd heart , as in one newly taken out ) there are no transverse fibres to be found , whatever vesalius has imagin'd , but they seem all to be wound about with a periwincle chanel , that is somewhat bowing and arch'd about the middle ; yet they do not all reach the point neither , but are turn'd upward with their extremities . for those which first descend from the orifices of the ventricles are shorter , next to which are others somewhat longer , yet not reaching to a cone . to these are joyn'd others somewhat longer : so that at length , the last , which are the longest , reach to a cone , and contain the rest which are shorter and plac'd under them , and annexed to them . and because the shorter contain'd under the longer make the heap the higher , it comes to pass that the upper and middle part of the heart is somewhat more bunchy , when the longer , to whose extremities the shorter cannot reach , end in a sharper cone . nevertheless according to the observation of nicholas steno , this same course of the fibres seems rather to be observed in the region of the right than left ventricle . he observ'd this course in the right ventricle to ascend the fibres obliquely descending inwardly from the septum toward the hinder parts along the exterior superficies , and so to elevate a little the bottom of the right ventricle toward the basis ; and hence it happens that in contraction , the heart in the right side comes to be not only shorter , but sometimes rounder and thicker , and by reason of this greater shortness and thickness of the right and left side of the walls , of necessity the hollowness of the ventricles become narrower . vii . by reason of these fibres , and the motion of pulsation , hippocrates asserted the heart to be a muscle ; which has hitherto been stifly deny'd by all the schools of physicians who have generally asserted that it is the chief bowel in the body . . because therein is generated the most noble humour together with its spirit ; viz. the spirituous vital blood ; whereas there is no particular humour or spirit generated in any muscle . . because in hardness of substance it exceeds the substance of all muscles . . because fleshy fibres do not make a muscle ; for otherwise the stomach and the piss-bladder , by reason of their fleshy fibres might easily be reckon'd into the number of muscles : from which they are nevertheless exempted by common consent . . because the heart has ventricles and valves , which are not to be found in any muscle of the whole body . . because the muscles are the instruments of voluntary motion , which are mov'd at pleasure and not perpetually but by intervals , and are tir'd by long and vehement motion ; and so compell'd to desist from motion . where on the contrary the heart is mov'd not with an animal , but with a natural unwearied motion , which cannot be alter'd , increas'd , lessen'd or stopt at pleasure ; but continues from the beginning to the end of a man's life . now tho these be very strong arguments , nevertheless nicholas steno goes on , and pronounces that the heart is nothing else but a muscle , because it has all those things that are allow'd to a muscle , neither is there any thing found in the heart which is deny'd a muscle ; and hence excuses it from the duty of sanguifying and generating natural spirits , and laies it up among the servile muscles , despoyl'd of all the privileges hitherto allow'd it , perhaps intending to write its elegy in a short time , with the same applause as bartholine makes his epitaph upon the liver ; as if i should say , because the piss-bladder has all those things which are allow'd the stomach , as membranes , nerves , arteries , and veins , and a globous and hollow form , therefore the bladder is the stomach , and appointed for the same uses . viii . the heart resembles a pyramid with the sharp end turn'd downward , or broad above and pointed below . to which purpose it is divided into the base , or upper part , and the cone or sharp part , which terminates below in a point . ix . the bigness of it varies according to age and temper . yet considering the bulk of body , it is bigger in men , than in any other creatures . the ordinary length of it in persons grown to ripe years , is about the depth of six fingers , and four fingers broad . it is also observ'd that in men of hot constitutions , and couragious , it is lesser and harder , but in cold constitutions , and men that are timid , it is bigger and softer . in like manner in all other timorous and slothful creatures , according to the proportion of the body it is very large ▪ but in such as are bold and daring , small or of a moderate bigness . bauschius however produces some examples of lyons dissected , whose hearts according to the proportion of the bodies of those creatures , were much larger than in any other creature . sometimes , but very rarely , there has been observed a wonderful excess of the heart in bigness . and so that man had a monstrous heart , which dominic de marchetti asserts to have dissected at padua ; which was of so vast a magnitude , that the lungs being very small , it possess'd the whole concavity of the breast , and depress'd the diaphragma , having the pericardium joyn'd to the pleura at the sides , and its ventricles so large , that they were able to contain the ordinary heart of any other man. no less monstrous was that of which kerkringius writes , that being dissected out of a woman of forty years of age , weighed two and twenty ounces , and whose right ear only equalled an ordinary heart of a man. the pulmonary artery also , and the hollow vein , were of an extraordinary bigness . many other examples of hearts of an extraordinary bigness bartholinus sets down in his observations , as having been seen by himself . x. it is wrapt about on the side with a proper and thin , but strong and compact tunicle , and hardly separable from it , for the security of the bowel ; and such a tunicle as this , is that same thin proper exterior tunicle of the great arteries : and as the thin pellicle on the inside enfolding the ventricles is continuous and common with that same thin pellicle , which like a smooth little skin enfolds the greater arteries on the inside ; hence it is very likely , that the arteries borrow these tunicles from the heart , as the nerves borrow two tunicles from the meninges of the brain . xi . to this exterior tunicle , about the bottom grows a hard sort of fat , on purpose to moisten it , which riolanus has observed to be more copious and yellower in women than in men. this fat has been seen so abounding round about the heart in beasts , that formerly the southsayers have been often deceiv'd thereby , and have thought the beasts had no hearts . thus spigelius writes , that in an eagle dissected at padua , he found the heart surrounded with such a quantity of fat , that he could easily have perswaded many that were present that the bird had no heart . xii . it is a very rare thing to find the heart hairy ; which however has been observ'd in some hearts . as in that of hermogenes the rhetorician , by the report of caelius rodiginus . and in leodina and lisander the lacedaemonian , by the testimony of plutarch . also in aristomenes of messina , as valerius maximus witnesses . of modern authors beniverius , amatus of portugal , and m●…retus affirm that they have observed hairy hearts . xiii . through the outward parts of the parenchyma are scattered several vessels call'd coronary , because they encircle the bottom of the heart like a crown ; and are both arteries and veins . xiv . there are two coronary arteries , arising from the beginning of the aorta , before it goes forth from the pericardium , which some think is furnished with a little valve at its first rise , to hinder the return of the blood. these arteries encompass the heart , and extend many little branches from the basis to the cone , of which the most and largest are conspicuous in the left side . their use is to convey the spirituous blood immediately issuing out of the left ventricle , for the nourishment of the parenchyma . harvey believes that the heart , by means of them , together with the blood , receives both heat and life . which opinion riolanus derides , who asserts it to be absurd for the heart to receive life and heat from that blood , since the heart it self is the fountain of life and heat , from whence arises the heat of that blood , and hence concludes , that the outward parts of the heart are only nourished by these coronary arteries , and the fat preserv'd . to which he might have added that the heart makes the blood and causes it to be , and lives and is mov'd before there is any blood. xv. the coronary veins also are two ; which like the coronary arteries encircle the heart , and are inserted into the hollow vein , and empty the blood which remains after nourishment , and out of many lesser little branches ascending from the cone to the base into the hollow vein . to these , tho' very erroneously , bauhinus , and spigelius allow a valve , by which they believe the influx of the blood out of the coronary into the hollow vein is prevented . whereas of necessity that influx ought to be uninterrrupted and free , and if there be any little valve there , it ought to be plac'd after such a manner , as to hinder the influx of the blood out of the hollow into the coronary vein , in regard that to the same purpose there is a little valve annex'd to the emulgent jugular , and several other veins which open into the hollow vein . xvi . besides the coronary vessels , galen asserts , that the heart also receives small and invisible diminutive nerves from the sixth conjugation or joyning together of the nerves : but as riolanus observes , it receives them from the fold of the stomachic nerves existing at the basis of the heart toward the spine . of these nerves of the heart picolomini , sylvius , bauhinus , bartholin , and others make mention . and dissection teaches us , that they are difficultly to be found , and not to be discern'd within the substance it self of the heart : and this fallopius testifies , in these words ; under the basis of the heart , says he , where the arterial vein begins to turn to the left side , and where that remarkable arterial passage in the embryo is , which joyns the said vein with the aorta , is a certain fold , or nervous complication , strong and solid , from whence a great quantity of nervous matter embraces the whole basis of the heart , through which several branches of little nerves thence produc'd are scatter'd , and run through its whole substance ( which he adds by conjecture ) though i cannot follow them exactly and particularly with my eye . thus galen could not exactly discern the insertion of the nerves into the substance . only , saith he , its covering the pericardium , seems to receive the branches of slender nerves , from which being divided , other conspicuous branches , at least in animals of larger bulk , seem to be inserted into the heart it self : but they are divided into the substance , that cannot be perspicuously discover'd by the senses . these nerves by reason of their extraordinary slenderness , are so extraordinarily imperceptible , that it was question'd by many , and even by my self formerly , whether any little nerves or no did enter the heart . however at length , after a more diligent search , i found several diminutive nerves , like small threads , extended from the fold to the basis of the heart , and the orifices of the ventricles , in the same manner as fallopius discovers them , which i found a most difficult thing to follow into the substance it self of the heart ; for that being scatter'd in the basis it self , and the exterior tunicle , they seem'd presently to disappear , and only two somewhat of the larger size , seem'd to enter the substance of the parenchyma : whence i thought it probable , if any branches ran any farther , that they are only extended like thin and invisible threads into the substance , and bequeath it a kind of dull sense of feeling . fallopius attributes to the heart a most acute sense of feeling , but contrary to experience : for its dull sense of feeling is sufficiently apparent in every strong pulse , which is not felt either in or by the heart . nay not in that same sick person mention'd by fernelius , who consum'd away insensibly , in whose heart , after he was dead , he found three ulcers , and not a little hollow , and full of matter , contracted long before ; which must have occasion'd a most sharp pain in so sensible a part : of which nevertheless fernelius makes no mention ( nor dominic de marchettis , in a patient of the same nature ) without doubt because the patient never complain'd of any pain . and the same experiment is added of a person wounded in the heart , whom we saw our selves , who nevertheless complain'd of no pain in his heart . here perhaps it may be objected , that the inconvenience of palpitation is sufficiently felt . to which i answer , that it is not felt in the heart , but in the pericardium , the mediastinum , the middle of the diaphragma , and other adjoining parts , which being of quick sense of feeling , are soon and violently pain'd by a strong motion of the heart putting a force upon them . but what shall we say , when fetulent vapors carry'd from the womb and other parts to the heart , put it to great pain , does not that pain proceed from its acute sense of feeling ? i answer , if the heart felt any twinging vellication , it would complain ; but it does not complain : therefore . whence i infer , that tho' we allow a kind of dull sense of feeling to the heart , especially in its outward tunicle , and the orifices of the ventricles ; nevertheless we must believe , that these alterations and pains whatever they are , especially the sharper sort , chiefly proceed from hence , either because the heart has but a dull sense of feeling , or else , . because that the blood which ought to be dilated in the heart , is thicken'd , coagulated , or otherwise deprav'd by those corrupt and vicious vapors and humors , so that it cannot be dilated as it ought , or is usual for it to be in the heart ; whence proceeds its faster or slower , disorderly or otherwise discompos'd motion . . because the innate spirit of the heart , the principal cause of motion , is overmuch coagulated , refrigerated or dissipated by those humors . . because other more sensible parts being pain'd and tormented by those vicious humors , are very much agitated , contracted and loosen'd ; and for that reason they force the blood from themselves toward the heart after an unusual manner , whence it happens that the blood is attenuated also in the heart after an unusual manner , so that the pulse being alter'd , it is not sent conveniently to the brain , by which means it happens that the animal spirits are generated out of order , and sent out of order to the nerves . descartes observing no remarkable or apparently manifest nerves to be extended into the substance it self of the heart , was unwilling confidently to affert it , but in the mean time , that he might the better explain the passions of the mind , affirms with fallopius , that there are certain diminutive nerves which reach to the orifices of the ventricles of the heart : for he says that there are particularly to be observ'd certain nerves inserted into the basis of the heart , which serve to dilate and contract the orifices of its concavities ; and upon this foundation he rear'd his learn'd treatise of the passions of the mind . xvii . these animal spirits therefore , as has been said , contribute a certain faint sense of feeling to the heart ; for it ought not to have a quick sense , lest it should be disturb'd and molested by its continual motion , and the passage and fermentation of sharp and corroding humors . besides , the parts being altogether compleated , they contribute also a kind of fermentative power to the nourishment of the heart , of which , at the beginning , it had no need , because the sharp particles of the ingendring seed collected together in the formation of the heart , contain in themselves a sufficiently sharp fermenting quality , proportionable to the tenderness of the matter wherein they operate . but afterwards when the bulk of the heart enlarging it self there is in need of stronger matter , than there is requir'd the assistance of spirits somewhat more fermentative . lastly , these spirits loosen or contract the orifices of the heart , or its ventricles ; by which means there happens a freer ingress and egress of the blood to the heart , in the passions of the mind ; and hence at the same time proceed alterations of the blood. hence in fear , palpitations of the heart , in grief , contractions with a small pulse , in joy , a grateful and pleasing heat about the heart , with a swift and strong pulse . xviii . the heart then is the principal and sovereign bowel from which is diffus'd the vital liquor , with perpetual heat , the support of life , to all parts of the body : of which when any of the parts are never so little depriv'd , they fall and die . and therefore the distempers that befal it , are chiefly dangerous , and the wounds of it altogether mortal , as hippocrates pronounc'd ; so that although some being wounded in the heart , have lived for a time , yet they could never be cur'd . nay , for the most part , so soon as the wound enters the ventricles , they fall like men thunder-struck , which i have seen three or four times with my own eyes ; so that i have often stood in admiration , how a man could be so soon depriv'd of all life , sense and motion . nevertheless the reason is plain ; for that the blood which ought to be forc'd into the great artery , and through that to the brain and all other parts , by reason of the wound , is pour'd forth into the concavity of the breast . so that no blood being carry'd to the brain , presently the motion of the animal spirits ceases in the brain , nor are they any longer convey'd through the nerves to the several parts . hence also there happens a cessation of the principal faculties and senses ; and of all motion of the muscles , and among the rest of the respiratory ; which occasions the suddenness of the death . but if a small wound do not penetrate into the ventricles , then sometimes , but very seldom , it happens that a man does not fall presently , but lives for some hours . thus paraeus saw a man wounded in the heart , that ran above two hundred paces . schenkius also makes mention of a student , who having receiv'd a wound through both his ventricles , yet ran the length of a whole street , and was in perfect sense of mind for an hour . sennertus , iohnson , muller , heer 's and tulpius produce several examples of men that have liv'd after they were wounded in the heart for several hours ; nav for one or two day . says fernelius , wounds in the heart , which do not penetrate far into the ventricles , do not presently kill ; in a certain person , who linger'd and consum'd away by degrees , and at length dy'd , i found three ulcers in his heart , hollow and foul , and long before contracted . somewhat like this , concerning an ulcer in the heart , dominic marchettis relates , of a man who having been consuming a long time , dy'd : in the dissection of which person , he found a great ulcer , which had eaten out not only the capsula of the heart , but also a great part of its substance , till it had penetrated into the cavity of the left ventricle , and then kill'd the man. but it is more wonderful that a great wound in the heart should be cur'd . of which cabrolius saw a president in the dissection of a human carcass in the anatomical theater . for he says he found in the heart of a thief that was hang'd , the remaining scar of a wound that had been cur'd , about two fingers long , and about the thickness of a sixpence . but though such accidents are rare , nevertheless i never remember that ever i read so extraordinary an example of a heart wounded , as what i saw with my eyes , a story so remarkable that i thought fit to insert it in this place . in the year . april . i was sent for to c●…lenburgh together with some other physicians and surgeons , at the request of the magistracy of that town , to view the body of a young man , of about twenty years of age , and very strong when he was alive , wounded with a sword , and dying of his wound ; to the end we might give our judgments whether he dy'd of his wound , or by any other disaster . upon opening the body my self , first we were inform'd that the young man after he had receiv'd the wound , walk'd about fifty or sixty paces , and then fell down , and then falling into a convulsion , was carry'd home , and in a little time after , came to himself again . the physicians and surgeons who then lookt after him , affirm'd , that the first and second day very little blood issu'd forth from his wound , which was very narrow ; but that afterwards , the wound being somewhat dilated , such a quantity of blood gush'd forth , that they were forc'd to stop the flux of blood by tying of his body in several places . they added , that the patient was all along very sensible , and never complain'd in the least of any inward pain , mov'd his body of himself , and when he was ty'd , turn'd upon his side of his own accord , and cough'd freely to promote the efflux of blood out of his wound ; that he eat and drank something every day , till at last his strength failing , he dy'd , having liv'd nine days and eight hours after he had receiv'd his wound . having heard this relation , i went on to view the body , and shew'd the wound that was given him between the fifth and sixth rib of the right side , about a thumb's breadth before the ribs run into gristles . removing the sternum-bone , i found the cavity of the breast upon the wounded side , to the mediastinum , fill'd with blood ; which being dry'd up with a spunge , i perceiv'd where the sword had gone in , without touching the lungs , at the heart , under the sternum through the mediastinum and pericardium , and had penetrated directly into the upper part of the right ventricle of the heart , between the treble pointed little valves , near the entrance of the hollow vein , and had gone no farther : the pericardium also was full and distended with coagulated blood. it will seem a wonder to many how this man after such a wound could live so many days and hours : however , i believe the reason was this , because the wound was very narrow , and in the upper part between the little valves ; so that in the contraction of the heart , all the blood which flow'd out of the hollow vein into the right ventricle , by reason of the obstruction of the treble-pointed valves , could not be forc'd out of the wound , but that the greatest part of it was forc'd into the lungs through the pulmonary artery , which was much wider than the wound , and from thence to the left ventricle and the aorta-artery , so that but a very little at a time could be forc'd by the several pulses out of the wound into the pericardium and cavity of the breast , which was the reason it was so long before his strength fail'd him . chap. vii . of the motion of the heart . i have said in the preceding chapter , that the heart is the principal and perpetual mobile of our body , from whence proceeds all the natural motion of the whole boyd , and perpetually lasts so long as the motion of the heart lasts . but the reason of its perpetual motion is not so perspicuous ; which is the reason that opinions vary concerning it . i. some say , that the heart is mov'd by the animal spirits . ii. others believe that the heart is mov'd by the dilatation of the blood in the ventricles of the heart . iii. others are of opinion , that it is mov'd partly by the dilatation of the blood , and partly by the influx of animal spirits . iv. others say , that it is mov'd by a subtle or ethereal matter . v. others hold , that it is mov'd by some certain spirit in the blood. vi. some assert , that the heart is mov'd by the respiration of the lungs . i. the first opinion produces three very specious reasons for its support . first , because that in our bodies all apparent and violent motions are made by the influx of the animal spirits , and that therefore the motion of the heart must proceed from the same influx . secondly , because the several little nerves are not in vain inserted into the basis of the heart : but rather to that end that they may convey the animal spirits to accomplish its motion . thirdly , for that it is manifest in the passions of the mind , that the heart is more or less mov'd by the greater or lesser influx of those spirits . but though these arguments are propounded with some appearance of probability , yet that this opinion is far from truth , several reasons make manifest . . because those motions that proceed from the influx of animal spirits , are arbitrary , especially in the muscles , of which number they assert the heart to be ; but the motion of the heart is not arbitrary , seeing it is not perform'd , nor can be perform'd or alter'd at our pleasure . . because the heart beats in a hen-egg , or other conception , before the brain is perfected , and begets animal spirits ; or before any animal faculty is produc'd into acts of moving and feeling . . because the nerves of the heart are so small and slender , that they cannot contribute a sufficient quantity of animal spirits to perfect that same durable motion . for to all the moving parts are allow'd nerves according to the swiftness or diuturnity of the motion . the eye that sees , and is mov'd all the day , and rests all the night , besides the visual nerve , has another large moving nerve . so the muscles of the legs and arms , as they cause swifter or slower motions , have greater or lesser nerves ; which happens also in all the other parts . seeing then that all the other moving parts , which rest much longer than they are mov'd , require large and conspicuous nerves , shall the heart that moves with a continual motion day and night , all a man's life long , and therefore requires a far larger quantity of spirits , than any other part that is mov'd ? is it possible , i say , that the heart should be furnish'd with a sufficient quantity of spirits to maintain that continual motion by the means of such slender and almost invisible nerves ? besides , that it is as yet uncertain whether those diminutive nerves , whose productions are seen to extend themselves to the basis of the heart , the pericardium , the orifices of the ventricles , and the external tunicle , enter any farther into the substance it self of parenchyma : many indeed assert it , but no body demonstrates it . galen and des cartes very much scruple it ; and so does thomas willis , an exact searcher into the brain and nerves , to whose industry in that particular we are very much beholding ; who dares not assert any such thing positively , but says , that more branches of nerves and fibres are distributed into the little ears of the heart and vessels appendent , than into the substance of it . we say that very few nerves enter the substance it self of the heart , and that they are so small and few , that cannot afford or convey sufficient animal spirits to perpetuate the motion of the heart , but only contribute some few which assist to the nutrition of the heart . . because that to cause motion there is required a great quantity of animal spirits , but that for the sence of feeling a very few suffice : and therefore all the parts that are apt to feel , which receive many spirits to perfect their motion , have also a most accurate sence of feeling : but those which receive but few spirits , they are not mov'd at all , and have but a dull sence of feeling , as is apparent in palsies of the lesser degree . nevertheless , that the heart has membranes proper for the sence of feeling , as the outward and inward enfolding tunicle , treble pointed and miterlike valves and proper fibres , and yet is endu'd but with a dull sence of feeling , is manifest from what has been said in the preceding chapter ; and thence it is apparent , that it receives but few animal spirits : which if it did admit in so great abundance , as to accomplish its perpetual motion , they would without all question occasion a most acute sence of feeling therein . . because the hearts of several animals , as frogs , serpents , eels , &c. being pull'd out of their bodies , will beat a long time after , whereas all the parts about it being cut away , as also all the neighbouring nerves , there can be no influx of animal spirits into them . to this purpose take a living dog , and having slit him all along from the throat , take both trunks of the wandring pair , through which the spirits flow to the heart , and either tie it hard , or cut it off , the creature indeed will become silent and stiff , but the pulsation or motion of the heart will not fail for all that ; nay he shall live so long , till his strength failing by degrees for want of food , he is famished to death : for he refuses meat , in regard there are no animal spirits which can come to the stomach and increase hunger . . because that seeing the heart is form'd and perfected before the ware-house of the animal spirits , the brain , and proves conspicuous , beats , and is mov'd before any the least foundations of the brain at any time appear , as is apparent in an egg set under a hen , or any other conception . if you say that nevertheless in the egg or bubble certain delineaments of the brain are in being , tho' not to be discern'd by the eye , i answer that they are not yet come to any such perfection as to operate , whereas in the mean time the heart both operates and is mov'd before it can have any assistance from those rudiments of the brain . . because the animal spirits are generated out of the arterious blood , which are generated by no other part besides the heart . seeing then that they cannot be generated out of any other matter , and that this matter cannot come to the brain but by the impulse of the heart , wherein this matter is generated , of necessity it follows , that the heart is mov'd of it self , before there are any animal spirits in any other part ; and is the first that forces to the brain matter adapted for the generation of those spirits ; that is to say , the arterious blood. perhaps it may be objected that the heart is mov'd at first by those animal spirits which were mix'd in the seed of the parents , and from that time still are intermix'd with it ; which is but a frivolous evasion . for the animal spirit concurs indeed to the making of seed , but loses its own nature ; and being mix'd , fermented , and concocted with the vital blood , becomes one mass of another nature with it ; and so both together put on the nature of the seed , wherein there is no longer either animal spirit or arterious blood , but that seed becomes a new body , generated out of both being mix'd together , and changed by concoction , which particularly contains in it self , neither animal nor sanguineous spirit , but a new spirit potentially vi●…al arising out of the mixture and concoction of both , which if at any time it be stirr'd up in the womb , and proceed from power to action , will immediately enliven , and form vessels and instruments that shall produce spirituous blood and animal spirits . so that there are no animal spirits any longer in the seed that are able to cause the first motion of the heart at the beginning . for as no man in his wits will aver that there is any blood really in a bone , tho' the blood , as a necessary matter concurs to its making nutrition and growth , so no man will say of the seed , that there is in it either animal spirit or blood , tho' both concur to its composition . for as in the generation of bone , the blood concurring with the animal spirit , losing altogether its sanguineous nature , becomes bone , and is no longer blood , as the spirit is no longer spirit , as it was before : so likewise in the making of seed , the animal spirit and blood remain no longer what they were before ; whence it cannot be said , that animal spirits remain in the seed that should be able to begin the first motion of the heart . . because the motion of the animal spirits does not proceed from the brain , but altogether from the heart , and this motion of the heart ceasing , all animal motion ceases . as is apparent when wounds penetrate the ventricles of the heart ; for that the blood not being forced into the great artery and the heart , but flowing out through the wound of the ventricles , presently at the very same instant the brain rests , and the animal spirits are no longer sent through the nerves to the moving parts ; neither are they moved in the brain , which is the reason that a man so wounded falls of a suddain , depriv'd of all his principal faculties , and of all sense and motion . the same appears in convulsions and fitts of the mother affecting the heart , and such like distempers ; in which frequently the noxious vapours and humours reach no farther than the heart , but not as yet to the brain , and so the heart ceases to beat , the brain remaining unendamaged ; which nevertheless upon the ceasing of the motion of the heart , presently ceases to be mov'd , nor does it begin to move again , till first the heart begins to move . but most manifestly of all does this appear in wounds of the head , that take away some part of the scull , and the brain it self , as we have seen in the camp : for if the patient fall into a convulsion , presently we see the motion of the heart ceases ; but if the heart begin again to beat ; which is easily perceived by the patients pulse , not before but presently after some pulses ; the heart begins by little and little again to be mov'd ; and after the brain , by degrees , all the rest of the members are mov'd . these are all certain signs that the heart is not mov'd by the animal spirits , thrust forward into it from the brain ; but that the brain , and by means of that the animal spirits are mov'd by the blood sent upward . in the mean time i will not deny , but that by reason of certain nerves scarcely discernable , descending toward the basis of the heart , the orifices of it are somewhat less , sometimes more loosen'd or contracted , as in the passions of the mind , and for this reason , that the blood in the ventricles is sometimes more difficultly , sometimes more easily expell'd , according to the various determination of the animal spirits to those orifices : nevertheless the continual motion of the heart does not proceed from thence ; tho' this be not the cause of any impediments to hinder from performing its motion freely and equally ; as in the respiratory motion of the breast , sometimes impediments arise from the muscles of the larynx , too much contracted by the help of the animal spirits flowing thorough the nerves , tho' those muscles are no cause of respiration . and thus i have sufficiently displayd the errors of the first opinion . ii. the second opinion believes the heart is mov'd by the dilatation of the heart in its ventricles . for the blood falling into its ventricles , becomes presently very much dilated , and distends the sides of the ventricles beyond their just poise , which by the flowing forth of that dilated blood thorough the great arteries , adjoyning to both ventricles , are presently contracted beyond their due measure , and distended by and by again upon the flowing in of new blood. as it happens in a willow twigg or other tree ; which if you pull down beyond its natural situation , being let go suddainly , it will fly up again beyond its proper and natural poise , and for some time waggs up and down , through the remaining force of the violent motion . this is a specious invention easily refuted . for if the motion and pulse of the heart should proceed from the dilatation of the blood in the ventricles , then the influx of blood failing , the heart would not be mov'd ; because there is no blood therein to be dilated : but on the contrary , the hearts of several animals being taken out of the body , and depriv'd of all the adjoyning vessels and blood , still move and beat for some time , when there is no blood contain'd or dilated therein : nay the hearts of eels , lizards , and other creatures being cut into pieces , the several particles will move for some time . deusingius relates that in a live dog he cut off the tip of the heart , and for some time beheld strong contractions in the piece cut out , which could never have been , were this opinion true . charleton , that he might avoid these rocks , chooses rather to joyn two causes together , and to say , that the heart is distended accidentally by the dilatation of the blood flowing in ; but that it is mov'd and contracted by its own fibres , and of its own proper motion . but the heart of an eel cut in pieces , shews the contrary ; seeing there is no blood flows into that to be dilated , and for that the fibres are cut , while nevertheless alternate contraction and laxation remains . iii. others , to avoyd the rocks both of the first and second opinion , joyn'd the two preceding opinions both together , and assert , that the blood sliding into the ventricles of the heart , are inflam'd and rarify'd by the innate fire it self , and through its expansion wanting more room , widen the walls of the heart : and then the parenchyma of the heart being molested by that expansion , calls the animal spirits to its assistance , which coming in sufficient quantity , contract the muscles which constitute the parenchyma of the heart , and so by streightning the ventricles , thrust forth the contain'd blood into the arteries ; and hence , that the dilatation of the heaat caus'd by the blood rarefying , is natural ; but the contraction by the muscles , absolute and obedient to the will , is animal . certainly this opinion is plausibly propounded , that at first sight there seems no doubt to remain ; but upon better examination it will appear that the latter part does not well cohere with the former . for it supposes the whole parenchyma of the heart to be compos'd of muscles ; which if it be true , then the whole heart is the instrument of voluntary motion , whose motion may be increas'd , diminish'd , stopp'd , or otherwise alter'd at pleasure . but who , i would fain know , can direct or alter the motion of the heart at his own pleasure ? besides , the muscles to perform a continual motion , want larger nerves , and a more copious supply of animal spirits . but it is impossible there should flow into the heart any other than a very few spirits through nerves almost invisible , not sufficient for a continual motion lasting all a man's life . and whence i pray shall those spirits proceed and flow into the salient or jumping point , which is observ'd to move first in the bubble of an egg , before there is any delineation either of brain or nerves perceptible ? iv. others , to avoid these difficulties , chuse rather to explain the thing , by giving it the title of a subtle and ethereal matter , which is continually agitated and mov'd , and variously moves other bodies also upon which it lights ; as it penetrates this way or that way , with ease or difficulty , through the pores of these or those bodies . this matter , say they , lighting into the dilating fibres of the heart , and not able conveniently to penetrate their pores , by reason of their situation and figure , is stopp'd therein , and filling , distends them : hence flowing out again , and lighting upon the contracting fibres , the first being already loosen'd ▪ it fills and distends them likewise : and so they tell us that these fibres are alternately fill'd and distended . but this is a cause far fetch'd indeed . for he that here flies to some general cause of the motion of all things , he concludes nothing in specie , concerning the motion of one thing , nor of the motion of the heart : whereas in the motion of the heart , we are not to seek for the general ( which you may as well say is god ) but for the special and next cause . besides , no reason can be given , why that subtle matter should not light at one and the same time upon both the fibres , as well the contracting as the dilating ; but should proceed in an alternate order from one to t'other , as if guided by some peculiar intelligence : nor wherefore in a creature newly strangl'd , when the heart and other parts are yet warm , that ethereal matter does no longer move the fibres of the heart after the same manner . should it be said , that there is no blood that flows then into the heart to be dilated , i shall answer , that the heart is not mov'd by that dilatation of the blood , as i have already prov'd : or if that be the cause of the motion , then not the ethereal matter ; if it be an assistance without which that motion cannot be perform'd , where is that assistance in the heart of an eel newly pull'd out , and cut into peices , whose several particles beat , though there be no blood therein to be dilated ? v. the fifth opinion differs much from the former , as asserting , that the motion of the heart proceeds from a certain vivific spirit , which is in the blood it self , and generates it in it self ; the refutation of which opinion may be seen in the following th . chapter . vi. these five opinions being set aside , alexander maurocordatus propounds a new and hitherto unheard of opinion , that the heart is mov'd by the respiring lungs , and the lungs by the heart , and that these two parts give mutual assistance one to another . but this opinion is by us refuted in the following thirteenth chapter , to which we shall only add these few things . . that if the motion of the heart proceeded from the respiring lungs , whence does that motion arise in the birth which is included in the womb , where the lungs are idle , and never heave ; and which are never to be found in the little jumping point conspicuous to the eyes in an egg ? . whence that motion proceeds in fish , and other creatures that have no lungs , and but one ventricle of the heart ? . by what is it occasion'd in the hear of an eel , which after all the adjoyning parts are cut away , sometimes beats after it is taken out of the body ? that , says maurocordatus , is a trembling motion . which we deny , because that for some time it observes the true measure of beating , till the approach of death , and then it comes indeed to be a trembling motion . among all the foresaid six sentences , the second approaches the nearest to truth , but only it is to be explain'd a little more at large , and somewhat after another manner : for here are two things wanting ; in the first place , what dilates the blood ; and secondly , it does not sufficiently explain how the heart is mov'd when the blood does not flow into the ventricles . which two things are to be more narrowly examin'd for the discovery of the truth . vii . in the first conception , the spirituous blossom , which is in the seed , is collected and concluded in a little bubble , wherein there is a delineation made of all the parts by the vivific seed that lies in the blossom , which gives to all the parts their matter , form and being ; and abides in all and singular the parts being form'd , and variously operates therein according to their diversity . the most subtle and sharpest part of this is setl'd in the heart , which by its extraordinary acrimony obtains an extraordinary power of fermentation , by which the humors pouring into the heart , are there dilated , as gunpowder is dilated and set afire by the heat of the flame . and as gunpowder has no actual heat in it self , but being kindled , receives a burning heat , so the blood in the heart being dilated by that same spirit , waxes very hot and fiery . by reason of which heat cartesius calls this spirit a continual heat abiding in our hearts as long as we live , which is a kind of fire , which the blood of the veins nourishes , and is the corporal beginning of all the motions of our members . for that this spirit by its continual agitation and dilatation , supplies the heat with a continual fewel . but in regard it is much dissipated by this continual agitation , it has need of continual supply , to the end the dissipated particles may be continually restor'd . this supply is maintain'd by the most subtle particles of the blood attenuated in the heart , entring the pores of the heart , and infus'd into it through the coronal arteries , which blood , if it be good and sound , then this spirit is rightly supply'd , and the heart continues strong and vigorous ; if otherwise , through bad diet and deficiency of the bowels , then this spirit is ill supply'd , and the heart becomes weak and infirm . now this spirit abiding in the whole substance of the heart , forthwith dilates in the heart , both the blood and all other proper humors whatever . which action is sometimes swifter , sometimes slower , more vehement , or weaker , as the matter to be dilated is fitted more or less for dilatation , by the fermentaceous particles mix'd with it : and the spirit it self is more or less vigorously stirr'd up into act by the greater or lesser heat : for these two things are the cause of all alterations of pulses . thus in fevers , where there is more or less heat , and the matter to be dilated is thinner and more volatile , there the pulses beat thicker and swifter . but if that matter , as is usual in putrid fevers , has many unequal particles , some more , some less easie to be dilated , then the pulse becomes unequal : if the blood be colder and thicker , the pulse is slow and beats seldom . when it is cool'd , it diminishes at first , then ceases altogether : but being warm'd again with new blood or warm water , it presently begins to beat again . the said spirit being stirr'd up by the heat , by and by dilates and ferments the humors , and that two manner of ways . first , by fermenting those humors that flow in great quantity through the hollow and pulmonary vein , into the ventricles of the heart , by the fermentation and dilatation of which , and the rapid agitation of the least particles between themselves , a great heat is kindled in the heart . this heat presently whets and sharpens the same spirit abiding in the innermost and thicker substance of the heart and its fibres , which so excited , presently somewhat dilates the subtle blood infus'd into the substance and fibres for nourishment ; and hence it is , that the fibres of the heart are forthwith contracted , which causes an expulsion of the blood in the cavity of the ventricles . then again new blood flowing into the ventricles , there happens a dilatation of the same , with a sharp heat , and by that means a distension of the ventricles at the same time , which by reason of the kindled heat , presently follows dilatation of the same into the pores of the substance about the fibres , and by that means there happens again a contraction of the whole heart and ventricles ; which things proceed in a certain order so long as life lasts . now this motion proves the more vehement , because the fibres being dilated beyond their poise , presently when the blood dilated in the ventricles , easily breaks forth through the broad arteries , they are as easily again contracted beyond their measure by the dilatation of the inner blood ; so that same distension and contraction beyond the due aequilibrium , causes indeed the pulses to be stronger , but yet they are not the first cause of the motion , which is only an alternate dilatation of the blood , sometimes in the ventricles , sometimes in the substance of the heart . viii . hence it appears , why pulsation remains in the hearts of eels , and other vivacious creatures , being taken out of the body , though no blood be then pout'd out of the great vessels into the ventricles ; because the said spirit abiding in their hearts , is easily rais'd into act by the small remaining heat ; and acts upon the blood abiding in the substance it self , and by something dilating of it , contracts the fibres . afterwards that dilated matter being somewhat dispell'd , they are again relax'd . which not only appears in hearts that are whole , but in the hearts of some after they are cut into pieces , and in the several pieces themselves . but because in such cases there is no new blood dilated in the ventricles , and consequently no new heat nor any distension of the fibres beyond their position , hence in hearts that are taken out , and cut in pieces , the motion is weak , and quickly ceases . this i perswade my self to be the true cause of the motion of the heart , till some body else shall shew me any other more probable . chap. viii . of the pulse and circulation of the blood. i. the motion of the heart is by the greeks call'd 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , by the latins , pulsus ; by which the heart alternately rises and falls . it is perform'd by dilatation and contraction , between which two motions there is some little kind of rest. ii. in dilatation , the sides of the ventricles after they have expell'd the dilated blood into the arteries by the contraction of the fibres , presently by the rarefaction of the blood sliding in again , they are thrust from the middle septum , and so rise again . in contraction bauhinus and harvey believe , that the heart is extended in length , the tip receding from the base ; and so the sides of the ventricles being thrust forward toward the middle septum , that the blood is thereby expell'd : which also seems to be the opinion of ent. but the dissection of living animals teaches us the contrary , by which it is manifest that the heart in contraction is contracted every way together , that is to say , that the distended sides of the ventricles are contracted every way together , and together ascend the cone toward the base , and so the heart being now swell'd by the dilated blood , grows rounder and harder , and by that contraction of the whole that the blood is forc'd out of the ventricles . which that it is so , not only experience but reason demonstrates ; seeing that by the dilatation of the blood contain'd in the interior pores of the substance , all the fibres of the heart are at the same time contracted every way together , as we have said already . iii. here arises a question , whether the cavities of the vessels are larger and wider , when the heart is contracted into a rounder figure , or when it is extended in length . harvey thinks the cavities are larger when the heart is extended in length , but narrower when the heart is contracted . . because that in contraction the heart becomes harder . . because that in frogs , and other creatures that have little blood , it is at that time whiter o●… less red , than when it is extended in length . . because if an incision be made into the cavity of the ventricle , presently the blood gushes out of the wound , otherwise than as it happens when it is extended in length . harvey might have also added this experiment , by cutting away the tip of the heart in a living dog , and thrusting a finger into the cavity of either ventricle through the open'd passage : for then he would have manifestly perceiv'd a pressure upon the finger by the contraction of the heart , and that compressure to cease upon its being extended . cartesius being quite of another opinion , tells us , that the heart in contraction becomes harder , but broader on the inside , by reason of the contain'd and suddenly dilated blood , and for that it manifestly appears to the eye , is not diminish'd in magnitude , but rather somewhat augmented , and that for this very reason at that instant time it becomes harder , and the blood less red in creatures that have very little blood ; because by that dilatation the fibres of the heart are extended , and by virtue of that distention , press forth in good part at that instant of time the blood in the pores of the heart , and renders it more ruddy . he confirms this by an experiment , and says , that if you cut away the sharp end of a heart of a young coney , then you may discern by the eye , that the cavities are made broader at the same moment that the heart is contracted , and becomes harder , and drives forth the blood. nay when all the blood of the body being almost exhausted , it squeezes forth only some few little drops , yet the cavities at the time of expulsion retain the same breadth of dilatation : lastly , he adds , that in dogs and other stronger animals , this is not so visible to the sight ; because the fibres of the heart are stronger in them , and possess a great part of the cavities . but though these reasons of cartesius are very strenuous , i think however there is some distinction to be made as to the time , that is to say , in the beginning and end of the contraction , and the very instant when the contraction first begins , the cavities are wider , because of the dilated blood contain'd therein : but when the blood breaks forth out of them into the great vessels , that they are at that very moment of time more narrow , the fibres being contracted every way toward the inner parts beyond their stretch : and that i believe may be observ'd by diligent inspection into a live heart . iv. besides the pulses , bartholine makes mention of two other motions of the heart , undation and trembling motion . but in regard that these are nothing else but certain species of a vitious and diseased pulse , they are to no purpose describ'd as new motions . v. the use of the pulse is to force the blood dilated in the heart thro' the arteries to all the parts of the body , to the end that all the parts may be nourish'd thereby ; and that the particular parts may be able by virtue of a proper faculty to concoct , alter and convert into a substance like its own , some part of that blood , and apply it to themselves , and return the remainder to the heart again ; there to be again dilated , spiritualiz'd , and indu'd with new vigor . vi. but seeing that by the daily reciprocation of the pulse , there happens a daily expulsion of blood from the heart , there is a necessity that the heart should continually draw from the hollow vein , blood sufficient to fill the vessels as nature requires . but because the hollow vein is never exhausted , and moreover , because the arteries , into which there is a continual expulsion , never swell to excess , it follows , that this motion must proceed circularly , and that the blood must be continually empty'd out of the heart into the arteries , and out of them into the veins and parts to be nourish'd , and thence return from the lesser veins to the hollow vein , and so at length to the heart . this circulation is confirm'd by three most strenuous arguments . vii . the great quantity of blood empty'd out of the heart into the artery . which is so much , that the hundredth part of it cannot be supply'd by the receiv'd nourishment ; when that emptying proceeds and is carry'd on , as equally in a man that has fasted two or three days , as in one that has fed well . so that unless the blood should return from the arteries through the veins to the heart , the heart in a short time would want matter to empty : besides , all the arteries would burst in a short time , and the parts into which the blood flows , would swell after a wonderful manner . for the heart of a sound man in the strength of his age , beats in one hour or somewhat more pulses . cardan reckons . bartholin . and rolfinch has number'd in himself . so that if by every particular pulse only one scruple of blood should be empty'd into the aorta , it will be found by computation , that eight or nine pound averdupois weight of blood must pass through the heart in one hour , and consequently thirty or forty pound in four hours : according to the greater or lesser number of the pulses . i mention'd the least weight ; for we find by ocular inspection , that two drams and more have been empty'd by every particular pulse , in the dissections of live dogs ; and yet 't is very probable , that there is not so much blood to be empty'd in the whole body of man. moreover , if in blood-letting we consider the quantity of blood that immediately flows out , and consider likewise how much in the mean while is circulated at the same time through myriads of other veins , where the progress of the blood is hindred by no ligature , all which blood passes through the heart ; we shall easily observe , that in a man by each particular pulse , not a few drops , not a scruple , not one or two drams , but much more , perhaps half an ounce or more are emptied out of the heart into the great artery : which is yet much more apparent in artery-cutting . when if we consider what is empty'd out of every small artery cut , by every particular pulse , and what is empty'd by all the rest by the same pulses , we shall find a vast quantity pass through the heart ; since it is certain that there is as much blood empty'd out of one aorta-artery , out of the left ventricle of the heart , as out of all and singular the arteries deriv'd from the aorta , if they were open'd . seeing then that by so great a quantity , neither the arteries are distended to excess , nor that any other parts swell , nor that the hollow or other veins are empty'd ; certain it is , that the blood empty'd into and through the arteries , flows back through the veins to the heart . viii . the situation of the valves in the veins , which in all men is such , that the blood may flow freely through them to the hollow vein ; but nothing from the hollow vein to the lesser veins : for if you blow into the hollow veins with a straw ; nothing of that breath will enter the lesser veins : but if you blow the lesser veins , the breath will presently enter the greater , and so to the hollow . ix . the ligature in bloodletting . for the arm or thigh being bound near the place where the vein is to be open'd , the ligature causes the veins to swell underneath . because the blood being forc'd through the arteries toward the external parts , returns thorough the veins and ascends upwards , and when it comes to the ligature there it stops ; which causes the vein to swell below the ligature , so ▪ that the blood not able to ascend any farther , flows out at the little hole made with the lancet . again , the ligature being unty'd , the efflux ceases , because the blood can then ascend more easily through its little pipe , which is sufficiently wide , than issue forth at the narrow wound . moreover , if that same ligature be ty'd so hard , that the blood cannot pass through the arteries themselves toward the lower parts , then nothing will issue forth neither ; because the blood is not forc'd through the arteries toward the lower parts , and consequently cannot ascend through the veins to the upper parts : but loosning that ligature never so little , and the pulse more freely penetrating the artery , presently the blood will flow out of the open'd vein . moreover also , any ligature or compression of the veins and arteries in living animals , is forc'd through the arteries from the heart , and through the veins flows to the heart . for above the ligature , that is , toward the heart , the ty'd arteries swell , by reason of the passage deny'd to the blood ; but the veins fall , by reason of the free efflux of the blood to the heart . the contrary to which happens below the ligature . these reasons alone are sufficient to prove the said circulation : besides which there are many others , apparent and probable , which here for brevities sake i pass over , concerning which harvey , riolanus , conringius , ent , highmore , deusingius and others , may be consulted , who have written whole treatises particularly concerning the circulation of the blood. i shall add one thing concerning the manner of circulation , wherein perhaps i shall differ from others . x. there are two opinions concerning the manner of circulation , of which one is riolanus's , approv'd by few : the other common ; which most philosophers maintain . xi . riolanus holds , that the blood circulates only through the larger vessels ; but that that which is pour'd forth to the lesser branches , never returns to the wider channels , but is consum'd in the nourishment of the parts ; moreover , that the blood of the first region does not circulate , but is consum'd likewise in the nourishment of the parts conceal'd therein . but this opinion at this day is utterly rejected by all learned men ; there being no reason to be given , why the blood , forc'd through the arteries in greater quantity , than is requisite for the nourishment of the parts , should not with equal necessity circulate through the smallest veins , as if it were forc'd through the greater arteries . or why the blood forc'd through the coeliac and mesenteric arteries in great quantity to the stomach and intestines , should not circulate thorough the veins of the same parts . especially seeing that experience contradicts him in both these cases . for that if you cut the smallest artery in the extremity of the hand or foot , more blood flows out in one hour , than is requisite for the nourishment of the whole hand or foot , a whole day together . and our own eye-sight shews us , in the dissections of living creatures , that upon tying the mesenteric vessels , the blood is forc'd through the arteries to the intestines , and that a sufficient quantity also flows back through the veins to the por●…evan . xii . the common manner affirms , that the circulation of the blood is caus'd by the anastomoses of the veins and arteries , by which the orifices of the arteries are united with the orifices of the veins ; and mutually open one into another : so that where-ever any such anastomoses are , there is also circulation . i thence conclude , that where those anastomoses are not , there is no circulation . it would be a very difficult thing to uphold this opinion ; for that those anastomoses are very few in the larger vessels , and tho' they may be more numerous in the small ends of the diminutive vessels , which however are not every where discernable to the eye ; yet because of the extraordinary narrowness of such passages , very little blood can pass through them ▪ not the sixth , no , not the tenth part of what is forc'd through the arteries can enter the veins . besides , how shall the parts be nourished by the blood passing through those anastomoses , to which there is nothing contributed in that passage ? perhaps you will say , there is as much allow'd 'em by exhalation , as is sufficient . but hence it would follow , in regard the thin serum is most apt for such an exhalation , that all the parts are nourished by serum ; because the blood being somewhat thicker , cannot easily exhale through the pores of the vessels . but this is absurd ; because the serum is added to the blood only for a vehicle , and not for the nourishment of the parts , and that carries the blood thorough the ends of the arteries into the pores of the substance , from whence it then partly exhales insensibly , partly returns with the remaining blood into the veins . lastly , granting that circulation is only caused by the said anastomoses , how comes it to pass then in a dropsie , that circulation shall proceed from the substance of the parts into the veins ? for in the dropsie the serum is not concluded in the vessels only , but of necessity abides in the substance of the parts . shall then that serum , which in that disease is more crude and thick , passing out of the arteries by exhalation , enter into the veins again by inhalation , that so it may be circulated through the heart , and thence flow to the urinary passages , and be empty'd through them ? as the observations of physicians teach us , that that same disease is sometimes cured by a copious flux of urine . how should the large soft tumours of the parts fall in a short time , without any manifest evacuation , if the humours contain'd without the vessels in the very substance it self of the parts , never return into the veins ? how can they enter them united together with the arteries to their ends ? all which things sufficiently demonstrate the errors of the common opinion . xiii . the true manner of circulation presently shews it self , upon the more accurate consideration of what has been said . and it is apparent , that the blood does not only circulate through the said anastomoses , but through the substance it self of the parts . for a great quantity of blood is conveighed through the arteries , of which a good quantity flows through the ends of the smallest arteries , into the pores of the substance of the parts , for the nourishment of which there is so much applied to every part as is necessary , or fit to be apply'd and assimilated : the remainder proceeds farther , and enters the orifices of the smallest veins adhering to the parts , and so proceeds farther still to the larger veins : now that the blood flows into the pores of the parts , and returns through those into the veins , is apparent from every slight cut of the skin , out of which , the vessels being untouch'd , the blood presently gushes . but because the diminutive arteries apparently ending in the substance of the parts , are very narrow ; thence it comes to pass that they transmit more blood than is needful for nourishment ; yet in the mean time the blood which remains over and above , is no less , which cannot be emptied through them into the pores of the substance . therefore that it should not settle and corrupt in the arteries , the chief creator allow'd these anastomoses , that the redundancy should pass through them into the veins . such is that remarkable anastomosis which we have observ'd at the entrance into the spleen , and two others in the birth , one in the heart through the oval hole , another in the pulminary artery , where it joyns with the aorta . this opinion of ours is confirm'd by harvey , plempius , pecquet , and charleton . of which the latter two , not without reason , beleive that a greater part of the blood returns through the substance of the parts of the veins , then through the anastomoses , with whom nicholas hobken agrees . rejecting any anastomosis , saies he , i say it suffices , if the arteries are so inserted and joyn'd to the parts that are enliven'd , as to penetrate deeply into their substance , ending in a branch of small threads variously spreading it self : and if they continually and aptly enjoy the company of the veins in like manner inserted into the substance of the same parts . there is no reason to fear tumours , inflammations , apostemes , & c. because the blood is poured forth without the arteries into the substance of the parts : for by reason of the narrowness of the arteries ending in the substance , no more flows in than can pass conveniently through the pores , and be again suckt in by the orifices of the veins . but some will say , that by labourous exercise and heating of the blood , it is forc'd in more strongly , and in a greater quantity , then at other times ; therefore then at least too great a quantity will flow into the substance and produce those ill effects . i answer , that the blood then , by reason of its greater heat is thinner , and the pores also broader , and the orifices of the little veins more open for its passage . but if the pores become more narrow , either by constitution or sudden refrigeration , or by any other accident , or that the blood becomes thicker in the parts , then to be able to enter the narrow orifices of the little veins ; then indeed too great a quantity of blood would be gathered together in the substance of the parts , and beget the same mischiefs . for this is the chiefest cause of the pleurisie , quinzey , inflammation of the lungs , & c. of which cause they were not aware , who thought the circulation ran only through the anastomoses of the vessels only . for they teach us that by reason of the convenient passage of the blood deny'd , that the vessels are fill'd to the utmost ; whence the parts are distended into tumovrs by the vessels being over-fill'd ; but because more blood cannot be forc'd into the over-fill'd vessels ; hence the blood which is collected within them , is deprived of a new afflux of arterious blood , and so comes to be refrigerated , and not inflam'd , as regius will have it . but they do not consider , that the whole blood does not pass through the anastomoses of the vessels , but the greater quantity of it is forc'd into the pores of the substance of the parts ; out of which if the redundant quantity does not flow in due time into the veins , then of necessity there happens a swelling of the parts . and because the several particular drops of arterious blond , flowing to each pulse , contribute their heat , hence by the overmuch increase of the blood in the part , the tumor increases , and there is at the same time an augmentation of heat , and this intense heat begets an effervescency of the collected blood , and an inflammation of the part with a tumor . though i will not deny , but that effervescency may be occasion'd by a small quantity of blood , but sharp , and prone to boil , when it overflows into any part ; and then happens an inflammation without a tumor , as in st. antony's fire . for further illustration of this matter , take a spunge wrapt up loosly in a piece of leather , and furnish'd in the lower side with three or four leaden pipes ; then through a little hole cut in the leather on the upper side , force in a quantity of water with a syringe , it will conveniently be distributed through the pores of the spunge , and there will remain in the spunge as much water as will serve to moisten it ; the remainder passing through the pores of it , and pass of its own accord through the leathern pipes at the bottom ; but not with such an impulsive motion , as it is forc'd in at the upper part out of the syringe . i say , through the pores , because there is no need of middle pipes to convey the water into the lower pipes : for that the pores of the spunge afford a sufficient passage . but if these pores are streightned , and the lower pipes are contracted by any accident , that the water cannot pass equal in quantity and swiftness ; then the spunge receiving more than it can transmit , begins to swell , and consequently the loose piece of leather wherein it is wrapt , becomes distended , hard and tumid . the same will happen if any viscous matter be forc'd through the syringe into the spunge , by which the pores and passages are stopt up ; for then receiving much more than it can well discharge , of necessity it will rise into a tumor . he that will apply this similitude to the body of man , will find the circulation of the blood to be occasion'd in like manner through the pores of the substance , and hence perceive the cause of most swellings . xiv . there is an extraordinary and manifold necessity of this circulation . . seeing that the blood being once discharg'd into the parts , the farther off it flows from the hearth of its fire , is so much the more refrigerated , and less a part for nourishment ; there is a necessity of its return to the fountain of heat , the heart , to be again new warm'd and attenuated therein , which return is occasion'd by this circulation . . without this circulation , neither could the blood be forc'd to the parts that are to be nourish'd , nor could that which remains after nourishment together with the chylus , be carry'd back to the heart . . by means of this , all the particles of the blood are made fit for nourishment by degrees , and according to a certain order . for there being no long concoction in the heart , but only a certain swift dilatation , therefore the chylus upon its first passage through the heart , does not acquire the absolute perfection of blood , but at several passages , sometimes these , sometimes those particles become more subtile and fit for nourishment . . by the help of this circulation , the virtue of medicines taken and apply'd , is carry'd through the whole body , or the greatest part thereof . . by means of this the blood is in continual motion ; and preserv'd from congealing and putrifying . . by means of this we come to the knowledge of many diseases ; concerning which in former time many disputes have arisen among physicians . . by means of this , physicians also understand how to undertake the cures of most diseases ; whereas formerly they only proceeded by uncertain conjecture . there is no necessity that i should here refute in particular the vain arguments of primrosius , parisianus , and others , who stifly endeavour to oppose this circulation , and uphold the darkness of former ages ; remitting the readers that desire to be more particularly inform'd of these things , to ent , highmore , and several others , who make it their business to refute the arguments of such as uphold the contrary opinion . xv. but here remain two more doubts ; . whether the chylus circulates through the whole body ? . whether the serum circulates in like manner ? i answer , that as to the chylus , so long as it is not within the command of the heart , and before it has enter'd the veins , it is not forc'd by the beating of the heart , and consequently does not circulate . thus the chylus contain'd in the milky mesenteric and pectoral vessels , is thrust forward by the compressure of the muscles and other parts , but is not mov'd further forward by the beating of the heart , so long as it has not enter'd the veins . so the chylus falling out of the milky vessels into the breasts , circulates no farther , but like milk is either suckt , or flows of its own accord out of the teats . but if any part of it there enter the mamillary veins , that same still retaining the form of milk or chylus , is convey'd together with the vein-blood to the heart ; wherein being dilated , presently it loses the form of chylus or milk , and assumes the form of blood , at first more crude , or less spirituous ; but afterwards to be more and more perfected by several passages ' through the heart . and so it does not circulate through the whole body in the form of chylus , but in the form of blood , having no manner of similitude with the chylus . whence it comes to pass that there is no chylus to be found , or that can be found in the arteries . in like manner neither does the chylus circulate in women with child toward the cheese-cake or amnion . as neither does it in some women not with child , but flowing likewise to the womb , is corrupted and putrefies about the womb ; and flows forth with more or less ill smell , according as its corruption is more or less . which is most probable to be the most obvious cause of uterine fluxes . also the chylus , that sometimes flows to the urinary bladder , cannot circulate . all which things being consider'd , we must conclude at once , that the chylus does not circulate through the whole body , but that entring the veins , it retains the form of chylus only so far as the heart , and there loses its form upon the dilatation . as for the serum , this is also to be said , that it does not circulate , but when it enters the blood-bearing vessels . for no humors circulate by virtue of the beating of the heart , till after they have enter'd the limits of the heart's command , and become subject to its motion . but so long as they acknowledge any other mover , such as are the peristaltic motion of the stomach , guts , and other parts , and the compressure of the abdomen , &c. they never circulate . as the serum , when having pass'd beyond the bounds of the heart's empire , it falls into the ureters and bladder . and the flegmatic lympha , when separated from the blood of the choroidal fold , it comes to be deposited in the ventricles of the brain , circulates no more ; tho' it circulated before , when it was mix'd with the blood. chap. ix . of the parts of the heart . see the th . table . i. in the heart are these parts to be specially consider'd : two little ears ; two ventricles with a middle septum that distinguishes them ; eleven valves ; and four large vessels , of which , two adhere to the right ventricle ; the hollow vein of the pulmonary artery ; and two adhere to the left ventricle , the pulmonary vein , and the aorta - artery . now let us us see in what order the making of that enlivening nectar proceeds in this ware-house of sanguification : to which purpose we shall produce the several parts in that order , as nature makes use of 'em in the execution of this office. ii. the little ears are as it were appendixes to the heart , seated on both sides at the basis of the heart , before the orifices of the vessels , carrying the matter to the ventricles , and from some sort of likeness to the ears call'd the little ears of the heart . iii. they are two in number , of which the right and looser is plac'd next the vena cava ; the left , which is the lesser , thicker and firmer , joyns to the pulmonary vein . they are both remarkable for their more than ordinary bigness in the embryo . iv. they are compos'd of a peculiar nervous substance , though somewhat thin and soft , for more easie dilatation and contraction . v. their outward superficies appears to be full of wrinkles ; but smooth when fill'd and distended . vi. they are both concave , and supported on the inside with strong and nervous fibres , as with pillars ; between which are to be seen certain little furrows , fewer on the right side , more on the left. vii . in the birth and new-born infants , they are of a ruddy colour , in persons of ripe years somewhat darker than the heart ; which nevertheless , in dilatation , by reason of the blood receiv'd , grows more ruddy ; in contraction , the blood being discharg'd , becomes paler . viii . they are dilated and contracted , like the ventricles of the heart , but varying in time. for always the dilatation of the ventricles concurs with the contraction of the ears ; and the contraction of the ventricles concurs with the dilatation of the ears : as appears by the dissection of living creatures . which teaches us also , that they continue a weak palpitation when the motion of the heart sails , and are as it were the last parts that die . hence harvey and ent were of opinion that they were first enliven'd , and that the beating little vessel that appears first in the egg , was the little ear , and not the heart : which deusingius opposes ; and which seems to be an error by the number it self ; seeing the heart has two little ears , and only one jumping little vessel appears in the egg : which , in all probability seems rather to constiture the heart , which is single , than the ears , that are two . ix . their use is to receive the blood first of all from the vessels that bring it in , slightly to ferment and prepare it , and so prepar'd to send it to the ventricles . walaeus believes 'em to be the measures of the blood carry'd to the ventricles from the vessels that bring it in : which opinion riolanus also approves . but sennertus , that they are appointed for the particular attraction of air for the making of spirits . but how much he is deceiv'd , we have already told you , and shall further declare in the following thirteenth chapter . x. the heart has two cavities , call'd ventricles , distinguish'd by the middle septum , which is fleshy , close and thick , gibbous on the right side , concave on the left , a wonderful piece of workmanship , wrought on both sides with little pillars or sinews , and several little caverns , but no where pervious . these sinews some take for muscles , and little fibres proceeding from them , and extended as well to the treble-pointed as the mitral valves , and to be the tendons of those muscles conducing to the contraction of the valves of the heart . whence appears the error of the ancients , who wrote that the blood pass'd through its broader pores from the right to the left ventricle . certainly if there were any such pores , diligent nature had in vain provided that oval hole in the basis of the heart , and that some middle vessel , which joyns the pulmonary artery with the aorta ; for then there had been no need of these passages ; if the blood could have pass'd through the pores of the septum from the right into the left ventricle . and therefore realdus columbus deservedly opposes that ancient opinion , and truly informs us that the blood is thrust forward into the lungs out of the right ventricle through the pulmonary artery ; and from thence descends into the left ventricle through the pulmonary vein . farther also he writes , that he had found that same septum , by which the ventricles are distinguish'd , to be gristly in some bodies ; a certain sign that the blood could not pass through that , from the one to the other ventricle . let riolanus therefore hold his peace , who so stifly defends the passage of the blood out of the right ventricle to the left through the septum , that he supposes figments for foundations , and affirms that the septum is not only conspicuously pervious toward the point , but also that there are certain little holes in it . perhaps riolanus might see these holes in his sleep , which never could be found by any anatomist that was awake , either in a raw or boyl'd heart . only dominic de marchettis writes , that he found once two holes in the upper part of the septum , which were furnish'd with valves in the left ventricle . but without doubt he was deceiv'd by one great oval hole , which in new-born children is always to be seen , but afterwards is clos'd altogether , and this by reason of its extaordinary breadth , he took to be two . xi . in the ventricles sometimes various things are bred contrary to nature , though the physician can hardly tell what the patient ayls . sometimes we have found little gobbets of fat , and as it were little soft whitish pieces of flesh about the bigness of half an egg , and sometimes bigger . in october . we dissected a virgin about three and twenty years of age , who in her life-time had often complain'd of an extraordinary heaviness and palpitation of her heart , and had often fallen into swooning fits , and so dy'd . in whose body we found such a gobbet of fat , almost filling the right ventricle , and another little one in the lest , and after a more diligent search , we found , that it was no kind of body bred by the coagulation of blood , but really a firm piece of fat , not to be crumbl'd between the fingers . and this we judg'd to be the cause of her death : for we could find no other in the whole body . neither did she complain in her life of any other distemper than of that anxiety , and those swooning fits , which the ignorant people of the house took for convulsions or fits of the mother . in decemb. . in another young wench of the same age , we found in the right ventricle such another body of fat about the bigness of half a hen-egg . and both bauhinus and riolanus write , that they have often met with such pieces of fat. smetius also tells us two stories of a whitish substance found in the heart , about half a fingers length , a thumb's breadth , resembling the marrow of the leg of an ox , furnish'd with several appendixes . tulpius tells us of a flegmatic polypus , found by himself in the left ventricle . vesalius writes , that he found in the left ven tricle of the heart two pounds of a blackish kernelly sort of flesh ( which seems to be an error of the printer , instead of two ounces : ) the man , before his death being very sad , very wakeful , and his pulse beating very unequally . beniverius tells us , that he found in one body a piece of flesh like a medlar ; and in another , a hard brawny substance about the bigness of a nut. nicholas massa met with a mattery aposteme , with an exulceration of the whole little ear. matthias cornax met with a corrupt exulceration and much matter . salius , horstius , and antonius s●…verinus met with worms in the ventricles . hollerius , by the report of laurentius , met with two little stones , with several apostemes . and wierus has observ'd little stones in the heart . in novemb. . we dissected a person in the public theatre , of about five or six and thirty years of age , who in his life-time complain'd of many heavinesses , and a long asthma ; in whose heart we found an unusual sort of body , white and firm , and truly nervous , which could not be crumbl'd between the fingers , about a short span long , and about the thickness of the little finger , cover'd with a peculiar membrane , between which and the body it self , were two vessels swelling with blood , reaching on the one side from the top to the bottom . the one , where it was larger and thicker , being solid without any hollowness , adher'd to the ventricle it self . the other , forked , divided as it were into two legs , which were hollow , with little winding cells . one of which thighs extended to the pulmonary vein , the breadth of two or three fingers ; the other to the aorta-attery . such like , but lesser polypus's we found in the right & left ventricle , in feb. . these bodies hinder'd the free passage of the blood through the heart and lungs , by which means the lungs were very much swell'd ; and when they were cut , a frothy kind of liquor flow'd out of ' em . there were also in the lungs little veins , which in healthy people are hardly conspicuous , swell'd up in several places with blood , to the thickness of a lark's quill . and such a sort of polypus , bartholine describes in his anat. hist. which was also found in a heart : of the generation of which polypus's , read malpigius in a peculiar treatise upon that subject . xii . there are four large vessels adhering to the ventricles of the heart ; the hollow vein , the pulmonary artery , the pulmonary vein , and the aorta . xiii . the right ventricle is thinner , larger and bigger , but not exactly round , but almost semi-circular , neither does it reach to the end of the point . therein the veiny blood , together with the chylus brought from the subclavial into the hollow vein , being admitted through the little ear , is forthwith attenuated , and rendred spirituous , and so converted into true spirituous blood ; being first prepar'd , exactly mingled with the chylus , and moderately dilated in the auricle . xiv . this veiny blood , either with or without the chylus , the ventricle receives out of the hollow vein , which is the largest membranous vessel in the whole body , consisting of a simple and soft tunicle , and in its progress , for its more security , wrapt about with the coverings of the next parts . into this vessel , as all rivers run into the sea , so all the veins of the body empty their blood to be carry'd back to the heart , to be there concocted and dilated anew . this vein is inserted or joyn'd with a large open orifice to the right ventricle of the heart , so that it cannot be separated whole from it . xv. to this orifice grows a membranous circle , which is presently divided into three membranous valves , looking toward the inside , call'd vulgarly tricuspides , or treble ▪ pointed , and that from their triangular form , as some think ; though they are neither of that form , neither are they extended into three points . rather the name is giv'n 'em from hence , because they have each of 'em three fibres , or three or four little strings , by which they are sasten'd to the fleshy little columns of the septum . these valves being open in the dilatation of the ventricle , admit the blood out of the hollow vein : but falling , and shutting in contraction at the same moment , prevent the influx of new blood out of the hollow vein into the ventricle . xv. which blood is then forc'd out of the right ventricle into the lungs through the pulmonary artery , which is another large vessel annex'd to it at the upper part , which our ancestors erroneoussy call'd the arterious vein , though it be nothing like a vein : as is apparent , . from its substance ; being a double , thick and firm tunicle . . from its use , which is to convey the spirituous and boiling blood. . from its motion ▪ because it beats like the rest of the arteries , as we find by the dissections of living animals . xvi . close to this orifice are fix'd three membranous valves , looking outwards , call'd sigmoides , from their similitude to a greek sigma , which was anciently like a roman c. these hinder , lest the blood forc'd to the lungs , should slide back again to the same ventricle , by the depression of the lungs , and dilatation of the heart . through this vessel therefore the blood is largely discharg'd out of the right ventricle of the heart into the right and left part of the lungs ; of which the least part is expended in the nourishment of the lungs ; but the greatest part being forc'd into the little branches of the pulmonary vein , which are joyn'd with the branches of the artery by anastomoses , and dispers'd through both lobes of the lungs , like a net , together with the branches of the artery , is convey'd to the auricle and left ventricle of the heart , through the trunk of the pulmonary vein . xvii . the left ventricle of the heart is narrower than the right , but much more fleshy , thicker , harder and longer ; having a cavity somewhat round , and reaching to the point . in this the blood being refrigerated by the inspiration of the lungs , is again fermented , dilated , boiles , and is render'd spirituous , and acquires its utmost perfection . xviii . and the ventricle receives this . blood to be thus brought to further perfection , through the pulmonary vein , which is a large vessel descending from the lungs , inserted into the upper part of the ventricle , and continuous to it , which was formerly , though erroneously , call'd the veiny artery ; whereas it is no artery , but a vein ; as is apparent , . from its simple and soft tunicle , which is like other veins . . from its use , which does not afford a spirituous and hot , but a refrigerated and temperate blood. . for that it does not beat like the rest of the arteries . xix . to the orifice of this vein , are joyn'd two membranous valves , call'd mitral , because that being joyn'd together , they seem to resemble a bishop's miter . these differ little or nothing in matter and form from the tricuspid valves , and looking toward the inner parts of the ventricle , prevent the reflux of the blood out of that ventricle into the lungs . to that end , for their greater strengthening , they are ty'd to flat fleshy pieces , and long filaments , with two or three thick and fleshy small sinews , or little pillars , rising upwards from the lower part of the septum , which some believe to be muscles , and that the filaments are tendons . xx. the blood perfected in this ventricle is discharg'd into the aorta-artery , inserted and continuous to it , being the root of all the arteries , except the pulmonary and trachea , being of a more solid and harder substance , and furnish'd with a double tunicle , the innermost thicker , the outermost thinner , and a thin membrane of the neighbouring parts for its further security . xxi . at the rise of this artery stand three valves , extended outward , by the ancients call'd semilunares , as resembling a half-moon , altogether like the sigma form'd . these sustain the violence of the blood , striving to flow back out of the aorta . xxii . in some brutes , especially in harts , there is bred of the orifice of the aorta harden'd , a little bone that sustains the valves . galen makes mention of this bone in several places . plempius writes , that he has sometimes taken such a bone out of the hearts of oxen. but he does not believe it to be any part of the aorta turn'd into bone , but a peculiar bone ; because it is observ'd to be in the fleshy substance it self of the heart . nicholas stenonis writes , that he has not only observ'd it in larger animals , but also in sheep , and believes it to be nothing but a part of the tendonous orifice turn'd into a boney hardness : bartholine however met with one in the heart of a phthisical person , and asserts , that another was found in the heart of pope urban the th . riolanus reports , that there was a stone found in the heart of a president , and of the queen mother ; and boldly asserts , that it is not only frequently to be met with in the hearts of old men , in whom he had observ'd it himself above thirty times ; perhaps , because riolanus was more us'd to the dissections of old men than other anatomists , who generally meet with the younger sort . chap. x. of the union of the vessels in the heart of the birth . see figure . tab. . how the blood is mov'd through the heart in its vessels , in men born , has been sufficiently explain'd ; but because in the birth , while it abides in the womb , the vessels ore somewhat otherwise dispos'd , let us examine how the work of sanguification proceeds there . i. in the birth , the blood does not pass out of the right ventricle of the heart through the lungs to the left ventricle , as in a man born ; neither is it fermented , concocted and dilated in both ventricles , but in one . for that which is concocted and dilated in the right , does not thence proceed to the left , to be there dilated ; and that which is dilated in the left , was not dilated before in the right . ii. to this purpose there are double unions of the vessels in the birth , through which that passage of the blood is made , which in grown persons are quite defac'd . iii. the first union is made in the heart by anastomosis , being a large and wide hole of an oval form , seated under the right auricle , near the coronary , before the hollow vein , distinctly opens it self into the right ventricle : hence call'd the oval hole , by which is made the union of the hollow vein , call'd the pulmonary vein . iv. to this hole next to the pulmonary vein , is annex'd a membranous thin valve , but firm and hard , bigger than the hole , hindring the reflux of the blood flowing into the left ventricle out of the hollow vein . v. the other union is made about two fingers breadth from the basis , without the heart , by a long channel , by which the pulmonary artery is joyn'd to the great artery , which channel has the substance of an artery , as also the same thickness and wide cavity , and ascends with an oblique ascent from the pulmonary artery to the great artery , and discharges into the aorta the blood forc'd from the right ventricle of the heart into the pulmonary , so that it should not fall into the left ventricle . but because the heat of the birth is like a new fire , which begins first to be kindled by a little spark , and so increases to a bigger fire ; hence it come to pass that its blood while it abides in the womb , is not yet arriv'd to that degree of heat , as to want refrigeration , and the double concoction of the heart : for it requires not as yet that acrimony which is afterwards necessary for a firmer nutrition of the body . which is the reason that the birth does not breathe in the womb , and that the lungs are idle and useless for a time , and remain thicker : by reason of which density , there is no free passage through the lungs for the blood concocted in the right ventricle of the heart , and thence forc'd into the pulmonary artery . for which nevertheless that there may be a way and passage open , the supream creator ordain'd that channel , through which that blood should be discharg'd out of the pulmonary artery into the aorta , there being no more allow'd in the mean time to the lungs , than what is requisite for their nourishment . vi. but lest the right ventricle of the heart , wherein the more subtle , and spirituous blood is made , should remain idle for want of matter ; the oval hole is plac'd at the entrance into the hollow vein , to the end the blood falling out of the hollow vein , should discharge it self , partly into the right ventricle of the heart , partly through the said hole into the pulmonary vein , and so into the left ventricle . and thus the blood in the heart of the birth , is concocted or dilated only simply and once in either of the ventricles , and that which is concocted and dilated in the right ventricle , is mingled in the great artery with that which is dilated in the left. vii . this oval hole which is wide in the birth , being of no use to men born , becomes so clos'd and stopp'd up within a few weeks , that there is not the least figure of it that appears . for it is a very rare thing to find it pervious in people of ripe years , as pinaeus , marchettus , riolan , and bartholin , and others have written that they have seen it : yet is it not to be seen in one of ten thousand . and most commonly it is so closely stopp'd up , that you would swear there was never any hole there . for it is so stopp'd up and consolidated by the valve aforesaid , in a short time after the birth comes into the world , that there is no more passage to be seen , although in many people of ripe years , the same valve , now fully corroborated , is so transparent , that it appears distinct from the rest of the substance of the septum . and therefore what riolanus writes , is most absurd , and repugnant to truth , that the anastomosis frequently , nay almost at all times remains open by means of this hole . viii . in like manner the said channel , though it be very wide , and the substance of it remarkably thick like that of the aorta , yet after the child is born , it dries and consumes away in such a manner , that there are not the least footsteps of it in people of ripe years . the foresaid unions of the vessels , for want of humane birth , may be conveniently demonstrated in calves newly calv'd , and lambs newly yean'd . chap. xi . of the office or action of the heart . i. plato , galen , and several of the stoicks assert , that the heart is the seat of the irascible soul. but chrysippus , possidonius , and many of the aristotelians , not only of the irascible , but concupiscible soul. from whom hippocrates does not very much differ , while he alledges , that the soul abides in the hottest and strongest fire ; and plainly affirms moreover , that the mind is seated in the heart of man. this was also the sentiment of diogenes , as plutarch witnesses ; and of zeno , according to laertius . to which opinion apollodorus also subscrib'd , as tertullian testifies ; and which gassendus likewise , among the modern authors , endeavors to prove . nor do the sacred scriptures a little contribute to the confirmation of this doctrine . where we read , that god is the searcher of the heart ; that out of the heart issue evil thoughts ; that folly , wisdom , iudgment , counsel , repentance proceed from the heart . whence the prophet david thus prays , psal. . give me wisdom , and i will keep thy law , and observe it with my whole heart . incline my heart to keep thy testimonies . the lord hates the heart which imagines evil thoughts . besides this , they produce several reasons . . because the heart first lives and moves , and last dies , and being wounded , the whole structure falls . . because it is seated in the middle and most worthy part of the whole body . . because this bowel only makes the blood and vital spirit , and nourishes and enlivens every part of the body : and that the soul abides in the blood , is apparent from the sacred text , the soul of the flesh is in the blood. . because the heart being out of order , the whole body suffers with it ; but when other parts are vitiated , it does not necessarily die with them . . because the brain , to which most ascribe the seat of the soul , depends upon the heart ; and the motion of the brain proceeds from the heart . . because a part of the brain may be corrupted and taken away , the life and soul remaining , but no part of the heart , all whose wounds are mortal . . because , although perception , thought , imagination , memory , and other principal actions are perform'd in the brain , it does not follow that the seat of the soul is in the instrument by which those actions are perform'd . the workman by the clock and dyal which he makes , shews the whole city what time of the day it is , and numbers the hours by the striking the bell ; yet hence it does not follow , that he himself abides or has his fix'd residence in the clock ; 't is sufficient he affords the clock what is requisite for the performance of the action , though he live in another place . thus the soul may operate indeed in the brain , as in the instrument , but may have its seat nevertheless in the heart . hence picolomini acutely alledges , that the soul is ty'd to us upon a double accompt . . by nature , and so abides absolutely in the heart . . by operation , as it sends faculties to the instruments by means of the spirits discharg'd out of the heart ; by the operation of which faculties the presence of the soul is discern'd . in the same manner avicen will have the soul with its faculties abide in the heart , as in the first root , but that it gives its light to all the members . that is to say , that the heart is the beginning of the animal faculties ; but makes use of the brain as the instrument of feeling ; so that the animal faculty is radically in the heart , but by way of manifestation in the brain . and these and some others , like these , are the authorities and reasons , wherewith some , going about to describe the office of the heart , endeavour to defend their opinion , which cartesius nevertheless most strenuously opposes . but they seem to be all out of the way , who going about to describe the office of the heart , presently fall a quarrelling about the seat of the rational soul , and prosecute it with that heat , as if the whole question depended upon that hinge . but we are going about to examine the office of the mortal heart , not the seat of the immortal soul. ii. now the chief and primary action of the heart in the whole body , is to make blood , and by pulsation to distribute it through the arteries to all the parts , that all may be nourished thereby . this office of sanguification , the most ancient philosophers always ascrib'd to the heart . thus hippocrates calls the heart the fountain of blood. plato , in his timaeus , asserts the heart to be the fountain of blood , flowing with a kind of violence . aristotle asserts the heart to be the beginning of the veins , and to have the chief power of procreating blood. but after them came galen , the introducer of a new opinion , who excuses the heart from the function of sanguification , and ascribes it sometimes to the liver , sometimes to the substance of the veins , and sometimes to both . vesalius , iacobus de partibus , columbus , picolomini , carpus , bauhinus , ioubertus , and several others imitate galen with great applause , especially those who are meer followers of the flock that goes before ; going not where they are to go , but where the galenists go ; and had rather admire galen's authority , than enquire any farther into the truth . but in this our age , the ancient truth , that lay long wrapt up in thick clouds , again broke forth out of darkness into light. for ever since the knowledge of circulation has illustrated the whole body of physick , it has been certainly found out , that the office of circulation agrees with the heart alone , and that therein only this general nutriment is made , by which all the parts of the whole body are to be nourish'd , and for that reason , that there is a perpetual pulse allow'd it on purpose to disperse that nourishment , and communicate it to all the parts . this sanguifying duty the most famous philosophers at this day allow the heart ; so that there are very few left that uphold the galenic sentence of the liver any longer . though swammerdam has promis'd to restore the liver to its former dignity , but upon what grounds , and with what applause we longingly expect . iii. but glisson revolts from both opinions , as well the ancient one , concerning the heart , as the galenic opinion , concerning the liver . who finding that the seed being conceiv'd and alter'd by the heat of the womb , the vital spirit , that lay asleep , is rais'd up from power to act , and that then that vital spirit moves the vital juice in which it abides , every where ; and also makes channels and passages for it self through the seminal matter ; moreover , that sanguineous rudiments appear , before the heart , liver or other bowels can be manifestly seen ; from all these things he concludes , that the blood is not generated and mov'd in the heart , but that the heart and blood are generated by the spirit , or vivific juice which is in the blood it self . to which , he adds an axiom , because , says he , the same , quatenus the same , always operates the same . and hence he concludes , that the cause that made the first blood in the first conception , the same , or at least a cause aequipollent to it , ought afterwards also to be esteem'd the fountain of sanguification . this opinion he confirms with many specious reasons , which i omit for brevity's sake . iv. but we answer to the most learned glisson , that the vivific spirit is the first mover in the seed ; and that when it begins to rise into act , and enliven the seed , so disposes by its motion the vital iuice , to which it adheres as to its subject , that out of some of its particles are made the heart , out of others the liver , out of others , the vessels , membranes , &c. and so by that motion they erect to themselves a habitation ; the several and particular parts of which , according to the various disposition of the least principles , perform various and distinct operations , over all which that spirit presides , as general president . for enlivening all the parts together , it excites every one to the function properly allotted to them . not that the spirit performs the peculiar part of every one : but whatever aptitude to act it bequeath'd to the several parts in the first confirmation , that aptitude it preserves by its presence , without which they could perform no operations at all . therefore the vivific spirit , according to the axiom fore-cited , always performs one and the same action in the whole body , that is to say , it enlivens . but it does not produce the matter to be enlivened , without which nevertheless it cannot subsist , when the consumption of its subject , that is , the vital juice requires daily reparation . therefore the several parts enliven'd , generate that matter by degrees , and by vertue of many and various concoctions , and other preparatory operations , which the vivific spirit cannot perform without those parts : for it could not chylifie without the stomach , nor sanguifie without the heart . and hence , tho' that spirit be the general life of the whole body , without which nothing can be done , and which is presuppos'd to abide and be in all and singular the parts specially operating , nevertheless , because it cannot perform those operations without the said parts , it cannot be said that it absolutely performs those peculiar operations : but it is better , and indeed necessary to say , that they proceed from the nature of the several living parts . and so the ventricle in respect of its proper nature chylifies , and the heart only sanguifies , and no other parts of the body can perform the same actions , because no others have the same propriety of nature . false therefore it is , what glisson says , that it is not the heart , but this vivific spirit , which he certainly presupposes to be in the blood , that generates other new blood in the blood it self , and is the cause of the motion of the blood. that the first is untrue , is apparent from hence ; for that if the blood were generated out of the blood existing in the blood , then the blood being out of order , and distemper'd , there will be a stop to sanguification . but the contrary appears in persons scorbutic , and labouring under cachexies ; in whom sanguification nevertheless goes forward , nay the corruptions of the blood are mended and corrected by the benefit of the heart ; which otherwise could never be corrected by reason of the distemper of the blood. on the other side , if the heart be out of order , presently there is a stop to sanguification , and the blood it self is deprav'd . the latter is false , as appears by the dissections of living animals : for if the beginning of the aorta-artery be ty'd with a string near the heart , presently all motion of the blood ceases in the arteries ; which would still continue , if it contain'd within it such a spirit-mover of it self , and had not its motion from without : but cut the string , and presently the motion of the heart returns by virtue of the pulse of the heart . the same is also manifest in faint-hearted persons , who , at the time of letting blood , fall into a swoon upon the surgeon 's pricking the vein ; nor can you hardly perceive their heart to beat ; so that there is little or no blood mov'd through the vessels , nor will the blood flow from the small wound ; but when the patient comes again to himself , and that the heart begins to beat , presently the blood moves again , and spins out at the little hole made by the lancet . whence it appears , that the blood is not mov'd or generated by the vivific spirit which is in the blood , but by the heart ; and that the vivific spirit abiding in all the parts of the body , does only revive the parts ; and that those enliven'd parts , according to the variety of their several dispositions , act specially , and after various manners upon the matter to be enliven'd . v. moreover i think it requisite , more accurately to examin , whether any vivific spirit , as glisson presupposes , be in the blood ? i know indeed , that the vital spirit , generally so call'd , is generated in the heart , that is to say , apt to be enliven'd , and to promote sanguification by its heat ; yet i cannot believe , that this vivific spirit , that is already actually living and enlivening , is mingl'd with the blood , when that spirit is of a higher order , and only abides in the german , and blossom of the seed , and the necessary primogenial moisture of the parts themselves of the body , and must be rouz'd into action , by the flowing in of the hot vital spirit : in regard the blood it self is not yet a part of the body , nor enliven'd , but to be enliven'd , when it shall be assimilated to the parts . vi thus an artist , who has made a clock , does not move the wheels , nor shew the hours , but he makes the clock , which could never move the wheels , nor tell the hours , unless the artist had made that engine , and bequeath'd such an aptitude to it , which afterwards he preserves to it also : so the vivific spirit , although at the first creation of the parts , it made the heart , and endu'd it with a sanguifying aptness ; which afterward it also preserves therein by its presence ; yet is it not that spirit , but the heart which must be said to sanguifie . as to the first principles of the blood , which , as glisson says , are observ'd at the first time of conception , before the heart appears ; i say , that those rudiments are also produc'd by the heart ; for these rudiments are not to be seen till the leaping bubble begins to move , which is the first beginning of the heart : and although the whole structure of a live heart , does not appear to the eye ; yet that it is there , and generates the first principles of the blood , the effect teaches us . i wonder indeed that harvey , who asserts the blood to be made before other things , did not take notice of this , especially writing as he does , that at the same time , that the blood begins to be discern'd in the egg , that its receptacles , the veins , and beating pulse manifestly appear . whence it is sufficiently apparent , that the blood is not to be discern'd , but with the beginning of the heart ; which assoon as it begins to act , makes the blood ; and then the same cause acting that made the blood , afterwards continually generates the blood , as being the only fountain from which the blood perpetually springs . there remain three other arguments of glisson , which he thinks to be herculean . first , says he , the heart borrows all its vital heat and activity from the vital blood contain'd in its ventricles , and distributed into its substance through the coronary arteries , without which heat and vitality , it would grow num and languid . hence he concludes , that the heart is mov'd , nourish'd , and lives by the blood ; but that the heart it self neither moves or generates ; and this he demonstrates by the example of a heart pluck'd out of a living animal , into the ventricles of which , as yet beating , if any liquor be infus'd , it is not chang'd into blood. an egregious comparison of the operation of a heart contain'd in a sound and healthy creature , with its operation when pull'd out of an animal , and utterly debilitated : and indeed as base a comparison of any raw liquor infus'd into the half dead heart cut out of a living creature , with the chylus prepar'd by various concoctions , for sanguification ; and naturally discharging it self into a sound beating heart . but if the heart borrows heat and activity from the blood , what 's the reason that the heart being distemper'd by some malignant vapour , and beating little or nothing , presently all the sanguineous parts are refrigerated ; whereas there is a sufficient quantity of good blood in the vessels , able both to warm those parts , and to flow into the heart it self ? but we find this sudden refrigeration in the beginning of the fits of agues , in frights and syncopes , &c. certainly no body will believe otherwise , but that this happens meerly because the blood receives its heat and motion from the heart ; and when that ceases to move , then the blood of the rest of the parts , becomes depriv'd of heat and motion , and consequently to be refrigerated . besides , the heart does not simply languish by reason of the failing influx of the blood into the ventricles , which occasions a defect of heat and vital spirits , but for want of convenient matter , out of which to generate vital spirits ; and so to make convenient nourishment , both for it self , and the whole body . his second argument is taken from the colour : for he says , the chylus cannot obtain a red colour from the heart , and consequently be chang'd by it into blood ; because the blood it self is much redder than the heart , or substance of the heart ; and that therefore the heart is not sufficiently assimilar to the blood , as to perform that office ; seeing that every part that is apt for sanguification , ought to be like the blood. and lastly , he adds , how should any thing act beyond the sphere of his activity , and communicate that to another , of which it is destitute it self ? therefore because the heart , liver and veins , are paler than the blood , how should they contribute to it a more lively colour than their own ? but here glisson seems to have forgot himself : for a little before , he said , that frequently by heat and motion , colours from white and pale , become more ruddy ; which is apparent by the boilings and bakings of fruit , flesh , and by a thousand other experiments : and now he will not allow of a red colour from motion and specific heat , but from a like colour : which how ill they cohere , is apparent . fruits , flesh and other substances bak'd in an oven , acquire a ruddy substance . the juice of the larger consound , digested in horse-dung for several days , puts on a ruddy colour ; whereas neither the oven nor the horse-dung are red . the stomach , by a specific concoction , gives a white colour to the chylus , which it has not it self . the choler in its vesicle , acquires a green colour by overmuch concoction and stay therein , and is naturally of a yellow colour ; whereas neither the liver , or the gall-bladder , are green or yellow . many times salt , sharp , and greenish humors distil from the brain , which is white it self , and without any greenness , saltness or acrimony . in a virulent gonorrhaea , greenish and yellowish seed flows forth ; whereas the spermatick vessels have no such colour . certainly they are mightily out of the way , who attribute to colour that same efficacy which is to be ascrib'd to the heat , and specifc concoction and mixture proceeding from the propriety of the part : which colour does not proceed from the similitude of the acting part wherein it is concocted , but from the heat acting specifically in that part , according to the specific constitution , temper , and formation of the parts . and hence it is , that the heat of the stomach extracts a white chylus out of the aliments , and why the heart changes the chylus into white blood. lastly , if the chylus gain only a red colour from the redness of the blood , i would fain know what it is , that in the first conception changes the white seed into red blood. his third argument is taken from concoctions : for , says he , natural bodies , as much as in them lies , labour to assimilate to themselves all other bodies that are within the sphere of of their activity ; and hence the heart , should it betake it self to the function of making blood , would bring the chylus to the similitude of its own substance , and there stop , and never proceed to induce the form of blood. but wherefore does not glisson say the same of the stomach and liver ? why do not these bowels change the aliments into a substance like themselves , and there stop ; but rather into a substance quite contrary , that is , white chylus , or yellow and green choler ? which , if it be allow'd them to do , for the common good of the whole , why shall the generation of a dissimilar substance be allow'd the heart for the benefit of the whole ? but the learned glisson does not sufficiently distinguish between public and private concoctions ; nor does he take notice , that in public concoctions , the matter is prepar'd for the nourishment of the whole : in private concoctions , the alteration of that prepar'd matter , is made into the substance of the several parts . and hence it is necessary for those bowels that serve for second concoctions , that they should make the nutritious matter to be prepar'd for the whole , not like to themselves , but such out of which all and every the parts may assume and assimilate to themselves something convenient and proper for themselves . and so likewise those bowels themselves are nourish'd by a private concoction , with that common aliment , which they have prepar'd for the whole body , that is to say , the spirituous blood ; and out of that assimilate to themselves convenient particles , and then stop in that first concoction , while in the mean time , they proceed farther in the publick concoction . and thus the foresaid new opinion seems to be sufficiently refuted , notwithstanding charleton has shew'd himself so obstinate in its defence . but in regard that glisson uses the same words and arguments , there is no need of any farther refutation of him , although he assert the sole quantity of the blood to be the occasion of its motion , and therein seems to differ something from glisson . chap. xii . of the blood , vital spirit , and nutrition . i. the blood is call'd by the greeks , 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , by the french , du sangue , by the italians , sangue , by the germans , blut ; by the english , blood ; and by the low dutch , bloet ; and which is chiefly to be admir'd at , there is no synonimous word by which that humor may be absolutely signify'd . among the latins indeed the word cruor is frequently us'd ; but that word does not absolutely signifie blood , but only the blood which flows from wounds and ulcers ; or corrupted blood , or such as remains in the vessels after death . so likewise 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 in the greek , and grumus in the latin , signifies clotted blood. ii. now blood is a red iuice made in the heart , out of the chylus , for the nourishment of the whole body . iii. its substance consists of two several iuices , by means of the serum , so united in the serum it self , through several concoctions of the bowels , as to become one bloody mass together . iv. one of these iuices is sulphury , though malpigius , not dreaming of sulphur , calls the same iuice every where fatness ; the other , salt : the one somewhat fatty , oyly and viscous ; the other , altogether different from all manner of fatness . i call 'em juices , so far as sulphur and salt in fusion , concur to the mass of blood. and therefore in dissolution , they cannot be well mingl'd without loss and tumult , ( for fat with watery salt never mixes well ) unless some mercury intervene , so familiar to the nature of both , that both may be exactly mix'd as well with it , as in it . this mercury is the serum , as in which the more watery particles of both the said juices are dissolv'd and mix'd by concoctions . and hence that is constituted , not only out of the watery part of the elements alone , but also out of some sulphury and salt particles melted therein by concoction ; and so it partakes of a certain middle nature , so that therein there may be a convenient mixture , and , as it were , a union of the sulphury and salt juices . these particles are discern'd by the saltish savour of the sweat and urine ; the sulphury , by the smell of both : the one , by the salt which is separated from the urine by chymistry ; the other , for that stale urine being heated at the fire , the exhaling vapour presently burns when it comes near the fire . and therefore it is requisite that the said serum be mix'd in a sufficient quantity , and well concocted with the rest of the juices . for if it be too little , or none at all , the active principles , that is to say , the salt and sulphury juice , close too strictly together , and too vehemently exagitate and combat one with another , and in that mutual conflict waste and corrupt one another : whence the body , either depriv'd of nourishment , consumes away , or else upon the corruption of the blood , falls into diseases , and dies . but if either a too watry serum , or over-raw abound , then the said active principles are too much eloin'd and separated one from another , and their combination becomes too loose , so that they do not sufficiently agitate each other ; and hence the blood being over-moist , and subject to corruption , the whole body that is nourish'd with such blood , grows weak and infirm . now that the blood consists of these principles , is easily demonstrated : for that ●…ulphur is in it , the many oily , swe●…t , ●…at and sulphury nourishments that we 〈◊〉 , sufficiently declare ; out of which , nothing else but something sulphury can be extracted by the concoctions of the bowels , and mix'd with the blood. and this farther also , for that we find , that the most fat and sulphury parts of the body are generated out of the blood , which receive their softne●…s , oiliness and tenderness from sulphur . that there is salt likewise in it , is apparent from the salt-meats which we feed upon , from the salt which is extracted out of the blood by chymistry , and from the salt which is in the urine , and is separated from the blood , together with the superfluous serum . and that the serum is in it , is visible to the eye . there are some also that add earth to the other principles : but seeing that is nothing else , but the remainder of thick salt , very crude , and hard to be dissolv'd , it ought not to be allow'd for a peculiar principle , as being that which cannot be melted and dissolv'd by concoction , but by a long and vehement heat , like another crude , tartareous salt : as is manifest in bricks made of earth , and bak'd in the kiln ; for the bricks next the fire , through the vehemence of a continu'd fire , melt , and run like thick glass . in this mixture of a sulphury and salt juice in the serum , the sulphury juice contributes a stronger and swifter activity , but the salt juice constitutes the primary mass : as that which being of a more fix'd nature , hinders the easie dissolution of the sulphury juice , mix'd and blended with it , and so retards the dissolving of the sanguineous mass , and resists corruption , stench , and inflammation ; and being prone to fixation , thence it is the cause that the blood being in●…us'd into the substance of the parts , becomes a good part of it coagulated therein , and adheres , and is assimilated to it . here arises a notable doubt to be consider'd : seeing these fat or oily and sulphury parts of the blood , are hotter than the others , and so seem able to promote the salt parts to a stronger activity , how it comes to pass , that in fat people , in whom the sulphury , oily parts abound in great quantity , there happens less agility of the whole body , and less activity of the animal spirits , but that they are generally sloathful and sleepy , and more troubled with drowsiness , apoplexies , and short breath than leaner people ? this comes to pass , because that in such people the oily sulphury particles of the blood are too much abounding above the salt , and too much enfold and blunt them with their greasie oiliness , so that they cannot boil , be attenuated , and be made spirituous ; and hence they are less fit for the generation of animal spirits in convenient and sufficient quantity , so that the animal operations grow dull and heavy , and soporiferous effects prevail . moreover , the heat of the sulphury particles themselves asswages , and loses its vigor , unless there happen an effervescency in the blood by means of the sharp salt particles , and through the stronger and smaller particles among themselves , a fiercer heat be rais'd . which fermentation is prevented , if the oily particles too much exceed the salt . here it may be octjected , that in agues , the sulphury heat predominates , and yet the animal actions are not always dull and numm'd in such persons . which comes to pass , because that in such persons the sulphury and oily particles of the blood do not exceed nor stupifie the salt , with their oiliness and quantity , but by their heat and motion stirring up their acrimony to more vehement action , produce an effervescency either too strong , or vicious and aguish . vi. but to return to the business : out of the sanguineous mass , by convenient concoctions and fermentations of the bowels , double spirits are rais'd ; that is to say , sulphureous and salt ; the one sweetish , and the other sowr ; both very subtil and thin , and confus'd together , and yet one more volatile than the other ; like the sulphury spirits in oils chymically extracted out of vegetables ; and the salt spirits chymically drawn from salts and salt things . but that the sulphury spirits are more thin and volatile , is apparent in the distillation of vegetables ; for they are first of all and most easily separated , and ascend the alembick , unless too much perplex'd among the salt , or being less attenuated by them , by reason of their oiliness : but the salt spirits ascend last , and with more difficulty ; whose acrimony the taste distinguishes from the sweetness of the sulphur . but the foresaid spirits of the sanguineous mass , out of which they are rais'd by fermentations , are mingled with it , and carry'd forthwith to the heart , and there being often attenuated , and dilated , are so exactly united , that they wax as it were one spirit , which we call vital . vii . now the vital spirit is the most subtil and efficacious part of the blood , generated out of its sulphury and salt particles , dilated by the fermentation of the heart . i say , the most subtile and efficacious part of the blood , that is to say , that which is rais'd out of its sulphury and salt particles : for every thin and vaporous substance , as that which is raised out of the serous part of the blood , is not so be call'd a spirit ; because it is no efficacious part of the blood , though sometimes less to be discern'd than the effectual spirit it self : but that which through the copious admixture of it self , breaks the efficacy of its spirits , and withstands their agility . when the blood slides into the heart , presently the frame and composure of the whole liquor is dissolv'd , and the spirituous particles , the bond of mixture being loosen'd , are exactly united together , and endeavour to expand themselves every way , but being restrain'd by the vessels on the inside , they are mix'd with the other liquor , and so burst forth into the open tubes or channels of the arteries ; through which , together with the blood , they are poured forth over the whole body , with the blood and effluviums of heat . viii . now some there are , who with argenterius , stifly deny this spirit different from the blood , to be in the blood ; though others with no less heat assert it . but this contention seems easie to be compos'd , if we allow it to be the most subtile part of the blood free'd from the thicker matter , and exalted to an extraordinary thinness ; mix'd indeed with the whole , but easily separable from it ; for that the perfection of the blood consists in its mixture , which without this spirit would be only a crude and unprofitable humor . in like manner as in wine , the spirit gives the wine its perfection , and is the subtilest part of it ; and by how much the spirit is better , by so much is the wine better : yet this is separable by chymistry from the wine ; but then the remaining substance of the wine becomes a crude , watery and unprofitable liquor . and therefore the foresaid question may be thus decided : if we mean good and perfect blood , then it may be well said , that the vital spirit is in the blood , and that it is not different from it , as being the most subtile part of it rais'd out of it self , which by its presence constitutes the perfection of the blood. but if we mean blood simply so call'd , as being that which is dissipated from the blood , the blood remaining , such as is to be found in dead people , which is not perfect , because there is no volatile spirit remaining therein ; then the spirit may be said to be different from the blood , or to be generated in it , the blood still existing ; which moreover were it in it , would predominate in it , and agitate the thicker particles of the blood one with another . but when , as aristotle witnesses , nothing is agitated or mov'd by it self , it may be well said , that the other thicker particles of the blood are not mov'd by themselves , but by another mover , that is , the spirit ; which nevertheless is nothing else but a part of the sanguineous mass exalted to spirituosity . here perhaps some will object , if this spirit agitates other particles of the blood one with another , then the blood contains in it self the cause of its own motion , and is not mov'd by the heart . i answer , that the motion of the blood is double ; one circulatory , which without doubt proceeds from the heart ; by which motion , being in good part spiritualiz'd , it is carry'd through the arteries to all the parts of the body . the other fermentaceous , which is made by this spirit , by which the least particles of it are agitated one among another , while this spirit passes through them like a ferment , and divides 'em one from another ; which vehement fermentaceous motion is observ'd in the crisis's of fevers , and the emotion of the flowers . but this motion also proceeds from the heart , so far as it continually begets this spirit , by dilating the blood , mixes it with the blood , and quickens it by its motion into act ; so that the motion of the heart ceasing , this also ceases . ix . this vital spirit , while it always endeavors to fly away by reason of its extraordinary volatility , continually agitates the other thicker particles of the blood , that retard it , and re-assume its flight , and by them shaken after a various manner , and by reason of way deny'd it , often beaten back again , by which means it divides them one from another , conquers , subtilizes , and detains them in a continual fermentative motion ; from which motion and agitation of the subtile matter , proceeds heat ; which being moderate in a moderate agitation , small in a small one , and violent in a violent agitation ; hence it happens , that the blood , according to the variety of this agitation , which may happen and alter upon divers accidents , becomes more or less hot . by this motion thus stirr'd up by the spirit , the blood is not only preserv'd in its heat and perfect soundness , that is , by the bond of exact mixture ; but is also render'd fluid , thin , and apt for nourishment , which depriv'd of that motion and spirit , grows thick , corrupts and grows unprofitable . the same spirit also contributes such a thinness of parts to the blood , as to be able to pass the most narrow passages , and to be convey'd to any parts whatever ; all which parts this spirit quickens to their several functions ; and by its continual agitation and heat thence proceeding , continually wastes and dissipates the more fluid particles of the parts , and continually repairs , and as often increases them by means of the blood. x. but the blood , as also the vital spirit rais'd out of it , if it consists of the two principles , sulphureous and salt mix'd together , and equally agreeing in strength ; then is the blood best , and well temper'd according to nature . but as the force of these principles exceeds one another , it is colder or hotter , and its temper varies according to the strength and prevalency of the principle . i say , colder , not that any cold quality proceeds from salt , or from a salt spirit , as from its proper subject ; but because while that predominates , the sulphury spirit is more obtunded and fix'd ; whence happens a weaker agitation of the small particles one among another , and consequently a lesser actual heat . and another reason , why salt and its spirit may be call'd colder , is , because that being cast into the fire , it only crackles ; but does not flame out like sulphur , or a sulphureous spirit . xi . now out of the blood thus compos'd of the said principles , sometimes more , sometimes fewer spirits are rais'd . for if the blood to be rarify'd in the heart , be well concocted in the other bowels , and prepar'd for fermentation , and as i may say , brought to full maturity ; then there happens a right fermentation or dilatation in the heart , by which a convenient quantity of spirits is rais'd up with a moderate heat ; but if ill prepar'd and raw , then is the effervescency less , and the dilatation more difficult ; and fewer spirits rise , and hence proceeds a cold temper of the body . if over much concocted , and that the particles either salt , or sulphureous , or both , are too much attenuated ; then the dilatation is overmuch in the heart , and the spirits are over-sharp and hot ; and hence proceeds a hot temperature , corruption of humors , inflammations and fevers , especially if the sulphury spirits prevail above the other . xii . by the way , we must take notice that they are in a very great error , who besides the principles constituting the essence of the blood in mixture , add another spirit , and assert a necessity for it to concur and be mix'd with the salt and sulphur in the serum . whereas this spirit of which they speak , is not any thing peculiar concurring to the making of the blood ; but only a thin and spirituous vapour , attracted out of the salt and sulphur it self , by force of the heat ; as is perform'd by chymistry in other things : for though all bodies are compos'd of salt and sulphur , as their principles , united by the assistance of mercury ; yet in regard that salt and sulphur are not bodies altogether simple and equal , but compos'd of unequal particles ; hence the bodies that are compos'd of those principles , consist of unequal particles , some thicker , some thinner , others more or less fix'd , and others more or less fit for fusion and attenuation : for the heat acting upon bodies compos'd of these principles , dissolves first of all and more easily the thinner and less fix'd particles , attenuates and renders them spirituous , frees them also from the thicker particles , and by means of the thicker particles , agitates and moves them ; and those spirituous particles so attenuated , are call'd spirits , as being endu'd with an extraordinary tenuity and mobility . not that they are any thing different from salt or sulphur , concurring to the composition of the mixture ; but only some thinner substance melted , attenuated and extracted by the force of heat , out of the same mixture , which , upon the absence of that heat , again condenses , and is quietly united as before , with the other thicker particles not yet brought to fusion . xiii . nor are they less in an error , who hold , that there is a copious quantity of air mix'd with the blood , as being necessarily requisite to its perfection . which air they pretend , is mix'd four ways with the blood. . as being mix'd and swallow'd with the meat chaw'd in the mouth : with which nourishment it is so united in the stomach , that at length entring the region of the heart , it is incorporated with the blood. . by entring the mass of blood through the pores of the skin . . when it is not a little mix'd with the blood by the drawing in of the breath , hastning through the lungs to the left ventricle of the heart . . when by the same breathing in of the air , it is carry'd to the vessels and ventricles of the brain . but if the air be necessary to compleat the perfection of the blood , then ought it always necessarily to be mix'd with it ; but no air can come at the birth included in the womb and its membranes , and yet the blood bred therein is no less sound and perfect , than in those that being born , both breath and suck in the air. xiv . here it may be question'd , out of what things the said principles are extracted ? i answer , from the aliments which contain both sulphur and salt in themselves ; and consist of them mix'd and concocted after a specific manner . yet some are more , others less spirituous , and hence arise variety of qualities ; which is the reason , that some nourishments agree better with hot , others with cold constitutions . but , to the end these principles may be extracted out of the aliments , and that blood may be made out of 'em , it is requisite that the nourishments be prepar'd after another manner ; that their first mixture may be altogether dissolv'd , and the latent sulphureous and salt particles be exalted to fusion , and a more extraordinary tenuity ; so that being freed from their first union , they may be again mingl'd after a new manner . to this purpose , besides their dissolution by cookery and dressing , being admitted into the body , in the first place those things that are hard , are bruis'd and soften'd by the teeth in the mouth , and being prepar'd by the admixture of the spittle , are swallow'd down into the stomach . in the next place , they are farther fermented and dissolv'd after a specifical manner in the stomach . . the more profitable chylus , and more dissolv'd particles , are separated from the thicker particles by another peculiar effervescency , and are yet more dissolv'd and attenuated in the milky vessels , and many kernels of the mesenterium , and by the commixture of lymphatic juice ; and these being mixt with the veiny blood , and carry'd to the heart , are therein dilated ; and so being united with the rest of the blood , become perfect blood. but when they are the first time dilated in the heart , it is not a spirituous blood that is presently made out of 'em , but a thicker and cruder blood , which is mix'd with the rest of the blood several times circulated through the heart , and by that means render'd very spirituous , and by frequent circulations and attenuations in the heart , render'd still more spirituous . xv. in the mean time , certain it is , that the chylus , passing through the heart , and therein dilated , loses the form of chylus , and at the very same moment assumes another , that is to say , the form of blood. xi . but here arises a weighty question ; whether the whole chylus in its passage through the heart , loses altogether the form of chylus , and assumes the form of blood in such a manner , as that no part of it remains chylus ? this doubt was started by gualter needham , who says , that the chylus dilated in the heart , remains a considerable part of it actually chylus , and that it circulates through the whole body , being mix'd with the blood ; and is again separated from the blood in several parts for private uses , especially in the amnion and breasts . xvii . this opinion of his , he proves from hence , for that frequently crude and indigested chylus has been drawn from the arms ●…of such as have been let blood. the same opinion also , the observances of other physitians seem strongly to confirm ; of which bauschius has collected several in his germanic ephemerides . . of a girl , afflicted with a continual fever , whose blood , at three several blood-lettings , appear'd milky . . of a sick patient , out of all whose veins , when open'd , there always issu'd forth white blood. . of a certain virgin , who , upon a suppression of her courses , after she had eaten her breakfast about seven a clock , was let blood at eleven , and the blood that came from her , was purely white ; and being warm'd upon the fire , harden'd like the white of an egg. . of an apothecary of cambray , who , being prick'd in the arm , the blood look'd red , as it came forth ; but was white in the porringer . . of a certain person troubl'd with the itch. . of a woman that gave suck , that lay ill of a malignant fever . . of a woman with child , sick of a fever . . of another woman with child : and , . of a maid that was troubl'd with a suppression of her courses ; from all which persons , upon their being let blood , there flow'd a white liquor together with the blood. and regner de graef mentions two stories of white blood seen by himself . xviii . but though such a long series of observations seems to confirm needham's opinion , yet because those examples are quite from the matter , it is impossible they should be able to support it : for all those cases concern unhealthy bodies only , from whom a whitish matter issu'd forth together with the blood. concerning which matter , there has been a sharp dispute between the physicians to those patients , whether it is to be call'd flegm or chylus ; whether milk or matter ; and many uncertain conjectures have been made about it . when as it is well known by daily practice , that by reason of some certain infection of the blood , proceeding from the bad concoctions of the diseased bowels , many times upon opening a vein , the blood will look sometimes whitish or yellowish , and sometimes of another colour . moreover , if any thing of a chylus should be mix'd with it , and circulate with it , then would it sometimes be seen to flow out with the blood upon opening a vein ; which was never yet seen by any person . and in my own practice , i have order'd innumerable persons , both men and women , some with child , and others that have given suck , to be let blood , but never could observe the least drop of chylus in the blood that has been drawn forth . neither did any of those eminent physicians , with whom i discours'd this point , ever see the same . neither can any man produce an example of a man sound in health , out of whose veins , being open'd , chyle ever flow'd with the blood , or was ever separated from it . perhaps it may be objected , that reason shews us , and experience confirms it , that in big-belly'd women , and such as give suck , if they are in perfect health , the chylus is separated from the blood , and pour'd forth into the breasts of the one , and into the amnion of the other ; which could not flow thither , but out of the sanguiferous vessels carry'd toward those parts . to which i answer , that the chylus , that is carry'd to the breasts and amnion , as also that which flows through the womb and bladder , was never infus'd into blood-bearing vessels , or mix'd with the blood , and so neither can be carry'd through the one , nor separated from the other ; but flows to those parts through other quite different conceal'd parts ; of which passages , we have sufficiently discours'd , l. . c. . & . & c. . of this book . besides all which , reason is altogether repugnant to this opinion . for when the aliments and alimentary humors lose their first forms , by reason of the concoction of the bowels , and assume another form , the same thing cannot but happen to the chylus concocted in the heart . for example ; an apple being eaten , and concocted in the stomach , is altogether depriv'd of its form , and is made into chylus , which is no more an apple , and of which no particles can be again reduc'd to the form of an apple . so the chylus being dilated in the heart , cannot but by its strong and sudden effervescency , presently lose all its form of chyle , and receive the form of blood ; which , though it be rawer at the beginning , than the rest of the blood , frequently circulated and dilated in the heart , yet is it blood , wherein there is not the least form of chylus remaining . but some will say , that crudity presupposes that some particles of that chylus are not altogether chang'd into blood , but still retain the form of chylus , and are so mix'd with the blood. i deny it , for that is not call'd crude blood , wherein all the particles of the chylus are not sanguify'd ; but that which is not reduc'd to a just spirituosity and maturity . and hence the blood which is made first of all out of the chylus dilated in the heart , though it be cruder , yet it is not a chylous and flegmy part of the blood : wherein there are no particles of the chylus remaining , only it wants as yet a just spirituosity in some measure . in like manner , as the seed , which is made of the blood , becomes to be crude and unfruitful in old men , not that there are any particles of blood in it , that are not as yet chang'd into seed ; but because that seed , by reason of the weakness of the spermatic parts , is not yet reduc'd to a just spirituosity and maturity . for no man , how quick-sighted soever , observ'd any particles of blood in crude seed , much less shall be able to separate any blood from it . thus an unripe apple is call'd crude , not that any earthy or arboreous particles are conspicuous in it , or any way separable from it ; but because the spirit latent therein , is not yet reduc'd to such a thinness and maturity , as to put forth it self ; which maturity it afterwards acquires by the heat of the sun , and thence a farther concoction . however , seeing that the serum , choler , and sometimes other corrupt humors contain'd in the vessels , passing through the heart together with the blood , frequently retain their own form , and remain what they were before , why may not the same thing befal the chylus ? because the chylus is an alimentary juice , grateful to nature , by previous concoctions , and mixture with the lymphatic fermentaceous juice , in such a manner , and to that end prepar'd and made fit , that it may be presently dilated in the heart , and be turn'd into blood , no way able , being once dilated in the heart , to retain the form of blood. as gunpowder is dilated of a sudden by the fire , and loses its form. but it is otherwise with the serum , choler , and other corrupt humors mix'd with the blood , which are neither prepar'd after a convenient manner , nor to the same end , but unfit to make blood , though passing with the heart through the blood ; and hence it is , that they remain what they were before . like a clod of earth impregnated with oil , and so thrown into the fire , retains the form of earth ; because its substance is not so easily depriv'd of its form by the fire ; though the oil , with which it is impregnated , being dilated and kindl'd by the fire , loses the form of oil in such a manner , that not a drop of it remains , nor can it ever be reduc'd to the form of oil. xix . it is therefore another question , whether if not always , and a considerable quantity , yet sometimes , and a small quantity of meer chylus may not be mix'd with the blood ? this we altogether deny of arterious blood , but not always of the veiny blood ; for that sometimes there is a milky and chylous juice in the hollow vein , as well infus'd out of the milky pectoral , into the subclavial veins , as in women that give suck , carry'd through the mammary veins , to the hollow vein it self . perhaps it may so happen , that by reason of some mixture , the colour of the blood may be alter'd from red to white ; as oil of vitriol and aqua-fortis change the red colour of cloth into white , but then that which appears white in the blood , is not chylus , but rather some blood which is corrupted : like that which sometimes in a certain cacoch●… o●… the body , and in some malignant diseases , appear'd dy'd of a whitish colour . of which bauschius gives us an example of a priest that lay sick of a malignant fever , who , being three times let blood , every time his blood appear'd white ; having an ulcery substance , like the white of an egg. i shall add another remarkable example , seen by my self at nimmeghen ; where , at that time , the pestilential fevers were very ri●…e . in this distemper , if the patients were let blood the two first days , they bled very well , and very good blood ; but they that were let blood after the sixth o●… seventh day , their blod came forth generally whitish , and yet for want of appetite , they had hardly eat or drank in all that time ; for the fever perplex'd the patients more with its malignity and extraordinary anxiety , than with its heat and drought . thus , in many sick people , who , by reason of long fasting , little chylus happens to be in the stomach ; and besides , what they do take , soon corrupts , by reason of some ill habit of concoction ; and in some crazy people , in whom , by reason of vicious concoctions , ill humors increase in the body , i have seen a whitish film swimming upon the blood , when it has been cold ; but quite different from chylus ; which doubtless deceiv'd needham , and others , maintaining their opinion . but as to what needham adds in confirmation of his error , that the chylus may be separated from the blood by art , and that by strewing upon it a certain powder , i very much suspect the truth of it , especially since he produces his experiment from the far-fetch'd relation of another person unknown to him ; from whom , as he says , one schneiderus had it by report . but i , that am not to be seduc'd by these little histories , do say this , that i will undertake to change the red colour of the blood into white and milky , by infusion of a certain liquor ; but thence it does not follow , that i am therefore able to separate by that means the chylus from the blood ; but rather , that i corrupt the good mixture of the blood. but omitting these trifles , let us return to the business . xx. from that concoction and dilatation , which happens in the heart , the blood acquires a redness , to which the heart is not at all contributary , as many think , because of its redness ; but by accident is caus'd by that concoction which is made in the heart : by which the salt and sub-acid particles , now more exactly mix'd with the sulphury , in a short time produce that colour from themselves . for chymistry teaches us , that by the exact mixture of salt , and especially of acid particles , with sulphury , a red colour is produc'd , as appears by the distillation of salt-peter , that contains in it many sulphury particles . so never so little oil of vitriol , being mix'd with liquors or syrups of a pale red , become of a deep red colour , if there be any thing of sulphur in those liquors . now these salt and sulphury particles are carry'd with the chylus it self , in which nevertheless they do not beget a red colour , because the salt particles do not as yet seem to have attain'd to any degree of acidity , and hence are not sufficiently attenuated and mix'd with the sulphury ; but being as yet both crude , and too much incumber'd in the viscous particles , lie hid , out of which , they are at length set at liberty , and grow spirituous , by the singular heat and fermentation of the heart : and then being equally mix'd in spirituosity , and concurring with equal vigor and force , they produce that red colour . and 't is known in chymistry , that sulphury spirits rise with a smaller heat ; salt , not without a brisker fire ; and so it happens in the concoctions of the bowels . by the concoction of the stomach , and the fermentation rais'd by the choleric and pancreatic juice , the sulphury particles are moderately dissolv'd and separated from the aliments , and then enclos'd within the salt particles , which cannot be brought to such a perfect dissolution by so soft a heat , which prevents the dissipation of the sulphury particles , by reason of their extraordinary volatility . now the salt particles , by their mixture with the sulphury , by degrees becoming more dissolv'd , and turn'd sub-acid , at length attenuated by the intense fermentaceous heat of the heart , burst forth more spirituous ; and then being exactly mix'd with the sulphury particles , with which they are dilated , become exactly red : but if the heart afflicted with any malignant distemper , has not a fermentative power , so vigorous , as sufficiently to attenuate , dilate and unite the salt with the sulphury particles , then the blood is not altogether so red ; but several pale humors are found to be mix'd with it , as is seen upon blood-letting in malignant fevers ; which are no part of the chylus , but only corrupt humors . xxi . this is the true manner of making the blood which serves for the nourishment of all the parts ; and contains in it self matter adapted for the nourishment of all and singular the parts ; out of which that is appropriated to every one , which is most convenient for their nourishment ; to some particles more concocted and subtile ; to others , less concocted and thicker ; to others , particles equally mix'd of salt and sulphur , as in fat bodies ; to others , more salt and tartarous , as in sinewey and boney people ; and to others particles are united and assimilated ; some disposed one way , some another . xxii . this apposition proceeds chiefly from the diversity of figures , which , as well the particular particles of the blood , as the pores of the several paris obtain . for hence it happens , that the blood being forc'd into the parts , some particles more easily enter some sort of pores , and others , another sort ; and are figur'd one among another after various shapes and forms ; and so are immediately united with the substance of the parts , and are converted into their nature ; and those which are not proper for such a figure , are carry'd to other parts ; till the remaining and improper portion is again transmitted back to the heart , there to be concocted anew , and endu'd with another more proper aptitude . it is vulgarly said , that the several parts attract from the blood , and unite the particles most similar to themselves . but there is no such attraction allow'd in our bodies ; neither are the parts endu'd with any knowledge to distinguish between particles similar or dissimilar . but the blood , such as it is , is equally forc'd to all the parts , but the diversity of figures , as well in the several particles of the blood , as in the pores of the parts , is the reason that some particles stick , and are united to these , and others to other parts ; to these , after one manner ; to those , after another . from which diversity , the diversity of substances arises , some softer , some harder , some stronger , and some weaker . xxiii . this nutrition by the blood , is caus'd two manner of ways . . immediately , when the particles of the blood are immediately oppos'd , without any other previous or remarkable alteration ; as is to be seen in the fleshy and fat parts . . mediately , when apposition happens , after some remarkable concoction or alteration preceding ; as in the bones , to whose nourishment , besides the salt tartareous particles of the blood , there concurs the marrow , made before out of the blood ; as also in the sinews , which are not nourished only by the blood , communicated to their outward tunicle , through invisible little arteries , from the continuation of those arteries that pass through both membranes of the brain and spinal marrow ; but also by the salter sanguineous particles , first prepar'd by the concoction of the brain . xxiv . but in this nutrition from the blood , three degrees are to be observ'd . . when the body is so nourish'd , as to grow by that nourishment . . when it is nourish'd , and remains in the same condition . . when it is nourish'd and decays . xxv . now that the cause of this diversity may be more plainly known , we are to consider , that there are four things necessary to perfect nutrition . . the alimentary juice it self . . the apposition of this juice . . then its agglutination . . and lastly , its assimilation . the alimentary juice is the blood , which is forc'd by the beating of the heart , through the smallest arteries , to the parts that are to be nourish'd , and is thrust forward into their pores ; by which means the substance of the parts does as it were , drink it in . and because in these pores , something of humor , tending toward assimilation , remains over and above , hence it comes to pass , that the convenient particles of the new-come blood , more agreeable to that humor , are mingl'd with that humor sticking there before , and being there concocted by the convenient heat and proper temper of the parts , are by degrees agglutinated , and more & more assimilated to the substance of the parts , and are so prepar'd and dispos'd by the vital spirit continually flowing into the parts , together with the arterious blood , that they acquire vitality , and become true particles of the parts , endu'd with life and soul , equally to the rest . xxvi . if now , while that nutrition is made , the smaller particles of the parts , by reason of their moister temperament , or cooler heat stick but softly to each other , then upon their first apposition , by reason of the great plenty of alimentary humor flowing in by the impulse of the heart , they easily separate from each other , and admit more nutritive humor than is requisite to their nutrition ; from the plenty of which , being agglutinated and assimilated , happens the growth of the parts by degrees , because more is appos'd and agglutinated than is wasted . but when by the increase of heat , the smaller particles are dry'd up , and become hard and firm , as in manhood , then they no longer separate one from another , by reason of the alimentary juice forc'd in , and the juice that is pour'd into the pores in great quantity , is vigorously discuss'd by the more violent and stronger heat , that no more can be appos'd and assimilated than is dissipated ; whence there follows a stay of growth ; wherein the substance of the parts will admit no excess or diminution of quantity . lastly , those smaller particles of the parts , are not only dry'd up by that same stronger heat , and the pores are streightn'd so as to admit less alimentary juice ; but the alimentary juice it self , by reason of the heat dimimish'd by time and age , and consequently a worse concoction of the bowels , grows weaker , and less agreeable to the substance of the part it self ; and then , as in old age , the parts themselves decrease and diminish : for the unaptness of the pores in the parts , and of the nutritive juice it self , as also of the concocting heat , and the small quantity of the said juice , are the reason that less is appos'd than is dissipated ▪ now ●…his decrease is chiefly and most manifestly observ'd in the softer parts , whose smallest particles are moister , and more easily dissipated , as the flesh , the fat , &c. but it is less observable in the bones , and other harder parts , whose smallest particles are more fix'd , and not so easily dissipated . xxvii . here , by way of parenthesis , a question may be propos'd ; whether old men grow shorter than they were in their prime ? this many affirm , and confirm by ocular testimony . spigelius absolutely denies it : for , says he , that they grow shorter , i deny ; but that they grow leaner , i grant . for the bones , according to which the length of the body is extended , being hard and solid bodies , are neither diminish'd by age , nor the force of any disease : but the flesh is wasted and consumed , as well by age , as by many other causes : so that if they seem to be shorter than young men it proceeds from hence , because that all their ioynts are bow'd , as well by muscles shrunk for want of heat , as by the ligaments dry'd up , and cover'd with brawn . but though spigelius brings these reasons for his negative opinion , yet the affirmative seems the more plausible ; seeing that decrepit old men , not only by reason of the bowing of their joynts and body , seem shorter , but because of necessity they must be somewhat , though not much shorter , by reason of the gristles between the vertebrae of the back-bone , and the joynts of the thighs , and other parts ; which being softer and more tumid in young men , and consequently separate the bones more at a distance one from the other , of necessity must extend the body somewhat more in length ; but in old men , waxing drier and thinner by degrees , must of necessity , for the same reason , shorten the body : to which we add , that the ligaments of the joynts , being dry'd up , contract the joynts closer one to another . and this is apparent in such old men , who being stronger , walk still upright ; for if they measure with the same measure wherewith they measur'd themselves in their youth , you shall find 'em to want the breadth , some , of a thumb , some , of half a thumb , others , of two thumbs of their height in their youthful days : which we have known true by experience . xxviii . from what has been already said concerning the making and principles of the blood , two obscure and doubtful matters are brought to light. first , that there are four humors in the blood , flegm , pure blood , choler and melancholy . secondly , whence proceed the temperatures of bodies . xxix . flegm is that part of the blood , which being first made out of the blood , and not much circulated or dilated in the heart , becomes more crude , and less spirituous . xxx . pure blood is that part of the sanguineous mass , which being several times circulated and dilated in the heart , attains to moderate spirituosity . xxxi . choler is that part of it , which by frequent circulations and dilatations is exalted to a more extraordinary thinness , and becomes most spirituous and boyling hot . xxxii . melancholy is that part , out of which , by several circulations and attenuations made in the heart , the spirituous particles are for the most part drawm out and wasted , and hence the blood becomes colder , thicker , and more earthy . here by the way take notice , that we do not mean by flegm , choler and melancholy , the fermentaceous humors which are bred in the stomach , liver and spleen , as if the mass of blood consisted of those humors being mix'd together ; only that these names are comparatively apply'd to the blood , as the parts of it are more or less , or overmuch concocted . xxxiii . but in regard , that because of the continual waste and consumption of lost spirits , there must be a reparation of new ones , by means of fresh nourishment , hence it follows , that these four humors are necessarily in the blood , and that the blood should consist of them . for out of the aliments sufficiently prepar'd , and first dilated in the heart , there comes a flegmatic juice , which by degrees , by means of several circulations and dilatations in the heart , turns into pure and excellently well tempe'd blood but proceeding farther , above its just temper of heat , turns into choleric blood : and having lost its m●…re subtile particles , turns into melancholy . and thus all these four juices , which consist all of salt and sulphu●…y particles , nor differ one from another , ●…ut only in their stronger or weaker concoction and spirituosity , are mix'd together , and so by a certain perpetuation of qualities , the excesses inspringing one upon another , as long as a man lives , they constitute the whole mass of his blood , united and render'd fluid by means of the serum . which serum , especially its watery part , is not assimilated to the parts that are to be nourish'd ; but to them conveys the nourishing particles of the blood , and by them , when once apposited and assimilated , is evacuated and discuss'd by means of their heat . thus in the gilding of metals , the finest gold is beaten into thin leaves , and mingl'd with quick-silver , to make the gold stick on , which could not be done without the mercury : afterwards , the vessel being gilded , and brought to the fire , the heat of the fire discusses , and sends the mercury packing , while the gold sticks close to the vessel on which it was laid ; such a sort of mercury is the serum in living bodies , conveying and apposing the blood to the several parts . xxxiv . as to the temperatures of our bodies , they proceed from the various mixture and redundancy of the four foremention'd iuices . xxxv . if the chylus be made of cold and moist iuices , wherein there is little subtile spirit , or else sent out crude from the stomach , or not sufficiently dissolv'd for want of convenient ferment , such a chylus produces a flegmatic sanguineous iuice , which though frequently circulated and dilated in the heart , yet cannot be exalted by the heart to a sufficient spirituosity ; and hence there is a greater quantity of that , and a lesser quantity of the rest of the iuices ; and because the whole body then is nourish'd with a flegmatic sort of blood , thence the constitution of the parts is more moist and cold , and so there is a flegmatic temperature of the body . xxxvi . if the chylus be well temper'd , well concocted , and made out of well temper'd nourishment , or so made by a good concoction of the bowels , then happens a redundancy of that blood , and consequently a sanguine complexion , and a good temper of body . xxxvii . if the chylus be made of nourishments hot and sharp , or sharply fermented through the more intense heat of the bowels , then after a few circulations , it turns to a very hot and spirituous iuice ; which predominating , begets a choleric temper . xxxviii . if the chylus be made of thick earthy nourishments , abounding with much crude and fix'd salt , and those not well concocted and dissolv'd ; then few spirits are extracted out of it , by the circulations and dilatations made in the heart , and there remains only a thick iuice , without much spirit ; whence proceeds a melancholic temper . now the vast excesses of these temperatures , are call'd distempers , and breed several diseases , hot , cold , &c. xxxix . after this description of the principles , and manner of making the blood and vital spirits , before we come to their use , let us say something of their vitality ; about which , philophers so much dispute , and physicians dis●…ent . while the one in defence of vitality , say , . that the blood and spirits variously move themselves according to the diversity of the motions of the mind and imagination ; in ●…ear , toward the heart ; in shame , toward the cheeks ; in lust , toward the genitals . . the holy scripture says , that the soul of the flesh remains in the blood. . that the seed being potentially animated , is made out of blood and spirits . . because they are nourish'd , as hippocrates witnesses ; which could never be , if they did not live . however ▪ they who deny the blood and spirits life , seem in our judgment to be most in the right . . because the blood and spirits have not within themselves the principle of their own motion , as bequeath'd to them from the soul ; but because they have their motion by force of the solid parts , which are mov'd by the soul , as the heart , brain , &c. by the force of which , and that often according to the diversity of the motions of the mind , the motion of the chylus , choler , and sometimes of the excrements , and various other humors , is promoted and excited , which no man however in his wits , will affirm to be living . . that the soul of the flesh is said to be in the blood , so far as animated or enliven'd flesh wants blood , nay and air too , as the next support , without which his life cannot subsist . to the third , that seed potentially enliven'd , and living , is not generated out of the blood and spirits , because the spirituous blood , out of which it is made , is living , but by reason that by a new specific mixture , and disposition of the sanguineous mixture , brought to perfection by the heat and specific property of the seminifying parts , a new and potentially vital form is introduc'd , which was not before in the matter not vital : as we see dead bodies , rotten wood : cheese , rain-water , and vinegar long expos'd to the heat of the sun , will produce worms alive , whereas there is no life in any of these things . to the fourth , that hippocrates does not ascribe nourishment , properly so call'd , to the blood and spirits , but only their continual generation and supply out of the chylus . as we say the flame of a lamp is nourish'd with oil , because the oil is the next matter with which the flame is nourish'd . to these i add , that in an animal , life cannot be but in the parts of the body ; out of which number , that the blood and spirits are manifestly excluded , we have sufficiently demonstrated , l. . c. . here some one will urge , that the seed is no part of the body , and yet it lives potentially , and therefore why not the blood ? i answer , that though the seed is a part of the body , as of peter , being present ; from whom it was cut off , and still perhaps remains in his spermatic vessels ; nevertheless it is only part of the body of a future animal which is to live ; even such a matter , as contains in it self the ideas of all the parts of the animal that is to be form'd . but the blood cannot be said to be a part of peter , or the living creature , but only a humor or juice next nourishing the parts , and to be agglutinated and assimilated to the substance by new concoction , and so to be enliven'd with it at the same time . xl. from what has been said , the use of the blood appears to be for the nourishment of all the parts ; that is , not only to afford matter to be assimilated to every part ; but to convey a hot vital spirit , which excites the actions and concoctions of all and singular the parts , and to cause the fit matter for assimilation to be assimilated , and supply'd in the room of that which is wasted and dissipated by the heat . xli . but seeing the blood is carry'd as well through the arteries , as veins , the question is , whether the parts are nourish'd by veiny or arterious blood ? anciently it was believ'd that the parts were nourish'd by the veiney blood , because the blood was thought to be made in the liver , and thence to be carry'd through the veins to the parts . which error being discover'd by the circulation of the blood , since which time , it has been observ'd , that the blood is made only in the heart , and from thence forc'd through the arteries to the parts , and only carry'd back from the parts through the veins ; thence it has been apparently made clear , that the body of man is nourish'd chiefly by arterious blood. i say ( chiefly ) because though it cannot be deny'd , while the blood returns through the veins to the heart , but that some small part of it sweating through the pores of the vessels or tunicles , are fix'd up and down to various parts , and nourish them ; and that the tunicles of the veins themselves are nourish'd by the blood which they carry ; and that the greatest part of the liver receives its nourishment from the veiny blood , as is apparent from the vast number of veins , and small quantity of arteries that creep through it ; yet in some other places , where the arteries accompany the veins , it is manifest , that the parts are chiefly nourish'd by arterious blood , being more spirituous and concocted , and with greater violence forc'd through the ends of the small arteries into the pores of the parts . xlii . this ancient opinion , receiv'd by all the physicians in the schools , about the nourishment of the parts by the blood , has gualter charleton oppos'd with great heat , and endeavors to destroy it with most strenuous arguments , as he believes , by shewing the unaptness of the blood for nutrition . the sum of all his arguments are these : . the blood consists of four juices ; which , by farther concoction degenerate all into melancholy ; with which impure juice all the parts cannot be nourish'd ; yet all would be nourish'd with it , were they nourish'd by the blood. . the blood never comes to many parts , as the brain , the bones , the sinews , the ligaments , &c. . lean men , who have most blood , eat most , and are less nourish'd than fat people , who have nevertheless less blood , whose veins are narrower , and their diet more sparing . . they that die famish'd , or of a consumption , have a great quantity of blood remaining in their veins after their decease , which therefore might have serv'd for farther nourishment , and have prevented their death . . the blood in all parts preserves its redness , neither does it lose its colour in those parts that encline to white ; therefore it does not nourish them . . hippocrates cur'd a consumptive person ( whom victuals did no good ) by frequent blood-letting . . the blood is carry'd through the arteries to the parts , is mix'd therein with a copious serum , and is there much less fat and oily , than in the veins , through which it is carry'd back from the parts . . the blood is of a quite different nature from many parts of the body , as the brain , bones , membranes , &c. . the manner of nutrition is the progress of the nourishment from a state of crudity or fixation , to a state of fusion , by which its spirits before fix'd , are exalted to a farther degree of activity ; which spirits adhering to the blood , and like a glutton , devouring , dissolving and dissipating the nutritive substance of the parts , render it unfit for the nourishment of the parts , for the consolidating of which , a more fix'd nourishment is requir'd . . the blood it self is nourish'd by the chylus , therefore it cannot nourish other parts ; because moreover there is contain'd in it a heat that preys upon the substance of the parts . . all the several parts ought to be nourish'd with a certain juice of the same nature with that out of which they were first form'd ; but that is not the blood , but the colliquation of the seed ; and therefore their growth and nourishment cannot proceed from the seed . all which being thus concluded , charleton at last produces a similitude between the flame of a lamp , and that fermentaceous flame which is rais'd in the heart ; and thence concludes the use of the blood to be the food of the lamp of the flame of life , and the next matter for the generation of the spirits . to the first , that charleton greatly mistakes , while he presupposes that all the parts must be nourish'd with impure melan holy , if they were nourish'd by the blood. for it has been shew'd already , that the nourishment must be various , according to the various nature of the parts , while some are nourish'd with a cruder , others a more temperate , others with a hotter and thicker part of the blood , and all those parts are always in the blood , and if there be an excess of the one or the other , then there happens either an atrophy or a cachexy . besides , he does not consider , that the melancholic part of the blood is not call'd an impure juice , but only a thicker juice , and which upon the dissipation of the more spirituous part , is not easily exalted again to a farther spirituosity , by reason of the weakness of the bowels that concoct and prepare the ferments . which bowels , if they happen to be restor'd to their former soundness by proper remedies , then the blood is reduc'd to a just spirituosity , and in that manner the hypochondriacal affection , the scurvey , and other melancholic diseases are cur'd , by remedies corroborating the bowels , dissolving the fixedness of the humors , and subliming them to spirituosity . lastly , he does not consider , that there are several parts that require this same thicker parts of the blood for their nourishment . to the second , i say , that there are no parts to which the blood does not come in the middle of the substance of the brain , innumerable bloody spots are to be seen budding forth . the sinews admit blood , which flows to them ; through the continuation of the vessels creeping through the membranes of the brain . through the bones pass arteries and veins to the innermost spungy substance , and to the marrow ; and their periostia are wash'd on the outside every way by the blood. to the third , i say , that as for lean men , though they abound with blood , yet the bulk of their bodies does not increase so much by reason of the violent and sharp heat of the blood. for the violent heat quickly dissipates whatever is assimilated , contrary to what befals fat men , who have less heat and acrimony in their blood , and therefore out of their less quantity there is more appos'd than dissipated . to the fourth , i answer , men may be starv'd two ways to death . first , when the body is full of evil iuice , and a great quantity of vitiated blood abounds in the vessels . for in such there is a necessity , that the heart should be frequently supply'd with new and good juices to comfort and cherish i●… ; so that it famine be not the occasion of death , yet the blood becoming more hot , more sharp , or some other way more corrupt , the ●…eart must be overwhelm'd with bad humors , though there be store of blood remaining in the vessels ; for it is not quantity alone , but good quality that is requir'd for the support of life . secondly , because that , as well in sound , as deprav'd constitutions of body , the blood is wasted by long famine ; for though those that die famish'd , have much blood remaining in their vessels , yet it seems to be too little to suffice for the nourishment of all the parts , and hence all the parts and bowels being weaken'd , death ensues . to this purpose , in novemb. . upon the dissection of a person that had starv'd himself to death , i could discover in him no mesaraic , intercostal , or other lesser veins , because they were quite empty'd , so that there were hardly three spoonfuls of blood in the hollow vein , and the great artery was altogether empty'd . in novemb. . we dissected another person , who by reason of a long want of appetite , had wasted himself to death ; in whom we found the veins and arteries exhausted after a wonderful manner , so that there were hardly two spoonfuls in the hollow vein , and nothing at all in the aorta . to the fifth , i affirm it to be an untruth , that the blood does not lose its redness in the nourishment of parts inclining to white : for the contrary appears in the brain ; which , that it is nourish'd by the blood passing through its pores , the innumerable bloody spots , every where conspicuous in a dissected skull , do shew ; and yet the brain is white . moreover , i say , that the red colour is easily perpetuated by the specific concoction of the heart in the circulating blood ; because the sulphury particles readily concur with the salt , and mixt with spirituosity , are as easily united : but in the blood that already stops in the parts for nutrition , that colour is easily chang'd again by another specific concoction of the parts inclining to white ; when the greatest part of the sulphury particles are again separated from the salt , or mingl'd after another manner . lastly , i add , that in the blood , besides the red particles , there are many white , and other particles of various colours , which the intense redness does so conceal , that they are not to be discover'd but in the separation of the particles of the blood. in the same manner as in red wine there lies hid a most limpid spirit , and a watery pellucid part , whose lympid colour , however , is not conspicuous in the wine , but presently appears upon distillation . to the sixth , i say , that the blood of some men is over-salt , sharp , thick , or corrupted , who therefore are not reliev'd by med'cines , unless nature be first reliev'd by letting out some considerable quantity of that blood , that she may be the better able to digest the new juices of nourishments , and convert 'em into purer blood , whereby the better to nourish the body in due manner ; and such , no question , was that person cur'd by hippocrates , with frequent blood-letting . to the seventh , i say , that there is not always and necessarily requir'd an unctuosity of blood for the nutrition of all parts whatever ; but such an aptitude as agrees with all and every the parts ; which aptitude does not consist in unctuosity alone , as is before said . to the eighth , i answer , that the blood consider'd in the whole , seems indeed dissimilar from many parts of the body ; but consider'd in its particles , contains in it self what is like to every part , there being no parts which are not compos'd of salt and sulphur , by the assistance of mercury , variously mix'd , according to the nature of the several parts ; which salt and sulphur are likewise the principles of the blood. moreover , similitude does not lie in the colour , which may be easily alter'd by any new concoction ; but in the particles that constitute the substance , as well of the parts , as of the blood. to the ninth , i say , that charleton confounds nutrition with sangnification , and that what he speaks here of nutrition , belongs to sanguification ; between which there is a great difference . for aliment is not sublim'd to a greater spirituosity , for the benefit of nutrition , but for the making of good blood ; which afterwards undergoes another change , for the procuring of nutrition ; which nutrition does not consist in a farther sublimation of the spirits , but rather in a certain new fixation . to which i farther add , that the vital spirits do not , like cormorants , consume the substance of the solid parts , but preserve it in its saneness , neither do they render the blood unfit for nutrition , but fit , and that those spirits infus'd into the parts with the blood , excite them to their functions , and as it were , force them to an assimilation with the nourishment brought ; which assimilation could never be brought to pass without the assistance of these spirits . now how the spirituous nourishment is again fix'd , see l. . c. . to the tenth , i say , it is no fair consequence ; the blood is nourish'd by the chylus , therefore it cannot nourish other parts . for so it would follow , wheat is nourish'd by the iuice of the earth , therefore being eaten , ot cannot nourish the chylus . so also i say of heat ; wine , wheat , and other nourishments contain in themselves a hot spirit ; therefore they cannot be chang'd into chylus and blood , why ? because a hot spirit uses to pr●…y upon the fluid parts . what vain conclusions these are ! by reason of the spirituous heat of the blood , without which the blood is altogether unprofitable for nutrition , it is said that it cannot nourish the parts ; shall therefore any cold body , or humor void of all heat , be nourishment , or profitable for nourishment ? to the eleventh , i say , that here charleton altogether forgot himself : for before , out of harvey , he had asserted , that the blood was allow'd to be , before any other part of the body appear'd ; and that out of that proceeded the matter of which the birth was form'd , and its nourishment . if this position of his were true , where 's the difficulty , but that the parts which are made out of the blood , should be nourish'd with the blood ? moreover , if the colliquation of the seed , be like the parts that are to be nourish'd , and that again like to the blood , then shall the blood be like the parts that are to be nourish'd ? nevertheless , we that do not believe the parts to be fram'd out of the blood , give this answer to his proposition , that the parts are at first form'd out of the spirituous liquor of the bubble , and nourish'd with the colliquation of the seed ; but that the whole substance of this seed is taken out of the arterious blood , flowing through the spermatic arteries to the stones , to which also the animal spirits are also sent through several little nerves , therefore the whole matter of the seed , bubble and colliquament is in the blood , and being concocted specially in the several parts , acquires no less an aptiude to nourish the several parts , than being generally concocted in the stones , it obtains an aptness generally to form at first all those parts ; and so we must conclude , that all the parts have their first conformation , and their subsequent growth and nutrition , from a juice altogether similar , which is prepar'd before the one in the stones , before the other , in the several parts ; and so the ancient axiom is true ; we are nourish'd with the same things of which we consist . and that other oracle of aristotle ; the matter is the same which augments the growth of a creature , with that out of which it was first form'd . lastly , i answer to the conclusion , that the comparison was ill made between the fermentation in the heart , and the flame of a lamp : which comparison is easily endur'd among poets and orators , who only mind ornament and elegancy of words ; but not among philosophers , that are enquiring after the mysteries of nature . for flame does not only dissipate the subject to which it adheres , but also destroys it , and dissolves the whole mixture of it , and renders it useless ; but the fermentation of the heart does not destroy the blood , nor utterly dissolve its mixture , but by means of the dilatation of the whole mass , renders it more exact and strong , and so brings the blood to a greater perfection , and generates spirits therein ; which as they are thin , hot and pure , entring the whole mass of the blood , preserve it in its perfection , and together with the blood , which is their own subject , of which they are a part , being infus'd into the parts of the body , by their extraordinary heat , raise into act the drowsie heat of all the parts . true it is , that those spirits , by reason of their extraordinary subtility and mobility , continually exhale in great quantity , and by dissolving them with their heat , cause a dissolution of many fluid particles of the body ; but this is not because of any destruction , but by reason of their extraordinary subtility . i will give you a similitude . wine , when it is distill'd , the spirit of wine arising out of it , is not destroy'd by the heat of the fire that promotes the distillation , but is sublim'd to a greater subtility and perfection , there remaining all the while in it the sulphury and salt particles in a strict union ; the most part of whose subtility therefore exhales , and is dissipated in the air. but the contrary happens in the oil of a lamp , which is indeed attenuated , but so far from being brought to a greater perfection , that it is totally destroy'd : for the oil is not made the better , or more spirituous , but the whole composition of it is destroy'd ; neither does it remain any longer oil , nor is made spirit of oil : like wood , when it is burnt , is thereby reduc'd to smoke and ashes . or if the spirit of wine should take fire , it would not thereby be made more perfect , but wholly destroy'd . and thus it is with our bodies as in distillation , and not as in the flame : and therefore the comparison of fermentation with flame , is altogether absurd . i confess , blood is the matter and subject of the animal spirits ; but thence it does not follow , that it cannot nourish all the parts of the body : rather we are thence to infer , that it nourishes all the parts , seeing it contains the nutritive matter , and the vital spirit that promotes that nourishment . and thus falls this new opinion , so obstinately by some defended , and by others as unwarily embrac'd . xliii . n. zas , in his dutch treatise , of the dew of animals , believes , that the lymphatic liquor only nourishes the spermatic parts ; for this is that which he understands by his dew : of which judgment also is clemens niloe . which latter likewise writes , that the blood is altogether unfit to nourish the parts . . because it is of an earthy substance . . because neither the blood nor the chylus out of which it is generated in distillation , are forc'd upward into the alembic , into which only a watery liquor falls ; and therefore the blood is not subtil enough to come to all the parts , and afford 'em nourishment . . because such a spirit as is extracted out of the blood by chymistry , is extracted also out of the lympha , which is collected out of the lymphatic circle , plac'd near the jugular veins . . because there are many parts to which the arteries and veins that convey the blood , cannot reach . this opinion of clemens niloe , differs from charleton's and glisson's in this , because they think nutrition to be perform'd by a certain juice flowing out of the nerves ; the other by the lymphatic juice . but niloe's arguments are of little moment . first , for that the blood is compos'd as well of thicker and serous , as of spirituous particles , which are both requisite for nutrition ; nor can one subsist or act without the other . the consequence of the second , is of no force ; because the spirituous and serous parts ascend through the alembic , but not the terrestrial ; for then it is apparent , that the blood nourishes the better for that reason : for if it were volatile and spirituous in all its particles , it would be too hastily dissipated , and could never be appos'd to the parts for nutrition . the third is altogether as invalid ; for he ought to have prov'd that spirit altogether similar , was extracted out of the blood and lympha , whereas there is a manifest difference to be observ'd in the acrimony . then grant that such a similar spirit be extracted out of both ; yet i affirm , that ten times as much spirit may be extracted out of one pint of blood , as out of two pints of lympha . then it is no wonder , that the spirit of blood should seem to have some likeness with the spirit of lympha : seeing that the lympha is continually mix'd with the blood , and becomes a part of it , and is again generated by it , and separated from it in the liver , glandules and other parts , therein to acqui●…e a new fermentaceous power , and returns with it into the veins , and so prepares the blood for dilatation and perfection in the heart , and then again becomes a part of it . can any man hence conclude , that only the preparing lympha , and not the prepar'd blood nourishes ? moreover , there is a subtile and sharp humor drawn out of urine ; nay frequently more subtile , or at least sharper than out of the blood : shall it thence be concluded , that not the blood , but the urine or serum of the blood nourishes the parts , as that which penetrates with the blood , no less to all the parts than the blood it self . the fourth is contrary to what we see with our eyes , seeing there is no part of the body , to which the blood does not come , as we have already demonstrated . and thus vanishes this new opinion ; and aristotle's maxim is restor'd , viz. blood is the last nourishment . to which opinion , as formerly , so now the whole school of physicians deservedly adheres . as for what charleton , following glisson , endeavors to perswade the world , that the nutritious humor is carry'd to the parts through the nerves only , that fiction we shall refute , l. . c. . xliv . from what has been said , are abundantly demonstrated the generation , nature and use of the blood in man ; now we shall add some particulars observ'd by the quick-sighted malpigius , which he has found out in the blood extracted out of the body by blood-letting , and cool'd in the air ; which gives not a little light to the more inward understanding the constitution of the blood. if you desire to see , says he , a remarkable sight , view this blood with a microscrope , and you shall behold a fibrous contexture , and a net , compos'd , as it were , of sinewy fibres , in whose little spaces , as in little cells , stands a ruddy matter , which being wrp'd away , leaves this whitish net-like folding behind ; which to the eye resembles a mucous or slimy membrane . now that this net-like portion of the blood , with the film swimming at the top , consists of the same matter and nature , perhaps a diligent exploration of the sanguineous film , will make out : for if the clotted blood , which is cover'd with a white and thick film , which , though it does not swell with a thicken'd serum , yet seems to be skinny , soft , and easily folded , be slit along , and several times wash'd ; you shall observe in the upper part of it a film consisting of whitish little skins , and hollow'd through with little passages , and diminutive bladders , which are full of transparent and less heavy iuice ; and prosecuting farther the production of this substance , by and by where the clotted bulk of the blood begins to look red , you shall sind it , being divided and slit downward , prolong'd into little fibres , and within their elegant contexture , shall observe several little passages and hollownesses , which swell and are dy'd with certain little red atoms knit together , and in some larger spaces , a yellowish serum is comprehended or mix'd with the red matter ▪ wherefore sense seems to intimate to us ; that this whitish and sanguineous net-like fold strengthens the body of the whole clotted matter , and endows it with a more able corporature , and that same division at the bottom , which shews us so many various images of things , depends upon the various colouring matter contain'd in the small hollownesses : for in the upper superficies , where those bloody whitish threds are united , there arises a whit●…sh and compacted tunicle , but where the pores are loos'd by degrees , it admits a portion of the yellowish lighter serum , and folloms a structure somewhat looser , and easily dissolv'd . at length , the passages being more open , while they swell with a red substance , presently that film vanishes , and then comes a contexture of fibrous blood , drawn out in length downward ; which because it contains those red atoms , compress'd by the force of the superior weight , it shews a new manner and colour of substance ; for there follows a flaccidness from the last productions of the fibres being lan●…'d ; and a black colour , the contain'd particles being thicken'd , which deceives many with a shew of melancholy ; whereas upon the changing the situation , they become purple . whence i thought to take notice of one thing by the way , that in the spaces of the film , as also in the whole circuit of the fibrous blood , sometimes in some diseases , the serum therein contain'd grows thick ; hence a pale colour , and that slimyness and manner of substance as in the gelly'd serum , or white of an egg. sometimes we have observ'd certain appendixes drawn out in length through the whole blood , to which are affix'd lesser folds , produc'd in the form of a net , which are sometimes discernable without a microscope . this blood being frequently wash'd with water , and the half congeal'd serum being wash'd of , which forms that conspicuous net , certain channels hollow'd in the fibrous and white portion of the blood appear , which does not happen in the small fibrous folds above-mention'd , though wash'd a long time , but still new folds , and a brisker whiteness appears . from this accurate observation of malpigius , is perfectly discover'd what is generated by the various concoctions of the several bowels out of the salt , sulphur and serum , concurring to the generation of the blood , and what little bodies are found out of 'em , of which rightly generated , mix'd and united , good blood is made , or deprav'd by a filthy or vicio●…s fermentation . xlv . and thus we have finish'd the whole discourse of the blood , only that some differences of it , remain to be consider'd . . in respect of quantity ; the blood is either very plentiful or scarce . and this difference is consider'd not only among divers sorts of animals , of which some have more , some less blood ; but also among men themselves ; among whom the quantity of blood is different according to the diversity of age , sex , temperament , diet , and season of the year , &c. . in respect of quality , the blood is either good or bad , hotter or colder , moister or drier ; and that difference is consider'd according to the varieties aforesaid , . in respect of consistency , the blood is either thick or thin , congeal'd or fluid . spigelius observes , that those people who have a hard and thick skin , breed a thicker sort of blood that easily congeals ; on the other side , where people have a soft thin skin , their blood does not so soon thicken . but experience teaches us , that the good or bad , swift or slow concretion of the blood proceeds from the various quality of the blood. so that it is moderately thick , and congeals well in sound people ; on the other side in dropsical , scorbutical , hypochondriacal , and other people , it is watery , and hard to thicken . . in respect of colour , the blood is either red and well colour'd , or pale , yellow , blackish , or dy'd of some other bad hue. . in respect of the humors mix'd with it , the blood is either full of choler , flegm , melancholy or serum . . in respect of the containing vessels , the blood is either arterious or veiny . chap. xiii . of the lungs and respiration . see tab. , & . i. the lungs ( in greek , 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 from 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , to breath ) is a bowel in the middle belly , serving for respiration , for the refrigeration of the blood forc'd from the left ventricle of the heart , and the expulsion of many vapors . ii. it is of a remarkable bigness ; so that being display'd and widen'd by the breathing in of the air , it fills the greatest part of the cavity of the breast . iii. several anatomists formerly ascrib'd to it , though erroneously , a fleshy substance , not unlike that of the heart or spleen ; but malpigius , an accurate examiner of the lungs , finds its substance to be quite different ; and by ocular experience and reasons , has clearly demonstrated , that the lungs consist of a soft , spungy , loose and bladdery parenchyma , interwoven with slight and thin small membranes , continuous to the inner tunicle of the rough artery , which membranes being extended and arch'd , form an infinite number of small orbicular and hollow vesicles , constituting the whole substance of the parenchyma , so plac'd , that there is a passage open from the rough artery , out of one part into the other , and at length all terminate in the cloathing or containing membrane . these vesicles in the lungs of an ox , sheep , or other animal , newly pluck'd out , and either cut or turn'd to the light , are conspicuous by the help of microscopes , and are observ'd to swell with air , especially about the outward superficies , though they are apparent enough in the inner parts upon blowing up of the lungs , and in every part dissected , appear form'd out of a slight membrane extended . how these cavities are dispos'd , malpigius declares in these words : after the little lobes , the spaces are to be observ'd ; not every way bare cavities , and empty spaces , for they have many extended membranes , sometimes parallel , sometimes angular , which are propagated not only from the external superficies of the lobes laterally plac'd , but also from the internal substance of the lobes . between these membranes run forth several vessels issuing out of the little lobes , which enter those that are opposite . by these membranes the air is receiv'd and ejected , as in the more spacious hollownesses , which have a mutual communion together , that the air may be compress'd out of one part into another ; so that the spaces are the same membranous vesicles of the lungs , diaphanous only and very thin . therefore all the vesicles are continuous with the inner tunicle of the aspera arteria , and gristles of the wind-pipe ; and hence there is an open passage out of the aspera arteria into the bronchia , or fistulous part of the wind-pipe , transmitting the air , that passes to and again . but whether the vesicles are so dispos'd , that the air may go in at one side , and out at the other ; or whether it comes and goes through the same passages ; or whether there be some that reserve the air for some time , as we see in frogs , the air may be reserv'd in the lungs , cannot be fully discern'd . however , that all the air breath'd in , is not presently breath'd forth again , but remains for the greatest part in the vessels , and winding-holes , which are never found empty , the lungs of dogs being open'd alive teach us ; in which , after expiration , there still remains very much air. also the lungs of people deceas'd , wherein is contain'd very much air , which may be squeez'd out with the finger . hence hippocrates calls the lungs the habtation of air ; and galen , the venitricle wherein the air inhabits . this air retain'd in the lungs , contributes to them an extraordinary softness and smoothness , which is chiefly necessary , lest the smallest blood-bearing vessels should be oppress'd with weight ; but that they may always remain passable ; and that the air within the right ventricle of the heart , being attenuated into a subtile vapour , cannot so descend to the left ventricle out of the lungs , passing , as it were , through the middle region of the air , may be condens'd , and so more quickly pass through the pulmonary vein to the left ventricle of the heart . iv. now that the substance of the lungs is bladdery , reason , besides common sight , instructs us ; for many times round , thick and stinking spittle , impostumous matter , little bladders , worms , little stones , and other preternatural things are generated in the lungs : of which accidents bauschius has collected several examples ; and we , in our practice have seen many strange things spit out of the lungs ; and found other things as strange in persons dissected , which certainly were not bred in the blood-bearing vessels , nor in the fistulous part of the pipe , which would have caus'd a suffocation , violent asthma , and perpetual cough , but of necessity had been bred in the vessels , and might , yea must have been contain'd there a long time . v. in the year . i dissected a stone-cutters boy that dy'd of an asthma , in whose lungs i found a great quantity of stone-dust suck'd in with the air , and stuffing almost all the vessels , insomuch that i seem'd to cut through a heap of sand ; so that the vesicles being fill'd with dust , could not admit the air , which was the occasion of the poor fellow's death . the next year , two like cases happen'd of stone-cutters that dy'd after the same manner , and were by me dissected in our hospital . at the same time , the master stone-cutter reported to us , that while the stones are cut , there flies into the air such a subtile powder from the stones , as was able to penetrate the pores of an oxe's bladder , that hung up blown and dry'd in his shop , so that about the end of the year , he found a handful of dust at the bottom of the bladder ; which powder was that which kill'd so many stone-cutters , that were not very careful how they preserv'd themselves from that dust. so that if such a quantity of dust penetrates by drawing in the breath into the vesicles of the lungs , there is no question but air runs through all those vesicles . we saw a third that dy'd of an asthma , who was wont to cleanse feathers for beds , whose lungs were stuff'd full of the dust that usually gathers among those feathers . vi. the said bladdery substance is cloath'd on the outside with a thin and porous membrane , which most physicians and anatomists believe to be deriv'd from the pleura : but i am of opinion , that it is deriv'd from the exterior tunicle of the vessels entring the parenchyma , and hence it is very dull of sense . the porosity of it easily appears , if the lungs be strongly blown up with a pair of bellows ; for by that means the pores are often dilated so wide , that they may be manifestly discern'd by the eye , though the air blown through them , does not go out again ; as appears from hence , for that the lungs being distended by the blowing in of the air , if you tie a convenient knot at the upper part near the aspera arteria , it retains the air till it become quite dry'd up . hence we easily judge the constitution of these pores to be peculiar , that is , such , that they will permit nothing to pass forth from the inner parenchyma ; but such things as lie next the lungs on the outside , in the capacity of the breast , seem rather probable to emer the inner parts of it , if they be not over-thick . but if this distention by wind , be violent , and such as 't is probable never happen'd to any living ; yet by that is the porosity of the said tunicle made manifest , though larger in some , in others lesser , and from that diversity it comes to pass , that not in all such empyics , or such as are troubl'd with impostumes in the lungs , the corrupt matter enters the lungs out of the cavity of the breast , and is evacuated by spittle or urine , without doubt ; because in many , by reason of the thickness of the matter , the pores are not wide enough . i remember , at nimmeghen i open'd the breasts of six or seven empyical persons between the ribs , for the evacuation of the filthy matter , and having evacuated the matter , to some i us'd bitter abstersive injections , which i syring'd in to cleanse the lungs ; the bitter taste of which , they did not only perceive in their mouths , but also spit out a good part of it ; which was a certain sign that the pores of the tunicle of the lungs were so narrow in those diseased persons , that they could not admit any thicker matter , but only thin liquors . riolanus considering these pores , the better to explain the manner how the thick matter is evacuated out of the cavity of the breast by spittle , pretends , that the air freely insinuates it self into the capacity of the breast through the spaces between the gristles ; and that through them the steams and purulent matter contain'd , returns , and yet no air issues forth through the pores of the ensolding membrane into the cavity of the breast : which opinion helmont maintains with many arguments , and bartholine refutes , l. de pulmon . sect. . for though experience tells us , that many times matter and injected liquors are suck'd up through the pores by the lungs ; yet the same experience tells us , that the air breath'd in , does not issue forth again through those pores into the cavity of the breast : for many times with a pair of bellows we have blown up the lungs taken out of a beast newly kill'd ; but we have observ'd , that the vessels of the whole parenchyma were very much distended by the wind , but that no air issu'd forth through the pores , or would so much as stir the flame of the candle ; but if the least incision were made into the tunicle , presently we found the wind to operate upon the flame . which is a sign that those pores are so plac'd , and as it were , fortify'd with valves , as to admit some liquors from without , but not to send forth any intrinsic air. vii . the colour of the lungs in sound people , is like that of ashes , or vary-colour'd ; but in diseas'd persons , especially such as took too much foul tabacco in their life-time , i have found it of a blackish colour . also in one that was a slave to tabacco and brandy , and afterwards dy'd of a long asthma , i found all the lungs not only of a blackish colour , but dry'd up to an indifferent hardness , with some small ulcers scatter'd here and there , full of matter , not fluid , but thick and dry . in another great tabacco-taker , i found the lungs of the same black colour , full of ulcers , but not dry'd up . viii . most anatomists write , that the lungs in the birth are of a red colour , and a thicker substance , so that being cast into the water , they sink ; quite otherwise than in men of ripe years , in whom they are altogether spungy , and of an ash-colour , or vary-colour'd , and somewhat enclining to white . which seems a thing so constant to swammerdam , that he reports , how that in the opening the breast of the birth , he always found the lungs plainly contracted , and of a red colour , and without any air in the inside . the same thing harvey also asserts ; but charleton absolutely denies ; who writes , that he has many times try'd , but found no difference of colour between the lungs of the birth and a man born : but there is a mistake on both sides ; which is easily remov'd , if the times of the birth be rightly distinguish'd ; for i have observ'd by ocular view , that till the fifth month and a half , or thereabout , the lungs are red , and indifferently thick ; but afterwards somewhat soster , looser , and of a colour somewhat palish , and variegated , and that it is to be found such in dissected births . in december . i dissected a woman seven months gone , and found the lungs of the birth inclos'd in the womb less turgid than in men born , but different in softness and colour . in novemb. . in a mature birth dead in the womb , a little before delivery , a colour somewhat redder than in grown people , but somewhat variegated , and of an ash-colour , and such a softness and sponginess of the substance , that the lungs swum when they were cast into the water : but in regard that lightness and spunginess of the lungs , which prevents its swimming , and somewhat changes the colour , arise from the air contain'd in the bladdery substance , the question is , how that air enters the lungs , the birth not yet breathing ? that air is bred in the lungs themselves , out of the most subtile vapors rais'd by the heat out of the moist substance of the blood , and so acquiring an airy tenuity : after which manner likewise that same air is generated , which possesses the cavity of the abdomen , and that which is found in the guts of the birth unborn . but this small quantity of air in the lungs , which is neither sufficient in quantity , nor sufficiently thick and cold , and can never suffice to refrigerate and condense the blood which is forc'd from the right ventricle of the heart into the lungs , can never serve for the use of respiration ; only by diminishing by degrees the thickness of the lungs , it renders them so fit for respiration , that the infant may be able to breath assoon as born , which otherwise it would not be able to do of a sudden , unless the breathing organ were first prepar'd by degrees for its performance in that manner . ix . the lungs are divided into the right and left part , by the means of the intervening mediastinum , each of which many have taken and describ'd for different lungs , which is the reason they never use the word lung , but lungs in the plural number . some rather chuse to call the two several parts the two lobes of the lungs ; but there is no necessity of cavilling about the plural or singular number , so we agree about the thing it self . every one of these parts is again divided into the upper lobe , which is shorter , and the lower lobe , which is larger ; rarely into three lobes : yet in dogs , especially hounds , there are several lobes . the several parts resemble in shape the hoof of an ox ; on the outside gibbous , where they look toward the ribs : on the inside hollow , where they so tenderly embrace the heart . x. beside the foresaid division of the lungs , malpigius by accurate inspection has found out another , that the whole body of the lungs consists of many little lobes , mutually joyn'd together . i have observ'd , saith he , in his first epistle to borellus , a more wonderful and more remarkable division : for the whole bulk of the lungs consists of infinite little lobes , enclos'd within a proper membrane , furnish'd with common vessels growing to the branches of the rough artery . now these little lobes may be discern'd , if the lungs being half blown up , be held to the light or beams of the sun ; for then certain spaces appear , as it were diaphanous , which if you follow with a slight incision , you shall separate the little lobes , adhering on both sides to the rough artery and the vessels , and shall find them involv'd in their proper membrane , the air being breathed in through the rough artery : which may be separated by diligent incision , and shines against the light. but these little lobes will more clearly appear by an elaborate dissection of the spaces after a gentle boyling of the lungs . xi . the lungs are fasten'd in a hanging posture from the rough artery , insinuating it self into the middle of its substance , and by means of that artery , adheres to the neck . fallopius writes , that only in man they are naturally fasten'd to the clavicles and uppermost ribs . but riolanus has several times observ'd them altogether separated from the ribs and clavicles ; which has been also more than once observ'd by me my self . but from the pleura they are for the most part found to be free . i say , for the most part , because many times they are also fasten'd to it , sometimes in the whole circumference , sometimes in some particular parts , with fibrous knittings ; and in dissections i find this connexion in near the third part of bodies open'd . for we meet with many bodies , wherein the lungs are fasten'd to the pleura with innumerable little fibres . nay , many bodies wherein the outward membrane it self of the lungs adheres the greatest part of it immediately to the pleura . in our hospital and anatomy-theatre , i have shewn many bodies , bodies , wherein the lungs have stuck so close almost in every part , to the pleura , that they could not be separated without a forcible dilaceration , which men neverthelefs in their life-time never 〈◊〉 of any difficulty or inconvenience of breathing . whence it appears how little truth there is in what massa , riolanus , bartholinus , lindan , and some others write , that for that very reason difficulty of breathing becomes diuturnal and incurable . in novemb. . i dissected the body of an arch thief that was hang'd , who had liv'd in health without any difficulty of breathing , whose lungs on both sides were so closely fasten'd every way not only to the pleura , but to the whole diaphragma and mediastinum , that they could not be separated without much dilaceration : but though such a connexion of the lungs happen to many men after they are born ( for i never heard that any man was born with it ) and continue without any detriment to health , yet in beasts , especially those of the larger sort , as horses , cows , sheep , goats , &c. this bowel uses to be free from the pleura , and scarcely ever grows to it , unless the pleurisie , inflammation of the lungs , or some other disease with an exulceration preceding ; so that in whatever beast that is kill'd , such a connexion appears , such an accident is suspected to have been the effect of some such disease . xii . in practice i have observ'd this worthy taking notice of : . that those in whom i judg'd by certain signs , that their lungs stuck to the pleura , more easily and frequently fell into the pleurisie , than others ; during which , if a suppuration happen'd , they more readily and sooner spit up a bloody matter from the side affected . but that in others , whose lungs were free from the pleura , they were less frequently troubl'd with the pleurisie ; which if it came to suppuration , was rately cur'd by spitting up of matter , but for the most part turn'd into an empyema . the reason is this ; because that in the first case the matter may immediately flow out of the aposteme of the pleura , into the substance it self of the lungs annex'd to it , and together with the pleura , perhaps by reason of its vicinity and immediate connexion , be somewhat also enflam'd , and so be spit forth . in the latter case , it cannot but flow into the cavity of the thorax or breast , out of which there is no easie entrance into the pores of the lungs . . moreover , i have observ'd the falshood of the doctrine of platerus , zecchius , and others , stifly maintaining , that in a pleurisie , which is a common disease , never , or very rarely the pleura is enflam'd , but always 〈◊〉 outermost membrane of the lungs ; in which , by reason of its exquisite sense , such cruel pains are felt ; but that in a peripneumony , the inner substance of the lungs is enflam'd ; which being obtuse of sense , therefore the pains therein are more obtuse and dull . for in the manifold dissection of bodies that dy'd of the pleurisie , we have found it to be otherwise ; that is , that in all people troubl'd with the pleurisie , the pleura was inflam'd , and that only , if the lungs were free from its connexion . but if the lungs stuck close to the pleura , then that also the adhering part of the lungs was inflam'd as well as the pleura . . in decemb. . i dissected in our hospital a woman that dy'd of a pleurisie , with which she was most cruelly tormented for the first fourteen days : afterwards , the inflammation coming to suppuration , the disease grew more gentle for some few days , though at length she dy'd . in her we found the lungs altogether free from the pleura , and in the right side the whole pleura from the arm-pits to the diaphragma inflam'd ; but that the aposteme was brok'n about the fifth and sixth rib. which two ribs , by reason of the breaking of the aposteme , were laid bare from the pleura about the breadth of two fingers ; and that the matter had flow'd to an indifferent quantity into the cavity of the breast ; but the lungs were found without any inflammation , or any other ill affection . . the like accident i shew'd in a man that dy'd of a pleurisie , in the year . who being over-heated with hay-making in the midst of summer , drank a great draught of cold beer , by which he contracted a pleurisie , and dy'd in a few days . in this body the lungs were altogether free from the pleura , and never annex'd to it toward the ribs , and the whole pleura of the right side was inflam'd , without any dammage to the lungs . . hence it is apparent , that what regius asserts , is not true ; viz. that in all pleurisies there is an inflammation of the outer part of the lungs , as the dissections of all bodies deceas'd of the pleurisie , teach us ; in whom the lungs are found affected , the pleura always remaining untouch'd . but i believe this good gentleman writes and teaches these things , out of an opinion pre-conceiv'd or learn'd from others ; as being one that assumes to himself the writings and sayings of others , and inserts them into his books for his own ; for he himself was never either any practitioner nor anatomist , nor ever dissected the body of any one that dy'd of a pleurisie . for meer inspection it self demonstrates the contrary , as appears by the manifold dissections of bodies dying of the pleurisie : in which we never found the pleurisie to have happen'd without detriment to the pleura . but in such bodies where the lungs were affix'd to the pleura , in such we found the lungs to be affected , in that part where they stuck to the pleura : in bodies where the lungs were free from the pleura , the lungs were never endammag'd in the least . in which particular , we rather trust to our own eyes , than the sayings of others , that never saw any such thing . if platerus , who is to be credited , writes , that he observ'd some such thing , i do not wonder ; in regard that among the many bodies by him open'd , he never dissected any that dy'd of the pleurisie ; or in those few which he met with , the lungs were never fasten'd to the pleura ; but as for such , whose lungs were free from the pleura , he does not seem to have dissected any : of which sort , we have shewn many whose pleura's have been highly inflam'd , without any detriment at all to the lungs themselves . . moreover , there can be no acute pain in the membrane enclosing the lungs , from any inflammation thereof , seeing that experience teaches us , that it is very dull of feeling . we have met with two or three bodies that dy'd of an inflammation of the lungs , in whom the whole lobe of the lungs of one side , together with the exterior membrane , was found inflam'd ; and yet the persons themselves , when alive ▪ complain'd of no acute , but only a dull , heavy kind of pain ; which must of necessity have been acute , were it true what regius write , that a most sharp pain proceeds from an inflammation of the membrane cloathing the lungs . . lastly , wounds passing through the lungs , though the membrane be penetrated , cause no great pain in the lungs ; and what pain there is , the patients only feel it in the pleura and muscles . so likewise ulcers caus'd by corroding humors in the lungs , are little painful , though the outward tunicle be also eaten away . which i shew'd publickly in our anatomy-theater in the years , . in two bodies , whose lungs were so ulcerated , that hardly half the bowel remain'd ; and yet those men , while they lay sick in our hospital , complain'd of little pain in their lungs . which is also daily conspicuous in phthisical persons , in whom we have found by sight and experience , not only the inner substance , but also the outer membrane of the lungs corroded and ulcerated , without any great pain . . i shall add one more notable example . in the year . i was sent for to open the body of a certain countrey-man , who about two and twenty months before he dy'd , was stabb'd in the right side of the breast , between the fifth and sixth rib ; which wound i then said had pierc'd the lungs ; but being believ'd neither by the patient , nor the surgeons that had undertaken the cure , my advice was neglected : the patient never complain'd of any inward pain ; the bloody purulent matter , that flow'd in great quantity out of the wound , stunk very much . six months after the man was wounded , he went about his usual occasions , and for half a year held on his wonted rioting and drinking , the wound still remaining open , and sending forth a stinking corrupted matter in great quantity . two or three months before he dy'd , he was taken with a slight fever , and waxing very lean , dy'd of a consumption . when his breast was open'd , we found the lobe of the lungs of the wounded side , so consum'd with suppuration , that not the least bit of it remain'd on that side ; nay , you would have sworn there never had been any lungs on that side ; which made us wonder how the man could live in health and strength so long a time . moreover , during the whole course of the distemper , the patient complain'd of no pain in his lungs , which must have been very tedious , as well by reason of the wound , as the inflammation and exulceration succeeding , had there been any acute sense of feeling in the membrane enclosing the lungs . xiii . three large vessels are inserted into the lungs . xiv . the first , which is the largest vessel of all , appointed for conveying of air and thick vapors , is the trachea , or rough artery , furnish'd with many productions , call'd bronchia . xv. the second and third , are two large blood-bearing vessels , viz. the pulmonary artery and vein ; which being divided into small , and almost invisible branches , hardly discernable , but by the help of a microscope , and intermix'd one among another , run through the whole bladder-like substance , like an artificial net , opening one into another with innumerable mutual anastomoses . through the little branches of the artery , a spirituous blood dilated into vapor , forc'd out of the right ventricle of the heart into the lungs , and in them somewhat condens'd by the cold breath'd-in air , passes into the little branches of the vein , and so distils into the left ventricle ; neither in a natural condition of health does any thing of blood seem to flow into the bronchia or vesicles , so as to die them of a bloody colour . but if by the corrosion of any sharp humor , a strong cough , or any other violent cause , there happen to be an opening of those vessels at any time , then the blood flowing out of them into the vesicles , out off those into the bronchia , is cast forth by spittle , and causes a spitting of blood. in the mean time , in that same passage of the blood through these vessels , the serous vapors , which , together with the blood in the right ventricle of the heart , are attenuated into a thin exhalation , transpire in great quantity through the thin tunicles of the small vessels , and mix'd in the small vessels with the cold breath'd-in air , and by that somewhat condens'd , are expell'd with the same by expiration into the bronchia , and so forth of the body ; by which means , the blood is freed from a great part of the serous vapors , of which , a remarkable quantity is chiefly conspicuous in cold weather and winter-time , when the vaporous breath , proceeding from the mouth , being condens'd by the external cold , occur to the sight , and moisten every thing upon which they light . xvi . however , here arises a doubt ; whether all the blood passes through the anastomoses of the said vessels ? also , whether many ends of those sanguiferous small vessels end in the substance it self of the lungs ; and whether the arteries pour their blood into it , and the veins convey it out again as we have said that there is a circulation in most other parts ? which , that it is so , the reasons alledged in those places , seem to confirm : but the eye sight contradicts it in the lungs ; by which we find the whole parenchyma to be almost altogether without any blood ; neither is there any thing of blood worth speaking of , to be found in its substance ( though it transmit eight , nine or more pints of blood in the space of an hour ) otherwise than happens in the liver , muscles , or other parts that transmit much blood ; in which there is a great quantity of blood found without the vessels . moreover , should that blood be poured forth without the vessels into the bladdery substance of the blood , it would partly fill the vessels appointed to receive the air , and so render them unfit for respiration ; partly occasion frequent spittings of blood , which nevertheless are very rare , and manifestly happen , when the vessels being broken or corroded , the blood bursts forth into the bladdery substance , or the bronchia , and never but upon the opening of those vessels . some perhaps may wonder , that i should say , that the substance of the parenchyma should be void of blood , that is , that no remarkable quantity of blood should be seen therein , when it is nourish'd with blood , like all the rest of the parts ; and seeing that hippocrates writes , they who spit blood , spit it out of the lungs ; and seeing there is also much blood found in the lungs of those that are hang'd . to the first , i answer , that the lungs are nourish'd with blood like the arteries , veins and nerves ; which vessels take to themselves out of the blood and spirit that passes through them , what is convenient for their nourishment , and also receive what is necessary for them , through invisible passages , and little arteries . moreover , the lungs , and that chiefly too , are nourish'd by that blood which is convey'd through the bronchial artery . and then again , we must distinguish between a very little blood , which serves for the nourishment of the lungs , and a great deal of blood , requisite for the nourishment of the whole body : the one may be infus'd through invisible passages into the bladdery substance , and yet be hardly ever seen . the other , by reason of its extraordinary quantity , cannot pass , but through some conspicuous conveyance ; and it is of the former , not of the latter , that anatomists speak , when they talk of the passage of the blood through the lungs . to the second , i say , that hippocrates , in the fore-cited aphorism , speaks of the whole lungs in general , as it consists of its own substance , vessels , and membranes , and not particularly of the proper substance of the parenchyma only . and so when he says that the blood is spit from the lungs , he means that blood which is spit from some corroded or broken blood bearing vessels , running through the substance of the bowel . to the third , i say , that the blood which is found in the lungs of such as are hang'd , did not flow out of the proper substance , but into the vesicles out of the vessels , broken by reason of the obstruction of the circular passage . xvii . frederic ruysh , describes another peculiar artery , hitherto overseen by all the anatomists , found out by his own singular industry ; which he calls the bronchial artery , which chiefly seems to convey the blood to the nourishment of the lungs , or the rough artery , or the bronchia . this , saith he , we thought fit to call the bronchial artery ; for that creeping above the bronchia , it accompanies them to the end. it takes its rise from the hinder part of the great descending artery , about a finger's breadth more or less above the uppermost intercostal little arteries , arising from the descending aorta ; and sometimes two fingers breadth above the aforesaid arteries : sometimes also i have found it to have its original below those arteries ; for nature delights in variety : sometimes it rises single , sometimes double ; so that oft-times the great artery being taken out of a carkass , the intercostals and bronchials being cut away , the remaining little trunks of the bronchials seem to counterfeit the rise of the intercostals . hence it obliquely runs under the lungs , and accompanies the bronchia under the veiny artery , to the very end , till becoming no bigger than a hair , it vanishes out of sight . in the lungs of men i have frequently observ'd that artery to creep through the fore-part of the bronchia , which i have seldom seen in the lungs of brutes . xviii . besides the foremention'd blood-bearing vessels , by the report of bartholine , olaus rudbeck as●…res us , that he has observ'd certain diminutive lymphatic vessels , creeping along the superficies of the lungs ; which also frederic ruisch affirms he has seen ; and farth●…r , that they empty their liquor into the subclavial , axillary and iugular veins . xix . little diminutive nerves proceed from the sixth pair ; which some will have to be dispers'd through the external membrane only ; but riolanus has observ'd to te●…d toward the inner parts ; and b●…rtholin has always observ'd them to accompany the bronchia from the hinder part ; besides a little branch that creeps through the outward membrane from the fore-part . thomas willis asserts , that those little nerves , together with the blood-bearing vessels , are distributed through the whole lungs , and ●…each both the channels of the bronchia , the veins and arteries , sending their branches every way . but i cannot persuade my self , that there should be such a great quantity of nerves dispers'd through , since reason teaches us , they must be very few ; and very small , by reason of the obtuse feeling of that bowel , as has been already said . riolanus and regius indeed allow to its exterior tunicle , an exquisite sense of feeling , as deriv'd from the pleura , contrary to reason and experience , as we have already demonstrated . xx. the office of the lungs is to be serviceable for respiration . xxi . now respiration is an alternative dilatation and contraction of the breast , by which the cold external air is now forc'd into the lungs , and then cast forth again , together with the steams and vapors , that by the reception of the cold air , and the expulsion of it , together with the serous vapors exhaling through the thin tunicles of the blood-bearing vessels , from the spirituous blood driven forward into the lungs , and collected together in the windings of the vesicles , that the hot blood , spirituous , and dilated into a thin breath , proceeding from the right ventricle of the heart , may be refrigerated , and somewhat condens'd in the lungs , and many serous vapors separated from it , that so it may more readily descend into the left ventricle of the heart , and there be dilated and spiritualiz'd anew , and be wrought to a greater perfection . xxii . for because the blood breaking forth from the right ventricle of the heart into the lungs , is much dilated , very light , and requires twenty times a larger room than condens'd blood , which the left ventricle cannot afford , hence there is a necessity that that same vapor seal'd up , be again condens'd into the thickness of blood , and so become heavier ; partly , that by reason of its being more heavy , it may descend to the left ventricle ; partly , that being by that means more compacted , it may more easily be comprehended by that ventricle , and so be dilated anew . for , as in chymical stills , the liquor being reduc'd into a thin vapor , cannot be contain'd in so small a room or vessel , as it was contain'd in before attenuation ; nor cannot be gather'd together , and again distill'd to a greater perfection of spirit , till that vapor lighting into a cold alembic , be again condens'd into water , and flows through the neck of the alembic , to be receiv'd by another vessel , and after that , to be again distill'd . so the blood in the right ventricle of the heart being rarifyd , and become spirituous , of necessity must be some what condens'd again by the refrigeration of the air suck'd in , to the end that being so made more ponderous , and possessing less room , it may flow to the left ventricle , and refresh the fervent heat of the heart with a new refreshment . moreover , beside the foresaid refrigeration , the cool suck'd-in air affords another benefit ; that it presses forth out of the small pulmonary arteries , into the smaller little veins , the blood which is thrust forward into the lungs , and by the said refrigeration prepar'd for defluxion , and now ready to go forth by means of the distension of the whole bowel , and consequently , the great compression of the vessels ; and from these arteries , drives it forward through the great pulmonary vein , into the left ventricle of the heart ; which is the reason that so little blood stays in the lungs , and so little is found therein when a man is dead . xxiii . whence it is manifest what it is that kills those that are hang'd or strangl'd . for besides that the serous , or , as others say , fuliginous vapors , for defect of respiration , are not dissipated , the spirituous and boiling blood forc'd into the lungs , is not refrigerated nor condens'd ; whence the lungs are over-fill'd and distended with an over-abounding vaporous spirit , so that there can be nothing more supply'd out of the right ventricle of the heart ( as no more air can be forc'd into a bladder which is full already ) and by reason of its extream lightness , nothing , or very little can descend to the left ventricle : so that it wants new nourishment , and has nothing to pour into the aorta , and so the circulation of the blood is stopp'd , and the heart faints away for a double reason ; and then the blood not flowing to the brain , by and by the brain ceases its function , and generates no more animal spirits , or forces them to the parts ; and so the sence and motion of all the parts fail . and hence it is apparent , why in a stove that is over-heated , many times we fall into a swoon ; because the air being suck'd in , cannot sufficiently condense the vaporous blood , for want of cold ; so that the lungs become fill'd with that blood , and afford but little or no condens'd blood to the left ventricle , to be dilated anew . xxiv . that this is the true reason of respiration , it appears from hence ; that animals , which have but one ventricle of the heart , have no lungs ; and the reason why the birth does not breathe in the womb , is , because the blood is not mov'd by the lungs , from the right , to the left ventricle ; so that it wants no condensation in the middle way , or compression made by inspiration ; only the lungs grow for future uses . and then the reason why we are constrain'd to fetch our breath quicker , when the blood is heated by fevers , or exercise , or any other causes ; as , when we suck in a hotter air , is this , to the end , that by frequent respiration there may be a swifter , and more convenient refrigeration and condensation of the blood. xxv . but the said refrigeration does not come to pass in the lungs , because the air breath'd in , is mix'd with the hot blood forc'd from the heart into the lungs , ( as was the opinion of ent and deusingius , and is still the judgment of many other philosophers at this day ; ) but because the cool air entring the bronchia and bladdery substance of the lungs , cools the whole lungs , as also the blood contain'd in its blood-bearing vessels ; as wine contain'd in glass-bottles , and set in cold water , or snow , is cool'd without any mixture either of the snow or water . some indeed think , that though it be not much , yet there is some of the suck'd-in air which is mix'd with the blood ( and among the rest , malachias truston defends this opinion ) and carry'd with it to the heart ; to the end , that by its mixture , the blood may be made more spirituous and thinner ; for which they produce these reasons . . because there is some air to be found in the ventricles of the heart , besides the blood. . because that in the plague-time , the contagious air infects the heart . . because they who fall into a swoon , presently come to themselves upon the holding of vinegar , rose or cinamon-water , or any fragrant spices to their nostrils ; because that fragrancy entring their lungs , together with the air suck'd in , is presently mixt in the air with the blood , and presently carry'd to the left ventricle of the heart . but this fiction seems to be of no great weight : for , were it true , then ought the air to be mix'd at all times with the blood in the lungs , nor could good blood be generated without its admixture ; but no air can be mix'd with the blood in the birth enclos'd in the womb ; and yet the blood which is then made , is as good and as perfect without any mixture of the air. and therefore i answer to the first , that the air which is contain'd in the ventricles of the heart , cannot be said to be carry'd thither by any inspiration , because it is equally as well in the right , as in the left ventricle ; whereas there can no blood descend with air to the right , because of the obstacles of the semilunary valves . moreover , such a kind of air is to be found in the cavity of the abdomen ; which cannot be said to be carry'd thither by inspiration : besides , that such a sort of air is found in the abdomen and ventricles of the heart of births inclos'd in the womb. to the second and third , i say , that the inspir'd malignant air does not therefore infect the heart , because it is mix'd with the blood ; but because the blood passing through the lungs , endues them with an evil quality , which is thence communicated to the blood contain'd in the vessels , and so to the heart : for as the hot air impresses a hot quality , so a cold air , a cold one ; so a venomous or putrify'd air , or a fragrant air impresses a contagious or fragrant quality to the blood and lungs therein contain'd . for , that a quality be communicated to another body , there is no necessity that the body from which that quality flows , should be mix'd with the body to which that quality is communicated . for , that red-hot iron should warm , there is no necessity that the iron should enter the body that is to be heated : 't is sufficient that the small red-hot particles of the heated iron , by their vehement agitation , violently also agitate the small particles of the adjoyning body to be heated , and so by that violent motion cause heat : as when a piece of antimonial glass , put into wine , gives it a vomitive quality , there is no necessity the antimony should be mix'd with the wine ; and so , when the wine enters the body of man , it suffices , that by its quality ( for it comes out exactly the same weight as it was put in ) it has so dispos'd the substance of the wine , as to make it vomitive . when corn is grinding , there is no necessity that the wind should enter the wheels and mill-stones ; for by the motion of the sails the wheels and mill-stones will move , though the wind , that gives the motive quality , do not enter the flowr or wheat . lastly , if the air inspir'd should be mix'd with the blood , then if a man should blow into the lungs , when fresh , with a pair of bellows through the rough the artery , the breath would break out through the pulmonary artery toward the left ventricle of the heart , which we could never observe in any experiments that ever we made . moreover , if the air should enter the blood-bearing vessels , not only those vessels , but the parts themselves which are nourish'd with the blood , would be puft up with the air , and be continually infested with flatulent tumors . xxvi . charleton utterly rejects this same refrigeration of the lungs , and the use of breathing ; and opposes it with three or four arguments , but so insipid , that they deserve no refutation ; and then he concludes , that the air is suck'd in for the finer subtilization of the blood , and heating of the vital spirits . which willis also affirms in his book against highmore . but because it is an opinion repugnant to the very principles of philosophy , it needs no great refutation . for it is a known thing in philos●…hy , that cold condenses , but heat attenuates . the first is so true , that in the instrument call'd a thermometer , it is so conspicuous to the eye , that it is never to be contradicted . so that there cannot be a greater subtilization of the blood by the cold air suck'd in by the lungs , but without all question , a con●…ensation rather . now if those learned men before-mention'd , would have held , that there is a greater subtilization of the blood by sucking in of the hot air , we should have readily granted it ; but then we must say too , that that subtilization will soon be too much , unwholesom , and in a short time will prove deadly : and that it is not the end of respiration , for the blood to be subtiliz'd by it ; but that being subtiliz'd , and forc'd out of the right ventricle of the heart into the lungs , it should be there condens'd . but if for all this , they will still maintain the contrary , then of necessity they will run upon a hard rock of necessity : for then it will follow , that the hotter the air is , that is suck'd in , so much the swifter and easier will the blood be , and the refreshment of the heart greater ; and men that live in a hot air , would have less need of respiration . and by consequence also in a fit , where there is present need of refreshment , as in burning fevers , where the spirits are very much wasted , it would be requisite to lay the patients ( for the quicker restoring of their lost spirits , and refreshment of the heart ) in warm beds , or expos'd to the roasting heat of the sun , lest the blood should be too slowly subtiliz'd in a cold bed by the cold air breath'd in , and so the heart and spirits want their due and seasonable refreshment . but how contrary these things are to reason , and experience , is obvious unto them , who have but so much as saluted physical practice at a distance . which , when gualter needham had throughly consider'd , he will not permit the lungs any faculty to heat or subtilize the blood , and proves his opinion by strong arguments . xxvii . alexander maurocordatus of constantinople , opposes this opinion of the lungs having the gift of refrigeration , and brings several arguments to uphold his undertaking : of which , the chiefest are these ; . seeing that the cold air , which is suck'd in , does not enter the blood-bearing vessels of the lungs , but is only circumfus'd about 'em in the bowels , of necessity it can never diminish , but by antiperistasis , will rather augment the heat of the blood in those vessels . . because that in the birth , which is enclos'd in a hot place , there must be a greater heat , and yet no such urgent necessity of respiration , but that the lungs themselves lie idle . . because those that are expiring , breath forth a colder breath . to the first , i answer , that a moderate cold does not cause that same antiperistasis ; only that antiperistasis happens in vehement and sudden refrigeration . but such a vehement cold cannot be occasion'd by inspiration in the breast , which is a hot part ▪ to the second , i answer , that the heat in the birth , is not come to such a perfection as to want the refrigeration of breathing . to the third , that the air breath'd forth by dying persons , does not feel so hot as that which is breath'd forth by healthy people , because that through the weakness of the heart , the blood which is forc'd into the lungs , is not so hot at that time ; and for that the bowel it self does not heat so much ; for which reason also , the air breath'd in , is less hot , and so the breath seems to be colder to healthy people that stand by , who are sufficiently warm ; whereas that breath of dying men does not come forth without some heat , which it had acquir'd from the lungs , though less than the heat of the skins of those that feel it . xxviii . the same author , after he has rejected the refrigeration of the lungs , concludes , that the use of the lungs is to carry about the blood , and is a kind of a vessel appropriated to the circulation of the blood. which , if it were true , then in the birth inclos'd in the womb , and not breathing ; as also in fish , that are destitute of lungs , there would be no circulation of blood , because that same vessel is either wanting , or else lies idle . which opinion iohn majow refutes , by producing an admirable experiment , in his treatise of respiration . xxix . malpigius will have the lungs to be created , not for refrigeration , but for a mixture of the sanguineous mass , that is to say , that all the smallest particles of the blood , the vvhite , the red , the fix'd , the liquid , chylous , sanguineous , lymphatic , &c. should be mingl'd exactly into one mass , which mixture he supposes to be but rudely order'd in the right ventricle of the heart , but exactly compleated in the vessels of the lungs ; and for this he brings many arguments ▪ which , however , are not so strong , as either to prove his own , or destroy the ancient opinion . for the most exact mixture of the blood is occasion'd by fermentation ; by which all the particles are dilated into a spirit or thin vapor ; but this fermentation is perform'd in the heart , forbid in the lungs where fermentation is forbid , and the dilated mass of the blood is condens'd . moreover , if the blood expell'd out of the right ventricle of the heart , were necessitated to acquire an exact mixture in the heart , where must that have its exact mixture , which is forc'd out of the left ventricle into the aorta , or that same blood , which neither in fishes , nor in the birth inclos'd in the womb , ever enters the lungs ? malachy thruston , desirous to bring something of novelty upon the stage of this dispute , excuses the heart from the office of sanguification , and imposes that office upon the lungs ; because that the lungs being distempered , as in a consumption , all the parts being nourish'd with bad blood , grow lean and consume . as if the same thing did not happen , when the liver , spleen , stomach , kidneys , mesentery , and the like bowels , which are known not to make blood , are affected with any ulcer or very great distemper . afterwards he adds , that the chylus is but rudely mix'd in the heart with the blood , but most exactly in the lungs , and there ferments , boils , is subtiliz'd , and acquires its fluidness , and is chang'd into true blood : but these things are repugnant to reason . for shall cold air breath'd in , produce effervescency and subtility of the blood in the lungs , when cold hinders effervescency , and thickens the blood , as daily experience teaches us in the cure of hot distempers ? and whence , i would fain know , has the womb that effervescency and subtility of the blood , where the lungs lie idle ? then he produces two great opinions , as he thinks ; the one , from phlebotomy , the other , from sighs . by phlebotomy , says he , apoplectic persons , and such as are hardly able to fetch their breath , and are almost choak'd ▪ feel great ease : because that by that means , the blood which was hastning toward the lungs , or else heap'd up there before , is drawn off another way ; and so the lungs by degrees are freed from that burthen . but i shall not grant the learned man his argument : true it is , that in such distempers we let blood freely , that the heart may be weaken'd , and that that being weaken'd , less blood may be forc'd to the other parts ; and so that blood which sticks next to the lungs or brain , and stops up the little passages , may have the more time to flow out , and empty it self ; and so the cause of suffocation is remov'd from the lungs . for example , if many people are gather'd together in any room , and would crowd altogether out at the door , they stop one another ; but the less they that are behind press forward , the sooner they that are before get forth . thus it happens in an apoplexy , asthma , or any such like affection . for in these distempers , the stronger the heart is , and the more blood it sends from it self , the more are the lungs , brain , &c. obstructed and stuffed up ; but the more the heart is weaken'd by a moderate abstraction of the blood , and the less forcibly , and the less blood it sends to the parts obstructed , so much the more easily the blood , which already stops up the passages , being dissolv'd and attenuated by the heat of those parts , flows farther , and the obstruction is open'd , to the ease of the party griev'd . but this makes nothing for thruston's opinion ; as neither does his argument taken from sighs . for sighs do not happen , as he thinks , by reason of the stronger effervescency of the chylus in the lungs , but by reason of the weaker and slower respiration ; which they who are thoughtful and sad , forget to exercise so frequently as they ought , and consequently a refrigeration not sufficient of the blood forc'd into the lungs from the right ventricle of the heart ; so that the vaporous and dilated blood , remaining in too great a quantity , and therefore flowing more slowly into the left ventricle , and keeping the lungs distended , perplexes the patient , who is therefore constrain'd by deep sighs , and the introducing a good quantity of cold air to condense that vaporous blood , to the end that it may flow more swiftly out of the lungs through the pulmonary vein to the left ventricle of the heart , and may be also more swiftly expell'd by reason of the larger distension of the whole lungs , because of the great quantity of air suck'd in , oppressing its vessels . to which , in the last place , we may add , that the chylus dilated in the heart , presently loses the form of chylus , and becomes blood ; so that nothing of the chylus enters the lungs to be there fermented , but that the vaporous blood enters the lungs , made of the chylus dilated in the right ventricle of the heart , to be therein somewhat condens'd by the cold of the air suck'd in , and to be attenuated out of vapour into liquor . by the force of these reasons , several other of thurston's arguments may be easily confuted , which he deduces from exercises , asthma's and the boylean engin , and several other things , for the confirmation of his opinion . xxxi . therefore it remains unquestionable , that respiration no way conduces toward the making of blood in the lungs , nor for the respiration , mixture or circumvolution of it ; but only for its refrigeration . which is apparent farther from hence ; for that if the refrigeration requir'd in the lungs , could be effected by any cooling thing , or cold coming any other way to the lungs , respiration were in vain , and ought to cease for a time ; as is manifest by many examples to be produc'd in the question , whether a man might live without respiration ? xxxii . the secondary use of the lungs , is in expiration to enable the spirit to send forth vocal sounds , and to cough . xxxiii . but the motion of the lungs , in reference to dilatation and constriction , which happens in respiration , is not active , but passive : ( hence galen assigns no action at all to it ) because this bowel is not mov'd of it self in its proper breathing motion , but follows the motion of the breast ; which is apparent from hence ; for that the lungs on both sides are firmly knit and fastn'd to the pleura ; for in such men it would be hinder'd by its connexion , in that motion ; whereas they feel no hindrance in respiration , because the lungs are dilated and drawn together according to the motion of the breast . xxxiv . platerus is of another iudgment in this matter ; as also riolanus ; who believe the lungs in moderate respiration , to be mov'd by their own motion , proceeding from their innate force , without any manifest motion of the breast : nay , in apoplecticks , where the motion of all the muscles is abolish'd , the lungs are not only mov'd of themselves , but also by their own motion move the breast ; and in dogs also , and in other living creatures , if the whole thorax should be open'd of a sudden , so that the muscles could conduce nothing to the motion of the lungs , yet the lungs are to be seen moving violently upwards and downwards for all that . the same thing averrhoes believ'd of old ; who produces this argument for its confirmation . if respiration , says he , which is perpetual , should follow the motion of the breast , then there would be a perpetual violent motion in our breasts ; but the latter is absurd , and therefore the former . sennertus also is of the same opinion . the lungs , says he , are mov'd by their proper power , and the lungs and thorax are mov'd together , because they conspire to one end . the lungs are dilated by an innate force ; which that it may be done more conveniently , and find room wherein to be dilated , when the lungs are mov'd , the animal faculty also moves the breast . xxxv . to these difficulties i answer , that the two first assertions are false , in regard that no man can breathe when the motion of the muscles of the thorax and abdomen ceases altogether ; neither could any such disposition of the parts of man be found , wherein the lungs do move , the thorax remaining unmoveable . for the truth of which , i appeal to the experience of every man : for though in apoplectics , the motion of the muscles of the thorax is not altogether abolish'd , but only impair'd , yet when it ceases altogether , respiration ceases , and the party dies ; as alway the breathing motion of the lungs perishes , when the motion of the thorax ceases . neither is that motion of the lungs , which is seen in live dogs , upon the sudden opening of the thorax , a breathing motion , which happens with the expansion of the lungs , but an accidental motion , rais'd by the diaphragma , as drawing with it upward and downward the annex'd mediastinum of the lungs adhering to it ; but without any dilatation , without which there can be no respiration , nor any air admitted . to the argument of averrhoes i answer , that whatever follows the motion of another part , does not of necessity follow by violence ; for then the natural and perpetual motions of the arteries and brain , were to be said to be perpetual violent motions , because they perpetually proceed from , and follow the motion of the heart . besides , that is no violent motion that proceeds according to the customary course of nature ; although it follow the motion of another part ; but that which is preternatural and disorderly , as happens in a convulsion . lastly , for a conclusion , i add , that not only the firm connexion of the lungs with the pleura , but also experience it self teaches us , that the breathing motion of the lungs is not spontaneous . for do but open the thorax of a living animal on each side , the breathing motion in the lungs of dilatation and contraction ceases ; there being a free passage for the air through the wound into the cavity of the thorax ; so that in the dilatation of the thorax , the air does not necessarily enter into the lungs through the rough artery , and distend it to fill the concavity of the breast : which cessation of motion would not happen , if the lungs should move of themselves ; for there is no reason to be given , why it should be less dilated upon the opening of the breast , than when it is shut . which sufficiently refutes the opinion of sennertus , who believes that the lungs are fill'd like a pair of bellows , because they are dilated ; for by the foresaid opening of the breast , it is apparent , that the lungs are not dilated of themselves ; seeing that by the dilatation of the breast , the air is compell'd for the prevention of a vacuum , to enter the rough artery , and so to fill and dilate the lungs . xxxvi . from this opinion of averrhois , and our own , aristotle dissents ; who teaches , that the lungs are mov'd by the heart ; in which particular hoffman also agrees with him . this others as stifly deny , and others as badly interpret of the breathing motion . but the mistake of all sides proceeds from hence , that they do not sufficiently distinguish between the natural motion which the heart contributes to the lungs , and the breathing motion , which does not proceed from the heart . for that the heart does contribute some certain small motion to the lungs , is most certain ; for when the dilated blood is forc'd through the pulmonary artery into the lungs , out of the right ventricle of the heart , reason it self shews us , that the lungs are mov'd and heave ; as for the same reason the arteries are mov'd and swell ; though this small motion is so obscur'd by the forcibly breathing motion , that in live lungs it can hardly be perceiv'd by ocular inspection . and aristotle is to be understood of this motion . yet is not that the breathing motion , of which the anatomists generally discourse , when they talk of the motion of the lungs ▪ which indeed neither proceed from the heart nor the lungs , but is accidental , and follows the motion of the breast . moreover , if the breathing motion should proceed from the heart , the pulses of the heart and respiration would of necessity keep exact time together , and the lungs would equally swell upon every pulsation of the heart , as in the arteries ; and hence the breast would be dilated , and when the motion of the heart stood still , the lungs would also stand still . moreover , the inequality of respiration would be a sign of an unequal pulse ; but experience tells us the contrary : for the respirations are much less frequent than the pulses of the heart . moreover , respiration may be slower or quicker , more or less , according to the pleasure of him that breaths ; whereas the pulse cannot be alter'd at the will of any person . what has been said , sufficiently refutes maurocordatus ; who , ascribing the whole motion of the lungs to the heart , says , that when the heart contracting the sides , causes a systole , then the diaphragma is erected , and the rings of the rough artery are contracted , and so the lungs exspire , or breathe outward : but when the heart causes the diastole , then the diaphragma descending , draws down the lungs , and dilates the rings of it , which causes breathing inward . which opinion of his , he endeavours to confirm with many arguments , which are destroy'd however by the aforesaid reasons ; as is also that argument , that in an intermitting pulse , respiration does not stop upon the intermitting of the motion of the heart ; which , if the mover stopp'd , must of necessity stand still it self . and as for what he from hence concludes , that the blood is drawn out of the vena cava by respiration , into the right ventricle , to supply respiration , and from thence , into the pulmonary artery , &c. these things need no refutation ▪ since there is no such attraction to be allow'd in their body●… , since all the humors are mov'd by impulsion . xxxvii . therefore the motion of respiration depends neither upon the heart , nor the muscles of the breast , which when they dilate the heart , presently the air enters the lungs through the aspera arteria , and dilates them ; but when they contract the breast , they expel it the same way , together with the serous vapors . but whether we say this entrance of the air be either to avoid a vacuum , as some believe ; or by the pressing forward of the external air , by the dilated breast , and by that means the impulsion of it through the aspera arteria into the lungs , as others assert , comes all to one pass ; when both may be true , about which some men so idly quarrel . xxxviii . in reference to this motion of respiration , there is a question debated among the philosophers , what sort of action it is ? for some say it is natural , others animal , others mix'd of both . xxxix . but it is apparent by what has been said , that respiration is an animal action , because it is performed by instruments that all serve to animal motion ; that is to say , the muscles ; and may be quicken'd or delay'd , augmented or decreas'd at our own pleasure , as in those that sing , and sound any sort of wind-musick ; and there may be some resolute men that have held their breath till they have dy'd ; as galen tells the story of a barbarian slave , that kill'd himself by holding his breath . and we find two other examples in valerius maximus , of the same nature . xl. if any one object , that a voluntary act is done with ones consent , and cannot be perpetual ; and that all animal diuturnal motion causes lassitude , which respiration does not ; which moves continually day and night , even when we are asleep , and know nothing of it : i answer , that those are truly to be call'd animal and voluntary actions , which may be , or are done according to our own will and pleasure ; so that although respiration go forward when we are asleep , and know nothing of it ; nevertheless it is an animal action , when it may be guided by our own will so soon as we are awake , and know any thing of it . they that walk and talk in their sleep , though they know nothing of it , yet are talking and walking no less animal actions for all that . for the animality of actions does not consist in acting only , but in being able to act by the management and directions of the will. and therefore we are to understand , that what galen teaches us , that the animal actions , some are perform'd by instinct , and are free , and that others serve ro the affections of the mind ; that the one proceeds perpetually , and without impediment , when we least think of it ; yet might be otherwise directed by us , i●… we were aware ; of which number is respiration . others are not perpetual ; as fighting , running , dancing , writing , &c. in the one , according to custom , there is a sufficient and continual influx of animal spirits into the muscles ; and for this reason , there is no lassitude , though the actions are diuturnal : but in the other , the spirits , according to the determination made in the brain , flow sometimes at this , sometimes at that time ; sometimes in greater , sometimes in less quantity ; and thence proceeds weariness . xli . there is one doubt remaining , whether a man born , may live for any time without respiration ? galen says it is impossible , but that a man that breaths , should live , and that a living man should breathe . and again , he says , take away respiration , and take away life . and indeed all the reasons already brought for the necessity of respiration , confirm galen's opinion ; and it is no more than what daily experience confirms . yet on the other side , it is a thing to be demonstrated by sundry examples , that some men have liv'd a long while without any respiration . xlii . those divers in india , who dive for pearl and corals to the bottom of the deepest rivers , will stay for the most part half an hour and more under water , without taking breath . . a very stately ship , being built at amsterdam , for the king of france , by misfortune was sunk near the texel ; into which the spanish ambassador , having put aboard a chest full of gold , he hir'd a sea-man , that was a diver , to go into the ship as it lay under water , and to endeavour to get out this chest. this diver staid half an hour under water , and upon his return , said he had found the chest , but could not draw it out . . i saw my self two notable examples at nimeghen . in the year . a certain country fellow , who dy'd of the plague , as 't was thought , lay three days for dead , without any sign of respiration , or any other symptoms of life . at length , when he was just ready to be carry'd to the grave , he came to himself upon the bier , and liv'd many years afterward . . in the year . a certain woman at the upper end of nimeghen-city , fell into the river , where at that time rode the greatest part of our navy , and carry'd away by the swiftness of the tide , passed through the whole fleet under water ; and within a quarter of an hour after , when no body thought but that she had been dead , rose again at the lower end of the fleet , and was taken up alive and safe by the sea-men . . in the year . a citizen of nimeghen's wife , sitting at the brink of a well , fell in backward , with her head downward , and her feet only above water ; in which condition she was above half an hour for want of due help ; but at length , being drawn out of the well , and laid in her bed for dead , after she had lain for two hours without any signs of respiration , or symptoms of life , she came by degrees to her self , and the next day coming to me , committed her self to my care , and by administration of due remedies , was restored to her former health . to these testimonies of my own , lest they may not seem sufficient , i will add three more out of other authors , which are of great moment . . the first is a story out of platerus , of a woman , who being condemn'd for killing her child , was thrown into the rhine bound hand and foot ; who , after she had continu'd under water above half an hour , was at length drawn out again with ropes , and breathing a little at first , came to life again ; and being perfectly recover'd , was marry'd , and had several children . to which platerus adds two stories more of the same nature . . the second , is a story reported by iohn mattheus , from an inscription upon a stone in the church of the holy apostles at cologne ; where it is related , how that certain infamous persons open'd the grave at midnight , of a certain woman that was buried the night before , for the lucre of her rings and bracelets which she carry'd with her to her tomb ; but when th●…y came to lay hands upon her , she came to her self , and revived ; thereupon the robbers in a terror fled : upon which , the woman making use of the lanthorn which the thieves had lest behind , went home . now , no question , this woman was not dead , but lying without respiration , was taken for dead . . a third remarkable and sad example of a woman that was buried for dead , and afterwards reviving again , is related by di●…med cornarius and matthew hessus , and by us from them recited , l. . at the end of the th . chapter . and several other stories of this nature are to be found in levinus lemnius , hildan , iames crastius , and several others . xliii . which are suffi●…ient to convince us , that a man may live sometimes for some time without respiration . there remains only to give an account of the reason of it . galen , by many strong arguments , drawn from experience and sence , tells us , that the heat of the heart is the cause of the necessity of respiration : for so long as the heart by its heat attenuates the blood , and sends it dilated out of the right ventricle of the heart into the lungs , there is a necessity for that refrigeration which is occasion'd by respiration , that the hot attenuated blood may be again condens'd . and so fall into the left ventricle . which re●…rigeration being deny'd , the vessels of the lungs are presently fill'd with vaporous blood , and the bladdery substance with a serous vapour ; neither can any thing descend to the left ventricle , so that a man is presently choak'd . now from this foundation there follows another ; that is to say , as often as the heart is overmuch cool'd , or the heat and motion of it is so oppress'd by morbific causes , that it begets no effervescency o●… dilatation of the blood flowing in ; then also there is no need of any refrigeration ( for the cause of the necessity being taken away , the necessity it self is taken away ) and so long a man may live without respiration . now in all the aforesaid stories and accidents , even by the cold water alone , the whole body and the lungs are so refrigerated , that that same refrigeration is sufficient to condense and cool the blood , which is forc'd out of the heart into the lungs ; or else the heart is so refrigerated and contracted by the extraordinary fear and cold together , that it ceases almost to beat , and so a fit comes , as seem'd to happen to those women in the fourth , fifth and sixth story . or else the heat of it is so oppress'd by malignant vapors and humors , that it absolutely gives over dilating the blood , and driving it forth by pulsation . now the sending forth of blood to the lungs beating , there is no need of respiration , so that a man may want it , and yet live , he not continuing long in that condition , that is , till the innate heat be quite extinguish'd . but then a man lives without sence or motion , like flies , frogs , lizards , and other beasts in the winter , which lie for dead without respiration , because the heat of the heart is oppress'd , and as it were extinguish'd , and wants no refrigeration . which being so , what shall we say to galen's words , cited in the beginning of this question ; who says , 't is impossible for a living man to breath ? but galen himself foreseeing this difficulty , flies to transpiration , which is made through the pores of the whole body ; and supposes that to be the lowest and meanest sort of respiration , or rather its deputy , which in such accidents he believes to be sufficient to support life . but this subterfuge will not serve the turn : for when the heart and humors are not stirr'd , then the whole body is presently refrigerated , and neither is the hot vapour expell'd , nor the cold air admitted to the heart : and therefore we must rather conclude , that the first opinion of galen is true of the common manner of living , but not of such rarely happening accidents as those before mention'd , where things fall out quite otherwise . chap. xiv . of the trachea or rough artery . see table . i. the trachea , or rough artery , by some call'd the pipe or cane of the lungs , is a channel which descends from the iaws to the lungs , and enters them with several branches , through which the inspir'd air is suckt in , and the same air expir'd , is breath'd out again with the serous vapours and steams , for the refrigeration and ventilation of the vital blood , and the production of the voice and sounds . ii. it is seated in the fore-part of the neck , resting upon the oesophagus , and so descending from the mouth to the lungs . iii. about the fourth vertebra of the breast , it is divided into two branches , each of which enter the lobe of the lungs of their own side . these are again subdivided into two branches , and those also into others , till at length they end in small branches dispers'd among the roots of the pulmonary artery and vein , and continuous with the vesicles of the lungs , and opening into the same . which branches , so long as they continue pretty big , are call'd bronchia . iv. the bulk of the artery differs according to the variety of sex , age and temperament . v. the fore-part of it is of a cartilaginous substance , that it should not close , but remain open always for the free passage to and again of the air and spirits . the hinder-part is membranous , lest the dilatation of the oesophagus should be hindred by the leaning of a harder body upon it . vi. the gristly part is not continuous , but compacted as it were of several rings , of which the uppermost are the biggest . these rings are equidistant one from another , and behind , where they rest upon the gullet , are depriv'd of the lower part of their circumference , while a membranous substance supplies the defect . the rest entring the parenchyma of the lungs , remain whole , and cease to be semilunary , as in the upper part , but variously form'd , some round , some square , some triangular ; and the deeper they enter the parenchyma , the more membranous , and less hard like arteries , and continuous they are to the vessels of the lungs . but all the aforesaid greater rings are exactly joyn'd one to another by fleshy ligaments , the lesser are joyn'd together only with membranes . . this rough artery is cover'd with a double membrane ; one external , which is very thin , proceeding from the pleura , and firmly fast'nd with ligaments of muscles . the other internal , more contracted and thicker , and continuous to the palate , exquisitely feeling , for the distinguishing of all annoyances . this is besmear'd with a fat slimy humor , to prevent drying , and to sweeten the voyce ; which humor being wasted by sharp catarrhs , the voyce grows hoarse , but being dry'd up by extraordinary heat , as in fevers , becomes shrill and acute . it has double arteries , some from the carotides , others from the bronchial artery , which accompany all its ramifications . it sends forth veins to the external jugularies . it borrows nerves from the turning-back nerves of the sixth pair , chiefly dispersed through the inner membrane , to which they contribute a most exact sense of feeling . which lindan not considering , will not allow it any nerves at all . the rough artery is again divided into the bronchus and larynx . the bronchus is the lower and longer part , display'd with several branches into both parts of the lungs . the larynx is the upper part , of which we are to treat in the next chapter . chap. xv. of the larynx and voyce . the head of the rough artery , or the beginning , continuous to the mouth , is call'd the larynx , from 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , to call with a wide throat , and is the organ of speech , and fram'd of several gristles and muscles , for the forming and expressing of words . i. the figure of it is circular , extuberant before , and somewhat depress'd behind , to give way to the gullet in swallowing . ii. it receives arteries from the carotides , which convey the blood , and send that which remains after nourishment , through the little veins to the external iugulars . and the animal spirits are brought by the turn-again nerves of the sixt pair . iii. the bulk of it varies according to the age , sex or temper of the person ; and hence also the variety of sounds in voyces , which in young people , and those that are of a dry temper , is shrill , by reason of the narrowness of the larynx ; in those of riper years , by reason of its wideness , is deeper : which variety may also happen from the length or shortness of the larynx ; also a strong or weak expulsion of the air , or plenty or want of it , in respect of which , the voyce is sometimes shriller or deeper . iv. besides the membranes mention'd in the former chapter , the larynx is compounded of five gristles , and thirteen muscles . v. columbus chuses rather to place the gristles among the bones , as approaching nearer to a boney than gristly substance ; and which sometimes in old men turn'd to absolute bone , and more he affirms , that they contain a marrowy substance , like bones . but he would have much ado to make out that marrowy substance . moreover , although it turn to bone in old men ; yet they are not therefore to be numbred among bones ; for they may be at first for a long time gristles , and yet afterwards turn to be bones ; as we have sometimes observ'd the gristles between the vertebers of the ribs , and the spine , have turn'd boney ; which , before that alteration , no man could have said were bones . vi. the first of these gristles is call'd scutiformis , because of its resemblance to a buckler , being almost foursquare like the bucklers of the ancients , or rather like an iron-breastplate , gibbous without ; which gibbosity , because it is more conspicuous in men than in women ; therefore in men it is call'd adam's apple , because it is vulgarly believ'd , that part of that fatal apple stuck in adam's throat ; for a punishment of his transgression ; and that for that reason this gristle grew bunching out , and the protuberation became hereditary to his posterity ▪ but because it is distinguish'd in the middle by a certain line , therefore some have describ'd it as double ; whereas it was never found to be double in this world ; or if ever any body did live to see it so , it was a wonder , and no common accident . in its angles it has processes ; above , two longer , by which it is joyn'd to the lower sides of the bone hyoides , by the help of a ligament ; and two shorter below , by which it adheres to the lower muscle . fallopius writes , that he has met with the thyroides gristle boney , not only in decrepit people , but in such as have been but newly entring into old age. moreover , he adds , that when the thyroides began to grow long , it hardned first in the sides . vi. the second is call'd anuulary , because it is round in form of a ring , and encompasses the whole larynx . vii . the third and fourth is call'd the guttal , because the processes being joyn'd together , resemble that part of an earthen pitcher , out of which the water flows when we poure it forth . fallopius writes , that he never found the guttal gristle boney , which riolanus affirms he has seen . viii . the fifth , epiglottis , seated at the root of the tongue , and is the covering of the little chink or glottis , lest the meat and drink should slip into the aspera arteria in swallowing ; though it be not so exactly joyn'd , but that some moisture may slide in between the junctures into the trachea . this is softer than the rest of the muscles ; resembling an ivy-leaf , or the tongue it self , and therefore is call'd lingula . nicolaus stenonis observes a certain piece of flesh , compos'd of glandulous berries , in the upper part of a calves epiglottis , from which , he says , there are conspicuous passages to be seen through the gristle it self to the lower part . ix . these gristles of the larynx , are furnish'd with thirteen muscles , for the motion and modulation of the voyce ; by which the chink is either dilated or contracted . of these , there are four which are common , and nine peculiar ; which are call'd the vocal nerves , proceeding from the turn-again branches of the sixth pair . the common nerves are they which are implanted into the larynx ; yet have not their original from it . the peculiar are they which rise and end in the larynx . of which first , there are four ; of the latter , eleven . x. the first pair of common ones , which is the lowermost , call'd sterno thyroides , arising from the uppermost and internal part of the sternum , is inserted below into the sides of the scuti-form'd gristle , and while it draws down the scutiform , it contracts the chink . xi . the other pair , which is the uppermost , call'd the hypothyroides , arising from the lower seat of the hyoides-bone , is inserted into the bottom of the target-fashion'd , and by raising it up , dilates the fissure . riolanus believes that this pair is particularly related to no gristle ; but that it raises up the whole larynx . xii . the first pair of proper muscles , which is very small , according to the opinion of veslingius , and most anatomists , derives its original from the annular gristle , and ends in the sides of the scutiform , or target fashion'd gristle ; and hence is call'd cricothyroides anticum , and is thought to move the gristle somewhat obliquely downward . on the other side , bartholinus , from the insertion of the nerves , judges , that the foremost pair arises from the lowest part of the scutiform , and ends in the annular gristle , and draws it gently to the scutiform , and is almost immoveable , that so they may be joyn'd , and so kept joyn'd ; and therefore that this part ought more properly to be call'd thyrocricoides . but this opinion of bartholine , riolanus , according to his custom , sharply derides , as one that will not easily fuffer any man to dissent from himself , or to invent , or know any thing in anatomy , which he either saw not , or knew not before . xiii . the second pair proceeds with a fleshy beginning behind , from the annular , and ends with a nervous substance in the lower part of the guttal , or artaenoides , and by the separation of the two artaenoides - gristles , opens the larynx . it is commonly call'd by anatomists , the hinder cricoartaenoides , and by casserius , the cuc●…lar pair . xiv . the third pair , call'd the crico-artaenoides , arising above from the sides of the annular , is inserted into the sides of the guttal , at the ioynt , opening the larynx , by an oblique separation of the gristles . xv. the fourth intrinsecal and broad pair , call'd thyro-artaenoides , both foremost and hindermost , arises from the scutiform : or as riolanus suspects , from the cricoides , and ends in the sides of the guttal or arsenoides , by closing which , it shuts up the larynx in a right channel . xvi . the ninth muscle ( by others , the fifth pair , and call'd arytaenoides ) arises from the hinder line of the guttal , and carry'd on with transverse fibres , is inserted into the sides os the same , and binding the artaenoides - cartilage , closes up the larynx . xvii . the epiglottis in men is furnish'd with no conspicuous muscles , ( though iohn van horn writes , that by the industry of the anatomists , he found two small suspensory muscles ) neither is it mov'd by any arbitrary motion , but by the weight of swallow'd victuals , and drawing the tongue backward , seems only to be depress'd . in larger animals that chew the cud , and continually gape , through their perpetual devouring of meat , and have a large epiglottis , it is furnish'd with apparent muscles ; of which some rise from the hyoides , and being inserted into the bottom of the epiglottis , raise it up ; others , being seated between the tunicle , and the cartilage of the epiglottis , draw it down , and so close the larynx . xviii . the larynx being form'd of the foresaid parts , to the end that in the modulation of the voyce , it may conveniently perform its office , wants continual moisture and smoothing ; to which purpose , there are fix'd to it several little kernels . the most conspicuous of these are two greater , at the upper seat of the larynx , or the root of the tongue ; seated at the sides of the uvula or cover of the larynx , upon each side one , call'd by the latins , tonsillae , and vulgarly , the almonds , though they nothing resemble the form of almonds , cover'd with the common tunicle of the mouth , and furnish'd with small veins and arteries , arising from the carotides and jugulars . these are loose and spungy , and full of little hollownesses ; one large and oval , opens into the mouth , which in cows and oxen , easily admits the top of the little finger , and several small ones , which receive the spittle , and moisture of the brain , and with that continually moisten and make slippery the larynx , the jaws , the tongue , and the gullet ; and so me think , that the spittle is there made out of the humors that fall from the brain . fallopius well observes , that sometimes the opening of the large hollowness , or concavity , resembles a little ulcer ; and sometimes is handled for such a thing by unskilful surgeons , especially when it gapes overmuch , by reason of the copious falling of the humors into the kernel . now how far it gapes sometimes , i saw in a certain country-woman , who , in the year . being hungry , had eaten boyl'd prunes , and by reason of her hasty swallowing , i know not by what accident , one of the stones enter'd into the opening of the large concavity . presently the kernel swell'd , and by its compressure , shut up the passage of meat and drink , in such a manner , that she could swallow neither meat nor drink , so that she was forc'd to seek my advice . upon my keeping down her tongue , i saw the kernel very much swell'd in the right side , but not inflam'd , and the opening of it gaping at a more than usual rate ; but i could not see the stone . presently i gave the woman to sup a little decoction of barly mix'd with syrup of dialthea , and put my hand without-side upon the region of the swell'd kernel , and squeez'd it very hard , bidding the woman at the same time to endeavour with all her force to swallow the liquor in her mouth . the first time the liquor burst forth at her nostrils ; but the second time , by reason of my hard squeezing with my thumb , and by drawing back the tongue toward the hinder parts , it came to pass that the stone leapt out of the kernel , into her mouth , and then the woman could presently swallow both meat and drink . in may . another prune-stone slipt into the same kernel , and i cur'd again the same way . in december . i saw an accident of the same nature , that happen'd to a citizen of utrecht , into whose opening of the said concavity , there fell a piece of hard cheese , and immediately stopp'd his swallowing of any victuals . but his cure was not so sudden as the former , but gave us the trouble of some days ; so that we were forc'd to draw out the piece of cheese with a crooked pair of tongues , made for that purpose . wharton , contrary to all reason , believes these kernels , which are hardly endu'd with any remarkable sense of feeling , to be the true and primary organs of taste . moreover , he believes , that the spittle-matter flows from the brain to those kernels through the nerves ; as if such a copious quantity of thick and viscous matter could flow through the narrow , and almost invisible pores of the nerves . the refutation of which , see , l. . c. . and , lib . c. . below the said tonsils , are two other little kernels , adjoyning to the lower region of the larynx , of each side one , near the sides of some of the first rings of the rough artery . these , because they are furnish'd with several little arteries and veins , have a more blood-like and solid substance , than the other kernels ; and are not so easily cut with the pen-knise . what their use is , is much question'd : some believe 'em to be fram'd on purpose to moisten the larynx on the outside with a slimy and fat moisture , and to render the gristles more fit for motion . but in regard there is little need of this use , for that the larynx does not require this humectation on the outside , i rather think it fit to be enquir'd , whether some spittle-vessels do not proceed from them ? xx. next to these , stand the parotides , the jugular and maxillar kernels , seated under the tongue : of all which , see l. . c. . and thus we have describ'd the organs that form the voice . xxi . now the voice is the articulate sound of a man , produc'd by the tongue , through the repercussion of the air breath'd in , to express the conceptions of the mind . xxii . scaliger , having a regard to this end , not impertinently alledges out of aristotle , that reason is the hand of the intellect , as the speech of reason , and the hand of speech . for the hand executes commands , commands obey reason , and reason is the power of the intellect . also out of cicero , that nature hath arm'd man with three assistances ; wit for the invention of necessaries ; speech , for succour ; and hands , to bring those things to perfection which the wit has found out ; or we have learn'd by speech from others . for by the means of the voice and speech , we beg of others what we want , and learn what we know not . moreover , by the same means , we command what we would have done , and declare what we desire to communicate . therefore not every sound , as , coughing , or hauking , &c. is a voice ; but only that which is made in the tongue , and directed by the mind , by the means of the muscles of the tongue . hence most brutes , though they have the organs of speech , as a larynx with muscles , lungs , &c. yet they do not send forth an articulate sound ; because the air breathing outward , is not artificially directed , or articulated through the said organs , by the rational soul , which they want ; so that they either low , or neigh , or bark , or send forth some other inarticulate sound , by the instinct of nature only . nevertheless by art , sparrows , mag-pies , ravens , and some other birds , are taught to speak and sing articulately . chap. xvi . of the oesophagus , or gullet . see table . the oesophagus or gullet , by the greeks , 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 & 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , by the latins , gula ; by the arabians called meri ; is a round channel , or pipe , through which the nourishment descends from the mouth to the stomach . i. taking its beginning from the iaws , under the rough artery , it first descends downright ; thence turning a little to the right , to the fifth verteber of the thorax , then winds again to the left , toward the ninth verteber , and at length passing the diaphragma at the eleventh , it grows continuous to the upper orifice of the stomach , and holds it , as it were , in a hanging posture . ii. it is annex'd to the iaws and the larynx by the tunicle of the mouth , continuous to it self and the stomach , but to the rough artery , the vertebrae's , and other adjoyning parts , it is joyn'd by membranes arising from the ligaments of the back . iii. it receives arteries from the carotides , and the descending trunk of the aorta ; many times also from the intercostals and the bronchial artery , found out by frederic ruysch . sometimes also it sends forth some few veins to the vein that has no pair , and sometimes to the jugulars . and it has some little small nerves from the branches of the sixth pair . vii . it consists of a fleshy and membranous substance , that it may be commodiously extended , and full again , and it is form'd of five tunicles . the first of these is outermost ; 't is said to be also common to the stomach : but there is a manifest difference , when the membrane of the gullet rises from the pleura , but that of the stomach from the peritonaeum . the second , which is the middlemost , and proper to it , is very thick , soft , and fleshy , like a muscle boar'd through , interwoven with round and transverse fibres , obliquely meeting one another , as opposites , and cutting each other like a st. andrew's cross. the third , which is the innermost , and proper to it also , is continuous to the membrane surrounding the mouth and jaws , thin , hard and nervous . which some affirm to be sprinkl'd with streight and long , others with transverse and circular fibres ; but indeed they are so small and tender , that it is not an easie thing to make any judgment concerning them . v. for the moistning of the gullet , several kernels are annex'd to it . that is to say above , next the sides of the tongue and larynx , two tonsils , affording moisture to smooth the inward concavity ; of which , in the foregoing chapter . on the outside , the two inferior glandules are said to moisten it , seated in the hinder part of the gullet , near the first vertebra of the thorax ( in the same place where the gullet , giving way to the trunk of the aorta , turns a little to the right ; ) and many times lie so conceal'd between the gullet and the oesophagus , that they are n●…t to be found , but by diligent search ; and yet about the bigness of a french bean , and resembling the shape of a kidney ; and adhering with the convex part to the oesophagus , so that in their place , they seem like a kidney divided in the middle . however , they happen sometimes to be less , and to exceed the number of two ; and then they vary also in their shapes , being in number sometimes , , and . and they have also their vessels , diminutive arteries from the neighbouring arteries , and diminutive veins , which they send forth to the next veins and lymphatic vessels , conveying lympha to the lymphatic and pectoral channel . wharton also asserts , that they receive remarkable nerves from the sixth conjugation , as also from the twelfth pair of the vertebrae . but in regard they are neither sensible of feeling , nor are mov'd , i think it may be question'd , whether they have any remarkable and conspicuous nerves or no ? or whether they receive any at all , or at least only such as are hardly visible ? perhaps the lymphatic vessels , which proceed from 'em , deceiv'd wharton , who took those for nerves . some there are who believe , that these kernels not only moisten the gullet without , but also withinside , to facilitate the swallowing of nourishment . but in regard that outward irrigation is no way necessary , and for that there is no passage extended from the kernels toward the outward concavity of the gullet , it is apparent , that that can be none of their use ; but that they rather collect the lymphatic liquor , or suck it from the neighbouring parts , and mix it with the chylus , through the lymphatic channels . these kernels sometimes swell to that degree , by reason of the afflux of humors , that they compress and streighten the gullet overmuch , and so obstruct the passage of the nourishment , and starve the patient to death ; of which we have met with three or four examples in our practice . vi. the gullet is mov'd with three pair of muscles , and a peculiar sphincter . the first pair , which is call'd cephalopharingae●…m , dismiss'd from the confines of the head and neck , is expanded with a large fold of fibres into the tunicle of the gullet , & by raising it upward , streightens the jaws in swallowing . the second pair , call'd sphaenophari●… , arising from the cavity of the inner wing of the wedge-like bone , and being obliquely extended into the sides of the palat and gullet , dilates the gullet . to this , there are some who add another pair , inserted into the lateral and hinder part of the jaws and gullet , by drawing which part downward , they dilate the cavity of the jaws and gullet . the third pair , call'd stylopharingaeum , arising from an appendix of the pencil-fashion'd bone , and reaching the sides of the gullet , dilates it with the first pair . the sphincter of the gullet , call'd also the oesophag●…an-muscle , springing from both gristles of the wedge-like bone , encompasses the gullet like a sphincter , and by streightning it , thrusts the meat downward . vii . the use of the gullet , is to swallow the meat taken in at the mouth , which is perform'd by the fibres of the gullet , and chiefly by the oesophagus . galen numbers this among the natural actions ; but in regard that swallowing is an arbitrary action , and perform'd by the instruments serving to voluntary motion , that is to say , the muscles , it seems rather to be reckon'd among the animal motions . and tho' it serve to a natural use or action , which is nourishment ; however , it is no less an animal action than respiration ; which is assistant to nourishment , yet is an animal action . chap. xvii . of the neck . the uppermost appendix of the middle venter is the neck , call'd collum , à colendo , to be worshipped ; because it usually is most adorn'd . which etymology no way pleases us , in regard the neck was long before the use of jewels , and other ornaments ; and therefore we rather derive it from collis , as rising like a hill above the shoulders . this neck , do we , as most anatomists do , reckon among the parts of the breast ; as well by reason of the vertebrae's with the rest of the vertebrae's of the back , as by reason of their common use , in regard they afford a common passage with the rest to the marrow of the brain : though spigelius thinks that office rather ought to be attributed to the head. upon this part the head is set , as upon a more eminent hill , that from thence , as from a watch-tower , it may take a prospect every way of what is to be desir'd , what avoyded , and be mov'd about with an easie motion . i. the hinder part of it , though it be generally comprehended under the name of collum , yet is more particularly call'd cervix . the neck consists of the common coverings of the whole body ; as also of arteries , veins , nerves , seven vertebrae's , and eight muscles ; of which more hereafter . ii. the hinder part of the neck descending , is properly call'd 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , by aristotle , 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , as being seated above the shoulders . iii. underneath this , stand the shoulders ; by the greeks call'd 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 ; being those parts which are seated at the sides of the neck , which give a beginning to the whole arm , and are constituted by that eminency which the head of the arm makes , when it is joyn'd to the broad bone of the scapula . iv. the contrary part to this is hollow , seated under the ioynt of the arm , by the greeks call'd 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , or 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 ; by the latins , axilla ; and for shortness sake , ala. v. hippocrates makes a judgment of the strength of a man , by the thickness or slenderness of his neck ; and says , that a slender neck betokens imbecillity , and a thick neck , strength : not without reason , in regard that such as are the vertebrae's of the neck , such are generally the vertebrae's of the breast , the loyns , and the os sacrum ; nay , such indeed are all the rest of the bones , and other parts answering the bigness of the bones , as the arteries , nerves , veins , ligaments , &c. if therefore the neck be slender and weak , all the other parts of the whole body answerable to it , of necessity must be proportionably such ; but if thick and strong , the rest of the corresponding parts of the body must be proportionably large and strong , unless some monstrosity of the neck occasion an exception to the general rule . the end of the second book . the third book of anatomy . treating of the upper belly , or head . chap. i. of the head in general . order and method now requires that we should survey the upper region of the body , and enter the royal palace of minerva , and that superior mansion of hers , garrison'd with all her lifeguard , where is the seat of that most noble bowel , to which the supream architect subjected the government of the whole body . this uppermost region , or uppermost venter , is the head , wherein is contain'd the chief organ of the most noble functions of the soul. i. it is call'd caput , à capiendo , from containing ; either because it contains the brain , which is the most noble bowel ; or else because the sences and animal actions derive their beginning from it . by the greeks it is call'd 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , as much as to say , 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , or 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , a shell ; because perhaps the skull encloses the noble bowel like a shell ; whence it is call'd by the french , la teste . ii. it is seated in the uppermost and most eminent part of the body ; which the platonics think was therefore done , because there was a necessity ; and no more than what was just , that the understanding , which is the queen of all the faculties , should be uppermost exalted . but the galenics think it therefore done , that from thence , as from a watch-tower , all things to be desir'd or avoided , might be discover'd by the sight , smell and hearing . iii. the figure of it is sphaerical , somewhat flat on both sides ; and in man above all other creatures remarkable for its bigness , to the end , the brain , which is the most noble bowel of all , may the more safely abide in it , being incompass'd , besides other coverings , with a boney scalp , on every side , which sustains and preserves the shape and figure of the whole head. concerning which , see more , l. . c. . spigelius finds out the convenient proportion of the shape and bigness by the means of four lines . to the end the parts of the head , says he , may be proportionable one to the other , it requires four equal lines . the first is , that which we shall call the equal line of the héad , and reaches from the lower part of the chin to the upper part of the forehead . the next is that which we call the line of the hinder part of the head ; and reaches from the top of the head to the first vertebra of the neck . the fourth reaches from one ear ( in which place are the mamillary processes ) extending to the highermost part of the fore-part of the head. now if these four lines are equal one to another , it may be call'd a proportionable head ; but if they decline to a certain inequality , they may be said to want so much of a certain , just and natural constitution , as they approach or recede from the foremention'd proportion : for if the face-line prove the longest , it may be call'd a long-head ; if shorter , a short-head . if the forehead-line be longer than the rest , it shall be call'd a broad-head ; if the line of the hinder part of the head be longer than the rest , then it shall be call'd a coppid-head : if all the lines are equal , then round and natural ; if all unequal , or some or most , then will the head be of that form which galen and hippocrates call 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , or like a town-top . iv. the head is divided into the hairy part , and the smooth part. the one is call'd the hairy scalp , the other , the face . the hairy scalp is divided into the fore-part , the hinder-part , and the temples : the face , into the forehead , and the parts beneath it ; as , the nose , the cheeks , &c. which are usually comprehended under the name of the face . the region of the forehead extends it self from the top of the nose to the hair. hence the fore-part of the head proceeds to the coronal suture : between which and the lambdoidal suture , is comprehended the bregma , or top of the head ; to which adjoyn the lateral parts , or temples , circumscrib'd by the bones of the temples between the ears and the eyes . the hinder-part , from the beginning of the lambdoidal suture to the first vertebra of the neck , is call'd the hinder-part of the head. chap. ii. of the hair and its generation . according to the common order , we shall first enquire into the hairy part of the head , and discover many things concerning it , which have hitherto been conceal'd . in this part , some are the extream parts , wrapt about the most noble bowel , both for ornament and safety : others internal . i. among the external parts , in the first place , we meet with the hair ; which are small , long , cold , dry and flexible bodies , growing out of the skin ; i say , out of the skin , because they are rarely seen to break out from any other part ; though they have been observ'd sometimes to grow in the heart , as we have already related , l. . c. . and not many years since , we saw in a woman such a hideous quantity of hair grow from a stinking nasty ulcer in her thigh , that it was a great hinderance to us in the cure , and forc'd us to eat away the spungy , putrid , proud flesh of the inside of the wound , that so fertilly produc'd those hairs . ii. they are call'd pili , from the greek word 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , which signifies any thing that is round and oblong . but pili is the general name for hair , and signifies any sort of hair in whatever part of the body it breaks forth . but besides the general name , there is also a particular name for the hair of the head , by the latins call'd capilli ; by the greeks , 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 ; from 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , to shave ; which the ancients call'd 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , or hairs in the head. also in both sexes they are call'd crines ; and more especially in men , 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , or caesaries , from frequent cutting ; in women , 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , from 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , to adorn ; by the latines , coma , from the extraordinary care that is taken of it . nature has produc'd a fruitful crop of this hair , not only in the upper part of the head , but more especially in men , about the mouth and the adjoyning parts , to preserve the more noble bowel from the vehemence of cold , and the extremity of heat ; and moreover , to the end that divine creature man might shew more graceful and majestic , by means of this ornament , deny'd to other creatures : for , turpe pecus mutilum , turpis sine gramine campus ; et sine fronde frutex , & sine crine caput . iii. here some may query , since hair was given for an ornament to the face of men , why men are more grac'd with the ornament of beards than women ? this comes to pass , because that the first architect , as he design'd a distinction between their instruments of generation , so was he pleas'd to distinguish between their ornaments ; and therefore he allotted to man a beard about his mouth , which in women would have been deformed and unhandsom : and to the end there might be no necessity to inspect the genitals of either sex , to find the distinction , which would have been unseemly and shameful : and therefore boys , before they arrive at man's estate , are destitute of beards , till they are able to perform the act of manhood , which is generation . any other natural reason can never be given ; for that in both sexes , the parts about the mouth are equally form'd , and yet in those parts the mark of distinction is plac'd as an ornament , at that very time when there is a necessity for that distinction ; that is , at the time when the procreative faculty begins to move , when it is requisite that boys should be distinguish'd from maids by some external mark obvious to the sight . iv. the hair breaks through the pores of the skin , yet not through all the pores , but only such as are endis'd with a certain aptitude to suffer that eruption : which aptitude not being in the palm of the hand , nor in the soles of the feet , nor in scars , therefore no hairs grow there . v. they are fix'd in the skin with certain little roots ; and in regard it was ordain'd , that they should be most plentiful in that same part of the head which is call'd the hairy part , therefore is the skin much thicker there than in other parts of the body , from whence they give forth less numerous and smaller . vi. the hair is divided into hair brought forth with the body , and growing afterward . the hair with which we are born , is the hair of the head , the eye-lids , and eye-brows . the other hair , is that which afterwards appears upon the face , privities , breast , under the arm-pits , in the nostrils , ears , arse-hole , thighs , legs , and other parts of the body . vii . the hair is also a heterogeneous body , though it seems homogeneous , as appears from hence , that they live and are nourish'd : for there is no life in any body which is homogeneous and simple ; and the concoction and preparation of nourishment , separation of useful from unuseful , as also apposition and assimilation , are necessarily perform'd by the diversity of the smaller particles . and therefore though aquapendens , and several others affirm this part to be a similar part , yet that is only to be understood in the gross ; not that they are really homogeneous and similar , but seem to be so to the sight . viii . the form of the hair is two-fold ; the one essential , and the other accidental . the essential part is that which gives the hair its being and life , which is its soul. and because this form is to us unknown , and the presence of it only perceptible to the mind , nor can well be express'd in words . we , with other physicians ( who take their temper from whence all their action proceeds , for the form of the parts ) will likewise agree , that their essential form is their cold and dry temper . the accidental form of the hairs , is their figures and shape , whatever it be , long , crooked , straight , curl'd , round , square , &c. for the hairs at first sight , seem solid , and exactly round ; yet upon a more narrow inspection , you shall observe other things . spigelius says they are square , and riolanus , that they are hollow . we also affirm , that the hairs are porous , and that some are square , others triangular , and other round . for all these figures manifestly appear , if the hairs being cut small and short , and well view'd with a microscope ; but the pores are chiefly extended according to their length , as you may observe much better in the bristles of a hog . ix . the efficient cause of hair , is the same which perfects the generation of other bodies ; that is , a convenient heat acting upon apt matter , and disposing it to an animation proper for hair. and though in dead bodies , in which the hair will grow for some time , there seems no heat to remain ; yet there is such a heat , and so much , as is sufficient to promote the generation of hair , there being no extraordinary heat requir'd for that work . hence the heat forms , animates and pushes forth hair out of fit matter ; which being thrust forth by the ambient cold , become much drier and harder . and hence those hairs that come into the world with us , because they have remain'd long in a moist place , in new-born infants , are very soft and moist ; but the child being born , they are soon dry'd by the air. x. concerning the first original of hair , there is some dispute among the philosophers ; while some believe 'em form'd in the first delineation of the parts , out of the seed ; others will not have 'em to proceed originally from the seed . the former produce several arguments to confirm their opinion , and do not believe there can be any question made , but that the hair which comes into the world with us , is form'd out of the terrestrial part of the seed , in regard that the matter of hair is chiefly analogous to the seed ; and hence the substance of the hair born into the world , as also the form and colour of it , resembles the substance , form and colour of both parents ; and for that men abounding with seed , are more hairy , whereas either through much use of venery , or defect of seed , they fall off , as in old age. as to the hairs that grow after the birth , they say , that it grows from the same seminal matter sticking in the parts which are to be cover'd , and not yet stirr'd up into act ; but afterwards , in its own due time , swelling through heat . the latter sort , much more to the purpose , maintain , that the hair is not form'd in the first formation , out of the seed with the rest of the parts ; but afterwards , when the parts are already delineated , and somewhat grown , that in some of those parts more proper , and more fit for this purpose , that same peculiar matter fit for the generation of hair , increases by the nourishment which is brought , and at length out of that matter agitated by the heat , the hair is form'd and stirr'd up , being endu'd with a particular soul and life distinct from the rest of the parts , because they are not stirr'd up , and endu'd with life with the rest of the parts out of the same seed ; but apart , out of other matter afterwards generated . now that they live by virtue of another peculiar vegetable soul , that has no communion with the other animated parts of the body , is apparent from hence ; for that they do live only while a man is alive , but after his decease , are nourish'd and encreas'd , after the same manner as polypody-moss , &c. grow upon old trees , both before and after the tree dies ; because they have each a proper soul , distinct from the form and soul of the tree , out of which , and wherein they grow . xi . there is great diversity of hair , which though it be to be observ'd in all the hairs of the body , yet is chiefly observable in the hairs of the head for they differ , first , in plenty . hence some have very thin and small heads of hair ; others are very hairy upon their heads from their births , or else after they are born ; and that by reason of the great store or scarcity of the matter convenient , which produces the hair. but as for those who afterwards become bald , that befals 'em not only from the small quantity , but from the defect ; as in leprous persons , or the unaptness of the matter , or the closeness of the pores out of which they grow . wonderful was the vast ▪ quantity of absolon's hair , of whom the scripture says , that when he shav'd his head , which was but once a year , the hair of his head which he cut off , weigh'd two hundred shekels ; every she ▪ kel , according to the publick weight of the iews , weighing an ounce . secondly , in thickness . hence some heads of hair are thicker , others thinner , by reason of the various bigness of the pores through which they pass , or the redundancy or plenty of matter . thirdly , in length . for some hair grows shorter , other hair grows longer ; and generally womens hair grows longer than mens , by reason of the redundancy of matter , and the wideness and narrowness of the pores : for if the pores are over-wide , the hair falls off , before it grows to any length ; but if straighter , then the roots stick faster , and plenty of matter supplying their nourishment , they grow in length . ly . in their external quality . hence some hair is harder , some softer ; some curls , some hangs lank , and sometimes dry or moist ; partly from the various disposition of the pores through which they pass , either in streightness , or winding tortuosity , hence also it is , that sometimes the hair shoots forth in bushes , and without order ; as upon the head , privities and beard ; in other places orderly , and as it were in a perfect row , as in the eye-lids . ly . in colour . hence some are red-hair'd , others black , others white , others grey , and others of a midling colour between both . xii . this variety of colours proceeds from the variety of humors that are mix'd with the iuice with which the hair is nourish'd ; with which , if flegm be mix'd , the hair becomes white ; and therefore flegmatic people , who are of a cold temperament from their births , are generally white-hair'd . if smoaky vapors , either through over-much heat , and burnt with too much concoction , are mix'd therewith , then the hair becomes black . hence those that are of a hot constitution , and concoct their meat well , and therefore breed those fuliginous vapors in great abundance , are generally black-haird ; if yellow choler be mix'd therewith , then they become red-hair'd : if flegm abounds in one part of the skin , fuliginous vapors , or choler in another , the hair will be of several colours ; in one place white , in another black or yellow : and those colours , proceeding from the same humors , setled in the skin , then also many times , as in brutes , the same colours are imprinted in the skin ; whence aristotle , not considering those humors setl'd in the skin , and giving it a colour , affirm'd , that the skin conduc'd to the colouring of the hairs , and that they were of the same colour with the skin . thus you shall see some grey in one part of the head , in another black-hair'd ; and in dogs and horses of several colours , we see the same colours , as well in the skin , as in the hair ; because the same colours were imprinted in the skins of those creatures , at their first coming into the world ; which colours remain as long as the same humors are setled in the skin ; with which , if afterwards other colours happen to mix , then the colour changes . thus in horses and dogs of several colours , when they grow old , by reason of the increase of flegm , and its more copious mixture , the hairs grow white , and the spots that were black before , grow grey . hence also it is apparent , why the egyptians , arabians , indians , spaniards and italians are generally black-hair'd ; because they inhabit hot countreys , and are us'd to strong wines , and other hot diets ; by which heat a greater quantity of burning vapors are generated ; which being mix'd with the alimentary juice of the hair , imprint that colour into it , which is thence also given to the hair. whereas the english , hollanders , scotch , danes , and other northern countreys , are generally bright-hair'd ; because they inhabit colder countreys ; whence there is great store of flegm generated in their bodies , which gives a whitish tincture to the alimentary juice of the hair ; & thence it is that there are few people who are truly black-hair'd ; but several , who , till they come to be middle-ag'd , are between a white and a black. add to this , that in those countreys , the greatest part sooner grow grey ; whereas in hotter countreys the people are not grey so soon . now , that this is the true cause of the variety of colours , and change of the colours of the hair , is apparent from hence , for that the hair does not always keep the same colour which it was of in the infancy of the person ; but changes according as the temper of the person changes , or as other humors are generated in the body . thus marcellus donatus tells us a story , of one that in the declination of his years , at what time he was quite grey , by the mixture of great store of choler abounding in his body , with his blood , not only his skin contracted a gold-colour , but that also all his grey hairs lost their greyness , and became of a yellowish colour inclining to green. but hence i would not have it concluded , that the hair is generated out of these flegmatic , sanguine , choleric or adust humors , or that they are nourish'd by them , as a proper nourishment : for they are generated , and receive their nourishment from a specific juice , or humor , prepar'd after a special manner ; which they take from the part wherein they are setl'd , which prepares that humor out of the blood , or some other humor flowing to it . but this is that which i mean , that the colour of the hair proceeds from the mixture of this or that humor with the nourishing juice . hence it is that hippocrates has left it for a maxim , that whatever moisture the skin has attracted , whether white , red , or black , the hair is always of the same colour . in this sence alexander aphrodisaeus writes , that sometimes the hair will be almost of a golden colour , if yellow colour happens to be mix'd with flegm ; that is , when those two humors are mix'd together with the alimentary juice of the hair. thus as a man begins to encline toward old age , the hair becomes more and more grey and white , not from the defect of alimentary matter , but because of the colder constitution , greater store of flegm is generated in the body , and mix'd with that juice wherewith the hair is nourish'd , and causes it to turn white . xiii . hence it is manifest , why the hair of the head sooner grows grey than upon the privities , under the arms , or upon the thighs , &c. because that in no part of the body , there is so much flegm generated as in the head ; which being infus'd into its skin , cannot chuse but settle more abundantly in the alimentary juice of the hair , in aged people , than in young folks , who less concoct and dissipate more the crude humor . from which flegm more closely mix'd , the white colour is given to the matter , and by that to the hair. but in the other parts , as in the privities , arm-pits , &c. which are hotter , the flegm happens to fix later , and for that reason the hairs become later grey in those parts . xiv . the galenists , from the colour of the hair , make several iudgments of the tempers not only of the skin , but of the whole body . thus , a white colour indicate a flegmatic ; a red , a choleric ; a mixt colour den●…tes a midling temper . nay , sometimes occult diseases also , and the conditions of the mind are discover'd by the colour and constitution of the hair. thus the disease and cure of the leprosie , which is describ'd in the old testament , was chiefly disclos'd by the colour of the hair. long , slender , and streight hair denotes a mild and courteous disposition ; curl'd hair an inconstant and testy disposition , and quickness and chearfulness in undertaking of business : soft hair berokens pusilanimity ; harsh hair , especially inclining to black , resolution of mind , and strength of body . — durae per brachia setae promittunt atrocem animunt . after all these things , that there may be nothing wanting in reference to the discourse of hair , let us enquire what is the matter out of which hair is generated , seeing that we have already shew'd , that it is not generated out of the seed at the first formation of the birth . xv. this matter then is a certain thick , terrestrial , viscid iuice , bred out of the blood , or some other humor , and prepar'd after a specific manner . that the matter is thick and terrestrial , appears from hence ; that is to say , from the hardness , the viscousness , from the firmness and flexibleness of the hair. xvi . out of this matter , or out of this iuice , in the parts adapted for the generation and fixing of the hair , is the hair generated , animated and shot forth by the agitated heat , and afterwards nourish'd after the same manner . for this juice is attracted by the roots of the body , and carry'd through the pores to the extremities , & so nourishes the hair , and passes into its substance , as we may observe in the nourishment of plants . this juice , i say , is concocted and prepar'd in certain parts , out of which the hair shoots , and that at what time those parts are become fit for the preparation of this sort of matter ; which aptitude , when some parts obtain sooner , others later , hence it comes to pass , that the hair grows sooner in some parts ; as upon the head , eye-lids , and eye-brows ; in others , later ; as upon the chin , the privities , the breast , the arm-pits , &c. xvii . riolanus's judgment is other wise concerning this matter ; who thinks this juice is not prepar'd in the parts which are to be cover'd , but endeavors to prove , that the matter of the hair is afforded only from the kernels . besides the aptitude of the skin , says he , there is requir'd a certain glandulous substance , as well to moisten the skin , and to afford matter for the generation and nourishment of the hair ; wherefore where the parts are slimy and moist , there are also kernels ; for proof of which , we find , that where there are kernels , there is also hair. the hair therefore taking this opportunity from the kernels , grows and increases , collecting that which abounds and ●…lows into the extremities ; but where the body is dry , and no glandules are , there grows no hair moreover , there are kernels on both sides the ears , near the iugular veins of the neck , and hair also in the same place . also under the arm-pits on both sides , there are kernels and hair : but the brain is bigger than all the rest of the glandules , and therefore there is more hair upon the head. but though this be a specious argument of riolanus , as propounded according to the opinion of hippocrates , yet it rests upon no solid foundation . rather the contrary will follow , should we thus argue ; where there are no glandules , there is no hair ; which that it is false , many proofs declare . for there are no manifest glandules under the skin of the legs , which are nevertheless very hairy in most men. moreover , in men they abound upon the chin and lips , where there are no kernels of any moment to be found . and therefore riolanus vainly endeavors , to force his matter from remote kernels near the ears , and others under the tongue , to create hair upon the lips and chin. moreover , hair has been observ'd to grow in the heart , where never any glandules were yet known to be . it has also been found that hair has grown upon dry'd carkasses ; for the generation of which , the dry'd up kernels can afford no matter most certainly . moreover , if the kernels afforded that slimy matter for hair , and riolanus's rule were true , where there are kernels , there is also hair ; why does not hair grow in the same parts of women , seeing they have as many kernels as men ? why have they no hair upon their chins and lips , like men ? why are not their breasts hairy also like men's ; seeing their breasts are full of such large kernels , so that by that reason they ought to have the most hair in those places ? in the last place , riolanus does very ill to number the brain among the glandules ; as we shall shew in the fifth chapter following . xviii . but galen , and with him , many other physicians and philosophers dissent from our opinion first propounded , and the doctrine of riolanus , who believe , and teach , that the matter out of which hair grows , and is generated , is no peculiar iuice , to that end specifically prepar'd in the parts to be cover'd , or supply'd from the glandules , as riolanus asserts , but that it is an excrement of the third concoction , moist , fuliginous , thick , and terrestrial , rais'd from the fat which lies under the skin , or from some slimy and viscous humor , that lies in like manner under the skin , and sticks to it ; which being apply'd to the roots of the hair , shoots forth by degrees the preceding particles , and causes 'em to grow long . from which opinion of his , they thus conclude , that no nutritive matter passes through the hair it self to its extremities ; but that their growth is caus'd by the said apposition to the roots ; which is the reason that they do not grow all of an equal dimension secondly , that the hair is not to be numbred among the parts of the body , partly , because it is not nourish'd with alimentary juice , but by fuliginous vapors : partly , because they have not a soul and life common to the rest of the parts . and hence the hair being cut , or pull'd up by the roots , a man is not deem'd to be depriv'd of any part of his body ; and for that they live after a man is dead , and depriv'd of his soul , or at least for some time . xix . but this opinion is oppos'd by others , with many strong arguments . . if the hair were generated out of any such fuliginous vapour , then in sane bodies , full of good and wholsom humors , where there is least of this sort of excrement , there would little hair grow ; in bodies full of peccant humors , a great deal of hair. whereas experience teaches us , that the hair grows best in soundest bodies , and sullest of good juice ; but that in bodies full of peccant humors , it grows very thinly , and falls off ; which causes that disease call'd alopecia , or falling of the hair ; which is cur'd by med'cines that evacuate peccant humors ; and by good diet , that creates good blood , and consumes fuliginous excrements . . that the hair is not nourish'd by any such excrement , or increas'd by its apposition , appears from hence ; for that the hair being cut , and consequently made obtuse at the end , would remain obtuse ; whereas the contrary is apparent ; in regard the hair grows first at the ends , and becomes sharp . . the same thing is also manifest from hence ; that if you pluck up the hair by the roots , you shall find many times something of blood sticking to them , out of which , being concocted in the skin it self , and prepar'd after a specific manner in the hairy parts , is made that same juice which nourishes the hair , and by degrees passes through the cavities and porosities of the hair it self , to its extream parts , for the supply of nourishment : which is much more manifest in the pli●…a polonica , a disease so call'd ; wherein , upon the cutting away the hair , the blood is said to flow out ; questionless much more crude , as not being chang'd as yet into any such juice in the skin . now concerning the foresaid cavities of the hair , there is no question to be made of 'em ; for that they are extended inwardly to the full length of the hair , is manifestly seen , if being cut into small pieces , they be well view'd with a microscope ; which may be easily discern'd in the hair of a live elk , as gesner observes . moreover , the hair is nourish'd after the same manner as the feathers of birds ; for it is almost of the same nature . now the quills contain in themselves , and make an alimentary juice , in a certain cavity which extends to their ends , and what if the hair have such a cavity ? for this juice seems to be made in the quills out of the blood , in regard that every quill has a little artery extended into the cavity . and thus the hair may have a peculiar juice and cavity , through which that nourishment is carried to the ends of it , whether it be generated out of the blood , or other humors . . if the hairs growing grey through sickness , afterwards return to their natural colour , certain it is that they are not put forth by apposition , but are really nourish'd through the whole substance : as appears from hence , that when the hairs begin to grow grey , they grow first white at the end , and so gradually to their furthest extent toward the head. whereas otherwise , if they were nourish'd by apposition , that whiteness would begin at the root , and that blackness which was before in the hair , would remain , and another white part were to be appos'd by degrees . nor is it less apparent from hence , that some men have become grey in one night , the nourishing humors being chang'd of a sudden through the whole length of the hair. . that the hair is said not to grow forth according to all dimensions , is not true ; for though they chiefly grow in length , yet there is some growth and increase observ'd in breadth ; for we find , that some slender and soft hairs become afterwards thicker and harder ; especially in the beard . thus in young girls whose hair is very slender and soft , yet afterwards , though they never cut their hair , it comes to its just thickness and length ; which bounds of thickness they never exceed , no more than the teeth , bones , veins , and other parts ; which having receiv'd to their full growth , make a full stop , and grow no more : there being a certain bound of magnitude , and a certain shape prescrib'd to every part by the supream creator ; whence it comes to pass , that the hair does not grow so much in breadth as in length . . if the hairs were nourish'd with a fuliginous excrement of the third concoction , they would increase to an immense length , and would grow continually as long as a man liv'd ; for there is a continual flux and supply of that excrement ; and so being appos'd to the roots , it would thrust forth the hair still farther and farther . but on the other side , we see that the hair , when it has attain'd to a certain length , grows no farther , as we find in women , who never cut their hair ; as also by the hairs of the legs , breast , privities , and other parts . these arguments have fix'd an opinion in the minds of many , that the hair is really a part of the body , and enjoy the same life and nourishment with the rest of the parts . xx. but if the reasons on both sides be well weigh'd and consider'd , we shall find that the former opinion is for the most part to be rejected ; and yet there are some things desicient in the latter , which is the truest . for , in the first place , it is well alledg'd , that the hair is not thrust forth by the only apposition of any matter , but that they receive nourishment through their whole substance . but here they do not explain , how the hair should turn grey of a sudden by such a nourishment . secondly , they do not shew , whether the hair be to be call'd a part of the body or no. neither do they unty this knot , how any part of the body can live and grow after a man is dead ? and therefore these two doubts are to be more clearly unfolded . xxi . as to the first , sometimes that men , out of extream terror or fear of death , in the space of a night or a day , have turn'd grey ; is most certain : which i was an eye-witness of , in a certain captain taken by the enemy , and fearing to be hang'd the next day . and story is full of accidents of the same nature ; as we may read in suetonius , nicolaus florentinus , crantzius , scaliger , adrianus funius , and others ; collected by marcellus donatus . xxii . the cause of this sudden alteration , some have ascrib'd to a sudden dryness ; others , to a sudden putrefaction of the humor nourishing the hair ; but neither of these causes can be the true one , since neither can happen so suddenly . therefore i judge this to be the reason : upon a great fear and terror conceiv'd in the mind , the heart by accident is extreamly troubled and perplex'd ; and hence there is a weak , or no pulse at all ; so that some people fall into a swoon ; now by reason of this weak pulse , little or no blood is carry'd to the extream parts , so that they grow cold , and shiver ; then the blood failing in the heart , the colour may be soon changed in the iuice that nourishes the hair , which was conveigh'd into it before by the humors mixed with the blood. so that if by chance the flegmatic whitish humors were setled in the skin before , they by the predominancy of their tincture , give a dye to the juice that nourishes the hair ; which continually passing through , and nourishing the hair to its utmost extremity , the colour of the hair may be changed in a short space , and become gre●… or white , because the substance of the hair is diaphanous , easily admitting all sorts of colours , which are carried into it with the nourishment . but if no flegm stick at that time in the skin of the head , but that some other fuliginous blackish humor , or of any other colour be there more firmly setled , then no sudden greyness can be the consequence of the greatest terror imaginable : and therefore because more frequently fuliginous and choleric vapors or other humors are setled in the skin , hence it comes to pass , that so few grow grey upon any sudden fright . but perhaps it may be objected , that if this be the cause of suddenly growing grey , then when the fear and terror is over , and that other humors have their free course to the skin of the head , that greyness should suddenly vanish again , and the hair would resume again its pristine colour . 't is granted , that if they could flow back in so great a quantity , that they could with their own colour out-tincture the white colour of the flegm : but for the most part by reason of the extream scarcity of the blood flowing in time of dismal affright , the pores of the skin are so closed and contracted by the flegm , that the more copious quantity of blood afterwards flowing thither , or whether it be any other fuliginous , blackish or choleric h●…mor cannot enter to discolour the flegmatic humor ; which is the reason that grey colou●… cannot afterwards be altered . though if it should happen that there should be any persons in whom those forementioned humors should get the upper hand of the flegmatic colour , which rarely falls out , the hair , 't is very probable might then regain its former tincture . this i saw in the captain before mentioned , whose hair in one nights imprisonment , from very black , became as white as snow ; but afterwards that whiteness in some measure , and by degrees lost its colour , so that in two years time , almost all his hair was turn'd black again : i say almost , for that he could never recover all his former colour , but that still a fourth part of his hair continu'd still grey . the same thing also happened to that person already cited , of whom marcellus donatus reports , that he was all over grey ; but that afterwards being overflown with choler , his hair became of a colour between green and yellow . the same accident has been observed up and down in others ; in whom , by reason of the redundancy of humors , that greyness which before had whitened all their locks , was changed into another colour . xxiii . as to the latter , whether the hair be to be numbred among the parts of the body , there needs no great dispute . for in several respects they may be called parts of the body , and sometimes not , according to the various definitions of a part. for if we put the definition thus ; a part of the body is any corporeal substance , making it compleat and entire with others , then hair may be said to be a part of the body ; for that really and indeed together with other parts , compleats and perfe●…ts the body of man ; as leaves make a tree , and feathers a bird. for as a tree without leaves , and a bird without feathers , can neither be said to be perfect , so a man without hair , cannot be said to have all his accomplishments , though he may live without it . but if we otherwise define a part , a part is a body cohering with the whole , and conjoyned by common participation of life , appropriated and ordained to its function and use , then hair can hardly be said to be a part of the body ; for though they live , yet they do not live the common life of the rest of the parts , but a peculiar vegetable life ; as moss or polipody growing upon a tree , lives a separate life from the tree , though it receive it's nourishment from the living tree . now the difference of its living appears from hence , because that though the tree be dead , yet the moss still lives , so long as it can receive any convenient nourishment from the tree , or elsewhere . in like manner , the hair , so long as it receives convenient nourishment from the body , either alive or dead , lives its own peculiar life ; which life , that it is not common with the rest of the parts , is prov'd from hence ; for that death is not common to the hair with the rest of the parts : for the soul departing , all the parts die that were enlivened with the same soul ; but not the hair , as growing after the death of men , by virtue of that peculiar soul wherewith they are endowed . now because the hair is nourished with the blood in living men , this does not prove that they are parts conjoyn'd by common life ; for they are not nourish'd immediately by the same blood , but by a peculiar juice , which in living men is made out of the blood ; yet may be also prepar'd out of other humors , as appears by the woman before mention'd ; out of whose ulcer , filthy and stinking , there grew a great quantity of hair : and as is also manifest in dead bodies , in which a long time after they have been laid in their graves , when there could be no blood remaining , the hair has been observ'd to grow . which is a certain sign that that same nourishing juice was not generated out of the blood , but out of some other humor remaining in the body , which not being overmuch in dead bodies , therefore the hair does not grow so fast in them as in living bodies . moreover , as the birth which is nourish'd by the umbilical blood through the navel , by means of the cheese-cake , adheres to the mothers womb , is nevertheless no part of the mother , but rather a living body by it self , begot in the mother , which in the womb enjoys the maternal blood as nourishment , as also the milky juice ; but afterwards being expell'd , the womb shall be no less sufficiently nourish'd , and live without that blood and milky juice , and all this while the mother remains entire , and undeprived of any part that contributes to her perfection , the same is to be thought of the hair. so that the question , whether the hair be a part of the body , is only a question and controversie about the definition of the part. xxiv . but because mention has been made concerning hair growing in dead bodies , we shall speak something to this particular . aristotle says , that the old hair grows in dead bodies , but that no new hair comes again ; so plotin writes , that the hair and nails of dead bodies , grows . we shall not trouble our selves to recite the several disputes of several physicians and philosophers upon this subject ; but only produce our own judgment , confirm'd by the testimonies and observations of several physicians . among the rest , i must not omit ambrose paraeus ; who writes , that he kept the dead body of a thief that was hang'd , in his house , by him , embalm'd , and dry'd it , to preserve it from putrefaction ; whose hair and nails , being by him several times cut and par'd , he observ'd to grow again to their usual length . but i need not the testimony of paraeus , tho a person of great credit , as having been a witness of the same much nearer home . xxv . in the year ▪ the plague raging at nimeguen , where i then p●…actic'd , one of the chief magistrates children dying of the distemper ; which the father , after all his other vaults were fill'd with his relations , was resolv'd to bury in a third of his own , that had not been open'd in years , for the burial , as i think , of his great grandfather ; at the opening of which vault , he desir'd me to be present , and to see whether the body were dried up , as other bodies bury'd in the same church , were observ'd to be . thereupon , opening the coffin , we found the body whole and entire , only the cheeks were a little fallen ; the rest of the members lay in their natural position ; and long hairs grew out of the shoulders , of a pale yellowish colour . a broad long beard also reach'd down to his navel , of the same colour with the hair ; though by the picture which was shew'd me , he wore the hair of his head and beard very short when he was alive . i also observ'd , that when i went to turn the carkass with my hand , the whole body , except the bones , fell into a thin dust , which after we had taken out the bones , and caus'd 'em to be bury'd again , we likewise found to be so small in quantity , that you might have grasp'd it all easily in one hand ; though it were the whole complement of the carkass . xxvi . lastly , by way of corollary , i shall only add one thing more ; whether great store of hair conduce to the strength of the body ? levinus lemnius maintains the affirmative ; and therefore advises sound people never to shave their hair to the skin . for , says he , the use of it , destroys the strength , and renders men soft and effeminate ; besides , it dissolves and extenuates the spirits and natural heat , and deprives the heart of a great part of its courage and daring boldness to look danger in the face . and the story of sampson in sacred scripture , seems to favour lemnius his party ; who lost his extraordinary strength upon the shaving of his hair , and recover'd it , upon the growing again of his hair. on the other side , we find the romans shav'd their wrestlers to the very skin , to render them more strong and lively . however , for my part , i am of opinion , that great store of hair conduces little to the strength of the body , but much to the health of the body , while the head is thereby cover'd and defended from many external injuries . but the head , together with the brain , being sound , great store of animal spirits are generated , which gives strength to the whole body of the nerves and muscles , and so great store of hair may seem to add to the strength of the body . but this can be no universal and perpetual rule ; because there are many , in whom great store of hair prevents the transpiration of the vapors , and consequently weakens the brain . for this same tower of pallas , being darken'd by clouds of vapors , the generation of animal spirits is thereby obstructed , and thereby the nerves and sinews are weaken'd ; besides that it is many times the occasion of catarrhs and other diseases . for this reason , to quicken the sight , ruates and avicen commend shaving of the head ; and celsus , in great defluxions of rheum , orders the head to be shav'd . for which reason , aristotle also was wont to shave the top of his crown . and galen reports , that the physicians of his time were wont to shave to the skin , for the preservation of their health . and besides , women , by reason of their great store of hair , are never accounted strong . to conclude therefore , we may say , that plenty of hair is sometimes a sign of strength , and sometimes the occasion of weakness and distempers , according to the constitution of the body . though they that have hairy breasts , and skins , are generally reputed strong ; not that the hair confers any strength upon the body ; but 't is a sign the heart and other bowels are sound and strong , and then the rest of the body must be strong of course . chap. iii. of the external coverings of the head. after the hair , follow the rest of the external coverings of the head : i. of which , the first that offers it self , is the cuticle , then the skin , which in the hairy part is of an extraordinary thickness , to defend the head from external injuries , and that the hair may have the deeper and firmer rooting . ii. under the skin lies a small quantity of fat ; but not too much , lest it should prevent the transpiration of the vapors . riolanus will not allow of any fat. iii. under the fat , lies the fleshy pannicle ; and under that , several muscles , to be treated of in another place . iv. next to these , lies the pericranium , which is a thin , soft , close , compacted and sensible membrane , by reason of the nerves dispersed through it and the temples , to the hinder part of the head. this encompasses the whole skull , and is closely joyned with sutures and nervous fibers ▪ running down through the joynings of the bones to the hard meninx , and united with it , whence there is a great agreement of the membrane with both ; insomuch that the pericranium is vulgarly said to derive its original from the meninx : from which opinion spigelius & highmore , not without reason differ ; who deny this original , and only acknowledg a connexion of both by nervous fibers . lindan seems to deduce the original of the pericranium from the tendons of the muscles of the forehead , temples , and hinder part of the head , expanded about the cranium ; which seems less probable , seeing that the pericranium is extended above the muscles of the temples , and their tendons , and cannot be drawn off without their prejudice . fallopius says , the pericranium is twosold ; and in some parts of the head may be divided into two parts ; of which , the one sticks to the skin , the other grows to the bone. but veslingius will not allow of this duplicity , nor could we ever as yet observe any such thing . above , before and behind , it encompasses the cranium , only the periostium between . only descending to the sides , it parts a little from it , and passes over the temporal muscles , and comprehends 'em within it self , for their greater security ; not so far as their insertion , but as far as the jugal bones ; and in those places it is thicker and harder . v. under the pericranium lies the periostium , which is a very thin nervous membrane ; by the benefit of which , the skull becomes sensible , as all other bones , except the teeth , which have their sense of feeling partly from the periostium , investing the roots , and partly from an inner little nerve . this as it is firmly fasten'd to the cranium , so also it is so exactly joyn'd to the pericranium , that it seems to make but one membrane ; which deceiv'd fallopius , who thought it to be but one ; which made him write , that the pericranium was the same in the head as the periostium in other parts ; forgetting that the periostium never passes over the muscles , as the pericranium mounts over the temporal muscles . but anatomical separation shews them to be two distinct membranes . to these exterior membranes , the vital blood is carry'd through the external branch of the carotid arteries , and that which remains after nourishment , through very small veins is remitted to the external jugular . some there are who believe these arteries , passing through the little holes of the cranium , penetrate and open into the large cavity of the hard meninx . which however does not seem very likely , when they only tend to the diplois , and there end , conveying the blood thither , for the generation of the spinal marrow ; but never return from the bones again . vi. the periostium adheres immediately to the bones of the head , which are either of the skull , or of the iaws , the bones of the cranium , are the bones of the forehead , forepart and hinder part of the head , the sphoenoides , and the bones of the temples . the bones of the iaws are many , and have most of them peculiar names . of which see l. . c. . &c. chap. iv. of the internal coverings of the brain : of the scythe , and the cavities . the cranium being taken off , the inner parts are to be seen ; among which are first to be met with two membranes , most acute in feeling ; by the greeks call'd meninges ; by the arabians , mothers , which careful nature wrapt about next to the brain , for the preservation of that most noble bowel . i. the outermost , which does not enfold the brain immediately , is from the thickness and hardness of the substance , by galen call'd 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , or 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 ; the thick or hard meninx , by hippocrates , 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , by others , dura mater , or the hard mother , endu'd with a most exquisite sense of feeling . this several anatomists , together with fallopius and paulinus think to be twofold ; but because the duplicature is not easily discern'd , therefore riolanus rejects it . it was fram'd by nature , not only for the preservation of the brain , marrow , and nerves , but also to distinguish the brain into two parts , as also from the cerebellum . it loosly wraps about the brain , as far distant from it as the conveniency of motion will fuffer . it also surrounds the whole inner part of the cranium with a looser folding , so that in some places it may be remov'd from it , as is usual upon trepanning the skull by a soft depression ; but at the bottom it is most closely knit , that it cannot easily be separated from it , and is firmly fasten'd to the sutures by fibers , and about a fingers breadth at the sides of the sagi●…ral suture , and many times near its meeting with the coronal , by the means of small vessels , which it sends forth toward the 〈◊〉 , it sticks in two , three , or four places ; in which places , when the cranium is pull'd off , certain little drops of blood start out of the broken vessels . once varolius saw one growing to the whole skull , which is very rare ; though twice observ'd by hildan also . ii it is pervious with many holes , for the passage of the vessels , and one large one , for the descent of the marrow ; and one more as large toward the spittle-kernel . but where it sticks to the sieve-like bone , it is perforated like a sieve , or rather sends little pipes to the nostrils through the small holes of the bone , manifestly conspicuous in the head of a calf . on the out-side it is rougher and harder , encompassing the cranium and its cavities , and with several fibers transmitted through the saw-like sutures , sticks to it ; of which fibers expanded on the out side , about the cranium , some believe the pericranium to be made . on the in-side , it is smooth and slippery , bedew'd with a watery humor ; and by means of the vessels , it sticks in many places to the thin meninx . iii. it receives arteries from the larger branch of the carotid artery , passing through the holes of the wedg-like bone , and the bone of the forehead , which , in some places , especially in the region of the crown , starting out of this membrane , supply the thin meninx with branches ; by means of which , these membranes stick one to another . it also sends store of veins to the cavities , and the branch of the iugular vein . iv. it is doubled at the crown of the head ; where descending toward the inward parts , it divides the brain into the right and left part. this uppermost doubl'd part , because it is broader toward the hinder parts , and contracted toward the fore-parts , and so seems to represent the shape of a mower's scy the , is call'd fal●… , or the scy the. v. the falx , or scy the , with the fore-part of it runs to the top of the nostrils , and grows to the cocks-comb , or the bony enclosure , distinguishing the papillary processes . but the hinder and broad part of it , being parted in the hinder part of the head , descencis toward the right and left side , and distinguishes the cerebel from the brain . in which place , there is a bone sticks out in dogs , that supports the brain , left the cerebel should be comprest by it . riolanus will allow no duplicature of the meninx in the falx , nor in the enclosure between the strain and the cerebel , which nevertheless the cavities form'd in the said duplicature , suffciently prove . vi. in the said duplicature , are four cavities , three larger , and one small one ; the inward hollownesses of which larger cavities are not large alike ; but by reason of the many vessels that open into them , are somewhat unequal ; as being broader in some places , in some places somewhat narrower . the first of these hollownesses , being the uppermost and longest , runs along the upper part of the falx , from the top of the nostrils , the whole length of the head toward the hinder parts , where it is divided into two lateral hollownesses at the bottom of the hinder part of the head descending near the sides of the lambdoides , and continu'd with the inner branch of the jugular vein . vii . where these hollownesses meet , there is that which is vulgarly call'd herophilus's wine-press , or the torcular herophili . but although these hollownesses meet equally , yet sometimes their meeting is found to be unequal ; so that one of the inferior lateral ones enters the streight one a little higher , and the other a little lower . besides the foresaid hollownesses , sylvius , and some other anatomists have observ'd three other hollownesses , though not in all bodies : one of which is carry'd along the lower part of the scythe , and is very narrow , & ends and opens into the fourth before-mention'd . the other two lateral , lesser and shorter , on each side one , in the hard membrane distinguishing the brain from the cerebel , lie distant from the larger about a thumbs breadth , into which sometimes they empty themselves , and sometimes run out as far as hierophilus's wine-press . riolanus laughs at these lesser hollownesses ; perhaps , because he never saw them , or else , because , according to his usual custom , he takes it ill , that he was not the first discoverer ; and therefore would deprive the first inventers of the honour . viii . into these hollownesses , besides the branch of the hindermost carotis , several little arteries running through the meninx , make their terminations ; the innumerable small orifices of which are manifestly conspicuous in the uppermost larger hollowness . which abundantly refutes fallopius , who asserts , that there is no artery which reaches these hollownesses . moreover , many veins of the meninxes open into the same , pouring forth blood into them ; which willis and wepfer have taught us by certain experience : for when they spurted in any black liquor with a syringe into the root of the carotid artery , they observ'd that black liquor to pass through innumerable arterious & veiny branches , till it flow'd at length into those hollownesses , and out of them into the jugular veins . bauhinus and veslingius also write , that certain little pipes belonging to the hollownesses , run out between the veins and arteries , into the substance of the meninxes and the brain . walaeus also observing the wider orifices of certain small vessels open into the hollownesses , and that the ends of the small arteries could not possibly be so wide , believes that these small pipes meet by anastomosis with the extremities of the arteries dispersed through the meninxes and the brain , and so receive from them the blood remaining after nourishment of the parts , and empty it into the hollownesses . which anastomosis highmore figures out with egregious big lines in his th . table of his d. book . but walaeus does not consider , that the orifices of the little arteries gaping into the hollownesses , are not wide , but very small ; and that the vessels which open into them with wider orifices , are veins ; which running large and numerous through the meninx , empty themselves into the hollownesses . so that there is no necessity to feign any small pipes produc'd from the hollownesses ; when our eye-sight plainly tells us , that those arteries and veins reach with their extremities , and open into the hollownesses without the help of any small pipes . into these hollownesses therefore , the blood which remains after nourishment of the meninxes and brain , empties it self through the vein ; and that which seeks to flow in greater quantity into those parts , through the arteries ; and thither also flows the blood redundant in the choroides fold , through the vein , which sometimes streight , sometimes forked , runs between the middle fold , in the third ventricle , above the pine-apple-kernel , ( which vein galen calls the vein that rises from no other vein ) and ascends through the fourth hollowness into the upper large hollowness , and thence by and by into the two lateral hollownesses , toward the mastoides excrescencies , or the basis of the hinder part of the head , to return from thence into the innermost branches of the jugular vein , immediately united and continuous to them , and so to the heart : now by means of that blood being forc'd through the orifices of the small arteries , into the hollownesses , it comes to pass that in the cranium of a living animal , there is observ'd to be a manifest pulsation in the uppermost large hollowness ; which may be easily try'd in the head of a calf or pig newly calv'd or farrow'd . but because those hollownesses are very wide , hence the blood which is pour'd into them , and forc'd forward by the pulsations of the small arteries , by and by flows to the lower parts ; which is the reason that the uppermost larger hollowness , together with the two lateral hollownesses , are found for the most part empty , without any blood , or containing very little , and very seldom full of blood ; which nevertheless we have frequently observ'd in people that were hang'd . hence it appears how grosly lautenbergius is mistaken , who believes the animal spirits to be generated in those hollownesses ; as also kyp●…r , who writes , that the blood is ventilated and refrigerated in them , for the more commodious uses of the brain , and more commodious generation of animal spirits . x. the other membrane endu'd with an exquisite sense of feeling , and furnish'd with several small arteries and veins , is 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 . tenuis meninx and pia mater , or the thin meninx and holy mother ; so call'd , because it is extream thin and slender , and like a tender and pious mother , immediately and softly enfolds the brain and its parts , and prevents them from spreading abroad , and also more profoundly involves and mantles its cells and turnings , and so renders the exterior superficies of the brain as it were plain and smooth . which upper connexion being loosned , the windings and meanders , as being cloath'd with this meninx , might be easily unfolded and separated . from this thin meninx proceeds also an extraordinary thin membrane , investing the innermost ventricles of the brain . ix . this membrane is interwoven wi●…h wonderful and numerous folds of small vessels or little nets , penetrating to the innermost of the kernels of the rind of the brain , and rising from the carotid and cervical arteries , joyn'd together to and again with mutual closures , to the end that for the better nourishment of the great bowel the brain , and the confection of animal spirits , plenty of blood might flow from all parts through these innumerable conduits . willis writes , that he has observ'd several little kernels interspac'd between these folds of the vessels , which , he says , may be easily perceiv'd in a moister or hydropic brain , though hardly visible in others . but without doubt , those glandules here observ'd by willis , were some kernels of the rind it self of the brain , which swelling with serous liquor , and rising outward , seem'd to him to be peculiar kernels interspac'd between the folds . the marrow or pith of the brain extended to the end of the back-bone , and all the nerves proceeding from it , receive a double tunicle from these me●…inxes , which being defended and preserv'd , they run forward to the several parts for which they are appointed chap. v. of the brain . i. the coverings being taken off , we come to the brain , in latin , cerebrum ; by the greeks call'd 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , which is the general organ of sence ; by means whereof the soul , which is the princess and governess of the body , performs all the functions of the inward and outward senses , and voluntary motion . for here she sits and judges of the sensations of the sensitive parts ; and from hence , as from a fountain , she communicates to all the sensitive parts of the body , the rays of all her benignity , the animal spirits begot in the brai , through the channels or rivulets of the nerves , and by them supplies to every one a faculty to perform the animal actions . ii. here in the first place , some there are who raise a question , whether the brain be a bowel or a real kernel ? and whether to be reckon'd among the number of the bowels ? hippocrates seems to have reckon'd it among the kernels : for , says he , the brain is bigger than the rest of the kernels ; as if he meant , that the brain were the biggest kernel . wharton says , it is a difficult thing to allow it any proportion common to the rest of the bowels , and therefore excludes it out of the number . with wharton also malpigius seems to agree . others , with plato , have plac'd it among the marrows , by reason of its friability , its softness , and its being surrounded with bones ; though it differ from the marrow of the bones ; neither does it take fire as that does . but they are all under mistake , who number it among the kernels or the marrow ; seeing that both the diversity of the substance and structure plainly shew that it has no resemblance either with the one or the other . but some will say that the whole cortex or rind is nothing but a heap of kernels : but because any part contains several kernels , although they make toward the necessary complement of the part , it cannot be thence concluded that the part is a kernel , for then the liver , spleen and kidneys , because they contain many kernels interspac'd within their substance , were to be call'd kernels , and excluded out of the society of bowels . the nose also , the tongue , the eye-lids , by reason of the kernels allow'd 'em , and the roof of the mouth were to be call'd kernels . besides the dignity of the brain it self , and the nobleness of the principal operations which it performs , clearly demonstrate , that it is really a bowel , no less than the heart , liver , &c. and performs its own and those the principal actions , and generates the most noble spirits of the whole body , that is to say , the animal ; and therefore most deservedly call'd a bowel by galen , and also by aristotle . iii. the brain is form'd out of the blossom of the seed , at the same time with the rest of the parts . and therefore those fictions are to be rejected , which ludovicus de la forge , following carnesius , has feign'd , that the brain is form'd out of the thicker particles passing through the pores of the arteries , & thence by reason of the narrowness of the pores extending themselves into long threds , and so making the substance of the brain , as it were compos'd of strings ; and through the force of the spirits bursting forth out of the pineal artery and the arteries adjoyning , hollowing the inside of it by accident with various cavities or ventricles : a fiction easily refuted ; for the brain is not form'd out of the thicker or harder particles of the seed passing through the pores of the arteries ; for besides that the seed does not flow through the arteries , there are no arteries that appear before the brain in the first formation ; but all the parts are delineated and form'd together out of the blossom of the seed , and not one after another , or by another . nor could the ventricles of it be hollow'd by any violence of the spirits breaking out of the pineal artery or arteries adjoyning , seeing there could be no such violence in the first formation . nor could that violence be caus'd by an instrument ( the brain ) not yet perfectly form'd ; ( for such de la forge supposes it to be at the beginning ) whereas the pineal kernel it self shews the contrary , that the brain was form'd before that or any other violence could be ; for seeing that kernel could be in no other place , but either in the third or middle ventricle , of necessity that place could not be made by the thing plac'd , or after the thing plac'd , but either together with the thing plac'd , or before it . iv. sometimes the brain in a strict signification , is taken for that greater part which is properly call'd the brain ; and is distinguish'd from the cerebel and marrow . v. the bigness of the brain of man , according to the proportion of the whole body , is bigger than the brain of any other creature ; as being that which exceeds the brain of an elephant in quantity ; and the brain of an ox double the weight , for it weighs four or five pounds . tho' lynden affirms , that according to the proportion of the body , a sparrow's brain exceeds that of a man. fernelius , veslingius , riolanus , bartholine , highmore and lindan , following fallopius , tell us , that according to the wane or increase of the moon , the brain of man diminishes or increases . but no certain alteration of the animal actions ever made out any such change in this most noble bowel . nor can this opinion ground it self upon any experience ; because that the brain of one and the same animal can never be inspected and weigh'd at the two different seasons of the moon : and from different inspections at different seasons of the moon , nothing of certainty can be gather'd ; for the quantity of the brain , though in animals of the same kind , is not always alike ; for that the brain-pans of some are bigger , in some less ; so that the quantity of the brain , less or more , is not to be attributed to the moon or her seasons ; but to the form and bigness of the part containing . in april and may . i attended the cure of a sayler dangerously wounded with a stone in the right bone of the fore-part of the head , with a fracture and depression of the cranium ; we took out the broken bones about the breadth of a large doller ; afterwards , the dura mater , very much endamag'd by the contusion , being separated of its own accord , was taken out to the same breadth , the thin meninx remaining untouch'd . the brain in that place remain'd depress'd about the breadth of half a finger ; and for two months together that the cure lasted , we could not observe the least decrease or increase of the brain , notwithstanding all our diligent observation upon all the changes of the moon . at length , the flesh growing largely out of the thin meninx ( which was never seen , read , or hard of before ) and contrary to all expectation , supplying the place of the hard meninx , and closing with the flesh rising from the diplois , the despairing patient , who had already agreed with charon for his passage , recover'd and was cur'd . vi. as equally uncertain it is what horstius writes , that he saw the substance of the brain diminish'd by immoderate use of venery . for how could he know whether the person he spake of , had any more brain before ? did he see and weigh it ? immoderate venery weakens the brain , 't is true ; but whether it diminishes it or no , there 's no man can certainly tell . vii . as frivolous also is that which some deliver upon aristotle's reputation , that the brain of a man exceeds a woman's in quantity . for most certain it is , there can be no remarkable difference discern'd : for as men have more or less brains according to the capaciousness of the skull , so it is with women . if a man compare a man's greater head with a woman's lesser , no wonder if he find more brains in the man's than the woman's head ; but alter the comparison , and he shall find more in the woman's head than in the man's ; but to find two heads exactly proportionable in both sexes , and so to judge exactly of the quantity , is impossible . viii . the shape of the brain is somewhat round , bunching out toward the forehead ; the external superficies full of windings and meanders , and twining like the guts , which windings being cloath'd with a thin meninx , furnish'd with several little caps of arteries and branches of veins , descend very deep , and some almost equal the depth of the brawny body ; but above are all collected and bound together by the same meninx . in coneys and other small four-footed beasts , the superficies of the brain is not so full of windings , but is more smooth ; so that the windings hardly descend at all . but in most birds , the external superficies of the brain appear almost altogether equal , without any meander-like turnings . ix . the brain consists of a peculiar substance , white , moist , soft , melting like fat , rather than flowing , though it be not fat. x. the colour and softness of the substance is not all alike ; for in the outward part , so far as the crooked passages descend among the windings and turnings , the softness is more , and the colour more resembling ashes ; but in all the rest of the inner part altogether white , and the substance more solid . xi . des cartes by many probable conjectures maintains , that this substance must be altogether fibrous , as being compos'd of thousands of little strings ; which strings willis calls little channels or plaights . and what des cartes perceiv'd with the eyes of his mind , malpigius demonstrates by ocular inspection ; for he writes , that by the help of his microscope , he has often observ'd in the brain of an ox and other cattel as well raw as boild , that all the white portion of the brain seem'd to be divided into little fibers flatly round , which were so manifestly conspicuous in the brains of fish , that if they were held against the light , they represented an ivory comb , or a church-organ . the extremities of these fibers , he says are thrust into the cortex , or outward ash colour'd part of the brain , as if they were to take their alimentary matter from thence ; into which cortex a vast number of blood-bearing vessels branch themselves . lastly , he adds , that 't is probable that the sanguineous juice , or something like it , being carry'd from the arteries , is , as it were , filter'd by this flesh of the cortex , and grafted into the fibers , as into r●…ots . which he endeavors to prove by this experiment : for , says he , when the order of nature is at any time interrupted by any sickness or sickly habit , we may often observe a copious collection of this serum , being out of its road , in the ventricles , the substance of the brain , and under the meninxes . and to prove this , he brings several stories of sick people , who have had a great quantity of such serum gather'd together in the head. tracassatus also writes , that he has observ'd the same things in the head of a dog , and shews the manner of discovering it . he also affirms the brain and marrow to be a great spunge , consisting of threds twisted every and all manner of ways one within another . moreover , he is of opinion with malpigius , that the whitish marrowy substance borrows something from the said cortex , as into which the marrowy fibers are inserted , and therefore seem to take something from thence . very probable it is , that the thinnest salt particles of the blood are separated from the rest in that glandulous substance , and so prepar'd , as to be receiv'd by the small fibers , as invisible pipes , to be there converted into animal spirits . tracassatus calls those thin particles , which i call salt , concrescibile serum and nerveous iuice ; which he says is separated in the cortex , and so infus'd into the fibers . xii . picolhomini calls the outward ash-colour'd substance , the brain , and the inner whitish substance , the marrow ; and so distinguishes the whole substance into the rind and the marrow ; and bauhine and bartholine seem to do the like . that same ash-colour'd substance , rind or shell , is not only spred about the outside of the brain , and descends into its windings and meanders , but appears also in some places in the inner whitish substance , and somewhat encompasses the spinal marrow , and by the observation of malpigius , enters a little way into the inner parts of it . xiii . now though from what has been said , a great light is given for the deeper knowledge of the brain , yet there is one thing yet wanting to be discuss'd , that is to say , how the salt , spirituous matter is separated from the blood , to be turn'd into animal spirits . we have already said that the choleric particles are separated from the blood in the liver , by means of the glandulous berries ; so the subacid in the spleen , and the serous particles in the kidneys . which office is here also performed by certain small kernels , hardly visible to the eyes of anatomists ; for the discovery of which kernels , we are beholding to the quick-sighted malpigius , who by his microscopes discover'd that the whole ash colour'd rind was a heap of small kernels of an oval figure , and form'd out o●… that heap . which said kernels being dispos'd in wrinkles and kernels , compos'd the outward meanders of the brain , and that into the outward portion of those kernels the blood-bearing vessels enter'd that pass'd through the meninx ; but that from the inner white portion there sprung out a white fiber , as a proper vessel , and so to each fiber there belong'd a little kernel , that wheresoever the meanders were cross'd , a solid and determinate heap of kernels might be pour'd upon the marrow ; and so he observ'd , that the marrowy substance of the brain was compos'd of a contexture and bundle of many small fibers . he adds the opinion of fracassatus , that the glandulous rind arises from the concrescible serum , and the marrowy fibrous substance , from the purer salts that light in those places . lastly , he adds the way how to find out those kernels of the cortex . he says , they are hardly to be discern'd in the raw head , though of a large animal , because they are torn by rending off the pia mater ; and the intervening spaces , by reason of the softness , are not so easily distinguish'd ; but they appear more conspicuous in a boyl'd head : for their substance growing thick in the boyling , renders the spaces between more open ; which upon taking off the pia mater , become more apparent ; especially when the head is warm , and then being sprinkl'd with ink , and that suck'd up again with a little cotton , they become conspicuous ; for the spaces between being blacken'd by the ink , more easily shew the kernels that lie round . in the same manner , he says , the said kernels may be discern'd in the heads of fish and fowl. certainly we are highly beholding to malpigius for this discovery ; whereby we may be the more able to judge of the constitution , office and manner of the brains acting . xiv . from this observation of malpigius , now manifestly appears the great mistake of picolhomini , who alledges , that in a body newly deceas'd , the marrow is to be distinguish'd from the cortex or shell , with certain lines , and may be exactly separated from it . which bauhinus after him , averr'd ; and bartholine transcrib'd out of him ; whereas there is no line between the white marrow of the brain and the shell , nor are those parts to be disjoyn'd ; but the medullary fibers enter the kernels of the shell , and are so fasten'd to them , that they can be no way separated one from the other without manifest prejudice . xv. the substance of the brain , because compacted out of several particles of melted salt , and few of sulphur , being compar'd with the rest of the bowels , is moister and less hot ; and therefore its temperament is concluded to be cold and moist ; though it have less heat , yet such a heat as is manifest enough ; for that being every where sprinkl'd with arterious blood , it cannot but from thence partake of heat . xvi . it receives blood , for the nourishment and making of the animal spirits , through the arteries which are drawn from the carotides and arteries of the neck : of which , the latter being divided into several small branches , pour store of blood into the substance of the cerebel , the other into the substance of the brain it self both above and below ; which passes not only through those invisible branches , but also , like dew , through the pores of it ; of which , innumerable small drops , upon dissection of the substance , appear starting out of its small vessels and pores . as to these arteries , franciscus de le boe sylvius observes , that while they penetrate the thick meninx , they leave the other tunicle , and are scatter'd together with the thin meninx , through all the windings and turnings of the brain , accompany'd with very few veins . thomas willis moreover , prosecuting their winding ingress more diligently , writes , that being to enter on both sides the proper channel , hollow'd in the wedg-like bone , for their better defence , they assume an additional tunicle ; which after they have passed the wedg-like bone , and coming to stay within the cranium , they again leave off , and then near the sides of the turkish saddle , with a winding channel they creep forward till they come to the head of the turkish saddle ; where again fetching another winding compass , they ascend directly , and penetrating the hard mother , they are carry'd toward the brain , before their entrance , sending forth several little branches woven artificially and wonderfully together , forming a kind of net in most four-footed beasts , to stop the too impetuous influx of blood through those innumerable windings and turnings , which influx , because in man that carries his head upright , it cannot be so impetuous , therefore in man this wonderful net is but small , and but little conspicuous . xvii . that the blood is carry'd to the brain through these arteries , is without doubt ; but the manner how it is done , is much controverted by anatomists . for some believe , that the little arteries do enter the substance of the brain : others , that they do not enter the substance ; but only pour the blood into its pores . the first opinion is maintain'd by fallopius , baukinus , spigelius , highmore , and several others , and among the rest of late , by willis and wepfer ; and they endeavour to prove it , partly from the little drops of blood which spout out of the dissected substance of the brain ; partly from the swelling of the carotid artery , upon the putting in of a little pipe , and blowing into it ; by which means , the blood being forc'd inward , dies the dissected substance with innumerable little red spots ; or else by the injection of ink into the substance of the carotides , by which means innumerable black spots appear in the substance it self of the brain . the patrons of the latter opinion , prove that the blood is pou●…'d into the pores only of the substance of the brain , and so is distributed through the whole substance by the motion of the brain ; because that never any arteries could be seen or discern'd by the eye in the substance of the brain ; besides , that by reason of the softness of the part , the arteries would be compress'd and clos'd up for the most part . which aristotle also asserts , when he writes , that the substance of the brain contains neither vein nor any blood-bearing vessel within it self ; and besides , that it is not so firm , that arteries and veins should be dispers'd through it , as in other parts of the body . but this difference may be easily reconcil'd upon the joyning of these two opinions together , and asserting , that the blood partly enters the brain together with the little arteries , and that partly being pour'd into the pores , it moves forward through the substance of the brain , in the same manner as the blood in the liver is thrust forward through the veins , and in the circulation of the blood , passes through the substance of the parts . for if the subtle arteries should not penetrate the substance of the brain , a sufficient supply of blood could not be pour'd into it ; and again , if the blood should not pass through the pores of the substance , but that the innumerable little spots of blood , which are to be seen in the dissection of the substance , should flow out of the small vessel being wounded , certainly myriads of small vessels must be contain'd in the substance ; nay , the whole substance would seem to be woven and compacted together out of that sort of small vessels , which however seems less probable . xviii . the remainder of the blood which is infus'd through the said arteries into the brain , and there concocted , is empty'd into the veins and hollownesses of the meninxes , to be carry'd to the branches of the iugular veins , and thence to the heart . xix . as to these blood bearing vessels , together with the arterious and veiny vessels , willis has observ'd , that while they ascend upwards to the brain , they are various , and in several places close & meet together about the thick and thin meninx ; not only arteries with veins , but arteries with arteries ; that is to say , the carotides of the one side , with the carotides of the other : moreover the vertebrals of both sides one with another ; as also with the hinder branches of the carotides , and that the mutual closures of the carotides are about the basis of the skull under the hard meninx and between it . to the knowledge of which closures , and as it were mutual kissings of each other , he attain'd by this experiment . as often , says he , as i injected any liquor dy'd with ink into either of the carotides , presently the branches of each side , and the chief disseminations of the vertebral arteries , were colour'd with the same tincture : moreover , if the same injection were repeated several times through the same passage , the vessels creeping through every angle and corner of the brain and cerebel , will be dy'd with the same colour . and in those parts which are overspread with that miraculous net , the tincture injected of one side , will penetrate the net-resembling folds in both sides : whence it is apparent that there is a communication between all the vessels that water the whole brain . at length he adds , that several small kernels are interspac'd between the diminutive nets of the vessels kissing each other , easily discern'd in a moist and hydropic brain , though in others hardly to be discern'd . xx. the brain has no nerves in its own substance ; for in regard the organ of feeling is general , and judges of all the senses and animal motions , it ought to be void of sence and animal motion ; for being endu'd with one sence or motion , it could not have rightly judg'd of others , because the several sences are mov'd but by one object only ; as the sight by the visible object ; and feeling by the object of feeling , &c. if therefore the brain were endu'd with any one sence or motion , the soul could not by means of that organ make a true judgment of any sence or motion ; and therefore being fram'd void of sence and animal motion , it is neither in its own substance endu'd with any nerves , though it contain some certain fibers , but so small , as hardly to be discern'd without the help of a microscope , and which are the originals of the nerves , and be form'd and compos'd of them , being woven together , and from their oblong marrow give birth to all the nerves . hence also galen says , that the brain was made not to feel ; but to confer the faculty of feeling : for which reason he calls it the organ that has no feeling . xxi . the brain properly taken , is divided into the right and left region ; the scythe-like duplicature of the hard meninx going between : which division extends it self however no farther than the brawny body . but being taken for the whole bowel which is included in the cranium , it is divided into the brain and little brain , as being separated for the greater part , by the intercession of the hard meninx . xxii . that the brain is mov'd , is a thing not to be question'd , as being obvious to inspection . but concerning this motion , there are great disputes among anatomists , whether it be mov'd by its own proper motion , not animal , but natural ; or else , whether by another mover ? laurentius , picolhomini and bauhinus maintain the first , and endeavour to confirm it by several specious reasons . of the latter opinion , are fallopius , vesalius and others ; with whom we likewise concur : for the brain is immoveable of it self ; but is continually mov'd by another by accident , that is to say , the heart , and that not by any animal motion , but by the natural motion of systole and diastole ; and follows exactly the motion of the arteries . for the boyling arterious blood being forc'd out of the heart through the arteries into its substance , it is presently dilated ; and when the same blood is once cool'd in its substance , it falls again ▪ this motion is apparent in wounds of the head ; where i have observ'd it several times , at what time the substance of the brain after taking away the bones and meninxes , is easily conspicuous . for then , as the pulse in the wrist is to be perceiv'd quick or slow ; after the same manner was the motion of the brain to be discern'd , and its motion upon the failing of the pulse in the wrist in a fit , ceas'd at the same time , as also did the animal motion of all the parts ; and when the patient came to himself , with the motion of the pulses the motion also of the brain returns , and answered altogether to the motion of the heart . which is a certain sign that the brain is not mov'd by its self , but accidentally by the heart , and that its animal spirits flow into the marrow and nerves , meerly by the impulse of the heart . moreover , if the brain were mov'd by the animal spirits flowing into the heart out of the brain , then the motion of the brain must precede and cause that motion , but if the motion of the heart precedes that motion of the brain , then it cannot be that the first motion of the heart should be produc'd by the animal spirits flowing in after the first motion of the heart . lastly , that the head cannot be movable of it self , reason it self teaches us , seeing that to the work of dilatation and contraction , are requir'd muscles , or at least fibers so strong , as to contract themselves ; both which it wants ; and thus it appears that the brain is not mov'd of it self , but by the motion of the heart . but here arises another question ; whether this motion of the heart happen at the same time and instant , with an equal motion ? columbus believes , that the motion of the brain keeps exact time with the motion of the heart ; and that both parts swell and fall exactly together . which if columbus had said concerning the motion of the brain and arteries , then he had spoken true ; but as to the motion of the heart , it cannot be true : for when the heart is contracted and falls , then by reason of the blood impetuously forc'd into them , the arteries swell , and as they swell , the brain is dilated ; therefore it is dilated at the same moment with the arteries when the heart falls , and falls when the heart is dilated . hence riolanus more truly judges , that the motion of the brain is contrary to the motion of the heart , so that when the brain is compress'd by systole , the heart is elevated by diastole . xxiii . hence it is evident how strangely fernelius was out of the way , who consenting with galen , avers , that the body of the brain is mov'd of it self , and of its own accord , with a constant agitation . of the same opinion are also vesalius , fallopius , bauhinus , riolanus , sennertus , plempius and others . but andreas laurentius observes a mean between both these opinions ; for he says , the heart is mov'd partly of its own motion , and partly by the motion of the arteries . highmore will not allow the brain any motion at all , either accidental or proper ; and asserts , that that same motion which is seen and felt upon taking off the cranium , is a motion of the membranes , happening by accident ; by reason of the arteries inserted into them ; for proof of which , he alledges , that the spinal marrow is immovable , and has no pulse at all . but had he seen so many wounds of the brain , after taking away part of the substance it self , as plempius , hildan and my self have done , and observ'd the motion of the brain laid bare , he would readily subscribe to my opinion . for the immobility of the marrow extended in length , proves nothing , in regard the brain may beat or be mov'd , and the spirits thrust forward out of it into the marrow , though the marrow be not manifestly mov'd ; perhaps as one wave pushes forward another , so the spirits are push'd forward through that into the nerves . as we find the like to happen in the veins through which the blood is mov'd and passes without their pulsation ; whereas it flows into them through the pulsation of the arteries ; and the pulsation of the arteries ceasing , it ceases to be mov'd ; which is many times observ'd in letting blood in the arm , when the ligature binds the arteries too hard , or that the patient fa●…ls into a fit ; for the pulse of the arteries of the arm ceasing , nothing of blood will flow out at the incision made in the vein ; but upon untying the ligature , or upon the patient 's coming to himself again , and the arteries consequently beating again , the blood flows forth again . and in this manner the spirits may be mov'd out of the brain through the marrow without any manifest motion of the marrow . besides , who knows but that the marrow may be mov'd after the same manner as the brain ? that this may be certainly known , first , the skull of a living creature is to be open'd , then the vertebers must be laid open , and the long extended marrow to be laid bare , that a judgment may be made upon the inspection both of the marrow and the brain ; but before any true observation could be made , the creature would die , and the inspection of a dead carcass would signifie little : and therefore plempius , upon probable grounds believes , that the marrow or pith is likewise mov'd , because it is a kind of production from the brain , which therefore should be mov'd with the brain , to the end that the animal spirits being admitted by dilatation , may press them out again by its contraction . xxiv . the necessity of the said motion , though accidental , is chiefly necessary , that while it is dilated , it may receive the arterious blood out of the arteries , and by its falling again , may be able to force the animal spirits made out of that blood toward the nerves , and the remainder of the blood to the hollownesses and veins of the meninx ; neither of which actions can be perform'd without that motion . xxv . the brain then , as hath been said , is the organ wherein , and by the help of which , the animal faculties , by the assistance of the animal spirits generated therein , are made . xxvi . but in regard the animal faculties both feel , desire and move , there is a question arises , in what part of the brain they every one inhabit ? fernelius believes , that the feeling faculty resides in the meninxes of the brain , because they feel and are not mov'd . that the moving faculty is seated in the marrow of the brain , because that is mov'd , yet has no feeling : which opinion plempius refutes , and rightly informs us , that both faculties are generated and dwell in the substance it self of the brain , and are thence communicated to the rest of the parts . then again , as to the principal faculties , the imagination and memory , the controversie runs high , whether they are in the whole substance of the brain ? whether all in one part of it , or all distinct in distinct places ? aetius and some others that follow the arabians , affirm , that they abide in distinct seats , and allow to the fancy the forepart , to the reason the middlemost , and to the memory the hindmost part of the head ; induc'd by these reasons . . because it rarely happens , that one faculty being deprav'd , the other remains sound . . because the fore-part of the head receiving a wound , the phansie is disturb'd and impair'd ; and the hinder part of the head being hurt , proves detrimental to the memory . others affirm these actions to be exercis'd in the whole brain , and only differ in the manner of their operation , and that the brain is variously employ'd about them . which opinion sennertus and plempius uphold by strong reasons . but ludovicus mercatus seems to unite both these opinions together ; for , says he , though all the faculties are in the brain , however we must believe that one faculty is more predominant in this or that cavity than another , as the spirits are more thin , more perfect , and more elaborate in this cavity , and the temperature more proper for this or that operation . but experience acknowledges all these opinions to be very uncertain , and that nothing can be positively determin'd either as to the place where , or the manner how these operations are perform'd . for there are many examples produc'd by massa , carpus , fallopius , arcaeus , augenius , andreas à croce , peter de marchetois and others , of patients , who having been wounded in their heads , have had considerable portions of their brains which have either dropt or been taken out , while the principal faculties have remain'd safe and sound ; which seems not very possible , if these operations are perform'd in the whole brain , or any part of it , seeing that the operating organ being grievously wounded , and some part of it taken away , surely those most noble action●…s must be very much impair'd . i produce an example a little lower of a certain young person , who had a large impostume that grew in his brain , and penetrated to the upper ventricles , who nevertheless liv'd for weeks together in perfect soundness of his senses . another remarkable example i met with ian. . in a young girl , upon whose head by misfortune had fallen a stone that weigh'd near thirty pound weight , and broke all the right side of her head with a fracture of the skull and forehead about the coronal suture , and the brain wounded and much endamaged withal . which brain , two days after the taking out of fourteen pieces of broken bones without any covering of the me●…inxes , began to shoot upward from the broad wound , and that by degrees to such a height , that it came out without the skull , first as big as a pigeon's , next , as big as a hen's , and lastly , as big as a goose egg ; which protube●…ant part being cut away with a filthy stench , another like it shot up again , and so several putrify'd parts fell off of themselves , so that during the cure , the quantity of the putrid brain that was separated from the rest , amounted to the bigness of a man's fist , in which condition the patient liv'd six and thirty days with a perfect soundness of mind and memory , and all the animal actions performing their duties , though she were in that time taken with three convulsion fits and a hickup . after she was dead , the skull being taken off , we found a large hollowness in the right side of her brain , by reason of the wa●…e of so much of her putrify'd brain , which extended it self all along the upper ventricle of the same side , and side-ways passing the third or middle ventricle as far as the sphoenoides bone. this memorable accident shews us how uncertain all things are which are conjectur'd concerning the seats of the faculties , either distinct , or ascrib'd to the whole brain , seeing that in this maid all the operations of life and intellectuals remain'd in their full force , and no way impeded by that putrefaction of the brain which was empty'd out of her skull . but this may seem little , if compar'd with what theodore kerckringius relates of a total deficiency of the brain ; for he writes that he dissected a boy that had lain five months and a half sick o●… a dropsie in his head , in whose skull he found no brain , but only a little slimy water , which was a thing never before , as he says , taken notice o●… by any anatomist : though many years before him zacutus lusitanus tells us of a ●…ad that was cur'd of a wound in his head , and three years after dy'd of a dropsie in his head ; which being open'd , there was nothing to be found but only a pure water , that was no way offensive to the smell , nor insipid to the taste . something like this coster●…s relates of a boy born without a brain , which boy fontanus and carpus ass●…e us , that they saw the th . of decemb. . now in these children where were the animal spirits made ? where was the seat of the principal faculties and the common sensory ? we must answer , that these observations contain a manifest error , not out of wil●…ul mistake , but the more sleight & careless inspection , of kerckringius , zacutus , costerus , and the rest . for s●…st , the brain might not have been altogether defective , as they thought , but only through the extraordinary redundance of the serum was so soften'd that it seem'd to be a perfect slime , which was the reason that few animal spirits were generated and that the operations of the principal faculties were weakly perform'd , and so at length the children dy'd . secondly , kerckringius , zacutus and coster , through their over-hasty inspection , might not observe whether there were not something remaining of a more solid brain by which the foresaid operations might be perform'd . vesalius in the ventricles of the brain of one that dy'd of the same distemper , found nine pints of serum , by which means the upper part of the brain to the thickness of a membrane , by means of its extension , was become very thin . however , all this while the cerebel , and all the bottom of the brain , as also the productions of the nerves were all in their natural condition . in like manner , in all the former examples produc'd by kerckringius , the upper part of the brain might be extended , thin and soft ; for which reason they examining no farther , too rashly gave their judgment , that the brain was altogether wanting . moreover , what kerckringius adds , to confirm his opinion from the relation of an ignorant butcher , of certain silly sheep that had no brains at all , is a meer fable , which kerckringius ought not to have believ'd ; because no creature of all those that bring forth living creatures , can live without a brain , and the sooner the heart and brain are form'd in such creatures at the beginning of the formation , the sooner and the more all the other parts of the body encrease ; as also all the actions as well natural as animal : so that these operations prove nothing of any operations perform'd without the assistance of the brain . but as to the seats of the animal functions , and after what manner they operate , there lies the main question undetermin'd . and these mists a certain observation in the brain of an ox still renders more obscure , which bauschius transcribes out of iames de negroponte ; how that the bendictine monks having a design to fat an ox at padua , put him up ; but observing that the ox did not grow fat , though he eat greedily , they kill'd him , with a resolution to enquire into the cause of his continu'd leanness ; to which purpose the ox was cut up by sebastian scarabeccio , anatomy professor at padua ; when , says he , we came to the brain , we found it altogether like a stone ; which all the standers by wondring at , some thought it might have been congeal'd by some extremity of col●… : and therefore laying the head in a platter before the fire , they powr'd hot water upon it , and boyld it for some time ; then taking it from the fire again , they found the brain harder than before , so that they could not get it out of the skull . having told this story , he proposes two doubts ; if the brain , says he , be the original of all the animal functions , of motion and sence , and this is suppos'd to be petrify'd , how was it capable of admitting any faculty to impart motion , sence and appetite to the ox ? or since this ox had an appetite to eat , how came he not to grow fat ? not less miraculous was that brain which was seen in a swedish ox , describ'd by bartholine , which was wholly turn'd into a stone , bor'd through with many holes ; and now preserv'd in a farm belonging to the count of oxenstern , where that ox was kill'd . truly such observations more deeply consider'd , command us to suspend our judgments in determining the seats of the animal faculties , and their manner of operating , till other things more certain are discover'd , to render the truth of these things more evident . xxvii . the brain is the most noble bowel , which together with the heart , rules and governs the whole body , as its actions plainly demonstrate . for it is the only organ by which , and in which the animal spirits are made , without which , besides that life cannot subsist , no animal actions are perform'd which flow themselves out of this fountain . whence it is manifest , that the wounds which it receives must be very dangerous ; for which reason hippocrates truly pronounc'd all wounds penetrating into its ventricls to be mortal ; nay , the least wounds which it receives , are to be accounted dangerous and mortal . for though monstrous things , as avrrhoes calls them , have happen'd in the cure of wounds in the brain , and some have with great difficulty escap'd , that have had a considerable portion of the meninxes and the substance of the brain taken from them , yet a slight wound of the meninxes and brain uses to be the death of the greatest part , and it rarely happens that any one so wounded escapes . xxviii . by the way we are to take notice of what pliny writes of snakes that have bred in the putrify'd brains of men. of which we have an example cited by plutarch , in the life of cleomenes , who was crucify'd by ptolomy , about whose head in a few days after , a huge serpent twi●…'d her self in folds ; which the doctors affirm'd to have br●…d out of the putrify'd marrow of the brain , and related it as wonderful to be admir'd at by all men . thus rolfinch tells us a story fron gerard the divine , of a certain nobleman , whose body being digg'd up again a month after it had been buried , two great serpents were found creeping out of the putrify'd corners of his eyes . certainly nature seems by this generation of serpents out of human carkasses , to shew the author of all our calamities , and of our swift corruption . chap. vi. of the brawny body ; the light enclosure , the three ventricles , the choroid fold , the fornix , the buttocks , the testicles , and the pineal kernel . in the demonstration of the parts of the brain , some begin from the upper part of the brain , some from the lower ; the one following the ancient , the others the modern way of dissection . for our parts , we shall first proceed according to the ancient and most familiar way , and after that briefly according to the modern way . i. the brain being a little separated at the upper part , where it is divided by the interceding scythe , more below , beneath the division appears the brawny body , or corpus callosum ; call'd also psalloides : which anatomists do commonly alledg to be a portion of the brain harder than the rest of the substance . nor is it any peculiar body added to the brain , but only a connexion of both sides of the brain , or rather a continuation of the substance . in this body willis affirms , that he has observ'd certain oblique plaits or furrows which he describes in his tables . these strings or fibers malpigius has also observ'd by the help of his microscope ; and says , they are so apparent in the brains of fish , that if they be held up against the light , they resemble an ivory comb ; and also that there may be seen bloody vessels running between them . ii. the inferior part of the brawny body constitutes the lucid enclosure , or looking-glass , and the fornix , next to which , on the upper side lie the two upper ventricles . iii. above , two remarkable veins rest upon the brawny body , one of each side , which open into the fourth hollowness . into these the blood of most part of the small vessels of the thin meninx is empty'd , to be again conveigh'd through them into the said sinus or hollowness . franciscus de le boe sylvius describes another orifice observ'd by himself in the lucid enclosure . the brawny body , says he , where it begins to grow thin , toward the lucid enclosure , we have observ'd , and there we found about a year since that the enclosure it self has a narrow gaping sometimes divided into two parts , to our great admiration . iv. there are also several cells to be observ'd in the brain , closing together one with another . for though the cavities contain'd in this noble bowel are continuous , nevertheless because at first sight , this continuity seems carry'd on through narrower passages , hence the anatomists divide those cavities into four ventricles or hollownesses ; of which three are seated in the brain , the fourth is common to the cerebel and the extended marrow . but all on the inside are fac'd with a most thin membrane , to which erastus , not without reason , allows an obscure sence of feeling . v. the brain being taken away as far as the brawny body , presently appear the two upper ventricles , vulgarly call'd the foremost , by others , the lateral ; of which the one is the right , and the other the left. they resemble in some manner a crescent moon , and about the middle where they meet , they are distinguish'd one from the other with a white interstitium , from the substance it self of the brain , and transparent being held to the light ; hence call'd the septum lucidum , and by others , the looking-glass . and this by the observation of malpigius , is furnish'd with streight fibers extended in length from the fore to the hinder parts . these ventricles are alike both for use and in form ; much larger and longer than the rest , overcast with a most thin membrane , wherewith the inner parts of the other two are invested . at the upper part ▪ from a beginning somewhat broad and obtuse , they grow somewhat narrow toward the third ventricle , and of each side , with a channel sufficiently wide , descend into the papillary processes , by which way they discharge the flegm therein collected , through the ethmoidean bone into the nostrils and mouth . this passage in the brain of a calf , will admit a goose quill ; but in men , is much narrower . these passages the several modern anatomists never observ'd , and some have assum'd to themselves the discovery thereof ; yet are they at large describ'd by galen , in his treatise of the use of the parts . at the hinder part which unfolds it self more circularly , and bends like a scyth , they are carry'd downward to the bottom of the brain , and end near the original of the optic nerves . in which place they are both enter'd by a branch of the carotid artery , which forms the choroid fold . vi. at the lower and hinder part of these ventricles , where they wind back to the former parts , in the middle of the brain underneath the callous body , and common to both parts of the brain , appear the fornix or arch , gibbous without , but hollow within , constituted by a most white marrowy substance of the brain , furnish'd with arch'd fibers toward the sides , and overcast with a most thin membrane . it is also call'd testudo or the tortoise ; for that like a vaulted roof or an arch in a building , it seems to sustain the burden and weight of the brain resting upon it . of which more when we come to treat of the optic nerves . from all the hindermost thighs to the arteries , in all the middlemost space , it is not fasten'd to the brain , but remains free . the hinder thighs hippocrates calls pedes hippocampi . riolanus , guided by aranteus , believes these thighs to be branches of the optic nerves , turn'd upwards , and that the optic spirits issue from thence as from a fountain : hence , that they meet toward the fore-parts , to unite the visible species's within the brain . vii . in these two upper ventricles , the choroid fold is to be met with , a wonderful and elegant piece of work , form'd out of a most thin and diminutive membrane , produc'd from the pia mater , several small kernels , and small branches of little vessels variously complicated together . which little branches come from the twigs of the carotid artery , with which others think the small branches of the cervical artery to be intermix'd . with these small arteries twice or thrice we observ'd an apparent little vein to run along all the whole length of the fold , and to pour forth its blood into the third ventricle into the vein always in that place running through the middle of the fold , and emptying it self into the fourth hollowness ; and so to be continuous with it . bauhinus and several others , contrary to all reason and sight , will have the branch of the fourth hollowness intermix'd . riolanus asserts it to consist of veins only , without any arteries ; as on the other side , he believes the wonderful net to consist only of arteries ; though both the one and the other are for the most part constituted of arteries , and have very few veins , insomuch that for that very reason some question'd whether there were any veins at all . viii . this fold arises from the lowermost hinder part of these ventricles , each of which parts a branch of the carotid artery enters , which afterwards constitutes the wonderful net , near the spittle-kernel , and wrapt about with a tender membrane , ascends upward into these ventricles ; where being divided into innumerable branches , it forms this fold expanded through the said ventricles . which when it has reacht the foremost tuberosities of the ventricles on both sides , round about the foremost thigh of the arch , or fornix , passes into the third ventricle latent underneath , to the sides of which ventricle it is every way fastned , as also to the substance of the fornix it self , resting upon that ventricle , with little branches , which it sends forth into the marrowy substance of the brain . the fastning and ingress of these little branches is presently seen , when the fornix is lightly rais'd up and turn'd back , and so the third ventricle is discover'd . ix . through this fold the arterious blood is conveigh'd for making of animal spirits , out of which thro' small diminutive kernels hardly conspicuous and scatter'd among the little arteries of the fold , the more serous part , not fit for the making of spirits , is separated , suckt out and collected together in the ventricles , not as an unprofitable excrement , but as a useful humor , and there to be prepar'd for a necessary use , which is threefold . . by its coolness , to temper the boyling heat of the blood passing along the fold ; for the fold swims upon it ; and so to prepare it for the making of animal spirits . . by flowing to the glandules of the tonsils and mouth , to moisten the larynx and gullet . . that in the mouth , in which together with the liquor flowing through the spitly channels , it begets the spittle , and in the stomach it may be mixt with the chew'd nourishment , and help their concoction by a peculiar fermentation , in the same manner as the lympha flowing to the chyle-bearing channels , prepares the chylus after a specific manner , that so coming to the heart , it may be the more eas●…ly dilated therein , and converted into blood. x. but when by reason of the coldness of the brain , or some other weakness , that liquor is not sufficiently prepar'd , then becoming more crude and viscous , it is gather'd together in the ventricle in greater abundance , and from thence not only flows more copiously to the parts aforesaid ; but many times the greater part of it , not able to fall down to the iaws through the ordinary narrow channels , a great quantity of it descends through other passages to the nose and mouth , and thence as a superfluous excrement , vulgarly call'd flegm , or snot , is evacuated at the mouth and nostrils . and that this is the true use of the pituitous humor , many reasons demonstrate . . for that in an extraordinary heat , the head being very hot and dry , and consequently this liquor being much wasted , and but little of it falling down to the mouth and tonsils , it causes a great drought of the jaws and mouth , and thence thirst ; which also happens for the same reason , in fevers and other hot distempers . . for that upon longing after any pleasing food that a man sees , this liquor , together with the spitly humor flowing through the spittle-vessels , flows no less from the brain through the widened passages , to the mouth and tongue , than the animal spirits , that are determin'd and sent by the mind to the parts that require motion . . because that in persons of a hotter and drier temper , in whom the serous and flegmatic part of the blood does not so copiously abound , and the said liquor is collected in a lesser quantity in the ventricles , and is better concocted , and the thinner part much more dissipated , there are none or very few excrements evacuated from the nose and palate , neither do they spit so much , but they are more thirsty . . because that in moister natures a great quantity of this liquor is collected in the ventricles of the brain , and hence a greater quantity of spittle flows into the kernels of the jaws and mouth , and the spittlechannels , and frequently more crude to the mouth and stomach ; ●…ay , sometimes in so great a quantity as in a day and a night to fill wh●…e 〈◊〉 full , if the c●…ld and moist temper of the brain send the humor down in great quantity ; and sometimes descending in greater quantity to the stomach , it so relaxes and debilitates by its quantity , its coldness and its moisture , that it vitiates the fermentaceous humors growing there ; and by that means , takes away the patient's stomach , and hinders concoction . . because that for want of spittle , the act of swallowing is render'd difficult , and the concoction of the stomach is ill perform'd ; as is apparent in many that are troubl'd with fevers . xi . after this serous humor being separated from the arterious blood of the fold , and that a sufficient quantity of that arterious blood is transmitted into the brain and marrow , for the making of animal spirits , that blood which remains over and above 〈◊〉 the fold , flows to the vein , sometimes single , sometimes double in the ventricle , running between the middle of the fold , above the pineal kernel , and through that is carry'd to the great hollowness of the scythe . this vein , galen affirms to be deriv'd from no other vein , because there is no ●…ion or conjunction of it with any other vein to be observ'd . however bauhinus believes it to be a branch of the great hollowness . which mistake is sufficiently refell'd by what we have said in the fourth chapter . xii . from what has been said , we are to take notice of the grand mistake of rolfinch , who in a long discourse seeking for a new cause of catarrhs , never before found out , and rejecting the opinions of all others , tho' too inconsiderately , concludes , that the carotid arteries are the fountains of all catarrhs . for , he says , that they discharge their flegmatic humors partly into the wonderful net , and that from thence these excrements ascend higher into the choroid fold and the ventricles of the brain , from whence they flow down to the pituary kernel , and there are insensibly wasted ▪ moreover , that the said flegmatic humors are partly purged forth through the outermost branch of the inner propagation into all the spungy parts of the nostrils , mouth , jaws and palate , and are thence discharged as altogether unprofitable . which they are faulty either in quantity ▪ quality , manner , time or place of excretion , then catarrhs are thereby bred . but the learned gentleman did not consider how easily those flegmatic humors stop up the narrow passages of the slender net and fold , and what terrible diseases thence arise , as , apoplexies , lethargies , carus's , &c. to which men would be most frequently obnoxious , if that proposition were true . nor does he take notice that the arteries equally convey the blood to all parts without any choice ; nor do they particulatly convey the choleric parts to the liver , the melancholy to the spleen , or the flegmatic to the head , and discharge those humors into those bowels ; which nevertheless he will have to be so done ; whereas there is not in the arteries any power of separating , any judgment to make choice ; nor can those bowels do it by any particular virtue of attraction ; but that the various alteration of one and the same blood , and the separation of the smallest particles is order'd according to the diversity of the kernels , conformation and diversity of the parts into which it flows . he alledges many arguments for the proof of his opinion ; but so contrary to reason and experience , that they are not worth a refutation . xiii . moreover , the arch being turn'd backward , the third or middle ventricle , which is the concourse or meeting of the two uppermost or foremost , as it were form'd in the center of the marrow of the brain . wherein are several things to be consider'd . . two passages : the first of which with an eminent process , which veslingius calls the womb , is carry'd downward to the funnel , and pituitary kernel , through which the flegmatic excrements of the brain are vulgarly said to be evacuated , but erroneously . the other , which is call'd the arse , or the hole of the arse , passes to the fourth ventricle , and is nothing else , than a hole form'd by the conjunction and closure of little fibrous mountains , and two buttocks and testicles . this channel being wrapt about with a slender membrane , sylvius calls by the name of alveus . . two remarkable little long mountains , prominent upwards , consisting of a substance compos'd of several little strings or fibers , and therefore call'd by some corpora striata . these constitute the foremost upper part of the oblong marrow conjoyn'd with the brain and pith ( which is not observ'd by some , who think them to be parts of the brain , and not the marrow ) but of a peculiar substance , and as it were impos'd upon the marrow , yet united and continuous with it , cloath'd with an extraordinary white membrane , but fibrous within , less white , and more porous than the rest of the marrow . this part seems only to be serviceable to the sight , as from whence the optic nerves proceed ; whence galen calls the said monticles thalamos nervorum opticorum , or the nuptial chambers of the optic nerves ( where by thalami , some think , though erroneously , that they are the two hinder legs of the arch ; ) and riolanus reproves bauhinus , for asserting , that all the nerves within the cranium , arise from the spinal marrow ; whereas the optic nerves are wound about their own chambers . by which words , he plainly denotes , that these monticles consist of a substance altogether different from the rest of the marrow , and that they are serviceable only to the eyes . in the mean time , he does ill to reprove bauhinus , for saying , that all the nerves arose out of the pith , in regard the chambers of the optic nerves are the upper part of the pith , and consequently the optic nerves proceed from the pith , which riolanus does not seem to have taken any notice of . xiv . . four protuberancies , of which the uppermost , or foremost and largest , from their resemblance , are call'd the buttocks , or nates ; between which and the fibrous protuberances , there is a conspicuous chink , by columbus call'd the womb , containing the hole of the arse . xv. the lowermost and least , are call'd the testicles , and are as it were two flat prominencies growing and continuous underneath to the buttocks . but that same difference between the bigness of the buttocks and testicles , is more remarkable in brutes than in men , in whom these four protuberancies are seldom of an equal magnitude . now these four protuberancies , together with the fibrous protuberancies impos'd upon them , are the beginnings of the long marrow , continuous below with the brain , above and upon the sides overspread with a slender membrane from the pia mater ; having a substance compacted of innumerable slender fibers , as is seen by the microscope . as to the fibrous protuberancies , this is to be observ'd , that though they be cover'd with an extraordinary white membrane , yet they consist of peculiar substance within , stringy , fibrous , less white than the rest of the pith , so that they seem to constitute some peculiar part , as it were united to the long pith , at the beginning in the uppermost part ; and continuous with the pith of the brain . now the use of these two protuberancies , is to be serviceable to the most noble sence , which is sight ; because that the visual nerves only , and no other proceed from them . xvi . . the kernel seated between the stones and the arse , near the hole of the arse , which leads toward the fourth ventricle , call'd the pineal kernel , because it somewhat resembles a pine-apple , fashion'd like a top : by others call'd the yard of the brain . this kernel is but small in men ; but much larger in sheep and calves . it consists of a substance somewhat hard , which nevertheless suddenly flags , and being melted in stale carkasses of men , seldom appears . it is cover'd with a slender membrane of a ash-colour . it is oblong , looking upward , or rather forward with its point , but with its bottom resting upon the substance of the brain . above it is cover'd with the choroid fold , and the vein there running thro' the middle of the fold , to which it is fasten'd , that in man it is easily pull'd off with them , because it sticks so little to the substance of the brain , that bauhinus will not allow it to stick to it at all ; though it appear in brutes more manifestly to be united to the brain . sylvius allows it also certain little nervous strings ; wharton also writes , that it is enter'd by two nerves , on each side one , arising from the beginning of the spinal pith , but very small . but it would be a difficult thing to shew these nerves ; neither will any man easily perceive any nerves in that place . yet this , upon more diligent inspection , i have observ'd , that the choroid-fold in the third ventricle , sends forth every way several branches of small arteries , like small white diminutive fibers , into the incumbent cavities of the arch , the buttocks and stones , and the substance of the stringy protuberancies , and of the pineal kernel , so that the fold adheres every way to the said parts , by means of these little sibrous branches , and pour sorth into the said substance the arterious blood prepar'd therein , and in some measure clear'd from the flegmatic serum . which little branches , not so duly consider'd by sylvius and wharton , their inadvertency occasion'd their mistake , and so they took them for nerves , because of their whitish colour , as do also the small arteries of other parts . neither is there any blood to be seen in them , because only the thinnest and most vaporous part of the blood flows swiftly through them , neither does it stay long in them , the more thick particles flowing through the vein that is mix'd with the fold . xvii . in this kernel , saith sylvius , he has several times sound sand and a little small round stone , about the bigness of the fourth part of a pea. reyner de graeff also writes of stones found in this kernel by himself : we believe , says he , that stones are generated in all parts of the body , more especially in the pineal kernel , because that we have above twenty times found stones therein upon the dissection of bodies as well wasted by a lingring disease , as by violent sickness ; which however happens more frequently in france than in holland . certainly these stones should very much obstruct those functions which are attributed to the pineal kernel ; yet the discoverers of those stones did never observe that the persons in whose pineal kernels stones were found , were ever disturb'd in their animal operations . xviii . various are the opinions concerning the use of this kernel . some think it ordain'd for the strengthning the choroid-fold . others with galen , ascribe to it the use of a valve , to close the hole of the buttocks . others shut up the soul in those streights , as in a box , and believe it plac'd there , as in the center of the brain , where it collects the ideas of the five sensories , apprehends and discerns them , and from that place sends forth the animal spirits to the determin'd parts through these certain nerves . which last opinion many at this day stifly oppose , and others as stifly defend . cartesius grants indeed that the soul is joyn'd to the whole body ; but says , that it exercises its functions more particularly and immediately in this glandule , than in other parts . regius will have it to be the common sensory , and that the soul exists in that and in no other part of the body . thus also de la forge asserts it to be the principal seat of the soul , and the real organ of imagination and common sence , and that the breeding of stones in it , is no obstruction to it in its operations ; no , though it be all stone , provided there be pores wide enough for the passage of the spirits . he adds , that though the kernel should be wanting , and only the void place left for the arteries of the choroid fold to empty themselves ; yet that place would be a sufficient seat for the soul , the imagination and common sence . certainly with the same reason he might have said , that though the heart were wanting , yet if its place were left for the large vessels to exonerate themselves , it would be a sufficient fountain for the support of all the vital actions ; that is to say , that in absence of the agent organ , the place of the organ would suffice to perform the actions of the organ . but for my part , i must ingenuously confess that these 〈◊〉 are more subtil than subtility it 〈◊〉 . on the other side , w●…arton as vainly conceives , that it only at tracts the excrementitious moisture from the upper thighs of the beginning of the spinal marrow . and thus the use of this kernel is still undetermin'd . xix . . the choroid fold , which descending from the upper ventricles in this middlemost , is expanded thro' it with a much broader and thicker contexture than in the former , and has a vein sometimes streight , and sometimes double interwoven in the middle , and running as far as the large bay of the scythe , into which the small arteries exonerate the remainder of the blood which is to be carry'd to the hollowness . now this fold , sends ●…orth into the arch the fibrous protuberancies , the testicles and buttocks , several small branches like diminutive fibers ; by means of which it is joyn'd to them every way ; and it wraps and enfolds the pineal glandule in such a manner that it cannot be seen , unless the fold be broken and taken off . malpigius , together with m●…bius , believes , that the ventricles were form'd by nature , for no use , but only by accident ; but how erroneous this opinion is , sufficiently appears by what has already been said . for the service of the three ventricles of the brain is very necessary to afford a loose and ample passage to the choroid fold , and defend it from compressure ; as also to receive and collect the serous and flegmatic humors separated by the small kernels out of the inner substance of the brain , and especially out of the vessels of the fold . chap. vii . of the cerebel , the fourth ventricle and the long pith or marrow . i. in the hinder and lowermost part of the skull , that is between the large hollownesses of the bone of the hinder part of the head , lies the cerebellum , by the greeks call d 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , and 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , containing the second part of the brain , as it were a little and peculiar brain , because it is much less than the brain ; and being cover'd with both the meninxes , is separated from it , and on both side united to the long pith for a little space , and continuous with it ; but in the middlemost lower seat it is joyn'd to the spinal marrow upon the hinder part , by the intervening of the thin meninx ; and lest the fourth ventricle should gape there , it is wrapt about with the thin meninx expanded as far as the buttocks . ii. the form of it is somewhat broad , and something flat upon both the lateral parts , representing the figure of a broader sort of globe . iii. the bulk of it is much bigger in men than in brutes . iv. the substance of it differs not much from the substance of the brain , only that it seems not to be so soft , but much firmer . v. it is divided into innumerable small thin plates , representing the leaves and boughs of trees , and cloath'd with the thin membrane interwoven with several capillary branches of the cervical arteries , and of which the inward and middle part are of a white , the external compass of a darker colour . through those little arteries the blood flows to it in great quantity ; the remaining part of which after nourishment , runs into the lateral hollownesses . vi. it has two processes , call'd the worm-like processes , which consist of many transverse , and as it were twisted particles joyn'd together with a thin membrane , like worms that lie in rotten wood. of these the foremost prominent into the fourth ventricle , adjoyns to the buttocks and stones ; the hindermost is not altogether so prominent , but vanishes with a point into the substance of the cerebel . some also think that these processes are distended and contracted in the elevation and compression of the cerebel . vii . about the hinder part of the trunk of the long marrow , is to be seen varolius's bridge , which consists of two , and sometimes three gibbous processes on both sides , protuberating from the cerebel to the circumference of the fourth ventricle ; of which , they that are seated near the worm-like process are larger , the rest lesser . viii . the cerebel has no cavities , but only a wide hollowness in the middle , yet not very deep ; which by some is call'd the cistern ; and this constitutes the higher part of the fourth ventricle . the substance of the cerebel differs little or nothing from that of the brain , and is cloath'd in the same manner with membranes and a shell , and also has deep windings and meanders , overcast with the thin meninx to the lowest depths , and furnish'd with net-work folds of small arteries and veins , whence the office and use of the brain and cerebel is thought to be the same . willis therefore observing no certainty in ascribing this office to the cerebel , has found out another , which he thinks to be more true and genuine . and thus , he ●…ays , that the cerebel , which he takes to be a peculiar bowel , is a peculiar fountain and magazine of certain animal spirits design'd for peculiar uses ; and distinct from the brain . the office of the brain he assigns to be , to afford and supply those animal spirits wherewith the imagination , 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , discourse and other supream 〈◊〉 of the animal function are perform'd ; and by which all the voluntary motions are brought to pass . but that the duty of the cerebel seems to be to procreate animal spirits apart , and different from those generated in the brain ; and to send them to some particular nerves ; by which unvoluntary actions , as pulsation of the heart , protrusion of the chylus , concoction of the nourishment , and many others , which unknown to us , and without our consent , are transacted . this new fiction he endeavors to confirm by many arguments , which being examin'd , are not strong enough to establish his opinion . however , i deem his diligence to be highly praise-worthy ; for having undertaken to illustrate so obscure a mystery with a new and ingenious invention . for which fracassatus greatly admires him , and believes there by the hard questions about natural motions which are done with the privity of the brain , are excellently well resolv'd , and that thereby many hidden things , whose causes and reasons the nature and propriety of the parts challeng'd to her self , may be unfolded ; provided the hypothesis be true , which is suppos'd , of the truth of the difference between the spirits of the brain and the cerebel , and their various influx into the several nerves : but the incertainty of this hypothesis appears from hence ; for that birds and several other creatures have no cerebel , and yet have the same motion of the heart , the same respiration and thrusting forward of the chylus , &c. lastly , he adds , that if peculiar spirits serving to unvoluntary motions , were generated in the brain , they cannot possibly pass from thence into the nerves of the sixth pair , arising out of the long pith much below the cerebel : which nevertheless afford animal spirits to several parts of the breast and abdomen , to accomplish the said motions . he might have added , that though it should be granted , that the said spirits of the cerebel should flow through the nerves of the sixth pair , how then should it be possible for the spirits of the brain serving to voluntary motions , to flow through the same nerves ; which motions however are perform'd in the muscles of the hyois , the larynx , the jaws and several other muscles , by the help of the spirits flowing through these nerves . ix . the arabians , by reason that the cerebel is somewhat more hard and dry than the brain , have made it the seat of the memory , and hence , as they say , it comes to pass that the hinder part of the head being hurt , the memory becomes prejudic'd . whom the observation of benevenius seems to favour ; who relates the story of a thief , who being taken and punish'd , never remembred what he had done before : in which thief , after his death , they found the hinder part of his head so short , that it could hardly contain the least portion of his cerebel . but whether this opinion of the arabians be true or no , may be judg'd by what has been said already concerning the seats of the principal faculties . as to the parts of the cerebel , andrew laurentius and riolan believe , that the fore part shuts and opens the entrance into the fourth ventricle , like a valve . but in regard that of its self , like the brain , it is void of proper motion , it seems hardly capable of that function ; and therefore the varolian bridge is thought to close the extream circles of the cerebel , and to defend the noble ventricle like a bulwark . xi . the lower part of the cerebel being rais'd up , the hinder part , or the fourth ventricle discloses it self less than the rest . which is form'd out of the trunks of the spinal marrow , descending from the cerebel , and the third ventricle of the brain , and somewhat distant one from another , before they are all together united ; because the higher and lesser part of it is made by the bosom of the cerebel , overcast with a slender membrane ; but the lower and bigger part seems to be as it were in-laid into the long pith , having a hollowness resembling a pen , where it is shap'd for writing , and therefore call'd calamus scriptorius . arantius calls this ventricle the cis●…ern . herophilus calls it the most principal and noble ventricle , and affirms that the animal spirits prepar'd in the upper ventricles , obtain there their chief perfection , and thence flow thro' the pores into the marrow and nerves . but in regard these spirits are neither made nor contain'd in the upper ventricles , it is apparent that the function of generating and perfecting animal spirits , belongs as little to this ventricle as to the other three , especially seeing that neither the matter out of which those spirits are generated , nor the spirits made in the other ventricles , and to be perfected farther in this , can be supply'd to this fourth ventricle . xii . the long marrow , which falling down without the cranium , to distinguish it from the marrow of the bones , properly so call'd , is call'd the spinal marrow , and is the harder part of the brain and cerebel , close and white , consisting partly within the cranium , about the length of four fingers breadth , and partly without in the pipe of the bones of the spine , extended to the end of the os sacrum . xiii . though it be improperly call'd marrow from a kind of resemblance which it has , yet it differs in many things from the real marrow of the bones . . in substance ; as being neither so fat nor so moist as this , which is like to fat , and subject to run , will melt with the fire , and takes fire like oyl , whereas the other will neither melt with fire , nor flame out . . in colour ; the one being whiter than the other . . in the coverings ; the one having two membranes and the bones to enclose it , whereas this is cloath'd with no membranes , and is contain'd only in the cavities and porosities of the bones . . in the use ; for that the one does not nourish the bones , as the other does ; but stretches out the nerves which are the channels of the spirits , to the parts ; whereas the other has no nerves that derive themselves from it . and therefore , for distinction's sake , the one is call'd 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , or spinal ; by others , 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , or dorsal ; by others , 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 ; by others , 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , as descending through the neck ; back and loyns , and filling the whole spine . upon these considerations , the great hippocrates distinguishes the spinal marrow from the marrow of the bones . for , says he , the marrow which is call'd the dorsal marrow , descends from the brain ; but has not in its self much of fat , or glutinous , as neither has the brain , & therefore neither is the name of marrow proper for it ; for it is not like the other marrow contain'd in the bones , which has tunicles also , which the other has not . and galen treading the footsteps of hippocrates , affirms that the spinal marrow is not rightly and properly call'd marrow . but all this dispute is sav'd by the english , who call it pith. xiv . it is mov'd also according to the motion of the brain , ●…ot of it self ; but by the motion of the arteries , which keeps time with the motion of the brain , but is weaker , in regard that part is stronger , and neither so soft nor moist . xv. the substance of it is fibrous , as may be seen by the help of a microscope , compacted as it were with innumerable long strings , softer above ; but when it has reach'd the middle of the breast , somewhat harder by degrees but whether those little bodies , as well of the brain as of the pith , be hollow or no , and so transmit any spirits thro' their cavities , has been diligently examined by the physicians of this age ; but nothing has been concluded on but only by conjectures , by reason of the weakness of our sight and difficulty of demonstration . xvi . in the dissected substance innumerable bloody drops appear up and down , in like manner as in the dissected brain ; but the blood-bearing vessels passing through the substance it self , are so very minute , that they can hardly be discern'd by the eye . the original also of these little vessels , by reason of their subtility , is no less obscure . but in this quick-sighted age , by more quick-sighted anatomists , this has been observ'd , that much about that place where the trunk of the aorta is dispers'd into the subclavials , a vertebral artery is sent forth through the holes wrought through the transverse processes of the cervical vertebers , and that from thence two little branches proceed to the spinal pith ; and that from thence , downward among the several knots of the vertebers from the descending trunk of the aorta , where it rests upon the spine , immediately two arteries of each side one , run along to the said pith. which two arteries of each of the sides , meeting together , and intermixing one among another , form a wonderful piece of net-work in the meninxes , that they also clasp one another like a chain of rings ; and so hold each other with a winding course , by and by they are seen to send certain capillary branches toward the inner parts of the pith , as willis observes . which last is manifest ▪ from the little bloody spots conspicuous in a dissected substance . from the conjunction of these little arteries on both sides , above the middle fissure of the pith , is form'd a more conspicuous artery , running the whole length of the pith ; also two other arteries of each side one , common alike , but less creep into the sides of the same pith. the veins that carry back the blood remaining after nutrition , from the pith , and its coverings toward the heart , arising from scarce visible originals , by degrees joyn together , and form a fold like the arterious fold , and mixt with it . from this fold the blood carry'd farther , flows into two larger veins , which willis calls the lesser hollownesses ; of which one of each side is extended within the cavity of the bone as far as the os sacrum . out of these the blood is yet pour'd into a larger vein ( which willis calls the large hollowness ) running all along the whole length of the spine , and receiving the blood of both lateral veins , as into a common receptacle , and thro' the lateral holes of the vertebers , conveying it to the next veins , that is to say , the azygos and the vertebral veins , ascending through the neck , carries it from those to the hollow vein ; in like manner as in the head the larger bosom of the hard meninx runs out above the division of the brain , and receives the blood of surrounding vessels to be deliver'd up to the jugular veins . from this pith all the nerves of the whole body derive their original ; neither do any proceed from any other part , either brain , cerebel , or whatever it be . however , the pith is not a part separated from the brain , but a production of the same and the cerebel , from whence , like a stalk it springs with four roots : for before or rather above it springs from two protuberancies of the third ventricle , by which it is chiefly fasten'd to the brain ; behind or rather before , from the buttocks and stones , by means of which it more adheres to the cerebel . now as i call this pith a production of the brain , others have design'd it out by other appellations ; for ruffus affirms it to be no peculiar body of the brain , but the purging of the brain . theophilus calls it the brain drawn out in length ; and so doth also peter borellus ▪ others have nam'd it the apophysis ; others the process of the brain ; because it extends it self from the brain as from a thick root or trunk , and obtains continuous fibers with it . yet protagoras and philotinus of old , seem'd to be of a contrary opinion ; who as lindan reports , affirm'd this pith to be no production of the brain ; but that the brain was the redundancy of the spinal pith. whose footsteps bartholine treading , affirms likewise , that the pith is not extended from the brain , but that the brain rather proceeds from the pith ; from whence , as from its root it rises and shoots forth , and that it is a certain process of this pith ; deducing his argument from certain fishes , the pith of whose head and tail is of a vast bigness , but their brains very small in quantity . to bartholine's opinion malpigius subscribes , and extending it farther , writes , that all the fibers disperc'd through the brain and cerebel , proceed from the trunk of the spinal pith contain'd within the skull , as from an extraordinary collection of fibers ; in like manner as in cabbages the fibers of the root breaking forth , are dispers'd through the leaves , which being wound and folded about , form the head , by accident furnish'd with a certain hollowness within , like a ventricle ; and hence it is , that he will allow the ventricles to be of no use , as being made hollow by accident . then whether the same fibers in number , which are rooted in the brain , be extended into the spinal pith , and there being closely united , make a more solid trunk , or whether the pith be a part proceeding from the brain , the same malpigius examins , and adds , that being taught by the dissection of some fish , he thinks it probable that the prolong'd fibers of the spinal pith , the brain and cerebel are the same in number ; and thence he believes that the brain is an appendix of the spinal pith ; or else that the trunk of nerves contain'd in the spine , propagates the roots crookedly crawling through the brain and cerebel , in the surrounding ash-colour'd rind or shell ; but that the branches proceeding from the head are dispers'd through the whole body . this is also the judgment of fracassatus ; which he proves from hence ; for that if you take a chicken but newly form'd in the egg , when it is but just cover'd with its film or cawl , and prick it with a small needle , it presently contracts , though at that time nothing possess the seat of the brain but the lympha●… , not yet fix'd into brains , and thence he infers , that the brain and cerebel are appendixes of the spinal pith. but he considerately weighs what we have said already , l. . c. . will find that neither the brain owes its original to the pith , nor the pith to the brain , seeing that all the parts are delineated together in the first formation , and are the immediate works of nature , which depend in such a manner one upon another , that the one can neither act or live without the other . if any one aver , that the fibers ascend from the pith into the brain , with the same priviledge i may say , that they descend from the brain into the pith ; neither is it any argument against me , that the brain is not sufficiently harden'd at the beginning ; for that then neither is the pith sufficiently coagulated , but appears like a moist slime . besides the perception of the senses proceeds from the brain , as being the beginning of all the nervous fibers , and not in the pith ; for it is not the wound of the pith , but the wound of the brain that hinders and obstructs the perception . nor does the argument brought from a chicken prove any thing to the contrary : for if at the first formation of the chicken , the film contract it self upon the pricking of the needle , that is rather a sign that then the brain , which is the beginning of all sensation , and without which no sensation can be , was no less form'd than the pith. xvii . the shape of the pith is various ; nor is it the same in all creatures , nevertheless in men it is oblong and almost round . vesalius , laurentius , picolhomini and spigelius assert , that it is larger and thicker at the beginning , and thinner toward the end ; and so describes it in his table affix'd : which is deservedly found fault with by fallopius , who excellently well observes , that about the lower vertebers of the neck , and the first of the thorax , where the great nerves extend themselves to the arms , as also in the lo●…ns , where large nerves run out to the thighs , it is fuller and thicker than in the upper , middle or lower parts ; but that in all the rest of the parts it is every where for the most part , of an equal thickness , unless it be the end that lies hid in the os sacrum . xviii . from the seventh verteher of the breast to the lower parts , it is separated as it were into several small strings , being the productions of the nerves in the pith of a newly deceas'd body dipp●…d in water , and stirr'd about therein so conspicuous , so that toward the end that same vast quantity of little strings seems in some manner to represent the figure of a horses tayl. which riolanus , who did not understand that the whole constitution of the pith was fibrous , asserts to have been so created by god , lest the pith of the back being soft and juicy , as it is observ'd in the neck and back , should be bruis'd and broken by th●… continual mo●…ion of the loins . the said divarication of the pith toward the end into small ropes or strings , the learned tulpius questions ; for , says he , near the os sacrum , we have examin'd very diligently , but never could find those hairy strings , which andrew laurentius describes in his tables , tho' otherwise a most credible writer ; we met indeed in that place with nerves more loose than in other places , but yet compact , and so closely united , that no hot water would separate their twisted body , as that other asserts ; unless he meant by strings those nerves into which the extream part of this spinal marrow is evidently distracted . but ocular view opposes and resolves this doubt ; by which it manifestly appears , that the lower part of the pith , especially that which is contain'd in the loins and os sacrum , being beaten and sti●…r'd in the water , will separate into several strings . now the reason why tulpius did not observe that dissolution , might be , because he let the pith lie in the water , but never stirr'd and shook it sufficiently . xix . the pith within the skull has a hollowness like a pen shap'd for writing , constituting the lower part of the fourth ventricle , and so far , to the midst of its thickness it is manifestly divided into the right and left part , in the same manner as the brain is divided in the upper part : and hence the palsie sometimes in the right , sometimes in the left side . but this division in the outside of the cran●…um , in the cavity of the spine , is not conspicuous to the eyes , because of the exterior tunicle or hard meninx , which enfolds it round about , for which reason the whole pith being view'd without , seems round and simple , without any division to the end of the os sacrum ; though if that tunicle be taken away , there is in reality such a division found by the intervening thin film , and may be shew'd by neat and curious dissection ; and not only by dissection , but by the blowing in of wind the same division may be discover'd . thus bartholine , after a tedious examination , by putting a pipe into the hollowness ●…bove the separation , easily brought the wind to the extream parts , so that the whole body of the pith , where the division ran along , seem'd to be rais'd up . but this division descends no farther than about half way of the substance : nor is there any other manifest discovery to be found in any part of the pith. xx. it is lapt about with two membranes ; of which the first , that enfolds it immediately , arises from the pia mater , which being sprinkl'd with innumerable small arteries entring the substance of the pith , washes and nourishes it with vital blood , the remaining part of which blood , intermix'd with little arteries , suck up and convey back to the heart . the other membrane sticking to the first by the means of small tender fibers , proceeds from the thick meninx . gerard blasius observes a third between these two , which as resembling a spider's web , he calls the arachnoides , and alledges that it sticks to the thin meninx , and may be easily separated from it either with a bodkin or by blowing . about these tunicles is wrapt a strong and nervous membrane by a strong ligament , that binds the fore-parts of the vertebers , which perserves the pith of the spine from damage in the bending and extension of the back . over this a thick and viscous humor spreads it self , to moisten and smooth it , that it may be more easie to prevent pain in motion upon its being over-dry . with which humor all the joynts are moisten'd for their more easie motion . lindan and blasius erroneously number this membrane with the containing parts of the pith , in regard it rather serves to bind the vertebers withinside , than to enfold the pith. besides the foremention'd coverings , the pith is also included within a bony sheath , for its better preservation , the upper part of which is cover'd with the skull . chap. viii . of the mamillary processes , the pituary kernel , the funnel , the wonderful net , and the nerves proceeding from the pith within the skull . see table , and . having gone thus far in demonstration , the brain is to be rais'd up in the fore-part , that the parts which lie underneath may be more easily seen . i. among the parts that lie hid under the bulk of the brain , the first that occur to the eye are the mamillary or papillary processes , so call'd from their figure , which is round at the end like a teat . these were not reckon'd by the ancients among the nerves , by reason of the softness of their substance , and because they never exceed the thick meninx and the cavity of the skull , neither have productions like other nerves , and therefore erroneously by most modern anatomists added to the number of the nerves , and said to proceed from the pith , when ocular view evinces the contrary . ii. these processes are two in number ; white , soft , long , round at the end , hollow within ; in men thinner and less , but bigger in calves , sheep and other brutes . iii. being propagated from the globous pith , and the foremost ventricles ( for willis errs in saying they rise from the thighs of the long marrow , and clad with the thin meninx ) they are carry'd between the brain , the os sphoenois , and the bone of the forehead , to the hollowness of the sieve-like bone , envelopp'd with the thick meninx , into which they insinuate themselves , the bony process , call'd the cocks-comb , intervening between and distinguishing them one from another . iv. the thick meninx investing these hollownesses of the sieve-like bone , is not only bor'd through with many little holes , but also with many little pipes extended through the holes of the sieve-like bone , and so opens into the spungy flesh of the nostrils adhering to the spungy bones , and through those little pipes transmits the flegm out of the ventricles of the brain , and brings it into the said spungy flesh and spungy bones of the nostrils , adhering to the ventricles above , and full of the said spungy flesh. which is the reason that something may flow down from the brain , but nothing can ascend back from the nostrils ; for that if any thing do ascend upward , it stops there ; partly by reason of the contrary situation of the pores of the fungous flesh , and partly from the winding of the slender pipes about the extremities . these pipes are easily discover'd in the head of an ox or a calf , if the bones of the upper part of the nostrils be so taken away , that their whole cavity may appear ; for then those little pipes are manifestly to be seen pendulous through the holes of the ethmoides-bone and extending themselves into the spungy flesh of the nostrils . v. from each of these processes there passes a channel from the upper ventricles , all their full length , running out to the ethmoides-bone , so large in the brain of an ox , calf or sheep , as to admit a goose-quill . but in a dead man so very narrow as hardly it will admit the point of a bodkin ; and therefore not to be seen but in bodies newly deceas'd ; for if the carkasses be kept for any time , the substance of these processes grows so lank , that the said channel is never to be found ; which is the reason that these channels are by many modern anatomists overseen and not observ'd . and among that number is vesalius , who affirms , that no flegm falls down thro' those processes , and that there is no passage within them , neither can be by reason of their slenderness . to his authority riolanus also subscribing , avers that the flegmatic filth does not distil through the mamillary process and the holes of the sieve-like bones ; for that it would infect the pure air which is requir'd in those parts . upon the same foundations rolfinch asserts , that he never could find any cavity in these processes ; because perhaps he never examin'd other than stale and long kept carkasses . but let us hear what fallopius says concerning these processes . it is hard , says he , to observe these channels in men , because they are too slender and diminutively small ; but in brutes , as oxen , goats , sheep , and the like , it is easie to see , that these processes arise from the foremost ventricles , and that a manifest hole reaches . they have a passage from the hole to the colaterium or sieve-like bone , which passage is bigger or less according to the proportion of the process : for in the process of an ox it is very large ; in a man so narrow , that unless it be in a carkass newly deceas'd it is hardly to be discover'd . which perhaps is the reason that these processes have been so little known to several anatomists . vi. this innermost cavity of the processes is very white , and envelop'd with a thin film , common and continuous with that which overspreads the upper ventricles withinside . it is seldom empty , but for the most part full of a slimy and limpid juice . vii . it is the opinion of sneider and other anatomists , that these papillary processes are the real nerves proper to the sence of smelling ; but galen assigns them a double use ; first , to serve for the smell ; and partly for evacuation of the flegmatic excrements out of the ventricles of the brain . as to their first use , avicen , hali , fucksius , bauhinus , epigelius , casser and several others subscribe to his opinion , affirming these processes . but as to their evacuating function , few of them make any mention of it , though indeed it be their primary and only office. viii . for that they are no odoratory nerves , there are many reasons to prove . . they have no resemblance with the nerves . . they have a large cavity , which is not to be found in any nerves . . they do not rise from the pith , which is the original of all the nerves . . they do not proceed from the thick meninx and the cranium , nor send forth any nervous strings into the membranes of the nostrils , which is the seat of smelling ; but only empty flegm through the little holes of the ethmois-bone into the spungy bones of the nostrils . besides , a nervous organ full of excrements , would be improper for that use ; as it happens also in all other nerves , whose office is prejudic'd by the moisture and obstruction of flegm . but in these channels flegmatic humors are always stagnant , either in a greater or lesser quantity ; and that also in dogs , which are creatures endu'd with a most exquisite sense of smelling , and yet receive not any impediment in their smell from thence ▪ neither in man is the sense of smelling prejudic'd by a moderate quantity of flegm sticking in these parts ; but if so great a quantity be gather'd together in the spungy part of the nostrils , so as to make it swell like a spunge , by which the nerves of the nostrils and membranes are compress'd , and free respiration hinder'd , then the smell is diminish'd and hinder'd , as is known to happen in a pose . manifest it is therefore that these processes are no odoratory nerves , but only channels through which the flegmatic excrements flow from the foremost ventricles of the brain ; which slip out at their extremities through the porosities of the thick meninx , and the sieve-like and spungy bones , to the nostrils and mouth ; which porosities are so small , that the flegm more rarely flows out of it self , only when it is very thin ; but for the most part is squeez'd out through the compressure of the brain ; which is done , lest the cold air breath'd in , should enter the cavities of the brain , & so that most noble bowel be overmuch refrigerated . to which purpose the ruddy spungy pieces of flesh are so constituted , that they give a passage , 't is true , to these flegmatic excrements , but permit no ingress of the ascending air to the sieve-like bone ; because upon breathing in the air , by reason of their softness , they fall down and shut , and hence they allow no passage for the odour-bearing vapour to the papillary processes ; but exclude and drive it out . from hence it is manifest how greatly rolfinch is mistaken , who writes that the air breath'd in , partly enters the ventricles of the brain through the papillary processes , and partly through the sides of it reaches the thin membrane ; neither of which can be , seeing that the spungy flesh of the nostrils hinders the entrance of any air to the papillary processes . therefore the flegmatic humors collected in the ventricles of the brain , are evacuated through these processes ; which , when they have passed , a good part descends to the jaws and their glandules , to moisten the jaws , larynx and gullet , and to afford plenty of spittle for the better concoction and passage of the meat in swallowing . but that which remains of these flegmatic humors and is most superfluous , flows toward the nostrils and palate , partly to moisten the inside of the mouth and chaps , and partly to mix a sermentaceous quality with the meat when chew'd , and partly for the remainder to be evacuated forth . these vapors upon the too much refrigeration of the head , are collected many times more crude and copious , in regard the vapours ascending from the inferior parts , for want of sufficient heat , are not dissipated nor sufficiantly conco●…ed ; but being condensed , turn ●…nto slimy s●…ot , which when by reason of its viscosity and redundancy , it cannot pass through the streight passages of the sieve-like bones , and the spungy porosities of the upper part of the inside of the nostrils , cannot be either suddenly or conveniently enough evacuated , occasion an obstruction in those passages , which is call'd gravedo or the pose , which the immission of errhines , by their incision and attenuation of the humors diminish , and sternutories evacuate ; when the membranes o●… the brain , the membranes of the interior nostrils being twing'd by their acrimony ▪ and irritated by sympathy , strongly and forcibly contract themselves , and so by compressing the brain , squeeze out the flegmatic humor contain'd in the brain through the obstructed passages , by a kind of violence . ix . after these processes , you presently come to the nerves , which proceed all from the pith , some while it is yet included in the brain , and other while when it is fallen down out of it . x. of the first primary nerves , according to galen , there are reckon'd seven pairs , or yoaklings together . which number the more modern have augmented to eight , nine and ten , or more pairs ; reckoning in not only the larger and primary nerves , but also all the little nerves , which galen takes only for the strings of the larger , and dividing them into pairs . these seven pairs are usually comprehended in these verses ; optica prima , oculos movet altera , tertia g●…stat ; quartaque , quinta audit ; vaga sexta est , septima lingua . but because these pairs proceeding out of the pith , before it falls out of the cranium , use to be shewn , after the demonstration of the brain , we shall observe the same method in this chapter , leaving the rest of the nerves proceeding from the pith of the back to another place . xi . the papillary processes being remov'd , presently comes in sight the first pair of nerves , call'd the optic pair ; conveying animal spirits conducing to the faculty of seeing , to the eye , and reverberating back the beams of visible things to the common sensory ; which is the chiefest among all the pairs , but softer and more porous than the rest . this pair is said to rise more behind , from the beginning of the pith , where the two thighs of the arch are stretch'd forth . but if its production be more diligently examin'd , beginning from the eyes themselves , it will appear , that that pair takes its original from the stringy protuberances seated in the third ventricle ; for it moves forward from the eyes to mutual conjunction ; hence being separated again , it runs directly to the stringy protuberances ; nay it grows and cleaves on both sides to their sides , and putting off its inward enfolding tunicle upon the inner side , next toward their substance , is immediately united with them , and so intermix'd with their substance , that reason seems to perswade us that it has its own fibers continuous with their fibers . and so it proceeds all along the outside of these protuberances , to the hole of the arse , in which place the outward face of both the optic nerves concurs in the middle of those protuberances , and turns back again upwards , and so jointly ascends as far as the top of those protuberances ; and there again they seem to be turn'd backward again , and spread forth , and so form an arch ; which riolanus observes , though he sets not forth their whole course so exactly . the optic nerves in the middle way are joyn'd above the saddle of the sphoenoides-bone ; which conjunction bauhinus , mercatus , sennertus and many others believe to be not only a bare touching , but an absolute confusion of substances together , that there may be a more easie passage of the spirits from one eye to the other , not only to augment the sight in sound people , but also in those that have but one eye , whose single eye requires to equal the sight of two . which opinion baptista porta defends with several plausible reasons . others believe these nerves not to be confounded together , but to cut each other in the form of a cross , so that the right nerve runs to the left eye , and the left to the right ; but this sentence no demonstration confirms . riolanus tells us , that these nerves are joyn'd only by bare contaction , by means of a little swath or small channel cast between in the form of an h. for my part , i rather think that without any band put between , these nerves at their meeting grow to their membranes firmly and mutually : which not only ocular view seems to teach us , but it is that also which has been confirm'd by several observations of anatomists . for vesalius , aquapondens and valpenda write , that they have sometimes observ'd these nerves separated through their whole course , but commonly united to the membranes , when they meet . and lindan transcribes a pertinent history to this matter out of cesalpinus . once , at a dissection , one of the visory nerves , says he , was found lank and fall'n , the other full ; but the sight was weak in that eye to which the extenuated nerve was carry'd ; for the party was wounded in his head near that part ; but the extenuated nerve did not proceed to the opposite part , but was turn'd back to it . this was seen at pisa , in the year . from whence all the spectators inferr'd , that the visory nerves did not cross one another , but meet and return back to the same place . vesalius also tells us of a woman that was hang'd , who had lost her right eye from her youth ; in which carkass the right nerve was seen to be thinner all the length of its course and redder than the left . now such observations as these , wholly destroy all these opinions of intersection and intermixture of the substance . after these nerves are separated from their conjunction , prepar'd on both sides through the hole of the wedgeresembling-bone , the one runs forward to the right , the other to the left eye , and enters the very center in men , but in brutes the more lateral part . xii . this pair within the skull , is overlaid only with a thin membrane or film , but coming forth of the skull , it assumes a thick membrane also from the holes of the bones through which it passes , to the very eyes ; out of which membranes and the middle marrowy substance , spread in order together about the bulbous part of the eye , are form'd the three coats or tunicles of the eye . galen , following the opinion of heorphilus , affirms , that the optic nerves are hollow , and that they have a manifest hole ; and plempius prescribes the manner of discovery . but i must ingenuoussy confess , that i never observ'd this hollowness yet ; though i have made use of plempius's method ; nor could carpus , vesalius , fallopius , columbus , valverda , aquapendens , nor several other most excellent anatomists . for their substance seems to be thick and close , which though like that of other nerves , it be constituted of several strings by the benefit of a membrane growing together , as coiter well observes ; yet is it in this different from other nerves , that it is somewhat porous in the middle , and seems to contain something of a marrowy substance in those pores . for in a carkass newly deceas'd and full of juice , if dissected athwart , the optic nerve be press'd with the fingers , there will come forth a little conspicuous moisture ; but it is a difficult thing for any man to imagine any such conspicuous cavity as galen speaks of . see more of this , l. . c. . xiii . rolfinch advances something new concerning the course of those threads . for he writes , that the threds in other nerves run forth with a direct course all the length of the nerves , but in the optics are crookedly twisted one with another . he adds , that he read with admiration in eukachius , and found it to be so in the optic , that it was folded like a thin matron's kercher , into innumerable wrinkles , distributed in the same order , and bound about with a tunicle enclosing those pleights , and that the whole might be unfolded into a large membrane . something ●…like this malpigius saw and describes in the sword-fish ; but he adds , that he could not discover those foldings in the optic neither of an ox , a goat , or a hog , though slightly boil'd , for the more distinct discerning them by his microscope ; but as it were a bundle of little twigs , which being squeez'd with a round orifice , ejected the soft substance of the brain , and cloath with their proper tunicle deriv'd from the pia mater , carry along with them certain bloody vessels , and that out of these , if the optic were squeez'd in a new kill'd creature , drops of blood would burst forth from the spaces of those bodies ; but that the said threds are as it were bundl'd up together by the hard and thin meninx enveloping the whole nerve . fracassatus believes , that the said threds of the optics which he calls fibers , arise by continuation , as from roots , from the small fibers of the brain , and only differ in this one thing , that their originals are to be deriv'd from the smallest , and consequently the weakest beginnings . this he not improbably conjectures , though by reason of the extraordinary slenderness of the small fibers of the brain , and the weakness of our sight , that which reason seems to dictate , cannot be discern'd . as to those complications of the threds of which rolfinch seems to write in general , with out any distinction of creatures , as if they were in all animals , i believe 't is a thing to be deny'd , that they are to be discern'd in all creatures , since that besides my self , many others never observ'd them either in man , sheep or oxen ; and for that the optic , like all the other nerves in the said animals are compos'd of streight threds . if by chance it be otherwise in some fish , it may be so ; and malpigius's diligence has clear'd that point ; but from thence no general rule can be deduc'd . xiv . this pair being taken away , the pituitary kernel comes in sight , so call'd from its use , which is to receive the flegmatic humors collected in the third or middle ventricle , and to send them down to the iaws and palate through the neighbouring holes . or which our modern anatomists conceive to be the better opinion through the veiny or perhaps lymphatic vessels , to pour them not into the jaws and palate , but into other veins , and there to mix them with the veiny blood ; in like manner as it happens in most other kernels , whose collected humors are suckt up and carry'd off through peculiar lymphatic and salival , or other vessels , and remix'd with the sanguineous mass. and so this kernel call'd the pituitary kernel , is so call'd from this function assign'd it , which whether it be its true function or no , we shall afterwards enquire . xv. it borrows small slender arteries from the carotides , and sends little veins to the iugulars . the insertion of the arteries appears by the injection of ink into the carotis ; for then the exterior part of the kernel being furnish'd with several small vessels , will be dy'd of a black colour . and because the liquor continually flowing into it through the small arteries , cannot all be contain'd nor spent within it , therefore the superfluous part is again evacuated through other passages , and as is now adays thought flows down thro' little veins to the jugulars . besides these blood-bearing vessels , wharton assigns to this kernel , nerves from the net-resembling fold ; of which nevertheless there does not seem to be any need at all in this kernel . xvi . it is seated under the meninxes , in the cavity of the spoenoides-bone , which is generally call'd the horses-saddle ; as representing in some measure the figure of a saddle ; for it is depress'd , above somewhat concave ; below gibbous and almost foursquare . xvii . the substance of it is harder and more compacted than that of other glandules ; and next it is overcast with a thin film proceeding from the funnel , expanded round about it , which a portion of the hard meninx covers , by which this kernel is fastned to the saddle , not only in men , but in hogs , calves and oxen. which connexion however in other creatures is not alike close and firm ; for in cats , conies and dogs it is so loose , that upon removing the funnel , it often comes away with it . xviii . the bulk of the substance in men and calves seems to be united and individual ; but in cats and dogs it seems to be compos'd of two easily separable and distinct kernels . xix . with this kernel not only men , but all perfect creatures are furnish'd ; but the proportion of its quantity varies according to the bulk of the creature . for many times it is serum can by no means flow out of it ▪ sideways or if it should flow out , whither should it pass ? for there is no part near to which it can safely descend without an extream prejudice to the part. if you 'l say , that the flegm not so large in larger creatures as in lesser . and where it is largest , there most branches of the carotid arteries enter into it , and the wonderful net is very large , as in oxen and sheep . where it is less , there fewer arteries approach it , and the net is thin and narrow , as in men and horses ; and hence it seems probable , that either through the greater quantity of arteries , or through the greater necessity of its use , that in some creatures it is bigger , and for contrary cause less . xx. into this kernel the choana or infundibulum or funnel terminates ; so call'd from its resemblance : first is an orbicular cavity with a wide orifice ( therefore by some call'd pelvis or the bason ) beginning from the middle hole of the third ventricle , and ending with a long and narrow channel inserted into the pituitary kernel . it is form'd out of the pia mater , where it enfolds the basis of the brain , and is of a dark colour , and uses to be found full of flegm ; which it was thought to transmit to the kernel . xxi . round about the pituitary kernel at the sides ▪ of the saddle is spread the wonderful net ; by others call'd the net-resembling fold , so call'd from its artificial and admirable net-work contexture . it is chiefly constituted by the carotid arteries , ascending the sides of the neck to the head , and through the gapings of the cranium , entring the cranium near the optic nerves ; with which at the lower part some few branches are mix'd from the cervicals ; for both the carotides meeting together at the bottom of the brain near the saddle of the sphoenoides , are wonderfully interwoven with branches together with some few branches of the cervicals , form this fold . wolaeus thinks that some branches of the jugular veins are intermix'd with this fold , which carry back the superfluous blood ; deny'd by rolfinch , who will not allow it to consist of any thing but arteries . reason supports walaeus ; but ocular view backs rolfinch , in regard no notable veins can be discern'd to be interwoven with the arteries , and these so few , that they are not to be compar'd in number with the arteries , this fold is manifestly to be seen in calves and many other brute creatures , and shews in them as it were a contexture of many nets woven together , but so joyn'd together in a continu'd series , that they cannot be separated : but in man it is slender and obscurely discern'd , so that oftentimes it seems to be missing ; which was the reason that vesalius , fucksius , ialverda , carpus , ingraffius and wepfer asserted that it was not to be found in man. nevertheless varolius , picolhomini , massa , sylvius , riolanus and others allow this fold to be really in man , and tell us the way how to discover it . for my part , i have frequently found it in newly deceas'd bodies , full of blood , and not emaciated with long sickness , but very slender , and in nothing so conspicuous as in a calf or a sheep . xxii . the use of this net is to stop the impetuous influx of the blood of the brain , and to break the current of it by these innumerable windings and turnings . which influx being more impetuous in brutes that look downwards , than in man that walks with his head upright , there this net is more useful to them than to men . from this net the branches of the carotid artery ascending yet farther , enter the upper ventricles at the lower hindermost part , and form in them the choroid fold . xxiii . now to return from the wonderful net to the pituitary kernel , which seems to be fram'd for the sake of this net , we have already told you the common opinions of the use of it ; but whether true or no , we shall now enquire . and i think one argument may do the work ; for if it receive the flegm continually flowing through the funnel from the third ventricle of the brain , of necessity it must discharge it again through other passages and to send it to other parts ; but there are no other passages through which , nor no other parts that evacuation can be made , ergo , &c. the major is unquestionably true : the minor is prov'd , because the horses saddle consists of a solid and thick bone , no where bor'd through or pervious . the kernel also it self is cover'd with a hard meninx or membrane , and firmly fasten'd to the saddle , which membrane no where lies open , but only in that place where the funnel approaches to the kernel ; so that the flegmatic may be evacuated out of the bony saddle or hard meninx , that 's to assert that a camel may pass through the eye of a needle for if we were talking of the most subtle spirits , something might be allow'd ; but that this visible and thick liquor should pass through invisible pores , is beyond all belief . as to the veins and lymphatic vessels sucking up that flegmatic serum , and pouring it into the larger veins , there was never any anatomist yet so quick-sighted as to demonstrate any such conveyance of a vessel . and therefore of necessity that opinion must fall to the ground . now then we must find out another more probable use of this kernel ; which is not to receive the flegm falling out of the middle ventricle of the brain , but rather to separate a part of the flegmatic serum from the arteries of the wonderful net , and transmit it to the middle ventricle through the funnel that lies above it , that so ascending to the superior ventricles , it may flow through the papillary processes to the nostrils and roof of the mouth . it is well known that the choroid fold has several small kernels intermix'd between the divarications of the little arteries , which we grant to be appointed to drain out the serous flegm from the blood of their vessels , and then to empty it into the cavities of the ventricles . but the wonderful net , which consists of many more little arteries , has none of these small kernels to drain out the serum ; yet because the arterious blood was to be there prepar'd for the making of spirits , and freed from some part of the serous flegm , the chief creator instead of those small kernels , has allow'd it one large kernel in the middle of it , that is to say , in the cavity of the bone of the horses saddle , and in such a place where the separated liquor may conveniently be discharg'd into the ventricles of the brain , and so be empty'd through the common passages which are the papillary processes . then that certain arteries enter the kernel , as it were to discharge something into it , is apparent from the experiment of injection recited . nor let any man think the ascent of the humor to the middle ventricle seated above the kernel to be difficult ; for the brain by its alternate heaving and falling , by degrees gently draws upward whatever humors are contain'd within the cranium , through the passages appointed for every one , and among the rest of the humors , the flegmatic serum flowing out of the said kernel into the funnel ; and hence it is , that the funnel below continually receiving as much as it empties into the ventricle above , is never empty , but is always found full of flegmatic serum . and that this is the true office of this kernel , is apparent from hence , that it is lesser or bigger as the necessity of its use requires ; bigger in those creatures that have a larger wonderful net , and to which more little arteries come ; lesser in those that have but a small net , and where fewer arteries encompass and enter the kernel , which afford a less quantity of flegmatic serum . xxiv . after the demonstration of these , the second pair of nerves comes in view , which lies next to the first pair , but much less and harder . this rising near the first at the innermost part of the pith , where it begins is united , and by and by separated , is carry'd on both sides through the second hole of the spoenois-bone , and assigns branches to the muscles of the upper eye-lid and eye . moreover , fallopius observes , that some certain slender fibers of this pair , accompanying the visory pair , are disseminated into the exterior membranes of the eye . xxv . the third pair adjoyning to the foregoing pair , arises from the side of the beginning of the pith , with a small nerve ( erroneously thought to be the root of the second pair , with which it has no communion or conjunction ) and thence is carry'd under the bottom of the brain directly forward , and being alone , perforates the thick meninx on both sides , and then joyn'd to the second , and proceeding forth with it through the common hole , it enters the path leading to the eye , where it is dispers'd into four little branches . the first of these is carry'd through the fat of the eye , and comes to the fifth or troclear muscle , the skin of the forehead and the upper eye-lid . the second , through the proper hole bor'd through the bone of the jaw , and proceeds to the lip and its muscles , and some muscles of the nose . the third , partly through the hole of the upper jaw seated under the path of the eye ; partly passing through the holes of the wedg-resembling bone , is dispers'd through the tunicles cloathing the cavity of the nostrils , and the spungy flesh , conferring the sence of smelling to them , and stretches out a little branch to the muscle contracting the wing of the nose . the fourth is inserted into the inner part of the temporal muscle ; whence it comes to pass that the forehead , eyes and outward part of the nose contract themselves by consent upon any ungrateful smell : but no part of this pair comes to the tongue , or to its tunicles , so that 't is a wonder that the ancient physicians and some of their modern admirers should think this pair to be serviceable to the taste ; which it neither is nor can be , but only conduces to the smell , as not entring the tunicles of the tongue , but of the nostrils ; which was the sence of galen ; with whom vesalius agrees , when he writes , that the inner tunicle of the nostrils is form'd by the foresaid third little branch of this pair . and therefore i think the old verses that ascribe the tasting faculty to the third pair , should be thus mended ; optica prima , oculos movet altera , tertia odorat ; quarta est quae gustat ; quinta audit ; sed vaga sexta ; septima laxatas linguae moderatur habenas . veslingius adds a little nerve to this third pair , which rising from the bottom of the brain and entring the path of the eye , is carry'd to its trochlear muscle ; but this seems rather to be the first branch of the second muscle already describ'd . xxvi . the fourth pair follows , which is bartholine's fifth ; and thought to be the thicker root of the third conjugation . this , with the foregoing pair , arising from the sides of the pith , but a little more to the fore-part , sends forth first of all a small branch to the cavity of the ears , which obliquely enters the tympanum . then on both sides it descends through the third hole of the wedge-resembling bone ; and then after it has dispers'd its branches to the muscles of the temples , the face , the cheeks , the skin of the face , the teeth of the upper jaw and the gums , is carry'd to the inner hole of the lower jaw , and affords little branches to the roots of the lower teeth , and then passing out at the outward hole of the same jaw , seated below , it is dispers'd into the lower lip and the skin of it . the remarkable branch of this pair that remains , passing through the muscles that lie hid in the mouth , is dispers'd into the sides of the tongue and through its tunicle . to this fourth pair there joyn two slender and hard pairs , though generally excluded out of the number by reason of their slenderness ; of which the first ; which others think to be the slender root of the fourth couple , has its original next to the former pair , issuing out with it through the common hole , yet not united , is carry'd to the palate , and conduces to the sence of tasting . the latter rises a little before the fifth pair , whence by many it is said to be the root of the fifth pair , from the middle of the pith , and passing over the third pair , and issues out through the common hole together with the second and third pair , and wastes it self into the muscle that draws the eye on one side . xxvii . next follows the fifth pair , call'd 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , or auditorium , conducing to the sence of hearing . this rises from the lateral parts of the pith , to which the bridges of the cerebel are opposite , next to the sides of the former , a little lower . coming of each side to the stony bone , it is divided into two branches ; of which the greater and softer enters the proper channel of the stony bone , or the first hole of the bone of the temples , and provides for the organ of hearing . the lesser , which is the harder , is carry'd downward , and sliding through the hole , call'd the blind hole by the ancients , without the skull , between the teat-resembling process and the stytoides appendix , dispences little branches to the temporal muscle , as also to the muscles of the jaw and larynx , to the chaps and skin of the outward ear. rolfinch however affirms , that he has not always found that distribution to the larynx always constant & ordinary ; neither does vesalius seem willing to admit it . riolanus observes that the same nerve issuing out of the cranium , not only provides for the aforesaid muscles , but also sends some little branches into the nostrils and cheeks , and from thence the greatest part of it is carry'd to the roots of the teeth , the larynx and the tongue . nevertheless he adds , hence it is that deafish people are somewhat hoarse , and that a violent and close stopping of the ears stops great fluxes of blood. hence the teeth are set on edge with grating sounds , and that naturally dumb people are deaf , and deaf people subject to pant ; that people that dig in their ears very hard , cough ; and that the ears of peripneumonics are always moist ; all which things happen by reason of the communication of the nerves of the fifth pair with these parts . this brief description of the fifth pair is obvious in demonstrations ; but they who endeavour to deliver a more exquisite description of it , and its farther distribution through the organs of hearing , do not all agree one with another ; neither in dissections do the distributions of the nerves occur alike in all bodies , nature sporting and varying as well in these as in several other parts of the body . eustachius , concerning this matter thus writes ; the fifth pair of the nerves of the brain does not consist of two nerves as others believe : but has two unequal stalks , on each side , of which the biggest is neatly hollow'd to the full length like a semicircle , and kindly embraces the less ; and so being both joyn'd together , proceed obliquely to the foremost and exterior part , as far off the extream part of the hollowness , bor'd through in the stone-like bone for their sakes ; where the lesser stalk separating from the bigger , finds a little hole prepar'd for it , and enters it , and with a wonderful winding course shoots forth without the skull . the bigger stalk seems to be divided into three portions little distant one from the other , of which the principal is caps , a little hole pervious into the cochlear-bone ; but whether it cover it like a pot-lid , or pierce any deeper , and be twin'd about within the snaky curles of that bone , i could not well examin , because of the difficulty of handling those parts . fallopius explains the same thing somewhat otherwise . the first pair , says he , assists the hearing , consisting of two nerves ; the one , than which there is no nerve more soft except the visory , design'd to the sence of hearing ; the other , which is also assign'd to the fifth pair , because it arises from the same place with the softer , and reaches together with the same to the stone-like bone ; but indeed it is a distinct nerve , and harder than the former , and equally as hard as the rest of the nerves which form ihe rest of the pairs ; nor will any reason allow it to be a part of the soft one . the other portion of the fifth pair , which is soft and by me call'd the hearing-nerve , coming together with the hard one to the extremity of that den by the means of certain very narrow middle holes , is distributed into two cavities ; of which the one is by me call'd the labyrinth ; the other , the spoon , or spoon-like portion ; neither does it proceed any farther , or send any nerve from its self to the exterior parts . and coiter testifies , that he has often found it , as fallopius describes it . vesalius differing from fallopius , thus answers , that difference by thee observ'd in the hard and soft original of the fifth pair , or of its being carry'd to its proper hole , i have not as yet discover'd : for there is no nearer way whereby the foremost portion of the nerve of the fifth pair can be carry'd or distributed to the beginning of the den , which i compare to the chamber of a mine . and though you describe the hard portion of the fifth pair , as if it were of no use to the organ of hearing ; yet you must take notice that it produces a stalk that runs through the hole , beculiar to the vaulted den. besides , when i observe the hole admitting the fifth pair , and see that there is a passage to be met with in the foremost seat of it , which ends at length , i cannot understand , how you , while you divide the fifth pair into soft and hard , and assert the hard portion to be slenderest , and seated behind the other , can expect it should enter the said passage without some kind of crossing and running athwart , which would prove the course and situation of your hard portion above and soft one below : for to my sight , the former and not the hinder part seems to enter the said passage , which ceases in the blind hole under the ear toward the hinder parts . here vesalius describes an exact distribution of the fifth pair of the nerves , though it be a difficult thing to demonstrate it so exactly in a dead body , especially for those that are over-hasty in dissection ; so that it is only a labour to be perform'd by sharp-sighted , dextrous and patient anatomists . xxviii . the sixth pair , which provides for many parts in the middle and lower belly , and thence call'd the vagous or wandring pair , arises a little below the fifth pair , cover'd over with strong membranes , by reason of its longer course , and connex'd to the neighbouring parts . at the beginning it is compos'd of several little nerves and fibers , which fibers are presently so united and cover'd over with the same membrane , that they seem to constitute one nerve . between these little nerves collected together by this union , in each of the vagous nerves there is one , which arises not from the pith within the cranium , but from the pith of the neck ( for which discovery we are beholden to willis ) from which place along the sides of the pith , into which it is never all the way inserted , but only fasten'd by thin fibers , it ascends upward toward the head , and increases in bulk ; hence carry'd to the inside of the cranium , it is fasten'd to the fibers of the fifth pair , and with those issues forth at the same hole , so that you would think they grew together into one trunk . after their egress , being again separated from the trunk of the vagous nerve , it reflects back and afterward imparts certain little branches to the muscles of the neck and shoulders , descends to the scapular muscle , and in that is almost all consum'd ; pouring animal spirits into it for the motion of the arms in men , the fore-feet in beasts , tho wings in fowl and the fins in fish ; for in these creatures also has willis observ'd productions of the said nerve . and therefore because the motions of the arm require strong muscles , it is requisite that it should arise from the pith within and not without the brain . this vagous pair being compos'd of the said little nerves concurring together , issues out of the cranium through the third hole common with the hinder part of the head to the bone of the temples ( through which also passes the bigger branch of the inner jugular vein ) and not far from its egress sends little branches to the muscles of the neck and the cowl-resembling muscle . from hence in man it associates to its self a branch of the intercostal nerve , and sends forth another remarkable branch to the larynx , which runs forward to the throat and the exterior muscles of the larynx , and running under the shield-resembling muscle , proceeds to the point of the turn-again nerve , and is united to it . at this place where the intercostal is joyn'd to it , and the other sent forth toward the larynx , the stalk of the vagous nerve is exalted into a long tumor , and constitutes the nervous fold , call'd the contorted fold , and by fallopius , corpus olivare ; which fold is also found in the intercostal adjoyning , constituted by its concourse with the nerve of the last pair within the cranium . both these folds are discover'd when the carotid arteries are laid open on both sides between the muscles of the neck ; for then by tracking them , they are presently to be seen about the insertion of the lower jaw . besides this fold , willis has observ'd another lesser fold , seated a little distance from it , which is form'd out of a small twig of the foresaid fold , wound about the pneumonic artery , and with the branch descending from the trunk of the right vagous pair , as also with another nerve design'd for the hinder region of the heart ; and from this fold he farther observes little nerves to be sent to the right side of the fore-part of the heart . xxix . after it has form'd these folds , the trunk of the vagous pair descending between the carotis and the iugular to the side of the rough artery , above the throat is divided on both sides into the inward and outward branch . both the outward branches presently after their separation provide for the breast , proceeding from the sternon and the clavicle , and then there issue forth from it the nerves call'd vocal ; because they constitute the instrument of speech , and the cutting off the one , renders a man half dumb , the cutting off of both renders him perfectly dumb . the said vocal nerves are also call'd the turn-again nerves ? by the greeks 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , because they first descend and then ascend , the right being wound about the right subclavial artery , about the trunk of the great artery , where it bows it self toward its descent , that so they may run back to the muscles of the larynx , into whose head , looking downwards , they enter with numerous branches . now why the nerves were not sent from above or out of the neck into the muscles of the larynx , but are forc'd to turn upward again , galen makes a long examination , but resolves nothing ; but the true reason is this ; for that the muscles of the larynx cause the voice and move the air in measure as it goes out of the lungs , therefore there is a necessity that their head should be turn'd downward and their tail upward . for to the end there may be a modulation of the air going out of the lungs , the supremities of the larynx ought to be contracted from above toward the lower parts , to resist the egress of the air at pleasure ; yet not so as to be quite shut . now in regard all the muscles draw the parts sticking to their tails , toward their beginnings or heads , therefore ought the heads of the muscles of the larynx be lowermost ; and when the nerves are to be inserted in them , of necessity they must ascend from the lower parts to these heads ; but if the heads of these muscles were plac'd above , and the nerves fix'd in them from above , then by the contraction of these muscles and expiration happening at the same time , an absolute closure of the larynx would follow , and consequently suffocation of the person . now if any body ask me , why the muscles of the larynx from the second pair rather run back , which may be brought from the next nerves of the spinal pith ? galen answers them , that the arteries and other parts which are to be more violently mov'd , require harder nerves , as are those which proceed from the pith lying hid within the cranium ; but that to those which are not so violently to be mov'd , softer nerves are sufficient ; such as are those that proceed from the pith without the cranium , among which the sixth pair is one , whose turn-again branches come to the muscles of the larynx , which are to be gently mov'd . the turn-again nerves being thus constituted , this pair descends by and by under the throat , and at the bottom of the heart toward the spine , constitutes a certain fold of nerves , which some call the cardiac fold ; from whence branches are distributed to the pleura , to the tunicle of the lungs , the pericranium , the heart , the gullet and several other parts within the thorax . fallopius making an exact description of this fold , this nervous fold , says he , derives its original from the five stocks of the nerves , which although they are sometimes only four , yet for the most part they are found to be five . the first of these is that which rises from the sinister branch of the sixth pair , a little below the rise of the turn-again nerves and afterwards reflecting to the sinister arterial vein , ascends into the said nervous fold . the second and third stock is in the same left side , and rises from that fold which i have call'd the fold of the sixth pair in the neck , seated near the olive body . from this fold in the left side two little nerves arise , which descending to the bottom of the heart , are distributed through the said fold . the fourth stock and sinister too , is that which is said by others to rise from the turn-again nerve of that side ; which descending with the third and second , is dispers'd into the said fold . the fifth and last stock , seated in the right side , has a twofold beginning ; from the right fold of the sixth pair , which runs directly to the heart ; and likewise from the cardiac fold it self ; but these cardiac branches from the intercostal nerve , as also the cervical fold from which they proceed , are peculiar to man , there being no such thing in beasts . from these last words it is apparent , that willis describes the cardiac fold somewhat after another manner than fallopius ; only the chiefest difference consists in the diversity of the names of the nerves . xxx . the intercostal trunk from the cervical fold , admits the cervical artery , and so descending into the breast , admits three or four branches from the vertebral nerves next above , and with them makes another remarkable fold in men ; for it is otherwise in beasts . this fold willis calls the intercostal and thoracic . xxxi . moreover the intercostal trunk descending through the cavity of the breast , extends a branch from it self all along the lower and hollow part of both sides ; then three separate branches descend to the os sacrum , which being themselves here and there united with other nerves , and again separated from them , make several other mesenteric folds , which willis reckons up to be seven in all . but lest a too particular description of each of these should breed confusion , we shall only insist upon three of those branches . the first of these is carry'd to the cawl , the bottom of the stomach , the tunicle of the liver and spleen , the substance it self of the spleen and the colon-gut ; which as it is thought , occasions hoarsness after a tedious cholic . the second tends to the spleen , which exagitating the stomach by consent , in nephritic pains , causes vomiting . the third and largest proceeds to the mesentery , the guts , the bladder and of the womb. xxxii . now why the bowels receive their nerves from the sixth pair , and not from the vertebral pith , bauhinus explains out of galen ; because that not having any voluntary motion , they do not require the harder nerves proceeding from the spinal pith ; but lest they should be altogether void of sence and some slight motion , and lest they should be destitute of animal spirits necessary for nourishment , they require only the softer nerves , such as proceed from the pith while it is yet in the brain . xxxiii . the seventh pair , moving the tongue , much harder than the rest , arises with various heads soon united in the hinder part of the head from the pith , ready to fall into the spine , and through an oblique and proper hole bor'd through in the hinder part of the head , issues forth of the cranium , and for preservation sake , is ty'd to the sixth pair with very strong membranes , but not intermix'd ; then again being separated , the greatest part of it goes to the tongue , to all whose muscles it imparts branches for motion ; but the lesser portion of it proceeds to the muscles of the hyois and larynx , and those which rise from the stytoides appendix . some think the substance and composition of the said nerves within the brain proceeding from the pith , to be quite different from that of other nerves , when ocular inspection teaches us , that they consist in the same manner as other nerves , of several strings bound together with a strong membrane , and as it were united into one , and differ nothing from other nerves , but only that they are softer . chap. ix . of the order to be observ'd in shewing the parts of the brain in the foresaid dissection , and of another manner of dissection . i. according to the method of dissection already mention'd , the thick and thin meninx are first of all to be demonstrated , with the four hollownesses of the hard meninx , the division of the brain , the scythe or falx interpos'd between ; with the fence continuous to it , which separates the cerebel from the brain ; as also the brawny body that lies under it . th●…nce the upper parts of the brain being taken away , the two upper ventricles are to be shewn , the lucid fence , the choroid fold , the channel of the flegm to the nostrils and the fornix . then the third ventricle , and in that , the choroid fold , the middle hole reaching to the funnel , the pleighted little hillocks , with the hole of the anus reaching to the fourth ventricle , the vein that runs through the fold , discharging it self through the fourth hollowness into the wide hollowness ; also the pineal kernal , the buttocks and stones . afterwards the cerebel with its membranes and processes , and that being taken away , the fourth ventricle and the long pith. lastly , the brain being rais'd up before , shews the mamillary process , the wonderful net , the spitly kernel , the funnel , with the pair of nerves , proceeding from the pith within the skull . ii. if any one have a desire to observe another method of demonstration , it may be done after this manner ; first , shew the meninxes above , the division of the brain , the scythe , together with the hollownesses , and the brawny body . then the brain being rais'd up before , shew the mamillary processes , the optic nerves , the nerves that move the eyes , the wonderful net , and the spitly kernel . then the brain being rais'd up on the side , the other pairs of the nerves are to be shewn ; and with the same labour , the brain , together with the cerebel and long pith , is to be taken out of the skull and turn'd . then the remaining part of the demonstration is to be compleated from the lower part . and first the pith being rais'd up , the fourth ventricle is to be shewn , and then the cerebel with its processes . after that , the wonderful net with the funnel , and so dissecting down to the funnel , the third or middle ventricle is to be shewn ; where you are to search for the furrow'd hillocks , the buttocks , the stones , the pineal kernel , the hole of the anus , and the fold of the arteries ; from hence you must proceed to the two upper ventricles , where you must seek out the choroid fold , together with the lucid fence and the channels conveying the flegm and spittle to the papillary processes . however , observe by the way , that this method of dissection is perform'd with better success in the brains of sheep and calves than of men , by reason of its extraordinary bulk : for unless it be very new , all the parts fall , by reason of their flaccidity ; so that nothing can be conveniently demonstrated . another method of dissecting the brain , but very laborious , the invention of constantine varolius , which bauhinus describes , l. . theat . anat. c. . and another method between both , of francis silvius , describ'd by bartholine , l. . anat. reformat . c. . to which i refer the reader . chap. x. of the function of the brain . after demonstration of the brain and all its parts , it remains that we speak in brief concerning the office or function , actions and use of so considerable a bowel . i. from the soundness of the brain , it is confessd by all , that the soundness of all the animal actions proceed ; it being granted that those organs in the body , by which those actions are to be perform'd , be well constituted ; though let them be never so well dispos'd , no animal action can be duly and rightly perform'd if the brain be amiss . ii. now because the animal actions are or may be perform'd not only by the brain alone , but also by the rational soul ; hence many are perswaded that the seat of the soul is to be assign'd to that part from whence the animal actions proceed ; that is to say , the brain in general , according to the arabians and moschio , or , as others believe , some particular part of it . thus hierophilus seats it at the bottom ; xenophon in the top of the head ; erasistratus in the membranes . from which opinions however many of the modern philosophers vary , who assign for its seat the smallest particle of the brain in the third or middle ventricle , that is to say , the pineal kernel ; wherein they endeavour by many probable arguments and conjectures to prove the residence of the soul and the actions of common sence to be perform'd . this last opinion much displeases others , and more especially seems very hard to many divines , who cannot apprehend , neither will suffer themselves to be perswaded , that so small and narrow a domicile ought to be thought sufficient for an incorporeal soul , infus'd by god , and governing all the animal actions of the whole body , and yet be able to perceive all those things which are done in the extream parts in the least space of a moment , even in the very point of time they are acted . moreover , they do not believe the seat of the rational soul to be so small in man ; and yet in brutes , which are destitute of that soul , to be three times as big . furthermore , they cannot apprehend why the seat of the soul should not be ascrib'd as well to the heart , as to the brain ; seeing that all the motions of the animal spirits and the brain it self proceed from the heart ; which when it ceases to beat , all the animal actions fail , as it happens in a syncope , and in wounds of the ventricles of the heart . concerning this matter , in our age sharp and furious have been the contests on both sides , as if they were contending for the safety of their country , and daily most terrible paper-disputes arise , eager indeed and vehement , but vain and frivolous ; by which the minds of young people are more disturb'd than taught . but setting aside these unprofitable contests , let us enquire into the more sensible action of the brain it self . iii. aristotle teaches us , that the office of the brain is to temper the heat of the heart . which opinion , though most reject , spigelius nevertheless endeavors to assert it for rational . galen attributes to the brain the office of generating and making animal spirits . with whom most of the modern philosophers agree : for this is most certain , that the animal actions are not at the first hand perform'd by the brain it self , but by the animal spirits made in the brain , by means of which the soul in well dispos'd organs executes its actions , and so the brain is the instrument which generates those spirits . these spirits zabarel , argenterius , helmont , deusingius and some others , as well physitians as philosophers , confound with the vital spirits ; and affirm that they differ from them not in specie , but only in certain accidents ; and therefore it is that spigelius says , not that there is here a certain mutation of the vital spirits , which destroys their whole nature , but only a certain alteration of the temperament ▪ e●…t agrees with spigelius , and supports his opinion with these three arguments . . the birth both feels and is mov'd in the womb without the aid of any animal spirit , in regard that no maternal nerve runs to the birth . . a most subtil spirit cannot be made in a cold brain and full of mucous filth ; for cold stupifies the spiri●…s , and hinders their actions . . the nerves themselves derive their life and hea●… from the arteries , which are conspicuously diffus'd through them . to these arguments others add one more ; that the most subtil spirits never descend to the lower parts ; but always tend upwards and exhale ; and hence although there should be allow'd any animal spirits to be so subtil , they would never descend into the nerves , but would always fly upwards through the pores . but though these things seem specious enough at a distance , yet they neither prove nor confirm the said sentence . to the first i answer , that the birth in the womb is neither mov'd with an animal motion , nor feels , until the first delineaments of the brains and nerves are arriv'd and increas'd to such a bulk , firmness and perfection , that the brain may be able to generate animal spirits sufficient , and that those spirits may be conveniently convey'd to the sensitive and moving parts ; and because it requires some months to attain that perfection , therefore the birth does not move it self , until the woman have gone out half her time ; that is , about the fourth month and a half . for what spirits are generated before that time , are very few and weak ; and the rest of the parts themselves of the body unapt for motion or sence . nor does the motion of the birth proceed , nor is it perform'd by the spirits or maternal nerves running to it ; of which there are none that enter the birth , but by the spirits and nerves generated in it self . to the second , i say , that there is no considerable magnitude requir'd for the making of animal spirits , but rather a mediocrity of heat , such as is sufficient in the brain , though it be much less than in the other parts . and there is a necessity for that lesser heat , which they call cold , to asswage the heat of the arterious blood , and in some measure to thicken its volatile sulphurous spirits , that so the animal spirit may separate it self more pure from the salt particles , and may flow into the nerves , no longer beset with superfluity of viscous vapors . moreover , it is to be understood that although the brain be said to be colder than other parts , yet that it is not absolutely cold , only that the temper of it is less hot than of many other parts ; and that the proper confirmation of it is such as is most fit for the generation of spirits . lastly , the natural temper of the brain inclining to cold , is not such as stupifies the spirits , nor renders them unap●… to perform their actions in the parts ; but its preternatural cold temper excluding the blood and natural heat by a too close constriction of the pores , is the cause that for want of convenient matter , few spirits are generated therein , and that those already generated with great difficulty , and in small quantity flow through the streightned pores and nerves . which is the reason that then the actions fail by degrees ; not because the actions are stupify'd , as is vulgarly believ'd ; but because very few are generated & flow into the parts . for the spirits endure no stupefaction ; for drowsiness is nothing else but a rest of the actions in the sensory organs , by reason of the scarcity of the animal spirits . to the third , i answer , that although the brain and nerves are nourish'd with arterious blood , it does not thence follow , that the animal spirits generated in the brain , are nothing different from the blood and vital spirits generated in the heart , and carry'd through the arteries , for the nourishment of the parts ▪ for this is as much as if a man should say , the stomach is nourish'd by the arterious blood generated out of the chylus , therefore the chylus concocted therein , is nothing different from the blood. or thus , the heart changes the chylus into blood , therefore the blood which is generated therein , is nothing different from the chylus . or thus ; the bread is turn'd into chylus , and the chylus into blood ; therefore the bread differs nothing either from the chylus or the blood. to the last i say , that the animal spirits would easily exhale out of the brain and pith , unless they were there with-held in their cool work-house , which hinders their sudden exhalation , and would flow into the nerves which are of a firmer substance ; and thus all chymical spirits are best kept close in cool vessels and hinder'd from exhaling . moreover , that they would not descend into the nerves , unless being squeez'd out of the brain and pith by the alternate dilatation and falling of the brain , the hinder parts pressing the fore-parts , as one wave drives forward another , is apparent from hence , for that the motion of the brain ceasing through a syncope , or depression of the cranium , &c. no more spirits flow into the nerves , but all the parts fall without motion . thus in an organ we see that the thin air , which would never of it self descend violently downward into the pipes , by the falling of the dilated bellows , is easily forc'd into them . upon this subject read more in sennertus's institutes , l. . c. . and his prax. med. p. . c. . where he refutes and destroys the foresaid argument with most convincing reasons . this opinion therefore being altogether rejected , we must hold it for certain and unquestionable , with the consent of the greater part of the philosophers , that there are animal spirits , bred indeed out of the vital , but actually very much differing from them , as the bread differs from the chylus , the chylus from the blood , and the blood from the substance of the parts ; for as the chylus , coming into the heart , loses its first constitution , and assumes a quite different , which has nothing of similitude with the former , and so is turn'd into blood ; so the most subtil part of the vital blood assumes in the brain a new and altogether different species , together with a new and altogether different strength and efficacy . here , if any one will object , that the same spirits were before in the blood , so far as they are afterwards produc'd out of the blood , and cannot be produc'd out of the blood unless they were in it before ; i will not contend with him , if he mean that the matter of these spirits was in it before : for those animal spirits , such as they are made in the brain , are not actually contain'd in the blood ; but the matter out of which they are to be made is contain'd therein . in the same manner the spirituous blood is not contain'd in the meat and nourishment ; but the matter out of which such blood is generated by the concoctions of the bowels . or as the herb or the tree is not contain'd in the earth , but the matter out of which the herb or the tree is to spring and be rais'd up by the heat of the sun. or , as the vessel is not contain'd in the clay , but the matter out of which the vessel is to be made ; which is so different from the vessel , that a child would account him a fool that should call the formless clay a vessel . iv. but now 't is the unanimous opinion of all physicians , that it is the proper office of the brain to generate the animal spirits ; and that those spirits flow through the nerves out of that work-house wherein they are generated into the parts , and may be sent forth every way in greater plenty by the soul , with a certain determination , as assistants and conveyers of the powers which she diffuses from her self . but in what part of the brain these spirits are generated , is greatly disputed ; and what they are , is altogether unknown ; and therefore they both require a larger discourse . v. peter laurembergius believ'd these animal spirits to be generated in the hollownesses of the falx . from whose opinion daniel sennertus does not differ much . but this opinion proceeds from their not knowing the use of the sinus's or hollownesses of the falx , and therefore they are easily refuted by what we have already said concerning those hollownesses , c. . andreas laurentius , riolanus , lud. mercator and many others , with whom regius also consents , believe these spirits to be generated in the cavities of the ventricles , out of the hottest arterious blood exhaling from the choroidal fold ( with which some think the air to be intermix'd by inspiration ) and that they are forc'd out of these ventricles through invisible pores into the nerves , and so through them flow to the rest of the parts . some , according to the opinion of the arabians , affirm , that they are generated not in all the ventricles , but only in the fourth ventricle ; which for that reason , they call the most principal . both these opinions galen also profess'd , as also hippocrates and plato . but both reason and experience evince this opinion concerning the cavity of the ventricles . for if the vital spirits should exhale out of the choroidal fold into the cavities of the ventricles , there to be turn'd into animal spirits , i would fain know , how the animal spirits already generated out of those vital spirits shall enter into the nerves , which have no continuity with the ventricles ? shall the vital spirits , which exhal'd out of the fold , being become animal again , breath into the nerves which lie at a distance from the nerves ? or can the soul dispose at pleasure of the spirits generated and contain'd here and there beyond the bounds of its jurisdiction , that is to say , in the ventricles ? besides , if the place be consider'd , it will be found no way proper for the generation of the animal spirits . for in the ventricles are gather'd together snotty excrements , which are found therein , sometimes in greater , sometimes in lesser quantity , as well in those that are sound , as those that are sickly . thus it would come to pass , that these thin and most impure spirits would be generated without the vessels in the cavities of these ventricles , among the most impure and cold excrements of the brain , and thence , notwithstanding their being thicken'd by the cold excrements , must flow out again together with the thicker excrements through most narrow and almost invisible pores , rather into the nerves far enough seated from the ventricles , then through the broad and open channels of the papillary processes and the sieve-like bone ; which how absurd it is , there 's no body but may easily perceive . besides , in the watery disease of the head , call'd hydrocephalus , in which many times there is a great quantity of serous humour collected in the ventricles , sometimes several pounds ; as also in an apostem of the brain , at what time the purulent matter is pour'd forth into these vessels , i say in these cases , neither could these spirits be generated , nor the animal actions proceed ; of which the contrary is manifest from experience : for in a patient that i dissected in march . whose distended ventricles containd above half a pound of thick stinking green pus , from the large apostem of the upper part of the brain , penetrating as far as the upper ventricles , i observ'd that all the time of his sickness for seven weeks together , he was no way disturb'd in his intellects , nor depriv'd of motion till the time of his death . besides , that if they did not flow through the already mention'd vessels evacuating the flegm , yet would those spirits fly out at the wounds of the ventricles , and for want of them the person would be depriv'd of all animal action . yet galen tells us a story of a young man , who at smyrna in ionia , receiv'd a wound in one of the upper ventricles , yet liv'd for all that . i my self here in utrecht , in the year . inspected the body of a young nobleman of over-yssel , a student in the law , who dy'd of a wound in his head , in whom the cranium being first open'd , it was first found that the sword had enter'd the bigger or innermost corner of one eye , without any harm to the eye it self , and had pene●…rated through the upper right ventricles , and lighting upon the upper part of the cranium on the inside toward the top of the lambdoidal suture , had almost pierced that also ; yet this young gentleman was depriv'd of none of his animal actions ( a certain sign that the spirits had not flow'd out of the ventricle through the broad wound ) but sound in mind , seeing , hearing , tasting , and well moving all his parts , walking and judiciously discoursing with his companions that came to see him , upon any discourse , liv'd ten days , and then being seiz'd with a violent fever , dy'd in two days . thus lindan makes mention of a certain patient that was wounded , whose surgeon for fourteen days together before his death , put in a probe as far as the ventricle of his brain , whither the wound had reach'd , without any feeling . yet he further adds , that the same person walk'd every day about the city , unless it were the last four days , at the end of which he dy'd . in these cases , certainly the most subtle spirits had either flow'd out of their own accord , or had been expell'd out of the ventricles by the alternate dilatation and compression of the brain , and so the person must have dy'd depriv'd of his animal actions , if the place of their generation had been in the ventricles . from all which examples the weak supports of the said opinion are sufficiently evident ; though webfer refutes the same opinion more clearly by other reasons , l. de apoplexia . vi. cartesius differs not very much from the said opinion , who teaches us , that these spirits are not generated in the ventricles , but says , that they are separated in the pineal kernel , by the narrow passages of the little arteries of the choroid fold , and from thence infus'd into the ventricles , and no other way differ from the vital spirits , only that they are the thinest parts separated from them , and only call'd by another name . to which he adds , that there is no probability that the separation of these spirits is perform'd in the pineal kernel , as well by reason of the smalness of the kernel , as the vast quantity of animal spirits , which can never be so swiftly strain'd through so diminutive a particle . besides that this kernel being obstructed and compress'd , yet it is found that these spirits are generated in great quantity ; as was apparent in the forecited persons , in whose ventricles the pus and serum that was collected in great quantity , could not but compress the kernel and obstruct it in its office ; as is also apparent in such men in whom you shall find sand and stones oppressing more than half the kernel . as to that which follows , where cartesius says , that these spirits are collected in the ventricles , that is already refuted ; as also that other , that they differ nothing from the vital spirits , but only in their separation . vii . many others believe , that the animal spirits are elaborated in the choroid fold , and that the vital blood in its passage through the fold , is alter'd into these spirits by a singular propriety of the brain . which opinion , as the liver , many embrace at this day , and i was of the same mind once , though now i have good reason to think the contrary . for upon more mature consideration , three arguments utterly subvert it . first , because the blood contain'd in that fold , is altogether ruddy , neither is it observ'd to undergo any alteration therein , neither at any time , whatever part of the fold you inspect , is it of any other colour than red and blood-colour ; whereas the animal spirits are pellucid and invisible by reason of their extraordinary subtility . secondly , because the fold is not continuous with any of the nerves , and therefore no spirits can be transfus'd out of it into the nerves . ly . because the blood flows into the pithy substance of the brain out of the fold , partly through innumerable diminutive branches , partly by the order of circulation , flows to the vein that runs between the middle fold above the kernel , and thence is carry'd to the inferior hollownesses of the hard meninx or scythe , and from them to the jugular veins . through which passages the animal spirits also , if any were made in the fold , would flow forth together with the blood , nor would any reach to the nerves which are seated without the fold , and no way continuous to them . viii . francis de le boe sylvius suspects them to be elaborated in the arteries running forth all along the superficies of the brain and cerebel , which he thinks to be distributed thro' the superficies for that public , and not for any private use , and that out of those arteries they penetrate into the cortex of the brain and cerebel , and thence into the middle whitish substance , and in this passage are freed from its watery part that sticks most closely to it . but this opinion is overthrown by these three arguments . . because that in the arteries of the head there is no other humour contain'd than in other arteries , that is to say , blood ; and those arteries are only assisting parts conveying the blood , not altering it into animal spirits , or making any other humor or spirit out of it . . because the innumerable bloody specks which every way occur to the sight in the dissected substance , teach us , that not the animal spirits , but the arterious blood it self is thrust forward as well through the ash-colour'd cortex of the brain , as through the whitish substance out of the arteries ; which bloody specks would not appear , if that blood were only chang'd into invisible animal spirits in the said arteries . . because the several remarkable mutations of humors require some particular bowel to make that alteration ; as appears in the stomach , which turns the nourishment into chylus ; in the heart , which changes the chylus into blood ; in the liver , which alters the blood into a choleric ferment , and therefore we must certainly conclude , that the making of animal spirits out of blood cannot be perform'd in the arteries , which only carry the matter out of which they are to be generated ; but that of necessity it must be performed in that most noble bowel the brain , and not in the arteries encompassing the brain and cerebel , but in the substance it self . ix . thus also galen , and with him bauhinus and sennertus , hoffman , emilius , parisanus & plempius believethem to be elaborated in the substance it self of the brain . whose opinion we are also willing to embrace , as being that of which the truth appears from hence , because the arterious blood is driven from all parts in greater quantity to the substance of the brain , than is requisite for the nourishment of it . for on the outside thousands of little branches of arteries empty a great quantity of blood , partly into the ash-colour'd cortex enfolding the brain , in whose little kernels apt particles are separated for the generation of spirits from those that are unapt , and suckt up by the extremities of the little fibers of the brain extended into the cortex , partly enter the substance of the brain it self . moreover , on the inside also in the third ventricle that there are infinite slender branches inserted from the choroid fold , into the white pithy substance , and which stick and cling to it , will easily appear to those who have prudently examin'd that ventricle , and gently lifted up the fornix or arch ; for then they may perceive innumerable little branches of the choroid fold sticking to , and entring the substance of the fornix , the furrow'd monticles , the stones and buttocks , and pouring into the pores of it the thinner blood freed by the little kernels of the fold from a great part of its viscous serum , which in the dissection of the substance is seen to start as well out of the invisible vessels as out of the pores . moreover , it is requisite that the animal spirits should be generated in that part out of which they may most conveniently either flow or be thrust forward into the nerves . but such a part is the substance of the brain and pith , which as being altogether fibrous and continuous with the nerves , has also pory fibers continuous with them , into which , by the compression of the brain , which follows its dilatation , those spirits may commodiously be squeez'd forward . lastly , the soul makes use of the ministry of these spirits , and therefore they ought to be generated and contain'd in that part where the soul resides . but the soul does not reside in empty cavities or ventricles in the midst of excrementitious filth , but in solid living parts . therefore as it resides in the substance of other parts , so likewise in that of the brain , where it lays the foundations of the animal spirits , which from thence it sends every way at her own pleasure through the nerves . x. this opinion two great difficulties seem to oppose . . because the apoplexy , and other heavy drowsinesses proceed , according to the iudgment of most eminent physicians from a stoppage of the animal spirits , which hinders their influx out of the ventricles of the brain into the pith , by reason of some obstruction of the beginning of the pith , or its compression happening through some other cause . which obstruction or compression would not be the cause of the apoplexy or that same lethargic drowsiness , if the spirits were not generated in the ventricles or the choroid fold , but in the substance of the brain it self . . because the disposal of the spirits determinated by the mind , would not be compleated in the substance of the brain it self , but in the common sensory , which is seated in the brain it self . this the catalepsis plainly shews us , wherein the spirits flow in great quantity into the nerves , but no new determination of them follows , because of the obstruction of the common sensory . xi . the first difficulty is easily remov'd , if the cause of the motion of the brain be more narrowly pry'd into . in the fifth chapter we have at large inform'd you , that the brain is mov'd by the perpetual & first mover of our body , that is to say , the heart ; and that the heart dilates the whole brain by forcing through the arteries the spirituous blood into its substance , which upon the cessation of that impulse , presently falls again , and so by compression forces the spirits contain'd in it further into the nerves . xii . now , if through any cause , as obstruction or compression , &c. the arteries happen to be streighten'd , through which the blood is push'd forward and flows into the brain , by which means the free access of the blood forc'd through the arteries to the brain , is foreslow'd or obstructed , then there is a great diminution of the matter proper for the generation of spirits , and the motion of the brain is very small ; whence happens not only a generation of very few spirits , and a weaker impulse of them into the nerves . now in regard that few spirits , and those weakly impuls'd , are not sufficient to perform the actions of the sensory organs , whose actions are also perform'd by the continual and sufficing motion of the spirits , of necessity there follows a deep drowsiness or rest of the animal actions , which drowsiness is either more or less , as the streightness of the arteries is either more or less . but if those arteries through which the blood flows toward the inner parts of the brain , that is to say , the arteries of the wonderful net and the choroid fold , nay , the carotid arteries themselves be of a sudden strongly compress'd and obstructed by the sudden falling of thick flegm collected in the brain , upon them , or the depression of the skull and brain , presently the motion of the blood toward the brain is obstructed ; and hence also the generation of the animal spirits , and their motion and impulse into and through the nerves is obstructed , which is the cause of the apoplexy . which physicians hitherto have absurdly affirm'd to happen from the obstruction or streightning of the beginning of the nerves , when it altogether proceeds from the obstruction or compression of the arteries . which hippocrates most clearly teaches us , where he asserts the cause of the apoplexy to be the standing of the blood , more especially in the arteries of the neck , that is to say , the carotides , and others deriv'd from thence , such as those which compose the wonderful net and choroid fold : seeing that thereby the motion and action of the spirits is destroy'd ; which mo●…ion being obstructed , the body must of necessity rest . let us hear the most acute fernelius , who confirms this matter most elegantly by experiments and reasons . seeing upon a time , says he , a lusty sane man fall to the ground upon a desperate blow upon the left eye , and presently depriv'd of sence and motion , together with a difficulty of breathing and snoaring , and other strong symptoms of an apoplexy , and that he could neither be preserv'd by blood-letting , nor any other way , but that he dy'd within twelve hours , i thought it worth my while to search into the cause of his death . to that purpose , having dissected and open'd his brain , and finding no contusion of the bone or meninxes , or substance of the brain , but only that the inner veins of the eye were broken by the violence of the contusion , i observ'd that from thence about two spoonfuls of blood had lighted upon the basis of the brain , which being clotted together , had bound up those arteries which form the net-like contexture , and which being thence propagated into the ventricles of the brain constitute the other choroid fold . but the ventricles of the brain were altogether untouch'd without any damage . being thus far satisfy'd , i thought good to dissect another , who dy'd without any external cause to be seen ; in whom there was found a thick and viscous humor resting upon the net like contexture , the ventricles of the brain being neither fill'd nor obstructed . hence reasoning with my self , i judg'd it consentaneous to reason , that the apoplexy was generated in the arteries either obstructed or compress'd ; for that then the brain receiv'd no spirits from the heart , through the adjoyning arteries ; which occasion'd an absolute necessity of its motion and sence . and a certain person observing these things , as i suppose , affirm'd , that the apoplexy was caus'd by the intercepting the passages that are common to the heart and brain . thus if the cause of the disease of all apoplectics were more diligently enquir'd into , it would be found to proceed not from the compression or obstruction of the beginning of the nerves in the third or middle ventricle , but solely from the compression or streightning of the arteries tending to the brain ; even then when the apoplexy is caus'd by a rammassment of serous matter collected in the substance of the brain it self , or between the meninxes . which webfer affirms that he has found to be true by experience upon several diffections . who erroneous however , conjectures this to happen by reason of the deny'd entrance of the animal spirits , when it is manifest that the stoppage of the arteries is the cause of it ; for seeing that in an aposteme of the brain the orifices of the nerves are not clos'd by the quantity of serum or pus collected in the ventricles , much less will it happen through any far slighter collection . again , that it does not happen through any flegm that fills the vessels of a sudden , occular view teaches us in the dissections of apoplectics ; in whose ventricles never so great a quantity of flegm is to be found in the ventricles ; and moreover , because the apoplexy is caus'd by the sole compression of the little arteries of the wonderful net without any detriment to the brain , much less to the ventricles , as appears by the foresaid relations of fernelius , and the story of webfer , of the woman that was hang'd , and yet came again to her self . in which particular martian also agrees with us . i find , says he , three differences of the apoplexy , according to the doctrine of hippocrates . of which though there be various preceding causes , yet in reality they are all the same , as consisting in the standing of the blood , by which means all motion and action of the spirits are taken away . for as the same author observes , when the blood is not mov'd , it is impossible but that the motion of the body must cease . therefore when the blood is depriv'd of motion , not only the motion of the spirits is intercepted , which is caus'd by the blood ; but at the same time and together , the generation of the animal spirits , which is perform'd in the brain , is vitiated and interrupted for want of matter , the veins or arteries being intercepted ; for it is well known that the animal spirits are generated out of the vital . as to that cause of the apoplexy , which malpigius and fracassatus propound , when they alledge this distemper to proceed from the stoppage of the straining through of the serum growing in the cortex of the brain ; this opinion , if rightly explain'd , will agree with the former already laid down : for if the concrescible serum , as they call it , that is to say , if the saltish particles of the blood , being stopp'd in the cortex of the brain , through the depression of the cranium , stuffing up of flegm , or any other cause , cannot be separated by straining through , then also is the ingress of the vital spirits or arterious blood into the brain , put to a stop ; and thence for want of matter for generation of the spirits , and defect of the cause that pushes them forward when generated , any farther generation ceases , as also the pushing forward of the animal spirits into the nerves , and thence the apoplexy or any other lethargic drowsiness , though the passage of the same spirits out of the brain it self into the nerves , may be free at the same time . xiii . as to the second difficulty , there is a great difference between the generation of animal spirits , of which we here discourse , and their determination ; and the place wherein or from whence the determination is made . for because the mind determines from the common sensory , the spirits adhering to the substance of the brain , this does not hinder but that those spirits may be generated in the substance of the brain , and thence be determin'd by the superior command and power of the mind to these or those parts : nor is it consequential from hence , that the spirits should be generated in that place from whence the determination of the mind sends them away at pleasure . a prince , sitting in his throne , appoints his subjects to these or these offices or places ; but thence it does not follow , that the commanded subjects should be born in the king's palace , or reside in his throne ; for that the beams of his command extend themselves to the utmost limits of his empire . he therefore that shall to the purpose explain the manner how the appointment of the spirits is transacted by the soul , will light a fair flambeau for the discovery of greater mysteries . in the mean while this second objectson makes nothing against our opinion ; and therefore as most probable , we conclude , that the animal spirits are generated in the substance of the brain it self . chap. xi . of the animal spirits . in the foregoing chapter it has been declar'd , that the office or action of the brain is to generate animal spirits ; and that they are elaborated in the substance of the brain it self : now it remains that we enquire of what sort and what those noble spirits are ; and how they are generated . however , by the way observe , that when we discourse of spirits , as here , and l. . c. . we do not speak of certain incorporeal spirits , or of the general spirit of the whole world , by which the platonics alledge that all things have their being , but of a certain most subtil vapour which is produc'd out of sulphur and salt by the concoctions of the bowels , and varies , according to the variety of the matter out of which it is extracted , and the various manner of extraction , which endow it with different qualities . i. the animal spirits are invisible vapours , most thin and volatile , chiefly elaborated out of the salt particles of the blood , and some few sulphury , chiefly volatile , and that in the brain , serving partly for the natural , partly for the animal actions . as for those that deny that any animal spirits are to be allow'd specifically different from the vital , as huffman , deusingius and several others endeavour to uphold , we think it an opinion not worth refuting , and therefore to be rejected ; seeing that the one is compounded of salt and many sulphury spirits dilated together and exactly mix'd in the heart : the other consists of very few sulphury , but chiefly salt spirits , and differ not in respect of their substance only and composition , but also in their use ; and are made in a peculiar bowel , the brain , every way different from the heart . lastly , seeing also that from them the animal actions proceed , very much different from the natural ; as the phansie , the imagination , ratiocination , the memory , judgment , feeling , seeing , motion of the muscles , &c. and that from their being vitiated , peculiar affections and diseases arise ; as is apparent in vertigo's , apoplexies , night-mares , madness , phrensie , convulsions , and other accidents proceeding from their deprav'd motion , too copious influx or deficiency ; the like to which cannot proceed from the defects of the animal spirits . all which is clearly made out by galen , l. de placit . hipp. & plat. c. . as also l. . c. . de usu partium . as to the matter out of which these spirits are generated , glisson and charlton have endeavour'd to introduce lately something of novelty ; who both maintain these spirits to be generated of some portion of the chylus , which is suck'd up by the nerves , out of which partly these spirits produc'd , partly some iuice , rawer than the blood is generated , which flows through the nerves to the nourishment of all the spermatic parts . but this absurd opinion we have already refuted , l. . c. . and deusingius also destroys it in a large discourse , l. de nutritii succi novo comment . the most ancient and truest opinion is , that they are generated out of the arterious blood ; but after what manner they are generated , has never hitherto been certainly describ'd . cartesius , with whom most at this day agree , discourses thus concerning this matter . it is to be consider'd , says he , that all the more vivacious and subtil parts of the blood , which the heat rarifies in the heart , immediately and in great quantity enter the cavities ; and therefore they rather muster thither than to any other part , because that all the blood which goes out of the blood through the great artery , directs its course in a direct line to that part ; and when it cannot all enter , because the passages are very narrow , the more agitated and subtil parts of it pass through alone , while the rest diffuse themselves through all the parts of the body . now these most subtil parts of the blood compound the animal spirits ; neither do they to that end want any other alteration in the brain , only that there they are separated from the other less subtil parts of the blood. for those which i call here spirits are nothing but bodies , and have no other propriety , only that they are most subtil bodies , and are moved with an extraordinary celerity , by these words it appears , that cartesius did not differ much from the opinion of those who believe the animal spirits nothing distinct in specie from the vital , which is already refuted . and this he openly seems to signifie , l. . de hom . artic. . where he speaks thus ; that portion of blood , says he , which rises up as high as the brain , not only helps the nourishment and pre servation of the substance of the brain , but also in the first place generates therein a subtil vapour , or rather active and pure flame , which we call the animal spirits . a little after he adds . and thus the more subtil particles of the arterious blood●… without any preparation or mutation , other than that by which they are separated from the thicker particles , and are agitated with that vehement celerity which the heat of the heart has endu'd them with , lose the form of blood , and come under the name of animal spirits . moreover , he asserts a certain wonderful separation of the thinner parts of the blood from the thicker , whereas the arterious blood , altogether such as it is , is equally thrust forward through the arteries upward and downward , neither is there any reason why the more subtil parts should be more specially carry'd upward toward the head , and the thicker flow to the rest of the body . as to the narrowness of the passages , that proves nothing ; for the carotid and cervical arteries are wide and large enough ; so that the thicker blood mix'd together with the more spirituous , may as well flow through them as the other arteries . neither does the directness of the passage to such a separation of the most subtil particles from the thicker , make any thing to the purpose ; for the blood being violently thrust forward out of the heart , rushes forth where it finds way given , without any separation of the particles . for the spirits are not separated from it by degrees , as the spirits of wine or any other liquor containing spirits , in a chymical distillation , where by the force of the fire the spirits are dissolv'd by degrees without any other impetuous compulsion , and ascend directly upward , and if any such be allow'd them , fly away through any direct narrow passages , the watery parts flowing out at the lateral passages . but here is a rapid propulsion of the whole dissolv'd sanguineous mass into the great artery , and all its wide , narrow , streight , crooked , upper & lower productions , & that so swift & sudden , that in that small moment of time that the heart makes that propulsion , so sudden and rapid a separation of the thinner from the thicker , can neither be done nor taught by reason , nor apprehended by imagination . if the blood attenuated and render'd vaporous in the ventricles of the heart , did ascend upwards into the arteries of its own accord without any impulse , then perchance by reason of its slow progress some such thing might be imagin'd by us ; but in regard that the heart by a sudden contraction impetuously and rapidly expels , as it were , in the twinkling of an eye whatever is in its ventricles , such a separation can never be made . thus if any one with a syringe shall force red wine boyling hot into a tube crooked toward the sides , and bor'd through at the upper part with three or four holes , it will fly forth equally such as it is , at all the holes at the top or sides , whether crooked , wide or narrow , nor will the violence of the force , or shortness of the time allow any separation of the thicker parts from the thinner , much less a particular passage of the thinner thro' the uppermost direct little holes without the thicker . and so it is with the blood forc'd out of the heart . besides , the quickest eye in the world could never observe any difference either in thickness or thinness between the blood ascending upward to the head through the wide and direct passages , or the blood descending downward through the crooked and broad passages : for that which is taken out of any animal from the carotid , differs not a tittle from that which descends out of the aorta , or is drawn out of the iliac vein by a small prick ; as neither the returning remainder of the blood which descends through the jugular veins , differs any thing from that which ascends through the basilic vein of the arm , or the iliac veins of the thighs , unless it pass through any diseased part , but is altogether equal . and yet there would be some difference to be observ'd if the doctrine of cartesius were true . lastly , says the most acute philosoper , the more subtil parts of the blood , compounding these spirits , want no other alteration but the separation of the most thin parts from the less thin ; yet in the mean time he never lets us know what those most thin parts are . . nor how the brain orders that separation from the rest of the parts of the blood . . nor wherefore , nor how they are mov'd . as to the first i have spoken in the definition , that is to say , that all the most subtil parts of the blood , but chiefly the volatile salt parts conduce to the making of these spirits ; of which we shall now more at large discourse , as also of their separation and motion . iv. the matter therefore out of which these spirits are generated is the arterious blood ( consisting of a salt , sulphureous and serous iuice ) of which not equally all the parts or particles , but chiefly the salt , which by a peculiar quality of the kernels of the cortex of the brain are for the greatest part dissolv'd and separated from the sulphury particles ; and being depriv'd of their serosity , are rendred most thin and altogether volatile , so that they are able with ease to penetrate through the diminutive fibers of the pithy brain . v. vesalius , laurentius , columbus , sennertus , plempius , fracassarius and many others , are of opinion , that besides the blood , air necessarily concurs as the matter è qua , or out of which , to the generation of these spirits , and that by its transpiration through the sieve-like breathing holes of the ethmoid bone , it penetrates into the ventricles of the brain . which was formerly also the opinion of erasistratus and galen : but that it is far distant from truth , we find partly , for that those things which have been said concerning the situation of the spungy bones , and the spungy flesh stopping the upper part of the nostrils , partly what has been said concerning the place of the generation of the animal spirits , plainly demonstrate that the inspir'd air cannot penetrate into the ventricles of the brain ; and then again , that the animal spirits are not generated in those ventricles . moreover , the animal spirits are always generated out of the same and like matter of which , if inspir'd air were a necessary part , they could never be generated without inspir'd air. but on the other side , they are generated in those persons , who being troubl'd with the pose , have their nostrils obstructed with so great a quantity of flegm , that by respiration no air can pass through them . they are also generated in the birth while it lies shut up in the womb infolded in its own membranes , at what time the birth does not breath , nor can receive in any air. they are also generated in fish , which though they do not breath in the air , yet abound with these spirits , as appears by their seeing , feeling and nimble motion . lastly , they are generated in birds before they are hatch'd , while they are inclos'd within the shell , and cannot receive in any air. from all which it is easily concluded , that inspir'd air does not concur to constitute the matter out of which these spirits are made . vi. now the blood is forc'd in great quantity through the carotid and cervical arteries , not only into the membranes of the head , but into substance it self of the brain , cerebel and pith ; and in its passage first through the cortex , thence through the pithy substance , the more subtil salt particles therein are separated for the most part from the sulphury or oily and serous . particles ; of which again the thicker particles serve to the nourishment of the bowel it self ; but the thinner are still more volatiliz'd , and for the greatest part being freed from the sulphury , are changed into a most subtil spirit call'd animal , which flows out of the fibers of the brain and cerebel into the nerves , and through them to the rest of the parts of the body . vii . but after what manner , or by what force that separation and thsir attenuation and volatilization is perform'd , cannot easily be explain'd , but seems to be peculiar to the substance it self of the brain and kernels of the cortex , as being a substance which is chiefly form'd out of such a salt matter , with which some few oily particles being mixt , make up the somewhat fatty constitution thereof ; and hence through the conformity of that like matter , it has an affinity with that other saltish matter , and easily imbibes it , after it has quitted the rest of the sulphury and serous matter , and alters it within its little fibers to greater perfection . thus fracassarius writes that the cortex of the brain is more salt and softer than the marrow ; because the cortex consists more of melted salt , but the pith of salt strain'd through the cortex , and consequently less serous , and thence more firmly concreted , which he says he has often experimented , and adds an experimental observation not improbable . now this separation happens first in the cortex , as into whose innumerable diminutive kernels , through infinite blood-bearing vessels the blood is plentifully infus'd , out of which in those kernels there is made a separation of the salter and most spirituous part , which flows into the diminutive fibers of the brain inserted at the lower part into the several kernels , and so in the pithy substance of the lower part of the brain compos'd of those little fibers , is brought to the last persection , the remaining portion of the blood returning to the heart through the little veins . for as it is the office of all the kernels to separate some humor from the blood , so the same thing comes to pass in these kernels of the cortex . and as in the sweet-bread the subacid humor is separated , the bilious humor in the liver by virtue of its little kernels and bunches ; the serous humor in the kidneys , the lymphatic in the kernels of many other parts , or any other humor according to the various constitution of the kernels and the parts themselves ; so likewise in the kernels of the cortex of the brain endu'd with a property peculiar to themselves , there is a peculiar , most spirituous saltish invisible humor separated from the blood , which growing more spirituous in the little fibers of the pithy brain , has gain'd the name of animal spirit , as being that which obeys the soul in most of its actions . viii . now that in the separation of any liquor , the affinity of the particles is of extraordinary prevalency , appears from hence , for that in the nourishment of all the other parts whatever , the same thing is observ'd ; as for example , that such particles of the blood as have the greatest affinity to the parts , adhere to them , and are assimilated into their substance , whereas the rest are separated from them and forc'd farther . as in other things also we find those things mix most easily which have most affinity . thus if oil and water be mix'd together , and one end of a long woollen cloth dipp'd in water be put into the said mixture , the other end hanging forth without the pot , all the water in the pot will drip out of the pot all the length of the cloth , but the oil will remain in the pot. which affinity our new modern philosophy , not without reason , attributes to the agreement of the small particles and the pores . as for example , if the smallest particles to be receiv'd be round , and the receiving pores be round , then are those easily receiv'd by these , because of their affinity . also if the pores and particles are triangular or any other way alike agreeable ; but if the pores are round , but the particles to be receiv'd triangular or quadrangular , then would the one with difficulty receive the other , nor would there be any affinity . and thus it is in the brain ; for the salt or saltish particles of the blood by reason of the affinity of the substance and the conveniency of the pores , are easily suck'd in by the kernels of the cortex , and therein are separated from the rest , as it were by a fermentaceous motion ; and being separated , are easily imbib'd by the little fibers of the pithy substance , of which this substance is chiefly constituted , and are more subtiliz'd ; but the sulphureous not so easily . and therefore only a very small and thin part of the sulphury particles , having the least oyliness , is mix'd with the animal spirits , but the rest together with the serous particles , partly goes into excrement , which is then collected in the hollownesses of the ventricles , or is dissipated in vapour through the pores ; partly together with the remaining blood being thrust forward to the extream parts of the brain , is there suck'd up by the orifices of the smallest veins , and so circulated farther . however , this is to be observ'd by the way , that in that same passage not all the salt particles are separated in the kernels of the cortex , and imbib'd by the brain ; for so there would happen a dissolution of the composition of the blood , but only the more fluid and volatile ; but that the thicker remain mix'd with the blood , and are circulated with it ; in the same manner as in the kidneys , not the whole serum is separated from the mass of the blood , only the thinner part which has most affinity with the pores of the kidney-kernels , the rest continues mix'd with the blood , and is carry'd with it to the hollow vein . ix . by what has been said , we understand how the salt particles of the blood are separated in the brain from the sulphury and serous . but because their most subtil and most volatile parts only are proper for the generation of animal spirits , the other thicker particles serving partly to the nourishment of the brain , partly going into exerement , now we are to see how the separation of the most spirituous and volatile particles from the thicker is perform'd . this is done after the same manner as happens in distillation of wine , when the orifice of the alembic is exactly clos'd with a large sponge : for the chymists , to the end they may extract and separate more powerful spirits , or more clarify'd and purg'd from its flegm , out of the wine which is to be distill'd , put a sponge to the alembic ; for so thro' the intricate passages of the sponge the spirits only are wheel'd and contorted , while the more impure and thicker are not able to pass through ; and so those parts which are not cleans'd from their dregs , but are very watery , are separated and set aside , while the more subtil spirits go forth and through the beak of the alembic fall into the receptacle . in like manner , in the cortex of the brain , the separated salt volatile parts of the blood are suck'd up by the diminutive fibers which are endow'd with most obscure narrow cavities . through which narrow passages while those spirits are wriggl'd and contorted , whatever are lesser purify'd and thicker , and more and more cast away and thrown off , as the other are exalted into an incorporeal tenuity , and flow into the pith , as into the next beak of the alembic , and thence into the nerves , as being the lesser beaks deriv'd from the greatest ; while in the mean time the thicker salt less volatile particles of the blood serve for the nourishment of the bowel it self ; but the rest which are yet more fix'd remaining in the mixture of the sanguineous mass , flow back to the blood-bearing vessels through the wider pores , and are sent back for circulation . now this expulsion of the spirits out of the small pory fibers of the brain and pith to the nerves , is forc'd by one and the same cause , that is to say , the alternate falling of the brain after dilatation , by which , as by a certain compression , the spirits and humors which are in the brain , are excited to flow forth . and thus by the cortex of the brain and the medullary substance the salt is separated from the sulphury and sero●…s , the pure from the impure , the subtil from the thick , and that subtility by the proper force already demonstrated of the said substance , proceeding from the volatil salt which abounds in it , is exalted to the height of volatility . and hence also flowing out of the substance and little fibers of the brain and pith , it ought not to be contain'd in loose vessels hollow'd like a pipe ; for out of such it would easily fly away ; but in such firm and more solid receptacles or channels , in which there are the smallest and most invisible pores , and such channels are the nerves , as through which they may pass freely to their height of volatility and tenuity . x. however we are to take notice , that although the animal spirits are made after this manner out of the said matter , nevertheless they are not exalted to an equal degree of volatility in all men . for in some they are thinner and more active , in others thicker and of a slower motion , according to the vulgar phrase , either purer or impurer ▪ because the salt particles of the blood out of which they are generated , are in some more , in others less visible . and the brain it self in some is impregnated with a more copious , in others , with a lesser quantity of volatil spirit ; and being hotter in some , volatizes the spirits more ; being colder in others , thickens and fixes them more . and therefore in melancholy spirits and such as continually feed upon thick , hard , salt and raw food , and whose concoctions are for that reason worse , thicker and less spirituous humors are generated ; and among the rest the salt ones are less volatiliz'd ; whence the animal spirits are thicker and less active ; as in country people , and poor people , and such as inhabit the cold polar regions , and use such a sort of diet for want of a thinner ; who are therefore slower to all manner of animal actions , and of dull wits . whereas on the other side , they who live in hotter regions , abounding with plenty of all sorts of wholesom diet , and seldom feed upon salt or smoak'd meats , but accustom themselves to a thinner and more wholesom sort of diet , and consequently are serv'd by their bowels with better concoctions , their humors and spirits are thinner and more volatile , and their bodies and wits more nimble and active . aristotle indeed says , that melancholy people are ingenious ; but this is not to be understood of such as are altogether melancholy , and together with a thicker blood have thicker spirits ; but of such as incline to melancholy , and consequently whose spirits are neither too thin and volatil ( for such are too movable and inconstant ) nor too thick ( for they are stupid ) but in a middle temper between both . and therefore such people are neither too quick nor too redious in the transaction of business , but prudently weigh and judge of things before they proceed to execution . xi . perhaps it may seem strange to some people , that the salt particles should be made so subtil and spirituous , as to be able to pass freely thro' the invisible pores of the nerves . but they will cease to wonder , when they observe in chymistry the extraordinary subtility and volatility of volatile salt ; and how swiftly the spirits of salt will pass through the invisible pores of the earthen vessels . nay , if they only consider how common salt without any mixture of water or moisture being dissolv'd into pickle , will penetrate through the thick sides of wooden vessels , and sweat through stone pots overcast both within and without with a glassie crust , as we find in those vessels where we salt our beef , or keep our pickl'd fish. if then fix'd salt only melted , passes through the pores of the vessels , how much more easily will the most subtil spirit of volatil salt pierce through the pores of the nerves ? xii . here some will object , that salts and acids are sharp and corroding , so that if the animal spirits were generated out of the salt particles of the blood , and consequently participated of any saltness they would corrode all parts whatever by reason of their acrimony , which would occasion pains and many inconveniencos . i answer , that it is certain that the animal spirits are indu'd with some slight acrimony , but not so much as to occasion any sensible molestation ; because that exceeding acrimony which is in fix'd salt , by reason of the sharp pungent particles conjoyn'd with it , becomes mild in that volatil and vaporous spirit , because the small sharp particles being dissolv'd , are more remote one from another , and their force is broken by the intervening air or some steamy vapour . for example , if any one go into a cellar , and draw in the air that is all intermix'd with a most subtil exhaling spirit , or if he snuff up into his nostrils the spirituous vapor of wine heated at the fire , yet shall he not feel the least grievance , nor perceive any acrimony , which he would do if he snuft up into his nostrils the spirit it self fix'd in the liquor . so in our great salt-works , where the sea-salt is boyl'd and depurated , the exhaling vapors being impregnated with the volatil salt , if they be taken in at the mouth or nostrils , little or no salt-savour shall be perceiv'd therein , whenas the fix'd salt is most sharp . and this comes to pass , because the forces which are conjoyn'd in the fix'd and thick body , and for that reason are very powerful , in the dissolv'd and vaporous body are separated , and thereby render'd weak and of no strength . and this is the cause why the animal spirits do not corrode , because that being dissolv'd into a most subtil vapor , they have not so much acrimony in them as can be troublelom to any part. to this we add , that they have a most thin and subtil serous vapor , together with so much sulphury spirit joyn'd with them for a vehicle , which does not a little weaken and temper the acrimony . moreover , the parts themselves through which they pass , and into which they flow , partake of some other moisture , which also much weakens and diminishes their acrimony . xiii . from what has been said , it is sussiciently apparent that the generation of the animal spirits is not animal , but meerly natural , and that they differ not only in some accidents or qualities , but in their whole kind from the vital . for in these the sulphury juice mixt with the salt , is far more prevalent ; in those there is very little sulphury or any other juice apt to take fire . these are extracted out of the chylus and veiny blood ; those only out of the salt part of the arterious blood . these flow visible through the large arteries and veins ; those invisible through the invisible pores of the nerves . over those the soul has no power , over these it has . and therefore there is a vast difference between the animal and vital spirits . but now the question is , whether the animal spirits themselves do not differ one from another , in substance , in manner and place of generation and in use ? whether some are not generated out of the blood , others out of the lympha or some other matter ? also , whether some are not generated in the foremost , others in the middle , others in the hindmost ventricle ? or , as willis lately tells us , whether some are not made in the substance of the brain , others of the cerebel ? lastly , whether some peculiar and differing from the rest , do not cause the sight , others the feeling , others the hearing , others the arbitrary motion , and others the spontaneous motion ? i answer , that the animal spirits are not generated out of a different matter , nor in various parts ( for we take the brain and cerebel for one part ) neither do they differ one from another , but are all of the same nature , composition and condition ; but that the diversity of their operations arises from the diversity of the nature & condition of the parts into which they flow ; as those which flow into the parts adapted for feeling , as the membrane & skin , those cause the feeling ; those that flow into the eye , cause the sight ; those that flow into the ear , cause the hearing ; those that flow into the muscles , fibers and other parts , ordain'd for motion , cause motion ; though they be the same and no way different ; as every instrument is adapted to this or that proper action . in the same manner as the beams of the sun , which though they be always the same , and proceed from one sun , neither confer any other light , or other strength , or any other thing to any other things , yet produce most different effects according to the difference of the constitutions of the things into which they flow . for here they produce barly , there trees , in another place stones , here worms or fish , sometimes insects or other things . here they extinguish life , there they are the cause of it ; here they soften , there they harden . as to the motion of the animal spirits through the nerves , see the foregoing chapter . xiv . to these animal spirits hitherto no other use was attributed , only that they are serviceable to the animal actions , that is to say , the principal faculties , the senses and the animal motions ; which is not to be deny'd : but besides this , there seems to be another natural use to be assign'd them , which is , that they conduce in a high measure to the nourishment of the parts , especially the spermatical . this is chiefly apparent from hence , because that as the blood continually flows out of the heart thro' the arteries , so likewise these animal spirits continually flow from the brain through the nerves to the parts , and that naturally , without the determination or appointment of the soul , even when the mind makes no appointment at all , as in sleep and in soporiferous diseases . but altho' besides this natural motion perpetually proceeding , they are frequently mov'd by another determinated motion proceeding from the mind ; yet that detracts nothing from the continual natural motion , but that these spirits by virtue of that , may be serviceable to the action of nutrition , as they are thereby serviceable to the animal actions . for the blood when the body is at rest , is forc'd out of the heart through the arteries by a setled continual motion to the nourishment of the parts ; shall it therefore when by reason of any extraordinary exercises or heating of the body , it is ten times swifter and more rapidly mov'd and forc'd out , be no longer proper for the nourishment of the parts ? certainly no man of reason will say , that that same second rapid motion despoyls the blood of its nutritive quality . and so likewise the more rapid determinative motion of the spirits , often altering the first continual motion , cannot be said to deprive them of their quality necessary to the assistance of nutrition . xv. but some will say , how can the work of nutrition equally proceed in the parts , when sometimes more , sometimes fewer animal spirits flow into these or those parts ? for it seems that those into which fewer spirits flow , should be less , those into which more spirits pass , should be more nourish'd . i answer , that the same thing befalls these spirits as befalls the blood , which though it be more rapidly and in greater quantity thrust forward into the parts upon extraordinary exercises and heats of the body , yet does it not nourish them ever a jot the more , push'd on by its ordinary continual motion , in regard that rapid motion of it is caus'd by the great heat ; by motion and heat the blood becomes more thin and subtil , and the pores of the parts more loose ; so that the blood may not be able to stick so close to the parts , but that a great quantity of it may be dissipated . so also these spirits , when they are frequently determin'd in greater quantity to these or those parts , endue them indeed with a firmer solidity , but no larger augmentation ; because the chiefest part of them , by reason of their tenuity , is dissipated ; and what is not serviceable for nourishment , or is not dissipated , that , being pour'd forth according to custom , into the substance of the parts , and being somewhat thickned , enters the extremity of the veins , together with the remainder of the blood , and is mixt and circulated together with it , and carry'd to the heart . of which circulation rolfincius and deusingius take notice . xvi . now we are to take notice what these spirits afford or contribute to nourishment . it has been said , l. . c. . that the blood consists of a sulphury , salt and serous juice , and that it is forc'd forward every way for the nourishment of the parts . therefore in its mass there are two sorts of substances , serving to the nourishment of the parts , sulphur and salt. mercury is a third , for the most part unprofitable indeed for nourishment , but altogether necessary for the conjunction , mixture , and as a vehicle of the former . but of the two former , some serve for the nourishment of the fleshy and fat parts ; others to the nourishment of the spermatic parts . the fleshy and fat parts are chiefly nourish'd by the sulphury particles of the blood , which serve to endue them with an oily softness and something of sweetness . nevertheless there are some salt particles , to render the parts more firm and solid . but when that in those parts the sulphury particles predominate above the salt , then are they softer and fatter ; where less prevalent , more fleshy and firm . the spermatic parts are nourish'd by the salt particles of the blood , which render them more solid and hard : yet have some sulphury particles mix'd with them ; according to whose lesser or greater proportion and dissolution , some parts are softer , as the membranes , veins and arteries ; others harder , as the bones and gristles . xvii . but to the end this nourishment may be carry'd on without any ob struction , there is of necessity requir'd some kind of separation of the salt particles from the sulphury , that the one may the better be enabled to adhere to the spermatic , the other to the fleshy and fat particles , and be assimilated to them . this separation is caus'd by the animal spirit ; which by its influx , which as it were coagulating by a slight kind of effervescency and peculiar 〈◊〉 , the salt particles , separates them from the sulphury , to the end they may be affix'd to the spermatic parts , and by the means of the heat and a small sulphureous vapor , be assimilated to them ; and as the spermatic parts are more or less dry or moist , and more or less of the sulphury particles are mix'd with them , so the salter particles of the blood are more or less harden'd in them . thus they become altogether dry and hard in the bones , but softer in the membranes and fibers , &c. these salter particles being thus moderately separated out of the remaining more sulphury mass of the blood , that which is proper goes to the nourishment of the fleshy and fat parts . so that the animal spirits supply the place of a subacid rennet or coagulum , which is extracted out of salt and salt things . for that such a sowr ferment or coagulum causes the separation of salt and sulphury particles is most evidently apparent in chymistry . for if you mingle spirit of wine , wherein there is ten times a greater proportion of sulphury than salt particles , with spirit or water of tartar , which consists of salt tartarous particles thinly dissolv'd and melted , the mixture will be exact ; into which mixture if you pour in never so little spirit of acid salt or vitriol , there will be presently an effervescency , by which the salt particles will be separated from the sulphury and watery , and being coagulated , they will fix and precipitate to the bottom . thus also , by the mixture of animal spirits , which are endu'd with a gentle subacidish quality , the salt particles of the blood flowing into the parts , are in a moderate quantity gently separated from the rest , and are somewhat fix'd and coagulated with the spirit it self and by that means are agglutinated , grown to , and plainly assimilated with the spermatic parts ; but those which are less salt , and more sulphury , adhere to the fleshy and fat parts , and are united with them . but those particles which are for the most part depriv'd of spirits , and less proper for nourishment , flow back through the veins together with the remaining part of the blood , to be impregnated with a new ●…ermentaceous humor , proceeding from the liver and spleen , and to be spiritualiz'd anew in the heart , either with new chylus , or alone without it . but if such a separation of salt and sulphury particles from the animal spirits flowing through the nerves , be requir'd in the parts for the carrying on of the nourishment , the question will be , how far this affair shall be carry'd on in such parts into which there are no nerves inserted , as in the bones and the like ? as also in those which admit but very few nerves , and yet in respect of their largeness and their use , require much nourishment . i answer , that there are no parts to which nerves do not reach , only to some more and larger , to others fewer and less , as some require a greater , others a less proportion of animal spirits for the duties of sence and motion , and also nourishment ; which is the reason that in some there is a greater , in others a lesser separation of the salt from the sulphury particles . the bones , because they are nourish'd chiefly by the salt and tartarous spirits of the blood , want many animal spirits , to cause a strong separation of the salt particles from the sulphury , and therefore they are all invelopp'd with a periostium , into which these spirits flow in great quantity through the nerves , and from thence penetrating into the pores of the nerves , efficaciously perform their office ; and though no manifest nerves seem to enter the bones , yet that they enter into some , is apparent by the teeth ; and 't is probable that they enter many other bones , though so small , as not to be discern'd by the eye . and such bones into which they do not enter , there the periostium receiving the spirits from the nerves , supplies the office of the nerves . but where there is neither nerve nor periositum , they have their just magnitude from the beginning , conjoyn'd with a peculiar hardness , and afterwards neither wear nor increase , as the little bones of the ears , as the mallet , the anvil and the stirrup . the heart which is fleshy , because it requires not so great a quantity of salt for its nourishment , nor is to be mov'd by a voluntary motion , and because it makes and contains within it self a sharper sort of spirits , needs very few animal spirits , and therefore is furnish'd with very slender branches of little nerves . the liver and lungs , because they are furnish'd with fermentaceous and sowr juices from other parts in sufficient quantity , the one from the heart , the other from the spleen , receive very small nerves dispers'd chiefly through the involving membrane , and hardly entring the paren●…hyma or body of the bowel . the spleen admits a greater number of nerves and animal spirits ; for that making the matter of the ferment out of the arterious blood , the acid salt particles of the blood are to be more strongly separated therein from the sulphury . and thus it is in the rest of the parts ; among which , the more solid always require more , the softer fewer animal spirits ; and of the softer , those that are water'd with more animal spirits , are harder than other softer parts , as we shall make out when we treat of the muscles . now that such a kind of quality is most necessary in the animal spirits to promote the nutrition of the parts , sundry arguments demonstrate . . because those parts which are exercis'd most and oftenest by the voluntary animal motion , and into which , to cause that motion , of a necessity a greater proportion of spirits flows , than into such parts as are less exercis'd ; because i say those parts , for the better separation and coagulation of the salt particles of the blood from the sulphury , are nourish'd with a more solid nourishment , and consequently become much more hard and strong than other parts which are exercis'd less , and into which those spirits for that reason are not so copiously determin'd , but only flow into them according to their ordinary course . this we find in most men , whose right arm and hand is much stronger than the left , because of custom the one is ten times more made use of than the other , as being the instrument of most of our actions ; for which reason a greater proportion of spirits is determin'd to the one than to the other ; in which , because there is not so plentiful a mixture of animal spirits , there is not so great a separation and fixation of the salt and sulphury spirits ; and consequently less firm nourishment , though sometimes the bulk and thickness may seem greater . but that which is oppos'd , in regard that by reason of the less coagulating effervescency , it is less freed from the sulphury spirits , it becomes soft , pappy and fat , and affords less strength to the member . . because in such persons that walk much and frequently , their thighs are much firmer and stronger , than in such who being given to laziness , seldom walk , and yet their thighs are fatter , more fleshy , softer and thicker . and then again , those that walk much are much stronger in their thighs than in any other parts of their body , which they exercise less , and therefore they are fit for walking and running , but not for any other labour . . because for the same reason it is , that women and lazy people are fat and soft , but weak ; because there is no other than only the ordinary influx of animal spirits into the parts ; and hence a greater quantity of the sulphury particles of the blood mixt with salt , and less separated from them , are appos'd together with the salt , which renders the nourishment less firm . . because that in paralytic persons , in whom very few spirits or none at all flow into the members that suffer , first the suffering parts for some time are languid and somewhat swelling with an impostume-like tumor , and at length grow lean and wither'd , though much blood is forc'd to them through the arteries . . because that such as use immoderate venery waste away , by reason of the great consumption and waste of animal spirits , which for that cause flowing in a lesser quantity to the nourishment of the parts , nutrition is obstructed , and thence follows a leanness and wasting of the whole body . . because in an ill temper of the brain and upon several diseases an atrophy follows , either because of the consumption of these spirits , or because few are generated , or those that are generated are vicious . thus malpigius frequently observes , that such as have receiv'd any wound in the brain , at length die of a consumption . . because such an atrophy caus'd by the ill temper of the brain and spirits , has been often cur'd by remedies apply'd to the head alone ; by which the animal spirits being restor'd to their former sanity , nutrition has had its usual course . . because upon the cutting of any nerve , that part to which the nerve was carry'd , shall consume and perish for want of animal spirits . of which riolanus gives us an elegant example . nicephorus gregorius , saith he , saw a young boy once , that being shot with an arrow into the neck , the arrow had cut the nerve ; upon which the contrary foot was seiz'd with a numness , and the disease remain'd incurable : and though the other foot grew as the boy grew , the other leg retain'd its first exility and shortness , hanging loose and useless . upon which many that understood not the causes and reasons of things , were strangely amaz'd how it came to pass , that the hand which was much nearer the wound was altogether insensible of the hart , when the foot so far distant , was so deeply affected with it . but by reason anatomy was not so well understood in that age , the cause of that accident was not so well discern'd by the physicians of that time , which was certainly this , because the arrow had not struck the nerve after its separation from the pith , and its starting out through the side-holes of the spiny fistula ; for there is no nerve that slides through the vertebers of the neck , which descends to the thigh and foot , but penetrating within the spiny fistula , had cut the nervy strings in the pith it self which descends to the loins and the holy bone , and thence to the foot , and for that reason the influx of spirits into the foot , failing , the foot dry'd up and ceas'd its growth . so that which way soever we consider the matter , it will appear that the animal spirits necessarily concur to the office of nutrition . and moreover , that in the spleen they separate the matter of ferment out of the arterious blood , necessary for the preparation of the blood and the chylus . these things glisson and wharton seem in some measure to have smelt out , and lambert vel●…hussus treading their footsteps . only in this they were deceiv'd , that besides the animal spirits , they thought there flow'd through the nerves some other sort of nutritive juice , which of it self nourish'd the spermatic parts . which error proceeded from that whitish juice resembling the white of an egg , which when the nerves are hurt , is often gather'd together in the nerves or about them , vulgarly call'd aqua articularis . which humor however , doesnot distil from the nerves when hurt ; for such a slimy juice could never pass through the invisible pores , but is a humor that usually set●…les about the joints to render them 〈◊〉 and slippery , which upon a too copious mixture with the animal spirits flowing out of the endamag'd nerves , grows thick and coagulated , many times to the consistence of the white of an egg. which loss of spirits causes a debility and atrophy in the part. i thought good to insert this paradoxical opinion of mine into these anatomical exercises in few words ; upon which others may comment more at large , because that from this foundation the use and nature of many other parts may be gather'd . there remain two things more to be unfolded . first , whether the animal spirits are the next instrument of the soul ; concerning which thing plempius accurately discourses l. . fund . med. sect . . c. . the next , how these spirits being generated in the brain , and flowing with a continual and natural motion to perfect the nourishment of the parts , are mov'd by the mind by another designing motion , and are sent sometimes in a larger , sometimes in a lesser proportion to sundry parts . but these things which chiefly concern the actions of the soul , seem not to be the proper subject of our discourse , wherein we have design'd to write not of the soul , but only of the body of man ; and therefore as for those that are covetous of satisfaction in this particular , i think fit to send them to the philosophers , who have on purpose set forth whole treatises of the soul and its actions ; which however i advise to be read with great judgment , since not a few of them have feign'd many and wonderful idle dreams in that particular . chap. xii . of the face . in the foregoing chapters we have endeavour'd to display what is to be found in the hairy part of the head ; now we come to the smooth part , which is call'd the countenance , or vultus , a voluntatis judicio , from the iudgment of the will , because it discovers the will. it is also call'd facies , by the greeks 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , because it distinguishes men from brutes , and shews that there is a celestial spirit contain'd in them . for if we more seriously consider the structure of the face , its singular beauty and splendor , we cannot but discern something that is wonderful and divine therein . whence aristotle very well observes , that the whole man is comprehended in his face as in the compendium of a little picture . for the wisdom of the supream architect more than sufficiently appears in the several parts of human body ; yet both the beauty of the face alone , and its wonderful agreement with the soul , draws the elegancy and dignity of all the rest of the parts as it were into a compendium , and seems to shew therein the affections of all the rest of the parts as in a looking-glass . for from thence we gather not only the marks and symptoms of health , diseases and approaching death , but also make shrewd conjectures of the ingenuity , dispositions and manners of men. for as in the cheeks bashfulness and terror , in the eyes anger , joy , sadness , hatred , and chiefly love display themselves ; in the forehead , gravity and humility ; in the eye-brows , pride ; in the chin , majesty ; so by the nose , sagacity or stupidity ; by the motion of the face , wisdom or folly , honesty or knavery , civility or rusticity , reverence or contempt , good or ill will ; by the colour we discover the temperaments of the whole body . moreover , by the face we distinguish of sex , age , life , and birth . therefore it is the most certain image of the mind , and a clear mirror reflecting back those things which lie conceal'd , wherein both the external and internal sences discover themselves , and all the motions and perturbations of the internal faculties are display'd . i. the face consists of parts containing and parts contain'd . the containing parts are common or proper . the common are the cuticle , the skin , which is here very thin ; the fat , of which there is none either in the eye-brows or nose , and very little in the lips and region of the chaps , where it is so interwoven with muscles , that it cannot be separated from the parts annext to it . the fleshy pannicle , which below the eyes is so thin , that riolanus thought it to be altogether wanting in that part. in the forehead it is much more fleshy , and sticks so close to the skin , that it can hardly be separated from it ; and is also ruddy in that part , because of the frontal muscles interwoven with it . the proper parts are muscles , bones , gristles , and other parts to be describ'd in their due places . the face is divided into the upper and lower part. the upper part from the hair to the eye-brows , is call'd frons , the forehead ; and in this part in a body entire is referr'd to the face , whereas in a skeleton it belongs to the skull . the lower part extended from the eye-brows to the extremity of the chin , contains the eyes , the nose , the cheeks , and other parts especially to be describ'd , and in men , round about the mouth is adorn'd with a beard . ii. frons , the forehead , is so call'd a ferendo , because it carries th●… signs of gravity , sadness , mirth , morosity , &c. the greeks call it 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , as much as to say , 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 . the part above the eyes . iii. the shin of this part is moveable , because it is furnish'd with two large muscles , which riolan calls the fleshy musculous membrane ; on each side one ▪ rising from the scalp , near the coronal sut●…re , and sticking closely to it , which at the sides are knit to the temple muscles , and above are somewhat distinguish'd in the middle , but below so closely joyn'd together , that they seem one muscle . they terminate at the eye-brows , which they lift up , and contract the flesh which sticks close to them , into folds and wrinkles . 〈◊〉 writes , that he observ'd in a person that had a large nose , an appendix of these muscles extended even to the gristles of the nose . these wrinkles physiognomist●… observe , and take from thence the signs of the nature and fortune of men , and often foretel wonders concerning future events that shall happen to them . and the better to perswade the credulous of the certainty of their predictions , distinguish the wrinkles into streight and transverse ; and of these they make seven in number , consecrated to the seven planets ; all which they confess do not appear in all men , but that some are wanting in some people ; only that they are for the most part conspicuous , which are appropriated to mercury , v●…nus and iupiter , especially if the eye-brow be lifted up , which happens to those that are under d●…ep meditation ; or that the skin of the forehead be contracted , as when men are angry , which causes a corrugation both of the streight and transverse wrinkles . but how frivolous and uncertain these predictions are , besides daily experience , what we have discours'd at large concerning the influences of the planets , i. de peste , plainly demonstrate . the said frontal muscles derive little nerves from the branch of the third pair , proceeding from the hole of the orbit of the eye . they are furnish'd with little arteries from the external carotides ; and send forth little vei●…s to the jugulars . they have streight fibers , by which they draw the skin streight up , not transverse or oblique , as columbus and aquapendens assert contrary to ocular demonstration and reason . iv. here by the way we must observe without the face , that two muscles very slender , seldom remarkable , are to be found in the hinder part of the head , which being short , thin and broad , arise from the transverse line of the hinder part of the head , in which the muscles moving the head end ; and being furnish'd with streight fibers ascending upwards , terminate in a broad tendon , and touch the muscles of the ears at the sides . by these fibers , which belong to those more remarkable muscles , the skin of the head is drawn toward the hinder parts , which iohn schenckius testifies of himself , and columbus of his master . under the forehead are contain'd the domicils of the four sences , seeing , hearing , smelling and tasting . the fifth sence of feeling , has no particular habitation in the face , but is dispers'd over the whole body . chap. xiii . of the eyes in general . the eyes in latin , oculi ; in greek , 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 & 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , are the organs of sight , form'd and consisting of several similar parts for the sake of seeing . these , like the stars and luminaries of our bodies , are plac'd by the supream creator in the upper part of our body , that as sentinels from a high watch-tower , they may be able to discover fortuitous accidents , what to avoid and what to entertain , and thro' the admirable construction , elegancy and variety of visible objects , to evince us of the omnipotency of the invisible god. for they are the tapers of the bodies , which like the sun , give light to man : for as the shining sun illuminates the wide world , but withdrawing his beams , is the cause of darkness ; so the eyes being perfect and open , illustrate the microcosm , and display the wonderful works of god ; but being blinded , involve the little world in darkness , and compel miserable man to live perpetually as in an obscure prison in perpetual darkness ; for that being depriv'd of those windows , he is also depriv'd of all light , his first and chiefest pleasure . now if the structure of the eye be but more narrowly consider'd , certainly there is no man living , whom the immense wisdom of the supream god will not ravish into admiration and amazement , who in the framing these organs , was so much the more exquisite in his workmanship , by how much the sight excels all the rest of the sences in excellency and dignity . i. the eyes are in number two ; partly for the greater perfection of the sight ; partly that if the one should happen to be hurt , the other might supply the office and duty common to both . in man they are distant but a small space the one from the other , in brutes their distance one from t'other is far greater . ii. if you look upon the ball it self , their figure is round and spherical , to render them the more apt for motion , and more fit to receive the visible rays . but if you consider the eyes together with their muscles annex'd to the hinder part , then their shape is somewhat oblong , like the root of a tulip . iii. their colour in men is somewhat various ; in some blewish , in others yellowish , in others black ; which variety is most conspicuous about the apple of the eye in the rainbow , and proceeds from the colour of the uveous coat . in the kindom of china , by the report of travellers , the inhabitants have black eyes ; but in tartary , green . in brutes of the same kind there is not observ'd so great a variety . the causes of these colours are at large set down by aristotle , simon portius and montaltus , to whom i refer the reader . iv. the bigness of the eye in men is but indifferent , not in all men exactly equal ; yet such as suffices to receive the rayes of visible things . however that small difference in the bigness , does not a little contribute to the greater or less perfection and strength of the sight . for large and goggle eyes are much duller of sight than those which are less , and more retir'd within the head , the reason of which is to be seen among the optic writers . v. there is a wonderful sympathy and agreement of the eyes one between the other , by reason of the optic nerves adhering to them in the middle at the top of the pith ; as also by reason of the moving nerves arising from one and the same original . and hence if the one be afflicted by any external accidents , the other languishes immediately , and the one can hardly be preserv'd from the detriment of the other . vi. they have a certain light in themselves which accompanies their first formation ; less in man , who is chiefly employ'd in the day-time ; greater in those creatures that prey in the night ; as dormice , owls and cats , whose glittering eyes dispel the darkness round about them . and laurentius bauschius reports upon his own view , that he has seen the eyes of lions so brightly shining after death , that you might discover the bottom of the choroid through the hole of the uveous coat , as it were of a gold-colour . now because there is a great confluence of animal spirits to the eyes , hence they manifestly discover the signs of health or sickness . in a healthy person a proper and convenient conflux of these spirits renders them full , glittering and lively . but in persons that are sick , the smaller quantity of those spirits flowing into the eyes , makes them look fall'n , sad , troubl'd and obscure ; till at the last endeavours of fading nature , at length the dazl'd and broken sight foretels the utter ruine both of strength and life . vii . that these spirits being endu'd with evil qualities , and darting from the eyes , defile looking-glasses , and by contagion infect others with an ophthalmy , formerly aristotle , galen , alexander , and many modern eminent physicians have erroneously believ'd . for the animal spirits generated in the brain are not all equally good ; and if those which flow to the eyes were endu'd with bad qualities , also those which flow to other parts , would partake of the same bad qualities , and would badly affect other parts likewise , and obstruct their performances ; for there is no reason that worse should flow to the eyes , and better to other parts : nevertheless in most ophthalmics , no other parts are endamag'd unless the eyes . besides , there can be no such emission of spirits from the eyes at a distance , as to defile a looking-glass , or infect the eyes of another person at a distance . and therefore the defilement of the looking-glass proceeds not from the contaminated spirits issuing from the eyes , but from the corrupt vapors proceeding from the mouth , or some other external cause . thus blear-eyedness caus'd by looking upon blear eyes , whether at a near or farther distance , is to be attributed , not to the emission of contaminated spirits from the eyes , but to the conturbation of the spirits of the other person , caus'd by the abhorr'd spectacle of blear-eyedness ; as being that by which the spirits are not only mov'd disorderly ; but also the pores being dilated by the unwonted influx of spirits more than usual , the blood and humors are hasten'd away in greater quantity to those parts upon which the thoughts of the mind are most intent , that is to say , the eyes . in the same manner as when a person sees another vomiting , many times his abhorrency and squeamishness is such , that he is thereby provok'd to vomit ; or else beholding with horror and terror the outragious motions of epileptics in their convulsions , falls himself into an epilepsie ; of which there are several examples among the physicians ; neither of which can be ascrib'd to contagion , but to the disorderly motion of the spirits , by which the vicious humors are also hurry'd to the parts intently thought upon ; especially in such persons where such humors were already collected and prepar'd in the body , as the milky juice has been brought to the empty breasts of women and sometimes of men by conceit ; according to what we have said , l. . c. . but in regard this horrible impression of abominating conceit is not alike in all people , nor troubles all people actually ; besides that , it does not happen to such persons where these sharp and vicious humors are collected in their bodies , hence it falls out that the eyes of some are affected with the sight of blear-ey'dness , when others are nothing concern'd at a nearer distance , and why some vomit to see another vomit , others are nothing mov'd . viii . some observing these difficulties concerning the spirits , and yet willing obstinately to defend contagion in lippitude , seek another evasion , and affirm that this contagion does not consist in the spirits so much as in certain thin exhalations and contagious impurities issuing from the eyes of a blear-ey'd person ; as the pestilence is got by contagious contaminations ; and so by reason of this sort of contagion lippitude has been known to be epidemic , as they report ; and further , that mirrors have been altogether contaminated and corrupted by the very looks of some who have had those vapors issuing from the eyes very malignant ; insomuch that hoffman tells a story of a florid young virgin , who during the time of her flowers , so infected the glass where she drest her self , that the quicksilver dropt off from behind . but these people do not consider , that very few exhalations can issue from the eye , which is a colder part ; that besides its conjunctive coat , is cover'd with another hard and thick coat , able to shoot themselves three , much less twenty paces ; at which distance lippitude has sometimes been contracted at the sight of a blear-ey'd person ; for if there should be such a continual emission , though of the most thin vapors from the eye , certainly they would be totally dry'd up in a few hours time , nor would that moisture which is afforded hy the small and almost invisible arteries , suffice to supply so great an inanition . moreover , if any one troubl'd with a deform'd lippitude , should enter into any spacious court , and another beholding him at a distance , should presently grow blear ey'd ( as we have known it sometimes happen ) shall that come by contagion ? then must the patient have sent the contagion before him ; else it is not likely that the contagion should spread it self from his eyes through all the court in a moment of time. several people have contracted ophthalmies from looking upon blear-ey'd persons , even in the open air and against a strong wind ; and yet no man can well believe , that such a subtile contagion should be carry'd against the force of the wind. but in the pestilence it is quite otherwise , where a great quantity of contagious exhalations are generated out of the moist , hot and porous parts of the body , also out of certain contaminated and copious humors contain'd in the body it self ; from which by reason of the extream heat and moisture exhalations are rais'd in great quantity ; and by reason of that great quantity , and the force of the great heat that makes a strong expulsion , there 's no body but will grant that they may be carry'd to a great distance . as to epidemic ophthalmies ; they generally spread themselves , by reason of the common cause proceeding from the air or diet , but not by reason of any contagion issuing from the eyes ; or if contracted by looking upon the person affected , it proceeds from the conturbation of the spirits aforesaid . so that if ever any looking-glasses were defil'd and spoyl'd by any contaminations issuing from the eyes , cre●…at iudaeus apella , for i will not . neither does the story of hoffman prove it ; for it is beyond all belief , that a hard and polish'd looking-glass , which neither oyl of vitriol nor aqua fortis can penetrate , should be corrupted and spoil'd by a few exhalations proceeding from the eyes of a virgin ; nay , that those exhalations should so penetrate the pores of the glass , that the quicksilver should fall off from the back-side , when those glasses will not admit the most subtil and sharp spirits to pass through their sides . perhaps that looking-glass might be corrupted by the great quantity of viscous and foul vapors exhaling from the mouth of the virgin and the rest of her body ; which contamination also might have been easily wip'd out with a clout ; so that the quicksilver did not fall off for that reason . rather it is most likely , that hoffman being over-credulous , was deceiv'd by the pratling gossips that told him the story and shew'd him the looking-glass , which was not spoil'd by that cause , but by the moisture of the wall , against which the glass had hung long ; only it happen'd that the quicksilver fell off at the time that the virgin lookt in it . by way of corollary , i shall add one thing : if any contagion issu'd from the eyes of blear-ey'd men , it would be no less catching in the dark than in the light , as it happens in the pestilence and itch ; but let any one lie with an ophthalmic person , sleep and converse with him all night not knowing him to be so , his eyes shall never come to any hurt thereby , though he shall presently catch the distemper by conversing and seeing him by the light. which is a certain sign that it does not proceed from any contagion , but from the conturbation aforesaid . a certain german student going into a brothel-house about night , and asking for a whore , was carry'd , as she made him believe , to a very fair bedfellow , without a candle in the dark , pretending that she would by no means be known , because she was another man's wife ; with whom he lay all that night and several other nights afterwards ; which not sufficing , he would often boast among his companions what a lovely mistress he had got to himself . his associates , understanding that he was gone one night to the same bawdy-house , in the middle of the night came a great cluster of them together , and whether the bawd would or no , lighting up several candles , went up in search of their fellow-student , and broke open the chamber-door . he , seeing his companions entred , skipp'd out of the bed , and put on his cloaths ; and soon after the wench was dragg'd out of her bed to the light ; at what time they found her to be an ugly blear-ey'd jade , and thereupon jeer'd their companion , who had never seen her before by the light , almost to death , for bragging as he had done of the beauty of his unknown harlot . on the other side , the poor scholar who was ignorant of that deformity in her before , after he had lookt more accurately upon the strumpet by the candle-light , became so troubl'd and disturb'd through his aversion to the deformity of the spectacle which he beheld , that he was suddenly tak'n with a desperate ophthalmy , of which he could hardly be cur'd in a month's time . whence it is apparent , that the young man contracted that blear-ey'dness through the conturbation of his spirits only , and not by contagion ; which otherwise he had caught by lying with the deform'd beast so many nights before . ix . in the eyes there are two sorts of parts to be consider'd ; some that contain , others that constitute and form them . the containing parts are various . the pits of the eyes call'd orbits , the eye lids , with the brows both lower and uppermost , the caruncles in the corners ▪ and the kernels . the constituting parts are the fat , the vessels , the muscles , the tunicles and humors . chap. xiv . of the parts containing the eyes . see table . i. among the domicils of the eyes , which are allow'd 'em for security and convenience , two great cavities are first to be consider'd , which are vulgarly call'd orbits , hollow'd on both sides the nostrils under the forehead in the bones of the cranium , wherein the supream architect would have the eyes to be contain'd , that in these bony seats they might reside more safe from all external injuries . which bones either hanging over or plac'd under the eyes , the greeks call 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 & 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , as much as to say , sub-ocular . ii. the figure of the orbits is round and somewhat oblong ; the largeness but moderate , no more than sufficient for the eyes with their kernels , fat and muscles to be contain'd therein , and mov'd with freedom . iii. they are cloath'd withinside with the pericranium , which riolanus denies , contrary to ocular testimony , to which the fat and beginnings of the muscles closely adhere . iv. in each there are three holes ; two behind , and those the biggest ; and one upon the side , which is less . the innermost of those behind affords a passage to the optic nerve . the outermost plac'd at the side of it , is an oblong fissure , through which the moving nerves with the arteries and veins proceeds to the eye . the lateral hole , which is less , is seated in the inward angle . this under the sieve-like bone , is bor'd through to the inner parts of the nostrils , and sends forth tears ; therefore vulgarly call'd the weeping-hole . concerning this hole spigelius makes this observation , that it is bigger in women , who are apt to shed tears , than in men , and in such as are not subject to weep . now that the tears may not flow continually through these weeping-holes , the supream architect has plac'd on each side a soft and kernelly caruncle furnish'd with small sanguineous vessels and nerves almost invisible , as also with two small little vessels carrying the lympha , proceeding from the inner part of the glandulous flesh , and insensibly pouring forth liquor continually to moisten the eyes . this glandulous flesh covers the weeping-hole ; hence by some call'd the lachrymal caruncle , and so prevents the continual efflux of the internal liquor ; till press'd by its over-abounding quantity , it gives way a little , and so affords a passage to the liquor , which is the tears . this caruncle being overmuch contracted by the cold air , or eaten away , or exulcerated by some sharp humor , it happens that the said hole is not exactly shut ; whence happens a continual and unvoluntary emission of tears . at length , between the ball of the eve , cover'd with the eye lids , and the lower region of the eye-brows and the upper region of the cheeks , two semilunary cavities come to be consider'd ; of which the uppermost by the greeks is call'd 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , by the latins , oculi cavum , or the hollow of the eye . both these cavities , upon much watching and ophthalmic distempers , but more especially in a flegmatic cachexy and the dropsie , are wont to swell , and to look somewhat black and blew . which colour if it be pale and remarkably shining , is a certain sign of the french disease . v. the eyes contain'd within these orbits or strong dens , for their better preservation are cover'd with the eye-lids , as with curtains , to keep out dust , troublesome smoak and vapors , as also the excess of light and the injuries of the air , and is moisten'd , wip'd and cleans'd by the corneous tunicle to render the sight more bright and clear . they consist withoutside of a thick skin , under which there is no fat ; withinside they are invelopp'd with a thin and slender pericranium , to facilitate their motion . between these parts runs a fleshy membrane , which is here very thin . vi. they receive very small branches of arteries from the carotides , and send forth diminutive veins to the iugulars , and are furnish'd with little nerves from the second pair . in each eye there are two ; one lower and lesser , whose motion is slower in man ; this in birds is bigger than the uppermost ; and in most seems to be mov'd for the most part alone . vii . the other , which is uppermost , is indu'd with a most swift motion , which it derives from two muscles . of which the first , which is streight , seated in the upper region of the orbit , rising with a slender and gristly beginning within the chamber of the eye , above and close by the elevator of the eye about the hole of the optic nerve , is extended with a broad and subtil tendon to the brim of the eye-lid , and raising it up , opens the eye . the other , call'd the orbicular muscle , is seated between the fleshy membrane , and that which is drawn forth from the pericranium . this by most anatomists is describ'd as one muscle , orbicularly encompassing the eye ; which about the breadth of a finger , arises in the larger angle or corner , at the root of the nose , and thence proceeds under the lower eye-lid , and runs back with orbicular fibers through the outer canthos , and returns above the upper eye-lids to the same place of the inner canthus , where it ends , and by contraction shuts the eye-lids . but spegelius and riolanus more truly aver , that this orbicular muscle is not single but double ; because that in persons that are full of muscles , two slender semicircular muscles are commonly observ'd ; of which the uppermost and largest is seated in the upper eye-brow , and rising with an acute beginning out of the inner corner of the eye , and that part of the eye brow next the nose , and so carry'd transversly on to the outermost corner , and inserted into it , takes up all that space which lies between the eye-brow and the extream part of the gristle out of which the hairs grow : the lower and lesser , arising from the side of the nose with an acute be inning , and carry'd athwart through the lower eye-lid , and somewhat ascending to the outer corner , is inserted into the upper eye-lid with a broad end . and thus both these muscles have their distinct insertions and beginnings , though their circular fibers touch one another , and stick so close together , so that upon a slight view , they seem to be but one muscle ; though it be apparent that they are two , not only by accurate separation and demonstration , but also from hence , that each of them receive distinct nerves from distinct places , that is to say , the uppermost , a little nerve from the moving nerve that breaks forth thro' the hole of the upper orbit . the lowermost , another little nerve from that nerve which extends it self through the hole of the lower part of the orbit . the same also appears from hence , that physicians have observ'd in the cynic convulsion of the face , that the lower eye-lid has remain'd immoveable , and as it were drawn downward , while in the mean time the upper has mov'd naturally ; which could never be if both eye-lids were mov'd by one muscle . viii . to these muscles aforesaid , some add a ciliar muscle ; which girdling the hairs of the eye-brows , assists in the exquisite joyning of them together . but this muscle is not easily demonstrated by any man ; for which reason many deservedly question whether there be any such muscle or no ? ix . as to the motion of the eye-brows , there is some dispute between aristotle and galen , while the one affirms their motion to be natural , the other voluntary . but aristotle err'd out of his ignorance of those muscles : the other knowing the muscles , rightly ascribes a voluntary motion to them . iulius casserius , observing that the muscles of the eye-lids are extreamly slender , yet though so slender , that they are not wearied by continual motion , grants that the motion of the eye-lids is voluntary , but somewhat different from the common voluntary motion , as if he thought that they were partly mov'd by a voluntary motion ; or that their motion was composed of natural and animal . but had he seriously considered the lightness of of the weight of the eye-lids , he would have been convinc'd that those thin muscles were sufficient to perform their voluntary motion . x. iulius casserius takes also these observations from the eye-lids : for example , that such as have their uper eye-lid elevated , are proud and fierce ; but that such as have it depressed , shutting almost half the eye , so that they seem to look down upon the ground , are humble and mild . but hippocrates takes a very bad prognostic from eye-lids , ill joyned in sleep . consider , says he , what is to be seen in the eye in time of sleep ; for if any thing of the white appear , the eye-lids being not closs'd ( if it do not happen from loosness , or the drinking of some potion , or that the patient were not wont to sleep so ) 't is an ill sign , and deadly . xi . the eye-lids open from two angles , which are vulgarly called canthi , which the greeks call 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 of these two , the outward corner is less , to which there also joyns a remarkable kernel within the orbit of the eye , which they call the kernel without a name , which is seated in the upper region of that corner , thicker above , thinner ▪ below , and as it were neatly distinguish'd into certain lobes , and sending forth small lymphatic vessels between those lobes , which running forward within the inner tunicle of the eye-lids , pierce it through with small holes , at a small distance from the hairs . these little vessels nicholas stenonis first discovered in the head of a sheep and calf ; and it is probable that it is so in the eyes of a man , though not discernable to the eye , by reason of their exiguity . he also tells us the way how to find out those vessels . the mouth of those rivers , saith he , are easily discovered , if you extend never so little the whole eye-lid in the outermost corner . for then about half a thumbs breadth from the outward limbus , you shall meet with three in the angle it self , four below , and six , sometimes seven above , through which a bristle being thrust in without dissection , you shall easily find a passage into the kernel it self . the last year discovered these vessels to me , when holding to the light of a candle the eye-lid of a sheep , after i had pluck'd out the eye out of the orbit , to s●…e whether it were transparent or no ; at what time the shining rivulets of the lympha clearly betray'd themselves . xii . the innermost canthus is bigger ( particularly called by the greeks 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , and by hesychius 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 a fountain , as seeming to be the fountain from whence the tears issue ) in which the glandulous caruncle aforesaid , lyes upon the lacrymal hole . which being corroded away by the acrimony of sharp humors , then the eye weeps without any constrait ; which is the cause of that distemper which the physitians call the lachrymal fistula , the greeks 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 in the eye of an ox , besides this caruncle , there is to be found a certain brawny hard particle , smooth toward the eye , on the outward part somewhat rough , affording a more easie motion to the membrane , by which the eye twinkles . xiii . little soft gristles lace the extremities of the eye-lids , which the greeks call 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , the latins cilia , for the more ready expansion and exact closure of the eye-lids . of which , the uppermost is much broader than the lower . xiv . within these grisly limbus's , about the larger corner two small holes are obvious in each eye , called the lachrymal points , admitting a hoggs bristle within the membranes of the eye-lids , more conspicuous in oxen , and other large animals than in men. these close together into one channel near the lachrymal hole , which running forth towards the fore-parts , opens with a manifest hole about the extremity of the nostrils , through which that thin liquor distils , especially in cold weather , when men drop at the nose before they are aware . and sometimes through these lachrymal points , some small quantity of the lymphatic liquor , squeez'd out of the kernels , flows forth like tears without any compulsion , which gave them the name of lachrymal holes , though they are not really the fountains of the tears . in the extremities of the eye-lids , under the upper , is inserted a row of streight hairs , turning somewhat upward ; by hippocrates call'd 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 which casserius and others call particularly cilia , which grow to a certain length , set thin by natures law , which they never exceed . they are always also black , and never grow grey , like the rest of the hairs of the body ; nor do they ever shed but in virulent distempers of the part , as the elephantiasis , or the pox. yet aristotle affirms , that they fall off from men that are extreamly addicted to venery . these keep off from the eyes little bodies flying in the air , and render the sight more perfect , by slightly darkening the eye ; for that if they be wanting through any distemper , or other cause , the eye never discerns so exactly at a distance : but if by any accident they are turn'd toward the inside of the eye , they become cruelly troublesome and hinder the sight . in oxen , besides the eye-lids , there is yet another membrane under the eye-lids , which both men and most animals want , which is govern'd by a peculiar voluntary motion . for it is drawn with a double string to the opposite corner , the one lying hid above , the other below , which arises from a certain muscle plac'd in the outer corner ; which muscle , by fallopius , is taken for part of that which draws the whole eye to the outward parts . by the benefit of this muscle oxen twinkle , and can shut their eyes , the eye-lid being still open , when they lear , least any thing should fall into the eye . xv. for more security , above , upon the confines of the fore-head and eyes , the eye-brows are placed , hanging over like a bow , with a thicker skin , and rough , with the hair lying pressed down toward the outward parts , to receive sweat , dust and other things that fall from the head , least they should slip into the eyes . these eye-brows , by the greeks call'd 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , ruffus . calls the hairy extremities of the fore-head , and that part of them which looks toward the nose , is call'd 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , the head of the eye-brows ; the other regarding the temples 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , the tail of the eye-brows . the middle space between both eye-brows , in greek 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , by the latins , because it is smooth and void of hair , is call'd glabella : though sometimes that part be also hairy ; the eye-brows meeting together at the extremity of the nose , which aristotle observes to be the sight of a person 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , austere and morose , and such a man is therefore by him call'd 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 . chap. xv. of the tears . i. having made mention in the former chapter , of the passages through which the hairs flow , in regard the tears themselves , together with their true fountain , have been but obscurely hitherto describ'd by the philosophers ; we thought it would not be time ill spent , by making a short digression to insert into these anatomical exercises a more exact discourse concerning them , that whence those serous drops distil , and what they are , may be the better understood . as to the original causes and matter of tears , opinions are very various . ii. empedocles , as galen testifies , imagined that tears were generated out of attenuated and melted blood. but in regard that many men can weep of a suddain , and when they please , it is not probable that the blood can be so suddenly melted . iii. iohn baptista scortias , will have tears to be generated in the corner of the eye , from the animal spirits , which being composed by the apprehension of something sad , is melted , and distils into tears . of the same opinion iacobus tappias seems to be , who writes , that as urine and sweat are excrements of the veiny and arterious blood , so tears are the excrement of the nervous blood , that is to say , the animal spirits . but in regard that only invisible animal spirits , and no visible serous humors can pass through the narrow pores of the nerves ; seeing also that tears flow out at times of great joy and laughter , when there is no sence of any saddess ; lastly , seeing that so great a quantity of tears , as in a short time issues forth in extraordinary grief , would destroy the whole frame of man , if so vast a quantity of animal spirits should be wasted in their supply ; it is apparent that opinion can no way be defended , as being far from truth . iv. georgius nyssenus and moletius thought tears to be generated out of many vapors carried to the head through some conturbation of the bowels , and there condensed into water by the coldness of the brain , which is afterwards expell'd forth as an unprofitable excrement . neither does coringius seem to differ much from their opinion . but in regard that many shed tears in great abundance , upon the sight of a sad accident , no conturbation of the bowels preceding . nay , seeing that many times tears proceed from riding against the cold air , or by looking and gazing suddenly upon the sun , without any conturbation of the mind or bowels ; seeing that others weep when they please , and that vapors cannot so suddenly ascend to the head , and be condens'd so soon , and in so great a quantity , seeing that the heart being troubled and possessed with extraordinary grief , together with the brain and other bowels , and yet the person grieved never sheds any tears ; seeing that tears flow as well in joy as sadness , but the vapors cannot be carried to the head in the same equal manner and quantity , nor with the same swiftness in these contrary affections of the mind , it is plain that this cannot be the original of tears . aristotle alledges tears to be a certain sweat or vapour : but what sort of sweat , and where generated , cartesius more at large explains . for , saith he , that their original may be the better understood , it is to be observed , that though many vapors continually exhale from all parts of our body , yet there is part , out of which more issue forth than out of the eyes , by reason of the bigness of the optic nerves , and the multitude of the small arteries , through which they come thither . vi. but these things are to be examin'd a little more strictly ; cartesius says , there is no part out of which the vapors issue forth in more abundance than out of the eyes . but it is possible that more vapors should issue forth from those parts which are enclosed and enfolded , besides other membranes with a scherotic hard and thick tunicle , and so compact and void of pores , that there is not the like in the whole body ; i say , is it possible that more vapors should issue forth from this than from any other parts , among which there are a thousand ten times hotter , moister and more porous ? is it because of the largeness of the optic nerves that there is such a conflux of vapors to the eyes , and yet the sight no way darkned thereby , nor the ingress of the animal spirits no way obstructed ? whatever flows through their larger innermost porosities , must be deposited in the innermost cavity of the ball between the humors , and so of necessity the balls of the eyes could not chuse but swell , and the sight be very much endamaged . as to the multitude of diminutive arteries , that is not observ'd to be more numerous in the eyes than in many other parts , for few small arteries run to the eyes , and those so slender , that they are scarce to be discern'd ; so that so great a quantity of serous humors cannot be pour'd forth out of those invisible vessels , to moisten a whole napkin with tears in the space of one hour . if any one ask why that vapour does not always and continually flow and beget tears , cartesius answers , that the vapors of the body are only charg'd and condens'd into water , when they are less stir'd than is usual , though they are not so copious ; or when they are more copious , so that they be not excessively agitated . vii . now let this most famous person tell me , where is the less motion of the vapors , or the greater quantity ; whether in the man that sheds them for joy or for sorrow . if he says , that in sorrow their motion is less , i will aver that in joy there is not a greater quantity ; because these affections in the shortest interval then befall the same man , whereas in gladness , at the same time , it ought to be occasion'd by a greater quantity ; for he himself tells us it cannot be done by the greater motion , which happens in gladness . if on the other side , he affirms that there is a less quantity of them in sadness , i will assure him that the motion is greater in gladness , which according to the words of cartesius , obstructs the shedding of tears ; nevertheless in the mean time , there is not a greater abundance of vapors to be so suddenly encreas'd in the same person , and yet that very same person , in a short interval of time , sheds tears during both these contrary affections of the mind , and therefore not from the causes already related . these difficulties cartesius espying afar off , chooses rather to add other causes of this accident . moreover , says he ▪ i cannot observe any more than two causes , why the vapors that proceed from the eyes should be changed into tears . the first , when the figure of the pores , through which they pass , is alter'd , by some accident , &c. the other is sadness , succeeded by love and ioy , &c. viii . shall there be then the same figure of the pores in these same contrary affections , sorrow , love , and joy ? i may add in laughter also , swift riding , or when dust , or any other thing falls into the eyes ; also in infants , grown people , or aged persons ? or would cartesius rather distinguish between the next causes , that the certain figure of the pores should be one thing , sadness another , love another ? these things are very repugnant one to another ; for thus , one next cause of tears is divided into several , and those contrary to each other . he that more attentively weighs these things , shall find that the most acute cartesius , in his discourse of tears , as well as other men , was in a great doubt , and very far from the mark. which however was no fault in the chief philosopher of our age , seeing there is no man so perspicuous that may not e rt in some things . ix . from the aforesaid opinion , aquapendens and casserius very much differ , who affirm tears to be a thin excrement of the eyes themselves , generated out of the remainder of the proper concoction , gathered together in the fat and little kernels . with these septalius agrees , writing , that tears are a serous humor diligently generated in the eyes , and collected together in their four kernels . but neither do the eyes discharge such a quantity of excrement , nor generate so much serous humor . neither can so large a quantity be gathered together in small diminutive kernels , not able to contain above eight or ten drops , nor in a small quantity of fat , which by reason of its oyliness will not imbibe any serum , so as to moisten whole handkerchiefs with tears . neither can such a quantity be collected without a visible tumor and inconvenience to the sight , in the small kernels and fat before mention'd : whereas before the shedding of the tears , there is no swelling of the kernels or fat to be perceiv'd . besides , there is no reason why that excrement should be generated in grief and sudden sorrow so speedily , or such a quantity be collected together , to burst forth into tears . x. some few were of opinion , that tears were a portion of the potulent humors contain'd in the brain and veins of the eyes , and more especially in the veins of the corners of each eye , which bursts forth upon the compression or dilation of those veins , occasion'd by much joy or sorrow . but the narrowness and small number of those veins hereby discernable , contradict this opinion , together with the vast quantity of the lachrimal humors , which cannot be collected to that abundance in those diminutive vessels , and flow forth in so large a quantity ; nor can it be so suddenly transmitted to them , nor pass through them . add to this , that the little veins of the eyes , take in at their extremities the superfluous bloody humors , and carry them to the jugulars , but pour none out from themselves , because there is no passage for that potulent matter to come to the eye . xi . nor do they differ much from the foregoing opinion , who believes the tears to be nothing else but the serum which is separated from the blood , which is carried to the head , when the pores are so disposed by a certain motion of the spirits , that it may be able to burst forth . but they neither tell us what that disposition is , nor that same certain motion of the spirits ; which two things , in regard they are so extreamly different and multi-cacious , and cannot be naturally the same , as well in constriction as dilatati●…n , in sadness as in joy , in which contrary accidents , however tears must flow from one and the same next cause , and not from diverse and contrary , there is nothing remains that can desend that opinion . xii . at this day many ascribe the flux of tears only to the lymphatic vessels carry'd to the eyes . yet never any person that i know of has hitherto demonstrated that manner of lachrymation , nor those vessels themselves ; besides nicholas stenonis , that most accurate describer of kernels , who lately going about to explain that opinion more at large , not without reason , affirms them to be a serous sort of liquor , chiefly separated from the arterious blood , but as to the manner and place of separation , his opinion is quite different from what any body has hitherto propounded . for he believes that the blood is carried through the arteries into the glandules of the eyes , and that the superfluity of it is suckt up by the veins . but that the veins , if they be squeez'd together by any cause , do not perform that office sufficiently , and then by reason of the long stay of the abounding blood in the glandules , the serum is separated from it in greater quantity , and flows in the form of tears through the lymphatic vessels proceeding from the kernels . then he believes the veins to be compress'd by the swelling of the glandules , caused by a more copious influx of animal spirits , which creeping into the glandules through the diminutive nerves , at the disposal of the mind , as in grief , anger , joy , sadness , flow sometimes more , sometimes fewer into the kernels , more than after a various manner , and streighten them more or less . to this cause he refers those tears that are shed contrary to inclination , as also those which proceed from fumes and sharp vapors , or break forth upon any violent motion of the body ; and farther , believes his opinion to be mainly confirmed by the bursting forth of bloody tears , which are sometimes observ'd . certainly this new opinion is propounded very speciously , but in the mean time it does not sufficiently discover the fountain of tears . for if we compare the great quantity of tears so swiftly bursting forth with the diminutive blood-bearing vessels of those kernels , presently this opinion will fall to the ground at the very threshold . for how few , and how small are those little arteries which are carried to the kernels of the eyes ? the most of them are invisible . therefore , though in the time of sadness , all the veins of those kernels which would carry back the blood , should be altogether obstructed , and all their little arteries open'd by a solution of the continuum , and out of these , not only the serous part of the blood , but all the blood that was contain'd ther●…in and carried through them should burst forth , they would not be able to pour forth the hundredth part of such a quantity of liquor in a whole hour , as often in great sadness is wept out in tears in the space of one single quarter of an hour . if it be answered , that in the time of sadness the blood is carried in greater quantity to the eyes , and that the said kernels swell and are more compress'd , and the veins streightned , reason will teach us the contrary . for in sadness the pulse of the heart and arteries is little and contracted , and the exterior parts wax cold ; because the heart sends from it self much less blood into any of the arteries , much less into those of the head. neither is there any reason why in sadness it should be carried in greater quantity , and more serous to the kernels of the eyes than to any other parts . moreover , the little arteries of those small kernels , are too few and too narrow for so great a quantity of blood and serum to pass through them in so short a time , as is so swiftly wept out in tears . lastly , there is nothing to cause those little kernels more to swell or be compressed in time of grief , than at other times . for as to those animal spirits , which as nicholas stenonis asserts , how forth at the disposal of the mind . sometimes more , sometimes fewer , as in grief , anger , joy , &c. and move the kernels after a various manner , we grant that they enter the kernels in a small quantity , through those diminutive , few , and for the most part , invisible nerves , moderately to separate the saltish symphatic liquor from the arterious blood , and pour it forth through the small vessels describ'd in the foregoing chapter , for the necessary moistning and smoothing of the eyes ; but not in so great a quantity as to move the eyes , and cause them so swiftly to swell , or to compress them , and so to squeeze out such a quantity of tears . for by the influx of those animal spirits , hardly any other parts are mov'd , at the disposal of the mind , then the muscles , and such parts as are mov'd by the muscles . add to this , that in sadness the animal spirits flow in lesser quantity than is usual , to any parts whatsoever , which is the reason that the joynts often tremble , and the sight of the eys is darkened . for the heart contracting it self , and beating but weakly , as in sadness , little blood is sent to the brain to encrease their generation , and withal , the motion of the brain it self being thereby weakned , it sends forth fewer animal spirits to the rest of the parts . lastly , though we should grant what that famous gentleman asserts , his opinion is not thereby confirm'd , but quite overturn'd . for thence it follows , that the more copi●… us those animal spirits are that flow into those kernels , so much the more would be their swelling and the compression of the veins , and thence a greater effussion of tears ; but in joy , the said spirits flow in great plenty to the parts , and yet in joys , tears are very rarely shed , or if they do burst forth , 't is but in a very small quantity . contrary to this , in sadness , fewer animal spirits flow into the parts , whence there must a be less swelling and pressure , and yet tears burst forth in greater quantity . lastly , if it be objected that the salival liquor may be separated in sufficient quantity , out of the arteries through the kernels , and therefore the lachrymal juice . i answer , that the parotides and kernels of the jaws are remarkably large and very numerous , and furnished with many and more remarkable arteries , so that a more plentiful separation may more easily be made through them , then through the slender and incomparably fewer glandules of the eyes , endued with few and almost invisible little arteries . he therefore that more considerately weighs these things , will easily observe , that the opinion of nicholas stenonis does not contain the true cause of tears , and that unwilling tears can never be deduc'd from it ; nor those which are occasion'd by swift running , smoak and dust , &c. nor bloody tears , which proceed rather from some corrosion of the little arteries and veins , which by reason of the narrowness of the vessels . can burst forth but in small quantity . xiii . thus have many men strangly mistaken the fountain of this same lympha , and while they endeavour'd to discover it , have fill'd much paper with conjectures . now let us try whether we can contribute any light to a thing that lies veil'd under so much obscurity . which before we undertake to perform , we think it necessary to distinguish between the lachrymal humors and that same lymphatic humor which is poured forth out of the glandules through the diminutive lymphatic vessels for the moistning of the eyes and smoothing of the parts . for this is the difference between them , . this is more lympid and thinner than the other . . this flows out of the lymphatic vessels of the glandules , the other from the ventricles of the brain . . this is neither so sharp nor so salt as tears are found to be , both by the tast and their corrosion . . there is but a small quantity of this , nor does the quantity of it offend the eyes , as tears does , which bursting forth in great quantity , many times very much prejudice the eyes . . this does not corrode at all , but is grateful to the eyes , whereas many times tears corrode the cheeks , and many times consume the glandulous lachrymal caruncles themselves , seated in the corners of the eyes , which being eaten quite away with their little vessels , the flux of tears would cease or stop , if the foremention'd opinion of stenonis were true , whereas on the contrary , the flux is then more unvoluntary , and in greater quantity not to be stop'd . xiv . this distinction thus premis'd , we come to speak of the tears themselves , beginning with their definition . tears are the more thin and serous particles of the flegmatic humors collected in the brain , flowing from the innermost parts of the eyes . the causes of the expulsion of those serous particles through the lachrymal holes are five . . the plenty of flegmatic serous humors collected in the brain . . their suddain colloquation , or violent agitation . . the contraction of the brain and its membranes . . the insufficient covering of the lachrymal hole by the glandulous caruncle . . the obstruction of the spungy bones in the nostrils . and of these causes , for the most part , two or three concur ; and therefore we must particularly explain how those tears burst forth in divers cases . xv. in sadness , the membranes of the brain , together with the brain it self , are contracted , and hence the serous humors of the arterious blood , which gain something of viscosity from the humid and viscous bowel , are pressed forth out of the kernels of the cortex and the substance of the brain it self , and pituitous kernel , and the small glandules interwoven with the choroid fold , into the ventricles , and out of them through the papillary processes , and the narrownesses of the five representing bones , into the spongy parts of the inside of the nostrils ; which not being able to pass through them , by reason of their quantity and viscousness , the more thin and serous particles burst forth through the narrow lateral lachrymal holes into the larger corners of the eyes , and washing the bodies of the eyes , and breaking forth , make tears . but the thicker and more viscous particles , causing an obstruction in the spungy bones of the upper parts of the nostrils , are evacuated by degrees , as well through the nostrils as through the palate . and the less that obstruction of the nostrils grows , the less becomes the flux of tears ; for that being remov'd , the thinner and more serous humors descend directly to the palate and nostrils , neither is there any necessity , that then they should be prest forth through the lachrymal holes , by reason of the passage being stopt , so that then the flux of tears ceases , till by reason of new plenty of descending humors , a new obstruction happens . xvi . by reason of the same obstruction tears frequently burst forth in the murr , and sometimes upon violent sneezing . xvii . there is the same reason for tears that break forth in violent laughter : for from that alternate contraction of the muscles of the head , as also of the brain and its membranes , the aforesaid serous humors burst forth in great quantity out of the brain and kernels aforesaid into the ventricles , and out of them into the mamillary processes ; which humors flow down to the nostrils and palate , and by reaof their thicker particles , cause an obstruction in the fungous part of the nostrils . which is the reason that then the thinner and more serous particles , their free descent being stopp'd , bursting forth through the lachrymal holes , flow from the eyes , and that so much the more easily , by how much those holes are so much the less exactly shut by the glandulous caruncles that lye over them . hence it comes to pass , that according to the closer or looser shutting up of those holes , and the more or less plenty of flegmy humors abounding in the brain ; some people shed tears when they laugh , and others not ; and because that concussion of the body , or alternate contraction does not last long , hence it comes to pass , that people do not shed many tears when they laugh . there is the same reason why young and stout men , who are not easily disturb'd with grief , nor have their brain contracted , besides that , the glandulous caruncle that covers both lachrymal holes is stronger and larger , seldom or never weep . on the other side , old people , infants and children , easily shed tears , because that in the one , the glandulous caruncle is drier , more unequal , and more contracted ; in the other softer and less firm , and so weakly covering the lachrymal hole , that it gives way to the least violence of the internal serous humors , and so procures an immediate passage for the said lachrymal humors . to which we may add another humor , that both the one and the other are subject to grief , that arises from irksomness , love , or anger ; by reason whereof the brain contracting its self with its membranes , presses forth the petuitous and serous humors , and expels them through the sieve-representing bones . cartesius alledges another cause of this matter , but not so true , for he ascribes the whole thing to the plenty of blood , from whence several vapors are carried to the eyes . but this opinion has been sufficiently refuted already . now to tell you how it comes to pass , that some weep upon vehement motion , or the riding of swift race-horses , of this there are three causes . . because the glandulous kernels being mov'd from their places by the violent motion , do not exactly cover the lachrymal holes . . because those caruncles are contracted by the troublesome reverberation of the cold air. . because those pituitous humors through violent agitation flow easily from the head , and descend in a greater quantity than usually through the sieve-like narrow passages . and the same thing also happens when the glandulous caruncles of each canthus being contracted by the greater cold of the air alone , especially if suddain , the lachrymal holes are not well covered , and therefore give a free passage to the tears . xviii . onions , mustard , errhines , and sternutories provoke tears , by reason that through their attenuating and cutting acrimony , the humors in the head are properly attenuated , and rendred more fluid . properly the brain , with its membranes , contracts it self , by reason of the troublesome vellication that twinges the eyes and nostrils ; and by that means presses forth and expels the pituitous humors contain'd therein , which glide the more easily through the lachrymal holes , because the annate tunicle of the eye , and the glandulous caruncles that cover the holes , being twing'd by the same acrimony , are also contracted , and so give free passage to the descending humors . xix . dust , straws , smoak , &c. that pain the eye , are also the cause of shedding . tears ; because that upon the twinging of the conjunctive tunicle , which is the most sensible , the glandulous lachrymal kernel adjoyning to it is contracted in both eyes , but chiefly in that which is most afflicted , and so the hole is uncovered . also the brain with its membranes is contracted , by reason of that same sad sensation , and by means of that same contraction pressing forth the serous and pituitous humors contain'd in its self and its ventricles , expels them through the mamillary processes toward the sive-like bone and the nostrils ; of which , the thicker particles flow forth through the nostrils , the thinner and more fluid through the lachrvmal holes . xx. now to tell you why tears continue so plentiful in grief , so that many people weep for several days together ; that happens for this reason , for that ▪ the brain being contracted with sadness , is refrigerated , and cannot duly perform its work of concoction , so that a great quantity of serous humors are separated in this glandulous bowel from the blood , which is carried thither for its nourishment , and many crude humors are also generated at the same time , which are continually press'd forth by that contraction , and expell'd out of the ventricles toward the nostrils . but when the mind refrains from thinking of the sad accident , and the contraction hereupon relaxes , that effussion of tears ceases ; but upon the return of sad thoughts , the tears burst forth again , by reason of the same pressing and squeezing as before . but because so large and moist a bowel has humid nourishment in great quantity , hence it is certain , that many and moist excrements cannot but be generated therein , of which there is a long and most plentiful increase , as in catarrs and the pose ; as we found in a woman dissected by us in the year . who had long liv'd in a great deal of grief and sorrow , and had a thousand times complain'd of a heaviness in her head , and was very apt to weep and shed tears in abundance , whose brain was so moist , that a viscous serum distill'd out of the substance of it , squeez'd by our hand , as out of a spunge dipp'd in water , besides that , the ventricles were also sufficiently fill'd with it . to this we may add , that the vapors carried from the lower parts of the body to the head , and so wont to be expell'd through the pores of the body , when it comes to pass that the pores are streightned by that refrigeration and contraction of the brain and its membranes , cannot be expell'd , but being thickned , are squeezed toward the nostrils , together with the rest of the humors which greatly encreases the quantity of tears . by reason of the same bad concoction of the brain , it comes to pass that many times the tears are salt and sharp , and corrode the cheeks , and for the same reason it is that sharp and salt catarrhs happen , which by their acrimony corrode the teeth , and exulcerate the chaps and other parts , because that by reason of their crudity the salt particles are more fix'd , and not sufficiently dissolved , nor exactly mix'd with the rest of the serous particles . which being so , four doubts remain to be unfolded . . how it comes to pass that people in sorrow receive great ease from weeping , and that they find themselves almost choak'd through sorrow of mind , and are oppressed with heaviness in their heads , upon the shedding of tears are very much reliev'd ? the reason is , because that in heavy sorrow , the brain is many times so contracted , that the evacuatory passages are streightned , so that neither the pituitous and serous humors can flow out , nor the arterious blood conveniently flow in , whence it appears that fewer spirits are generated therein , and fewer animal spirits consequently flow out from thence to the rest of the parts . through the scarcity of which , the detention of the excrements with all in the brain , several inconveniences happen to persons in those doleful conditions ; their heads grow heavy , their ratiocination and judgment grow benum'd , most parts tremble , the sight grows dim , the respiration becomes slow , with deep sighs and profound sobs , difficulty of swallowing , and the orifices of the heart are streightned , so that they can neither , expel nor receive the blood ; hence an extream anxiety , which with all the other inconveniences diminishes again , and the sorrowful are extreamly eas'd , when the evacuatory vessels being loosned , the serous and pituitous humors flow through the eyes , like tears in great quantity , from the brain , and also are evacuated through the nostrils , palate and mouth , which consequently gives a freer access of arterious blood to the brain , a more plentiful generation of animal spirits , and a larger influx into the parts . xxi . . how it comes to pass that in extraordinary sadness a man cannot weep , yet perceives the foresaid anxiety with heaviness of the head ; but after he is somewhat come to himself , he pours forth tears in great quantity with relief . thus historians tell us of psammenitus , who wept and beat his head at the death of his friend , but when he saw his children lead to execution , beheld the spectacle without shedding a tear. hence the ancient proverb , light sorrows talk and weep , vast sorrows stupifie . the cause of this is no other than the extream contraction of the brain ; for in an extraordinary consternation , a man is as it were astonished , and the brain as it were stupified , is every way more strangely contracted , which causes the humors to be coagulated and thickned to stop and settle therein . however , this extraordinary contraction , when the griev'd person recollects and comes to himself , and begins to bear his grief with more patience , is very much diminished , so that the serous and pituitous humors are more liberally expell'd out of the brain , to the relief of the person , and tears burst forth more plentifully through the evacuatory passages , overstreightned before , and now again open'd and loosen'd . and hence it is apparent , wherefore upon the giving of wine freely to those that are in sorrow , the tears that before stopp'd , in a short time will burst forth in great quantity : because wine refreshes the heart and the brain , encreases courage , and mitigates sadness , whence that extraordinary contraction of the brain is somewhat diminished , and the evacuatory passages are again let loose . . why those that weep , weep in a shrill tone , those that laugh , make a deep noise . this is a question propounded by aristotle , and the reason is , because that at the time when men are weeping and sad , their vocal organs are streightned and extended : but when people laugh , those organs are more extended and loose , and most certain it is , that the air causes a shriller sound in narrow than in wide pipes . now the vocal organs are streightned by the cold ; the orifices of the heart being contracted in great grief , and consequently little blood and heat is communicated from thence to the parts , which causes the whole body to shake with cold. xxii . . why man among all other creatures , chiefly sheds tears ? because he of all creatures being endued with reason , is only sensible , with great attention of mind , of sorrow , mourning , grief , &c. which is the reason that he alone suffers those contractions of the brain , and pressings forth of the humors . as for the crocodiles , harts , and if there be any other beasts that may be said to weep , they shed very few tears , and they chiefly seem to flow forth , partly by reason of the great quantity of serous humors abounding in the head , partly by reason of the uncovering of the lachrymal hole , the contraction of the caruncle of the bigger canthus , caused by the cold air , or some other cause , which are two causes sometimes of tears , also in men , without any agitation of the mind or fault in the organ . as to the end of tears , philosophers generally alledge it to be on purpose to declare the affections of the mind , and to exonerate the brain of its superfluous moisture . and thus we hope we have described the true original of tears , confirm'd not by reason only , but experience . chap. xvi . of the vessels and muscles of the eye . the eyes which are the organs of sight , consist of three parts ; of which , some serve for nourishment , as the arteries and veins ; others to cause and facilitate motion , as muscles , fat , kernels and lymphatic vessels ; others contribute to the sight it self , as optic nerves , tunicles and humors . i. the arteries which carry the vital blood to the nourishment of the eyes , muscles , kernels and fat , are properly external , from the external branch of the carotis ; partly internal , from the inner branch of the same carotis , which constitutes the nett-resembling fold . ii. in like manner there are also external veins , so visible in the white of the eye , which run forth to the external branch of the iugular , as internal accompanying the optic nerve , running along to the inner branch of the same iugular artery . of the kernels and lymphatic vessels has already been spoken , chap. . iii. the eyes of men are mov'd every way by the assistance of six muscles , surrounding the eyes below the cavity of the orbit . of these , the four greater being streight , cause a streight motion , upward , downward and sideway . the two much the lesser , cause an oblique motion . between all which , there is interlay'd a sufficient quantity of fat to facilitate the motion ; as also to moisten , warm and smooth the eye . iv. all these arise with an accute beginning from the deepest part of the orbit , near the hole through which the optic nerve enters the orbit , to the membrane of which they adhere , and end in a most slender tendon , sticking to the horny tunicle ; in which all the tendons being joyned together in a circle , make a kind of a tendonny tunicle , vulgarly call'd the innominate , which is joyn'd to the eye like a broader circle , only it does not encompass it . v. the first of the right muscles , which is the uppermost and thickest , raises the eye ; which being a motion usual among haughty people , is thence called the proud muscle . vi. the second , which is lesser and opposite to the first , from its lower or more humble seat where it is placed , is called the humble . vii . the third , which stands in the inner corner , brings the eye inward toward the nose ; which because it is familiar with those that drink , while they look in the glass , is called the bibitory muscle . viii . the fourth , which moves the eye toward the outer parts to the little corner , is call'd the indignabund , because it expresses the lateral aspect of disdainful and scornful people . ix . the first of the oblique muscles , which is slender , round and short , seated in a lower place , and in the extream part of the lower orbit , that is to say ; at the joyning of the first bone of the iaw , with the fourth bone , ascends toward the outer corner of the eye-lid , and there embracing the eye transversly , with a short tendon toward the upper parts meets the tendon of the other eye , and moving the eye downward , turns it and brings it to the outer corner . x. the other of the oblique muscles , which is thinner , longer , and seated above , rising from the common beginning , together with the third of the streight muscles , is carried directly to the inner corner of the eye , where passing the grisly winding with a slender body ( hence called the trochlear muscle ) proceeds with an oblique turning through the upper parts of the eye , and terminates near the end of the oblique tendon of the lower muscle . xi . now the trochlear gristle is a perforated gristle , hanging forward to the bone of the upper iaw , near the inner corner of the eye ; the first finding out of which spigelius attributes to fallopius , but riolanus ascribs to rondeletius . these two oblique muscles , because of the secret allurements of lovers glances , are called amatorious ; but from their rowling motion , circumactors . xii . in brutes , that feed with their heads toward the earth , besides these six muscles , there is also a seventh , which is sometimes observed to be divided into two , but rarely into three muscles . this being short and fleshy , encompasses the eye , and is inserted into the hinder part of the horny tunicle , and sustains the looking down continually upon the ground , and draws it back when it s own weight carries it farther out . xiii . the muscles are endued with a moving power by the little branches of the second pair of nerves , which are chiefly inserted into the streight muscles . for the innermost oblique muscle receives a little branch from the fifth pair ; the outermost oblique receives a little branch from the slender pair that stands next before the fifth . xiv . here arises a question , when each eye has distinct and proper muscles , why they do not move with various motions , but are always mov'd together with the same motion ? aristotle ascribes the cause to the coition of the optic nerves , and galen and avicen seem to be of the same opinion . but in regard the optic nerves are only visory , and contribute nothing to motion , nor enter the muscles , they cannot be the cause of this thing . besides , anatomists have now found it out , that this conjunction of the optics is wanting in several men , and yet the motion of their eyes , while they liv'd , was the same as in other men , so equal always , that the sight of both was always directed to one point . andrew laurentius says , that such an equal motion is requisite for the perfection of the sense ; and so he only proposes the end of the motion , but does not explain the cause . others alledg that this equal motion proceeds from hence , that the moving nerves are mov'd together at their beginning . but it appears from this conjunction , that the spirits indeed may flow to the muscles of each eye , however it is not manifest , why the spirits flow more especially in greater quantity into these or those muscles of the eyes , and not into the same , external and internal of both eyes . for example's sake , suppose a man would look for something upon his right-side , presently the spirits are determined toward the external muscle of the right-eye , and the internal muscle of the left-eye , and so the sight is turned to one point through the two various muscles of each eye . but if the union of the beginning of the nerves of the second pair should any way contribute to this , in regard of that union , it would be requisite that the spirits should flow at the same time into the same muscles of both eyes , as well external as internal , and so by vertue of that motion , both eyes would look several ways upon several things , and not up on the same . and therefore the true reason proceeds from the mind ; for when the mind intends to behold any thing ; one eye is not to be turn'd to this , another to that thing , for so there would happen a confusion of the rays and perception in common sence ; but both eyes are of necessity to be turn'd toward the same thing ; and hence the spirits are always determin'd to those muscles that can draw both the eyes toward the same object , but not to such muscles as draw each eye several ways . because the mind always intends to behold one object apart ; and though it may often intend to behold several things , yet it observes a certain order , and beholds one thing after another , which may be done with a speedy motion , if the objects are so near and large that they may be easily perceiv'd . but if the object be remote and small , then both eyes must of necessity be longer fix'd upon the object , and a greater quantity of rays are requisite to flow into the eyes , for the better perception of what the mind is intent to behold . chap. xvii . of the bulb of the eye . the bulb of the eye consists of membranes and humors . the membranes are either common or proper . the common membranes are twofold , adnate and innominate . i. the first next the bone , or white adnate , by the greeks call'd 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , because it adheres to other membranes of the eyes , by galen and hippocrates call'd , the white of the eye , is a thin expansion of the pericranium above the sclerotic , as far as the circle of the iris , joyning the eye to the orbit and inner bones , whence it is called the conjunctive . it is endued with an exquisite sence of feeling , being sprinkled with many diminutive arteries and veins . through which little arteries , when there is a greater afflux of hotter blood , then a reflux through the diminutive veins , then happens an ophthalmy , of which distemper , this membrane is the seat. ii. the other , by columbus call'd the innominate , is nothing else than a thin expansion of the tendons of the muscles concurring to the corneous tunicle , produc'd to the very circumference of the iris , to which it adheres , like a small broad ring , which causes the white of the adnate tunicle to look more bright . bauhi●… , riolan●…s , and casserius will not allow this tunicle to be number'd among the tunicles , but rather among the muscles of whose tendons it consists . however galea makes mention of it among the tunicles of the eye , but gives it no name , and therefore perhaps by columbus call'd the nameless or in●…ominate . iii. besides these two common membranes , in an oxe there is another membrane , which is the outermost of all , not sticking close to the eye , but endued with motion and a muscle . by means of which , cows and oxen close and twinkle with their l●…es , ●…et their eye-lids remain open all the while . iv. the proper membranes or tunicles are three , of which , the first and outermost is said to proceed from the dura mater , and expands it self about the bulb of the eye . it is call'd the scl●…rotic from its hardness ; though fallopius will not allow the former , believing it to differ very much from the dura mater , both in substance and thickness . the sclerotic en●…olds the whole eye , and is thick , hard , tough , equal , opacous behind , before transparent like a bright horn , and polish'd , whence it had the name of the horny tunicle . which name however many times is given to the whole sclerotic , by reason of its horny thickness and hardness : though it be thick and hard , yet it is generally thought to be single ; though bau●…inus will have it to consist of several rinds , or four , as it were thin plates , and affirms that from hence it was that avicen alledg'd it to be four fold . but this same quadruplicity is more easily to be conceiv'd and imagin'd from the thickness and hardness of it then to be demonstrated . v. the second and middle tunicle , which is much thinner than the former , arising from a thin film , and sprinkled with several diminitive vessels , because it enfolds the humors , of the eye , as the chorion does the birth , is call'd choroides ; only the forepart of it , where it is thicker and doubled , and perforated in the middle for the transmission of the rays , is call'd ragoides , or uveous , from the colour of a grape , which name is also given to the whole tunicle . vi. this on the inside is endued with several colours ; nevertheless in man it is usually more obscure , in cows and other creatures that see in the night , of a bright green , or else brown or yellow . hence aquapendens believes that those creatures only see in the night , whose innermost colour of the uveous tunicle is very bright , which if it happen in a man , he shall also see in the night ; as it was natural for tiberius caesar to do . the outermost part which touches the horny tunicle , is overshadowed with a kind of dark colour , which dyes the fingers of those that touch it of a black hew . it is endued with this black colour , chiefly necessary for the perfection of sight , in the first delineation of the parts , and hence it comes to pass , that in a new shap'd embrio , it shews it self through the filmy coverings of the eye-lids , and the sclerotic tunicle it self . in this same blackish colour of this tunicle , the rays and species of things visible are stopt , as in a looking-glass , which to that end is overlaid behind with quicksilver , that they may not pass any farther , but that being reverberated , they may be the better offered to the common sensory , and represented to the mind . vii . some portion of this transparent through the corneous tunicle , carries a mixture of colours , and hence , as representing the rainbow , is call'd iris , in some blacker , in some blewer , in others greener , in others browner , which colours are not only to be observ'd in individual persons , but in whole nations , as the black colour is most usual among the ethiopians and chineses , the green among the tartars , the blewish among the belgians and northern people , the dusky among the italians and neighbouring nations . the circumference of this portion is firmly fastned to the hard tunicle , riolanus writes , that it may be separated circularly with the edg of a pen-knif , and that this same crown of the uveous tunicle is to be found altogether separated in the eye of a cow , when parboyl'd , and therefore he believes it to be a membrane distinct from the uveous tunicle ; having peculiar fibers , and a proper motion in the dilation and contraction of the sight of the eye . however at this day the said portion is by anatomists , generally taken for the continuous part of the uveous tunicle it self . viii . now the uveous tunicle is perferated in the middle part before , in men with a round hole , in brutes with an oblong or oval hole which the latins call pupilla , the greeks 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , ruffus 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 and hippocrates 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , by means of which the rays of visible things , being receiv'd by the chrystalline humors lying upon that hole , enter the eye . this hole is sometimes dilated , sometimes contracted , as the animal spirits flow into the eye in a greater or lesser quantity . here aquapendens and sennertus are under a great mistake , who believe this dilatation and contraction to proceed from a stronger o●… weaker light. certainly light it self introduces nothing into the eye for the expansion or contraction of it , but it is the cause that more or fewer spirits flow into the eye : so that by their in flux the apple of the eye , becomes sometimes wider and sometimes narrower , according to which diversity we see better or worse : for a moderate contraction causes a quicker sight , a dilatation too wide causes a weaker sight : for that in the one the spirits are more collected together , and the visible rays are more easily gathered to a point ; in this not so well . ix . from the circumference of the nervous tunicle , in the forepart where it rests upon the chrystaline humor , arises a ligament , call'd the ciliar ligament , which consists of thin strings or ●…ibres , like diminutive black lines ( which are like the hairs of the eye-brows ) running forth from this circumference toward the prominent crystaline humor , girding it about and fastning it to the uveous tunicle . veslingius and cartesius not without some probability affirm that by the assistance of this ligament , the contraction and dilatation of the hole in the uveous tunicle is perform'd , frequently as the man pleases himself ; and moreover that it causes a gentle motion of the crystalline humor it self , toward the fore and hinder parts , as the necessity of sight variously requires . though others ascribe this dilatation and contraction to the small slender fibers or strings dispierc'd through the net resembling tunicle , as into which they say that the animal spirits flow in greater or lesser quantity , according to the various qualities of the objects , and by that means more or less dilate the sight of the eye . x. the third membrane or tunicle because it resembles a casting-net , is therefore call'd retina , or retiform'd , by the greeks 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , from embracing or ensolding . the substance of it is so●…t and slimy , wherein as well certain slender , small strings , or diminutive little vessels , deriving themselves from the choroid fold and the wonderful net , are manifestly to be discover'd conveighing blood for the nourishment of it . which nevertheless platerus does not seem to have observ'd , nor riolanus to have seen . this tunicle call'd the net-form'd is commonly deliver'd to be the expansion of the inner narrower substance of the optic nerve , or brain , about the vitreous humor , as far as the clear ligament . but in regard the substance of this tunicle has little or no resemblance to the pithy substance of the brain , seeing it receives small bloodbearing-vessels , which are manifestly conspicuous to the sight , which are not to be found in the substance of the brain , it does not seem to be any expansion of the medullary substance of the brain , but rather a certain peculiar part , constituting the primary part of the organ of sight , wherein the colors of visible rays are depainted , and thence by means of the optic nerve and spirits communicated to the mind , and so perceiv'd : as we find such another peculiar substance under the membrane of the nostrils and tongue , which constitutes the primary part of the organs of smelling and tast. xi . besides these three proper tunicles necessary to the whole eye there are two other which particularly enfold the chrystalline and vitreous humor . xi . the humors belonging to the eye are threefold , the watry , glassy and chrystaline , distinct from one another , all transparent and all void of colour . partly to prevent the visible rays from stopping in them ; partly that the rays of visible things colour'd , being alter'd by no colour of the eye , may be able to pass to the net-form'd tunicle , to be thence offer'd to the common sensory such as they are . for in regard the judgment of colours must be made in the brain by the eye , of necessity those parts of it that receive and transmit the ra●…s of things colour'd , must be void of all colour . xii . the watry humor , thin , pellucid , void of all colour , moderately copious and fluid , washes the foremost space between the corneous tunicle , and the seat of the chrystaline humor having no proper tunicle belonging to it , but is comprehended between the horny and grape-like tunicle before the apple of the eye . by some this humor is call'd , 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , or albugoneius , though irroneously , there being no resembance between the white of an egg and this humor , nor any such viscosity ; but a thin and fluid liquor . xiii . here arises a doubt , whether it possess the forepart of the eye , and be only placed against the chrystaline humor , or whether it be spread about the vitreous humor . riolanus believes it not only to be contained in the forepart , but to be spread about the vitreous humor , because that if the corney and uveous tunicle be open'd in the hinder part , there will flow forth a watry humor through the wound . plempius reproves riolanus , and says he has found the contrary by experience , as having perforated the hinder part of the ball of the eye with a needle , and yet no watry humor issu'd forth . and thence concludes that it was the vitreous humors which riolanus saw distilling forth by reason of some prick in the vitrious tunicle . but it may be reply'd to plempius that that experience little makes for the proof of his opinion , for that upon the drawing forth of the needle most certain it is , that the little hole made in the corneous tunicle will suck it self to a closure so suddainly that no liquor can issue forth ; as we find in the couching of cataracts ; for that the needle being drawn out again , no water distills from that small wound , by reason the wound presently sucks it self close again . but if we examin this difference more exactly we shall find , that the watry humor contained about the apple of the eye is different from that which flows from the hinder part of the sight , and that this is not only the thinner but also is contain'd and fix'd before the sight , not running any farther , toward the hinder parts of the eye ; but that the hindermost liquor is clammy and thicker than the other , and that it is nothing else but a certain watry juice , separated from the vitreous humor , the proper vitreous tunicle being hurt , and grown thin for want of spirits , or admission of the colder air ; for if you hold the vitreous humor in your hand in the air never so short a while , a kind of a clammy liquor will distil from it in ●…low drops . xiv . some question whether this humor be a part of the body ? as laurentius and mercatus , and they that accompt blood to be a part of the body . these casserius and plempius oppose , and that not without reason , for that not being circumscribed within its own limits , nor united in continuity to the body , but many times in wounds of the eyes being wholly lost , is restored again , therefore it seems not proper to be reckoned among the animated parts . now that it is restored when lost , appears cut of galen , who relates the example of a boy , who was so prickt in the sight of the eye with a pen-knife , that all the watry humor was let out of his eye . nevertheless , in a short time after , so soon as the watry humor was again recruited and collected together , the boy recovered his sight : and hildan also relates two more examples of the same nature . xv. this difficulty others observing , rather choose to assert , that it was an excrement of the crystallan humor ; for which reason it came to pass , that being evacuated and lost , it was frequently restored again . but this argument convinces them , that all excrements of the body daily increase anew , and therefore of necessity they must have ways and means , by which they be again evacuated , whereas there are no ways for the evacuation of this humor . if therefore this humor being evacuated , could be regenerated in a very short space , there ought to be manifest passages allowed , through which the redundancy of it may be again evacuated ; for they say , that being evacuated by the pricking of the eye in a chicken , it will renew again within the space of fifteen days . but no man ever found out those passages in the horny tunicle , nor ever can find them out if there be none , therefore this humor , by its continual increase , must distend the eye to an immense proportion , at least in aged persons , it must of necessity be very copious , by reason of the collection of many years ; but in infants very little would be found , whereas experience tells us quite the contrary in both . therefore we must conclude that this humor is no part of the body ; not so much as an excrement , but a certain liquor ordain'd for the perfection of the sight , no less than the blood for nourishment , and generated out of the most lympid particles of the blood , and that as the blood is no part of the body , not so much as an excrement , but a humor necessary for nourishment , and the support of life , so the watry humor of the eye is neither an enliven'd part of the body , nor any excrement , but a liquor to maintain the eye , and perhaps ordain'd for the nourishment of the crystalline and vitreous humor . xvi . the use of this humor is to water and make slippery , and perhaps to nourish the other two thicker humors , together with the uvious and net-like tunicle , and to distend the horny tunicle to prevent its growing wrinkel'd and opacous , to darken the too much splendor of the light , and dilate the visible rays . but if it recede from its purity , and become thicker , then the sight of the eye becomes dull . if there be any thicker particles that swim within it , then gnats , flys , straws , spiders webbs and the like , seem to pester the sight , and to hang always before the eyes . if those thicker particles so meet and stick together , as to generate a film , that covers the hole of the apple of the eye , then the sight is lost , by reason that the entrance of the visible rays into the chrystalline humor is prevented , the beginning of which defect , is by the greeks call'd 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , by the latins suffusio , and when it is come to a head cataracta . xvii . the vitreous humor , like melted glass , much more fluid than the watry humor , and much softer than the chrystalline , and in quantity exceeding the watry three times , the chrystalline four or five times , possesses the whole hinder part of the eye . in the hinder part , where it joyns to the net-form'd tunicle , it is round , in the former part , though plain and flat , yet somewhat hollow in the middle where it receives the chrystalline humor . it is surrounded with a most thin pellucid tunicle , call'd the vitreous , by which it is separated from the other two humors . xviii . the use of it is to dilate the rays of visible things receiv'd from the chrystalline , and being so dilated to represent them to the net-form'd tunicle . others , who believe the sight to be in the optic nerve , affirm the use of it to be to this purpose , that the rays being refracted in it , after they have pass'd the chrystalline humor , may come together in one point , to the end the image may be represented to the sight . xix . the crystalline humor , by the greeks call'd 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 from its clear transparency , as also glacialis , resembling the clearest icicle that may be , is more solid and bright than the other two humors , generated out of the most transparent and purest part of the seed . before it possesses the hole of the uveous tunicle , behind it is received into a hollowness fram'd in the vitreous humor , and sticks close to it . in the forepart it is a little more flat , behind a little more round , though this figure seems often to vary according to the various affections of the eye . xx. this humor is surrounded or enclosed with its own proper tunicle , extreamly thin and transparent , therefore call'd chrystalloidaea , and from the form of its contexture , the cobweb tunicle . by means of this tunicle it is separated from the other humors ; to which also , in the hollowness of the vicious humor , the vicious tunicle sticks very close , but yet is distinct from it . riolanus will not allow of this tunicle , not so much as in the forepart , as being that which he believes to be very finely polish'd , by reason of the thickness of the crystalline . but the sight it self evinces this error : for it is plain , that that same tunicle , though very slender , may be in some measure separated , and that that being endamag'd , the exterior part of the humor it self does but very little trickle forth . thus says iulius casserius , in these words , nay , i have shown this tunicle visibly separated from the crystalline humor it self . xxi . the rays of visible things being dilated in the watry humor , are first received by this crystalline humor , and hence pass thro●…gh the vitreous humor to the net-form'd tunicle , and so are presented to the common sensory . therefore in co●…deration of the first reception or collection , the crystalline humor is the first instrument of sight ; but in consideration of perception , the net form'd tunicle , as being that by means whereof the rays receiv'd , are offer'd to the common sensory where they are perceived . in the mean time all the conjunction of all the parts of the eye is so close and so necessary , to the end that one may not act without the other , while the defect of the meanest part , even of the aqueous humor , puts a stop to the primary operation of the whole organ . xxii . here arises another doubt , whether the crystalline or watry humor are parts of the body ? as for the crystalline , we must conclude , that it is really a part of the body , because it is enfolded in its proper cob-web-tunicle , perfects the act of seeing , together with the other parts , lives , is nourish'd , is generated in the womb , has its proper circumscription , is a body adhering to the whole , and filling it together with other parts , conjoyned by common life , and ordain'd to its function and use. and if its substance be more narrowly considered , it is not truly a humor , though vulgarly so call'd , but a body sufficiently firm and solid ; which being boyl'd in fish , may be divided into little fibers , and is much more firm than fat , the brain , or the marrow . hence galen deservedly reckons it among the parts of the body , and those the similar parts too , because it is divided into parts like to its self ; as also the organic parts , because it is ordain'd to perfect the act of seeing , and to that end has a certain determin'd and sensible formation . the same question concerning the vitreous humor is resolv'd by the same reasons . and though some affirm the crystalline humor to be nourish'd by this vitreous humor , that however is improperly said ; perhaps , because there are some who think it prepares nourishment for the other ; though indeed it no more nourishes the crystalline humor , than the heart nourishes the arm : besides , that there is no need of so bright and large a part for the nourishment of the crystalline humor ; neither is it less proper for it to be nourished by the blood , then the nerves , marrow , brain , or any other whitish parts of the body . xxiii . iulius casserius of placentia , was the first that brought another question upon the stage concerning these humors , whether they are endued with the sence of feeling ? as for himself , he allows them a most exact sence of feeling . for my part , i allow this sence to their membranes , but not to the substance of the humors it self , in regard that the membrane alone is the organ of feeling . in like manner as the teeth and bones , whose proper substance , though it be destitute of the sence of feeling , yet the periostium's are sensible , and so they are allowed the sence of feeling . now the animal spirits contribute the power of seeing to the eye , being framed of all these parts ; which spirits flow into it in great quantity through the optic nerve . but they flow into it sometime in greater , sometimes in lesser quantity ; and hence it is that the eyes swell sometimes more , sometimes less , sometimes are more quick sighted , and sometimes less . thus they are more tumid in young persons , plethoric , people that are angry , and given to drink . they are less turgid in aged folks , such as are given to venereal exercises , those that are sad , or emaciated for want of food . they are also said to be more turgid in virgins then those that have known man. but though a moderate swelling of the eye caused by the spirits , renders the sight more quick , yet it does not follow , that upon every swelling of the eye , the sight should be more quick ; for we find the contrary in people intoxicated with drink , whose sight is but dull , by reason of the turbulent and disorderly influx of the spirits . xxiv . the action of the eye is manifest and known to all men to be seeing . xxv . now this seeing is a sence , whereby from the various motion of the visible rays , collected in the crystalline and glassie humors , and striking upon the net-form'd-tunicle , colours are perceiv'd with their light situation , distance , magnitude , figure and number . as to the manner , medium and object of sight , and many other things thereto belonging , those philosophers are to be consulted , who have made it their business to write altogether upon that subject , and therefore to avoid unnecessary prolixity , are here omitted ; since they cannot with a sufficient accurateness be briefly run over , but require a whole treaties of themselves , such a one , as among others . descartes has written , lib. dioptric . & lib. de hom. artic . , , . as also iulius casserius , de org. visus ; and plempius in his ophthalmographia . chap. xviii . of the organs of hearing , and hearing it self . i. as the eyes , the beholder of the wonderful works of the supream deity , and the discoverers of what is to be desired or avoided , are placed in the upper part of the body , so for the understanding of wisdom and all sorts of knowledge , the organs of hearing are placed on each side not far from them , in latin aures , by the greek 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 and 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , to give us notice of imminent good or evil , which cannot be discern'd by the eye , either in the dark , or through the interposition of thicker bodies , or the distance of the place ; seated in a high part of the body , the more easily to receive , the twirlings and circulations of the air , in motion diffuss'd through the upper parts of the wide concavity . ii. the supream architect created two , perhaps , that if any defect should befall the one , the other might supply its office ; or else be placed one on each side of the temples , for the better distinguishing of sounds on the right or left side of the body . the outward part expanded like a winnow , which is not primary , but an assisting organ of hearing ; first , collecting and receiving sounds , is by the greeks properly call'd 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , by the latins auris , the upper parts of which are call'd wings , by the greeks 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , but the lower and soft lobe of the lower auricle , retains the ancient name of lobus still . iii. the ears of men are but small , semicircular and neatly fram'd and fashion'd with various protuberances and concavities , in which the sound being receiv'd together with the air , it does not presently slip out again , but stops a little , and is somewhat broken , to the end that thence it may the 〈◊〉 directly , and with less violence , enter the inner most caverns of the ear. insomuch , that they who are depriv'd of this part by any unfortunate wound , hear much less distinctly , and with more confusion , receiving the sounds of words like the murmuring of a stream . hence it is that they who are deafish clap the hollow of their hands to receive a louder sound of the air in motion , for the greater benefit of their hearing . iv. of these protuberances , the outermost , by reason of its winding and turning figure is called helix , and the other opposite to it anthelex ; that which looks toward the temples , because it is hairy in some people like a goats beard , is call'd tragus , or hircus , and the part opposite to it , to which the lower auricle is appendent , is call'd antitragus , which is also hairy in some people . v. the innermost of the cavities , which is as it were the porch of the auditory passage it self , by reason of the yellow excrement therein contracted , is by some call'd alvearium ; the outermost , which is the bigger from its winding and turning concha , by the greeks 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 ; the third , which is comprehended between the helix , and anthelix , has hitherto no peculiar name allow'd it . vi. from the shape and bigness of the outward ear , the ancients have drawn several observations . aristotle and galen makes ears of a moderate bigness , and arrected to be a sign of the best sort of men. polemon , loxus , adamantius , and albert asserts , that quadrangular and simicircular ears of a moderate magnitude declare a man stout , honest and of great parts . large ears denote sotrishness , imprudence , and talkativeness , but a great memory , and moreover they presage a long life , as rases and pliny relate out of aristotle . very small ears testifie a fool , a person of ill condition , thievish and libidinous , as aristotle , galen , and polemon relate . short and extended ears , as in dogs , as also short and compressed , both are signs of folly , according to polemon , adamantius , and albert out of loxus . long and narrow ears shew a man envious and wicked , according to polemon , albert , and conciliator . ears over-round , and not well hollowed , betoken a man indocible ; but when hollowed exactly , a person docible , as the same authors testifie . when the inferior lobe of the ear is joyn'd to the flesh of the jaw-bone , it signifies a vain fool , by the testimony of avicen . vii . the ear consists of various parts , of which some are common , others proper . the common parts are the cuticle , a very thin skin , and a nervous membrane under it , and a little fat in the inferior lobe . the proper parts are a gristle , muscles and vessels . viii . the gristle constituting the upper and larger part of the ear , to keep the ear expanded and open , sticks fast to the stony-bone , by means of a strong ligament arising from the pericranium . for this reason , in men it is almost immovable , and there are few men can move their ears at pleasure ; though schenkius brings some few examples out of others , which motion is perform'd by the benefit of four muscles , only casserius talks of six , which are very slender , and being hardly conspicuous , rest upon this gristle , which galen , by reason of their extraordinary slenderness calls the lineaments of the muscles . ix . the first of these muscles common to the ear and both lips , drawing the ear downward to the side , is implanted in the root of it under the lobe , and is part of the slender four-square muscle moving the cheeks and skin of the face . the second lying upon the temple muscle , and moving the ear upward and forward , descends near the beginning of the muscle of the front , and being made narrower by degrees , is inserted into the upper part of the ear. the third raising the ear , though very little toward the hinder parts , rises above the mamillary process , with a narrow beginning from the hinder part of the head , and then becoming broader , sometimes with two , sometimes with three tendons , enters the root of the hinder gristle . the fourth , being of the same use with the former , and proceeding with a broad original from the mamillary process , vanishes into a tendon , of which there are some that make three insertions into the root of the gristle . in cows , horses , and several other brutes , these muscles are large , and frequently more , which is the reason those creatures move their ears very strongly , and are able , by that means , to shake of flies and whatever else proves troublesome to those parts . x. the vessels belonging to the ear are threefold . . little arteries from the carotides , of which , one that is bigger than the rest creeping through the tragus and anthelix , and ascending the upper part of the iaw , affords vital blood to each of the teeth , with which sharp humors sometimes flowing down , are the cause of most cruel pains in the teeth , which we have seen wonderfully cur'd by an actual cautery to this shooting forth of the arteries in the anthelix ; which is observ'd by bauhinus . and riolanus reports , that he saw a person at paris , who got a great deal of money by this way of cure , as we observed another , who practised the same cure in gelderland . . very small diminutive veins that run from the ear to the jugulars . . two little nerves , that creep from the second pair of the pith of the neck along the sides , and hinder region of the ear ; to which is joyned a small branch from the harder portion of the fifth pair , proceeding through the blind-hole . xi . without side there stands adjoyning to the ears , various little kernels , thick and remarkable , call'd parotides , not only behind the ears , but also under the ears , and upon each side . between these , two of a considerable bigness , resting almost one upon another . of which , the lesser , by sylvius and stenonis is called conglobata ; the larger , composed of many glandulous fragments , is called conglomerata , and both manifestly demonstrated by stenonis in the head of a calf . these kernels support the ascending vessels , and because they receive the serous humors , separated from the arterious blood , and send them down through certain lymphatic and salival vessels , and sometimes heap together a great quantity of flegmatic filth ; hence they are vulgarly called the emunctories of the brain . besides these , in the space below the lower jaw , there are several other kernels , wherein several distempers breed , which however are not described under the name of parotides , but by wharton are called iugulars . of these there is a great number , but all very small . nor are they seated only in the neck , but descend to the thorax from the pen-resembling process , along the lower seat of the jaw , by the sides of the thyroides , between the spine and the pectoral vessels , and are so far conspicuous in new born infants , but scarce visible in persons of mature age. of these steno discourses very accurately in his anatomic observations . xii . the inner part of the organ of hearing is contain'd in the process of the bone of the temples ; partly for the safer defence , to prevent the injuries of accidental violence , by reason of the hardness of the place ; partly , for the better preservation of the sound , for which , this place is most proper , by reason of its hardness and dryness . in this lower part there are several things that occur to be considered ; that is to say , several cavities , of which four are called by peculiar names , the auditory passage , the tympanum or drum , the labyrinth , and the cochlea ; also the membrane of the tympanum , two muscles , four little bones , the air contain'd , and the vessels . xiii . the auditory passage is said to be that same den , which beginning from the shell of the extream part of the ear , tends toward the inner parts , and is cloathed with a slender skin and pericranium to the very brinks of the tympanum . it ascends somewhat upward with a winding course , partly to prevent any thing from crouding from without into the air , and to hinder these things which are slipt in , or gathered together , withinside , from being carried easily downward . partly , that the more vehement impulse of the mov'd air may be somewhat broken , and so strike the tympanum with less sorce . xiv . in this passage some yellow choleric , bitter , thick , viscous humors happen to be gathered together , resembling the softer sort of wax , by the ancients call'd cerumina , and by the greeks 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , from the colour of which resembling wax , the passage is call'd the bee-hive , or alveare , and by the greeks 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 . xv. withinside , toward the end of the auditory passage , a certain nervous membrane , orbicular and pellucid , is observed ; as to its situation , obliquely looking downward , like the inner covering of the ear , which by reason of the little nerves that it receives , and which proceed under it , feels most exactly , and is thin and very dry , to the end it may sound the better , yet somewhat thick and sufficiently f●…rm , to the end it may not easily suffer damage from the air crouding in . xvi . this membrane is by hippocrates called the pellicle or little skin of the auditory passage ; by aristotle the meninx ; by galen , the covering ; but by the neoterics , by reason of the cavity under it , the membrane of the tympanum . xvii . iulius casserius believes this membrane arises from the pericranium ; others ascribe its original to the pia , others the dura mater , others to the little nervous pair of the fifth conjugation expanded ; bauhinus thinks it consists of its own proper substance , different from other membranes , and therefore that it derives its original from no other , but is generated out of the seed in the first formation of the parts . or if it must be said to proceed from any other part , that then it ought to be deduced from the periosteum , to which in the head of an infant it is seen to stick very close . for which reason , it seems to veslingius to be a certain expansion of the periostium , who likewise reports the same to be sometimes observed double , and to be frequently covered with a little crust from the excrements condensed about it . xviii . it adheres to the orbit or surrow of the bony ring ; that lyes under it , though in the upper region of the auditory passage , there be a broader connexion , whence it happens to be somewhat bow'd in the middle , to the end the sound may be the better and more perfectly receiv'd in that kind of concavity . xix . but to the end it may more loudly resound , there is stretched over the back of a certain strike like the strings that goes cross a drum. this the anatomists generally report to be transversly annexed to it . but iulius casserius has well observ'd , that this same string is neither annexed to it , ●…or extended under all of it , but scarcely under a third part. xx. anatomists are at variance about the nature of this string ; bauhinus thinks it to be either a nerve or a ligament , or else a mixture of both . eustachius says it is a little nerve from both the small branches of the fourth paire . vesalius affirms it to be a nervous body . volcherus coiter agrees with bauhinus ; with vesalius accords fallopius and casserius ; from whom rolfincius seems not to vary . xxi . it is indu'd with two slender little muscles , for the motion of the small bones . or as riolanus will rather have it , to limit the bending backward and forward of the membrane of the tympanum . which motion is manefestly perceiv'd , when the ears are erected to hearken more attentively after any thing . of these , one which is external , arising with a broader beginning from the upper and more inward cavity of the auditory passage , and by degrees becoming more contracted , and contiguous with a most slender tendon to the membrane of the tympanum , is carry'd as far as the little hammer , extending the membrane together with the hammer upward and outward . the way to find this out eustachius describes in these words . cut the stony-bone in that place , where it is mark'd with a line that penetrates not very deep , and rises somewhat more toward the slenderer seat of the bone of the temples next the inner part , and open the scale of it , which having done , presently the muscle will shew it self ; which though it be the least of all , for its construction gives place to none . it arises from a substance like to ligaments , where the wedg-like-bone is joyn'd with the bone of the temples : thence passing beyond the flesh , it becomes by degrees somewhat broader as far as the middle ; but then growing narrower it produces a most slender tendon , which is inserted into the larger apophysis of the hammer , over against the lesser apophysis of the same . the other muscle is internal , seated in the stony-bone , and rising about the conjunction of the stony-process with the wedg-like-bone , proceeds sometimes with a single , sometimes with a double tendon to the little hammer , and higher then one process of it , is inserted into the other neck of it , obliquely drawing forward the head of the hammer , and bringing it from the anvil to the inner parts . these two muscles then chiefly draw the membrane with the little bones upward and downward when we desire to excite these parts to hear a thing more distinctly . xxii . this membrane being mov'd and stirr'd by things sonorous moves the air included within , which is the internal medium of hearing , without the motion of which there can be no hearing . which membrane , if either from the birth it were so , or by any distemper become thicker , or be cover'd with the slime of excrements , so that it cannot be commodiously mov'd , causes thickness of hearing , or if it be immoveable from the birth , causes incurable deafness . xxiii . the foresaid membrane being taken away , that large cavity lies open , which the modern anatomists call the tympanum or drum , whose inner superficies is unequal with several small risings and cavitys . xxiv . in this four small , hard , thick , little bones offer themselves to our consideration . the hammer , the anvil , the stirrup , and the orbicular bone , which though they are destitute of membranes and periosteums , yet about the extremities where they are joyn'd together , to strenghthen the knots , they are bound about ▪ with a slender ligament proceeding from that ligament , which is extended thwart the tympanum , like the cats guts under the bottom of a drum ; whence it obtain'd the name of a string or thread . these little bones were unknown to the ancients , the two first being discover'd by iacobus carpus , the third by ingrassias , eustachius and columbus ; and the fourth by franciscus sylvius . concerning these , this farther has been observ'd by anatomists , worthy notice ; that in all ages they differ nothing in situation or bigness , not less in new born infants than in grown people . only the hearing is not so quick in children , by reason of the extraordinary moisture of the rest of the parts of the organ : perhaps also , for that although the little bones have attain'd their just magnitude , yet they are less solid and hard in infants , and somewhat spungy and marrowy , as collumbus and casserius witness them then to be . xxv . the first little bone , which either from some resemblance of the shape or else from it's use they call the hammer , is rivitted with a little round head into the cavity of the anvil with a looser ligament , and thence is tap'd into the neck . but in its farther progress it sticks close like a tayl revers'd , to the membrane of the tympanum beyond the middle of it , and about the middle it is furnished with two processes : the one a short one , to which the tendon of the inner muscle is fastn'd : the other longer but thinner , which rests upon the orbit of the tympanum , and is ty'd to the tendon of the inner muscle of the ear. xxvi . the second little bone , from the use of it called the anvil , and resembling one of the grinding teeth with two roots , lyes under the hammer , and receives the head of it toward the upper part of it with a smoth cavity , in the lower part it has two processes : one a short one resting upon the hinder cavity of the tympanum . the other longer , bound to the small head of the stirrup with a ligament somewhat broad , but strong . xxvii . the other little bone called the stirrup from its resemblance , and answering to an oval window both for shape and compass rests upon the cochlea , to which it is fastned throughout the whole compass with a slender and loose ligament , so that it cannot be forc'd within the hollowness , nor rais'd up or brought forth without violence . in the upper part it is convex like a bow , the two minute leggs of which , being somewhat writh'd , are inserted into the transverse basis. but upon the top of the vertex stands a minute little head plain and round , where it is fasten'd to the apophysis of the anvil , with a ligament somewhat broad . xxviii . the fourth little bone is very small and round ; and thence call'd the orbicular bone ; this is fasten'd with a slender ligament , to the stirrup , at the side , where it is joyn'd to the anvil . lindan calls it cochlear , and allows it three processes . xxix . below towards the fore-parts , appears a round passage from the tympanum to the pallate , which being carry'd down , between the two muscles of the iaws , partly is inserted into the thick tunicle of the palate , near the root of the uvala , where the mouth of the upper palate ends ; partly enters the cavity of the nostril of its own side , with a large and grisly end , covered with the slimy tunicle of the nostrils , like a kind of a door-keeper ; or as riolanus believes , with the ligamental membrane enfolding the tonsilla . through this the preternatural moisture collected in the tympanum , flows to the palate , and the sound rais'd in the the mouth in some measure enters the ear. for which reason , men that are thick of hearing , opening their mouths and holding their breath , hear better . aquapendens testifies that he has frequently observ'd , especially in children , the inner cavity fill'd with a great quantity of slime . fallopius and laurentius hold that there is a little skin or valve added to this passage more inwardly , looking toward the palate and the nostrils , and hindring the assent of vapors from the palate and nostrils to the windings of the ears ; though riolanus denys there is any such thing to be found . but this by reason of it's extream smallness and tenderness by better being discern'd by fallopius and laurentius upon the score of reason , than seen by riolanus , for reason teaches us that there must be some obstruction to the assent of vapors in that channel , to prevent the organ of hearing from being fully'd by them : but whether it be a valve or not , i dare not assert . the muscous tunicle of the nostrils , and the inner soft tunicle of the palate seem to be sufficient for that office : for that it affords an easie exit to the humors descending from the ear , but to those ascending from the jaws or nostrils , it gives no entrance , because it falls and is wrinkl'd into folds . xxx . if at any time crude excrementitious humors chance to stop in this cavity of the tympanum , the said channel being obstructed by their clamminess , and be gather'd together in too great a quantity , as happens sometimes in great colds of the head , the hearing is endamag'd , and extream pain ensues by reason of the extention of the membrane of the tunicle , which is often asswag'd by a violent snuffing the air up the nostrils , and frequent hawking : the channel toward the ears and palate by that means being somewhat open'd , and the humors latent within , drawn away by a kind of sucking . somtimes also those humors are attenuated by the application of discussive topics , or only by the proper heat of the adjacent parts , and are reduc'd into vapors and wind , whence tingling and noises in the ears , and so are easily expell'd out of the said channel . but if they have tarry'd there over long , they break forth after they have burst the inner tunicle , enfolding the auditory passage within side , to the great ease of the party in pain , and for many days together flow from the said rupture , till the channel be free from the obstructing humors , which done , they return to that way . but in distempers of the ears , this channel is well to be observ'd by the physitian ; for that the thick humors are successfully drawn out of it by masticatories , and sometimes forc'd out by sneezing powders , which not only reason but experience tells us . xxxi . in the middle of the cavity of the tympanum are two holes , of the bigger and uppermost of which , seated about the middlemost part , and shut up by the basis of the stirrup ; from its oval figure , is called the oval window , and at the hinder part opens it self into the labyrinth with a remarkable broadness . the other hole which is less , lower and round , is call'd the round window . this always remains open , neither is it cover'd by any other body , and is divided into two channels , parted by a bony scale , of which the one together with the little oval window runs toward the cochlea , the other toward the labyrinth . xxxii . the labyrinth is a cavity much less than the tympanum , by reason of the bony hollowed semicircles , covered with a thin membrane circularly returning into the same cavity , was by fallopius first of all called the labyrinth ; though platerus calls it the mine . into this cavity the little oval window opens it self ; besides which , it has three other holes makes it pervious ; the one of which opens it self into the end of the turning of the broader cochlea , through the rest , which are so very small , that they will hardly admit a small hair , the diminutive little fibres of the hearing-nerve to the inner enfolding membrane . xxxiii . the cochlea , so called from its resemblance to the periwincle shell , less than the labyrinth . yet is it a remarkable cavity , concocted sometimes twice , and sometimes three or four times , like a periwincle-shell , and covered with a most slender film , into which , as in the former , through three or four little holes , little diminutive fibers of the nerve of the fifth pair , make their entrance . this cavity by fallopius , is called the blind-cavity , because it has no termination . yet casserius says , that from thence there is a channel extended into the passage of the auditory nerve . of which riolanus and rolfinch takes notice , of which two , the one questions whether the choleric excrement of the brain do not empty it self through that passage into the ear. these hollownesses , labyrinth and periwincle , says riolanus , are infolded neither with any small membrane , nor so much as any periosteum ; however the mouths of those holes are open , to render them the more sonorous . but in regard that bare bones cannot be sensible of any sound , there is a necessity for that little membrane that deceives it self from the expansion of the nerve which enfolds it , and by means of which , the motion of the air is felt . which diminutive membrane , fallopius has observ'd to be most slender and soft . whether it be an expanded nerve , or any thing else , it matters not , says he , but 't is very probable , that this little nerve derives its original from the branches of the nerves . moreover , the same riolanus writes , that these cavities in new born infants are very narrow , and that the labyrinth is not to be discern'd as in persons of mature age. on the other side , veslingius writes , that the tympanum , the labyrinth and the periwincle in new born infants , observing the simmetry of proportion , want nothing of their perfection , for the greater expedition of hearing in a creature born for all manner of instruction . but in the determination of this controversie , we must thus far hold with riolanus ; for though the three little bones , the hammer , anvil and stirrup are duly proportioned from the birth , yet the labyrinth is not so perfectly hollowed in infants as in grown people , the cavity of it being very small . xxxiv . in these hidden cavities , is contained a pure and subtil air , which many are of opinion is generated out of the seed , and enters the ear as soon as the child is near the birth , and therefore call it the coin-gendered air. but in regard the restoration of the spermatic parts is a very difficult thing , and for that this air is continually dissipated by the heat of the adjacent parts , and therefore stands in need of continual restoration , and whereas this air has no continuous coherence with any of the solid parts , as the spermatic parts all cohere one with another , it can never be said that this air is detain'd in that part as any spermatic part , or that it is generated out of the seed , or put in before the birth . and therefore some think it di●…lers nothing from the external air , only that it is more pure and thinner . then what if we should suppose it to be the animal spirit poured forth into the nerve through the said cavities ; for it is aereal , pure and subtil , like that spirit ; there is the same reason for the generation , preservation and restoration of both , both are successively generated and dissipated , the spirit failing , the hearing grows dull , as being the internal medium of hearing , without which , nothing can be heard . nevertheless , there are some who affirm this air not to be the medium , but the primary instrument of hearing but this is far from truth , for that the primary instrument must of necessity be a living part of the body ; seeing all actions are perfected by the help of living bodies . therefore , because this air is not enlivened , nor can be numbred among the parts of the body , with which it has no continuous adhe●…ence , it cannot be call'd the primary instrument , but only the medium of hearing ; and that as there is no seeing without air , so there is no hearing without it . xxxv . there are several small arteries and little veins which are distributed through the inner organ of hearing , for the nourishment of the parts proceeding from the inner , and foremost branches of the carotis , and jugular vein , of which , sundry branches creep through the hidden parts of those cavities . xxxvi . to procure feeling , there are also nerves . the softer portion of the nerve of the fifth pair , being carried into the hinder passage of the stony-bone , proceeds to the periwinkle and the circles of the labyrinth , to perfect the office of hearing . moreover , there comes a branch from the fourth conjugation of nerves , which is extended into the tympanum , from which it receives the sence of feeling , and the muscles the power to move it . xxxvii . the use of all these parts is to perfect the hearing . xxxviii . hearing is a sence , whereby from the various tremulous motion of the ambient air , striking the drum of the ear , and together moving the internal air with the little fibers of the auditory nerve , communicated to the common sensory , sounds are understood . xxxix . it is a question among some , whether hearing be an action or a passion ? the more numerous party believes it to be a passion . whom iulius casserius opposing , affirms it to be an action . but in regard there are two things necessary to perfect the hearing , reception of the object , and understanding the object receiv'd , in respect both of the one and the other , we believe hearing to be both an action and a passion . for the reception of audible objects is a real passion ; but the judging of them is an animal action . xl. the object of hearing is sound , which is nothing else but a quality arising from air or water , repercussed and broken by a suddain and vehement concussion , and moving the auditory nerve , by the means of the implanted air. xli . to the generation of sound , two things are necessary , a medium , and something vehemently to stir the medium . the medium must be fluid , either air or water , for fishes also hear ; but no solid body can be the medium of hearing . the vehement stirring medium is twofold ; either a solid or fluid body . solid , when two solid bodies , by vehement percussion , croud up the air or water together , swiftly condense , rapidly drive it forward and break it . i say vehemently and swiftly , for bodies that joyn slowly and by degrees , do not break the air or water so forcibly , as to bege●… a sound . fluid , when fluid things , stirr'd with a rapid motion , being forcibly and strongly condensed , strike one against the other , and are broken , and so may be said to be both the efficient sound , as the medium . such a sonorous motion of the air we may observe in whistling , thunder , and shooting off of guns , of water , in great showers and rivers falling from mountains . xlii . there are sundry differences of sound , of which , these are the chief , shrill , deep , direct , reflex , as in an eccho , natural , violent ; from solid or fluid things ; as also caused by things animate or inanimate . the diversity and loudness of sounds are distinguished by the four little bones adjoyning to the tympanum . for as the membrane of the tympanum is thrust forward toward the hammer , the hammer upon the anvil , the anvil upon the stirrup , by the impulse of the external sonorous air , more or less violent , smooth or rough , so upon the wider or narrower opening of the oval-window , by the stirrup and orbicular bone , there happens a freer or narrower passage of the air included within into the labyrinth and periwinkle ; in which windings and turnings , it is variously broken , which causes the several sorts of sounds , and those according to various impulses of the external air , sometimes shrill , sometimes full , sometimes harsh , sometimes sweet : the idea of every one of which sort , is carried to the common sensory , by the acustic nerve , enfolding those cavities with its expansion , and so represented to the mind . chap. xix . of the organ of smelling , and smelling it self . the organ of smelling is the nose , placed in the upper part of the body , the better to receive the invisible fumes and vapors , and to conveigh their qualities through the odoratory nerves , inserted in the inner tunicle to the common sensory , and represent them to the judgment of the mind , though some men may be able to judge of things to be desired or avoided , which are not to be perceived either by the sight or hearing . the upper bone , part of it is immoveable , the lower gristle , part moveable . the ridg is call'd 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , or the back ; the top 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , or the strainer , because that there the snivel is strained forth through the sive-like bones . the extremity is call'd orbiculus , the lower lateral parts the wings , the two larger lower holes , nares or the nostrils ; the partition of the two holes , columna , or the pillar . ii. the nose is a protuberant part of the face , serving for the sence of smelling , and in respiration affording passage to the air , and letting down the excrements of the brain , flowing through the sive-like bones . the shape and bigness are well known , yet there is some variety in both , in respect of thickness , thinness , length and flatness , &c. but the better shap'd it is , the more it conduces to the beauty of the face ; wherefore it is vulgarly call'd the sun of the face ; for that as the sun gives beauty to the macrocosm , so the nose , especially if it be a red one , illuminates the face . the nose consists of a cuticle , a skin , gristles , muscles , membranes and vessels . iii. the skin is much thinner and harder than in any other part of the face , under which there lies no fat. and hence it adheres so firmly to the gristles and muscles , that it cannot be parted without mangling . but under the middle partition , it is much thicker and more spungy , and is hairy within side , to prevent the drawing in of gnats , feathers , and such other inconveniences to the brain , in the act of respiration . hence this skin reflex'd within side , passes into a membrane , which cloaths the minor parts of the nose ; to which , in the upper part of the nose , some part of the hard meninx passing through the ethmoids bone , is conjoyn'd , as casserius , with many others believe , in regard that membrane feels more exquisitely at the upper part of the nostril , than at the entrance . iv. the upper and immoveable part of the nose is supported by bones , and those either proper , that is to say , two external lateral ones , and one withinside in the middle , which divides the nose into two parts , or else common ; of all which , see more , lib. . c. . &c. v. in these upper bony caverns of the nostrils on each side , there is yet another certain bony spungy substance to be seen , pendulous from the upper part of the sive-like bone , and adhering to the sides of the nose , within fill'd with ruddy and spungy flesh , which being endamaged and growing too big , are the cause of the polipus . vi. these spungy substances possess the upper cavity , to the end they may be able to stop and alter the cold air breathed in , and prevent its ascent to the sive-like bone. as also to retard the continual and sudden flux of the snivel descending , which would else be much more troublesome than it is . lastly , in some measure to help the voice , for they that have lost these bones by exulceration , or if they be too much swell'd , or lengthened by the polypus , these people all snuffle in the nose ; for that the sonorous air ascending through the holes of the nostrils , either lights upon the inequalities of the exulcerated bones , or upon their extraordinary protuberances , and so by the altered motion of the air going forth , the voice also is altered and vitiated . vii . in the french distemper , these spungy parts are frequently corroded by the malignant and sharp humors sticking thereto , and to come away by blowing the nose , with bloody and slimy matter ; and hence their malignity spreading it self , to the next tender middle and lateral bones , which being also eaten away , drop out by degrees , and so the nose falls , and sometimes the corrosion gaining ground , lays the whole nose level , to the great deformity of many a good face . viii . five gristles constitute the lower moveable part , of which , the two uppermost stick to the bones of the nose , in the lower part , where they are more broad and rugged , and thence being twisted together , bend toward the top of the nose , and the farther they are carried , so much the softer they grow , and in the extream part of the nose , terminate , as it were in a grisly ligament . the third , in the middle , between these two , is a grisly partition , which hangs forward from the bony partition , and grows in length close to the two foresaid gristles , in the forepart , in the inner region . the fourth and fifth are two inferior lateral gristles , joyned to the two upper gristles with a membranous ligament ; of which , one of each side sticks to the lower part of the nose ; and because they stand like wings on each side the nostrils , and move with a voluntary motion , upward , downward , inward and outward , by the ancient anatomists were called the wings of the nostrils . ix . their motion is perform'd by the assistance of eight muscles , into every one of which , two wings are inserted . the first , from the upper part of the nose , near the lachrymal hole , arises with an acute and fleshy beginning , descending to the sides of it in a triangular form , is expanded over the wing that lies under it , and divides it by raising it upward . the second , carried down from the upper bone near to the jaw , proceeds forward , partly into the wing of the nose outward , partly into the upper seat of the wing that lies underneath , and so moves both parts upward . the third , which is very small , rising near the root of the wing , and carried athwart above the wing , is inserted into the corner of the wing , and dilates it , as veslingius well observes , though others say it contracts it . the fourth , like the former in bigness , and opposite to it , lies hid under the tunicle of the nostrils in the inner part . this rising from the extremity of the bone of the nose , is expanded into the wing , and draws it together . this is much less than all the rest , and is hardly to be discern'd , but in such as have very large noses , in whom all these muscles are much thicker and more apparently to be seen . besides these muscles , bartholinus writes , that he has found a fleshy thin muscle , extended in a streight line from the frontal muscle , with a broader basis , and by and by terminating more narrow about the gristle of the nose . x. withinside , by the benefit of the foresaid partition , the nose is divided into two holes , or hollownesses , which they call the nostrils . each of these , about the middle of the nose , is divided into two parts ; of which , one ascends upward to the spungy bone , the other descends above the palate to the chaps , through which , all errhines snuft up into the nostrils descend to the mouth and chaps , and the snot flows out sometimes through the nostrils , and the slimy excrements of the brain descending through the spungy bones , by the more vehement attraction of the air through the nostrils , are brought down to the palate , and spit out , or being swallow'd , descend to the stomach . xi . the inner large space of the nostrils is lin'd with a thin membrane , which is said to rise from the thick meninx , through the holes of the sive-like-bones ; or as riolanus will have it , through the little holes of the palate , and is said to be common to the tunicle of the palate , tongue , larynx and gullet . this membrane , where it adheres to the sive-like-bones , is bor'd through with little holes for the passage of the excrements of the brain . xii . under the membrane lyes hid a certain peice of flesh thin , soft , and as it were compos'd of several little teats , which is hard to be discern'd in men , but somewhat more easily found in calves and cows , though not without some difficulty . the little teats of this peice of flesh in the fore part are less , but toward the hinder parts bunch out much bigger , and are observ'd by few anatomists , being by some taken for small kernels . xiii . for the nourishment of the nose , there are allotted to it arteries from the carotides ; veins also run out from it to the external iugulars . xiv . nicholas stenonis , besides these blood-bea●…ing-vessels in sheep and doggs has frequently observ'd in each nostril a lymphatic vessel , arising afar off from the kernels seated under the tunicle of the nostrils above the region of the genders , then joyning together into one channel , which runs downward almost to the extream parts of the nostrils , and exonerates its self in the hollowness conspicuous between the grisly protuberancy of the wings . he is also of opinion that flegmatic humors flow from the nostrils through the hole which is made through the palate into the mouth from the foremost parts of the nostrils ; which to me does not seem very probable . xv. to endue it with feeling , and to give it motion , one nerve of each side runs along from the fourth pair through the common hole to the larger corner of the eye , and so proceeds to the inner tunicle of the nose , and the teat-resembling-flesh , into which it powrs forth the animal spirits to perfect the sense of smelling , and thence runs on farther to the muscles of the same . xvi . smelling is a sense , by which things that have any scent being carry'd to the nostrils are understood by a specific motion of the odoratory organ . here three things are to be consider'd ; the object , the organ it self , and the manner of sensation . xvii . the object of smelling is scent , which is a certain spirituous vapor exhaling into the nostrils from the thing endu'd with scent , and moving the odoratory organ this or that way . xviii . senertus labours to prove that smells are no substances , nor real qualities , but only species's of them . but in answer to senertus we say , that no qualities or species's can subsist without any body , and therefore none can be allow'd ; nay there are no odorable species's impress'd upon no corporeal substance that can be conceiv'd in the imagination . this in the sight is notorious ; where the visible species's are certain modifications of the air , depainted therein by things visible and imprinted therein , which without the air are nothing ; for species's without substance cannot subsist , and therefore are nothing . thus in smells the odorative qualities necessarily are inherent in some substances , and because they cannot subsist without 'em , hence they are properly call'd smells , because they are substances endued with odorable qualities . philosophers commonly constitute scent in dry predominating above moist . however we are to understand , that there is no scent without moisture , nay that it is generated out of moisture , attenuated and rais'd by heat . i say by heat , because heat is the efficient cause which acts upon the subject containing smell or scent in potentia ; and by raising therein fumes that are endu'd with scent , excites smell , out of power into act : and therefore bodies endu'd with scent smell when they are cha●…'d ; but growing cold they send forth no scent , for scent is not in act unless it exhale forth : which it cannot do nor be sent forth ; while the astringent cold binds up the pores of the substance containing the scent . here it will perhaps be objected , that scent is something subsisting of it self , and therefore moisture and heat cannot be the cause of it . i answer that scent or odour is an accident subsisting in the subject , and latent therein , nor able to breath out of it , unless both in and with some part of its subject accompanying it ; for without the subject it is a moist vapor which cannot be rais'd , unless by heat : and hence both moisture and heat of necessity concur , the first as the subject without which it cannot be , and be perceiv'd , the other as the agent cause without which it cannot be excited into act. but here some one may say , that according to this opinion , odor of it self will prove to be nothing , and so there will be no knowledge of odor , since there can be no knowledge of a non-entity . we grant that odor separately consider'd , is nothing , neither does it fall under sence ; but when we consider it in and with fume , it peirces the sence and falls under knowledge ; so far as the accident by the subject , and the subject by the accident in a mutual order come to be perceptible . here again some one will oppose me and urge , if odor actually exist only in fumes , how comes the fish in the water to be sensible of odors , where there are no fumes ? i answer : . it may be question'd whether fish are sensible of odors , and whether they approach or avoid things , that carry an odor , but are not rather lead by a grateful or unpleasing quality , perceiv'd by savour , sight or feeling from other qualities diffus'd into the water from things that carry a scent . . but grant they are sensible of odors , there is no doubt but that in the water it self , some fumes may be rais'd by a subtil aethereal matter , penetrating the water some way or other , and by its motion causing a heat in it : in which fume odorous qualities may be excited from power into act , and so the fish may be made sensible of odor , if they are sensible of odors as they are odors . xx. there are several sorts and differences of odors , some are sharp , some sweet , some acid , some odoriferous , others stinking , some grateful , others loathsome , and many odors are apply'd to the difference of savors . moreover smells some are simple and natural , some by nature are in the bodies . others are compounded and artificial , such as the perfumers make for luxury and delight : others are preternatural which arise from corruption and putrefaction . xxi . the organ of smelling is the nose . which being constituted of many and various parts , which since they cannot all officiate that particular function , it is a great question , in what part of the nose the smelling faculty has it's seat . that it is not in the blood-conveighing or lymphatic-vessels , nor in the bones or grisles is confess'd by all . xxii . some are of opinion , that the sense of smelling proceeds from some certain nerves peculiar and of another nature , inserted into the nose , and some specific animal spirits flowing through those nerves . but they did not observe , that all the nerves of the whole body both in their composition and construction , hardly dif●…er in any thing else , but that some are bigger , others less ; some longer , some shorter , some thicker , some thinner , some softer and some harder , but that let them be what they will , their office is the same ; as being the passages through which the animal spirits are conveigh'd . moreover they did not consider that those spirits , carry'd through whatsoever nerves , are no way different , but of the same substance and nature , through whatsoever nerves , and to whatsoever places or parts they are conveigh'd . lastly , they did not observe , that the diversity of operations , which are perform'd by their assistance , does not proceed from the diversity of them , or the nerves that conveigh them , but from the diversity of the parts into which they flow . thus in the eye they are the cause of sight , in the muscles of motion , in the flesh they cause the sence of feeling . therefore as they are the cause of smelling in the nostrils , there must be also in the nostrils some specific parts , in which by the means of those spirits , not only the feeling , but the smell of sweet , stincking , rosy camphory , is perceiv'd and distinguish'd . xxiii . formerly galen , and after him most anatomists and philosophers concluded that the papillary processes are the true odoratory nerves , and the immediate organs of smelling . but we have already refuted that opinion chap. . where we have shewn that those processe sare no nerves , but channels serving for the evacuation of excrements . vallesius also opposes and confutes this opinion . but sneider and rolfinch , finding no reason why the smelling sence should lye in the papillary processes , add to their assistance nerves deriv'd from the third pair to the nostrils . but from what has been said it is apparent that the sence of smelling does not lye in any particular nerves , but in some certain specific parts , into which the nerves infuse their animal spirits . which cannot be the papillary processes , which neither carry spirits , nor admit those nerves into their body . xxiv . others were of opinion that the sence of smelling lyes in the membrane over-spreading the inner part of the nostrils , and ascribe to it a specific constitution above other membranes , by reason of which it distinguishes odors . but in regard that membranes are the organs of feeling , not of smelling , and that feeling contributes to the perfection of the organ of smelling , which being depriv'd of feeling can never smell , as the eye depriv'd of feeling can never see ; and for that it is one thing to feel , another thing to distinguish the odor of roses , musk , amber , &c. another thing to feel rough , smooth , hard , hot , cold , &c. it is apparent that a membrane which is the organ of feeling can never be an adequate organ of smelling . nor is the jugdment of some persons to be valu'd , who say , that the membrane which over-spreads the nostrils is of another temper and constitution then the rest of the membranes . for if this were true , which is first to be prov'd , for then it might be endu'd with a more quick or dull sence of feeling , nevertheless it could never distinguish or judge of odors . lastly if this were the smelling membrane , being of the same common substance with the membrane of the palate , mouth , tongue , &c. why does it not preserve the same quality of smelling in those parts , which they ascribe to it in the nostrils ? casserius thus describes the specific constitution of this membrane . the inner superficies of the nostrils is over-spread with a membrane rising from the dura mater , much different from the nature and temper of the other membranes . but notwithstanding this specific constitution , he does not seat the sence of smelling in it , but a faculty of judging more distinctly of the first qualities , heat , cold , and before they come to the brain : for he says the sence of smelling lyes in the mamillary processes . xxv . after all to add our own opinion , we believe the true and immediate organ of smelling to be that thin teat-resembling-flesh , seated under the inner tunicle of the nostrils , to which there is no other that is like it in the whole body , besides that the ends of the odoratory nerves enter the little teats , of which it is compos'd , in the manner as the immediate organs of tast are those little duggs which are seated under the membrane of the tongue ; and the immoderate organ of sight is the net-like-tunicle . not that i believe the objects of each are perceiv'd in these organs , but that the motion or alteration induc'd into the particular organs by their own proper objects , by means of the nerves and spirits are concern'd in the brain and judg'd by the mind . xxvi . aristotle makes the medium of smelling to be the air and water , with whom most philosophers agree . but casserius dissents , and endeavours to prove that water cannot be the medium of smelling , giving many reasons to uphold his opinion . but if it be true that fish smell , as aristotle affirms , without doubt casserius's opinion falls to the ground : but if that may be questioned , it may be also doubted whether water be the medium of smelling . for though odoriferous qualities may be infus'd into water , and so the water be made odoriferous , yet the smell is not perceiv'd but by means of the air , while the fumes of that water being rais'd into the air , strike the odoratory organs by means of that air. for if the scented water should be drawn up into the nostrils , without the intervening air , the scent of it would not be perceiv'd . therefore it is plain that in creatures that breath , the air is the medium of smelling , and that without that medium no scent could be perceiv'd . whether among fish the water be the like medium , and whether creatures that do breath in air be endu'd with smell , we leave to aristotle to prove . now the sence of smelling or the preception and distinguishing of smells is thus perform'd . xxvii . the air being inpregnated with odors or a spirituous exhalation of things that have a scent , is receiv'd by the nose like a certain chimney , but is not perceiv'd by the smell , unless it be drawn toward the inner parts by inspiration . for without breathing in the air , scarce any smell is perceiv'd by the nostrils , though the odors themselves be clapp'd near to the nostrils . therefore this motion of in-breathing is requisite ; as being that by which partly the pores of the inner membrane of the nostrils are open'd ; partly the odorous vapors and exhalations , according to the more or less violent motion , more easily passing through those pores , strike more forcibly upon those teat-like pretuberances of the dug-like flesh , and alter them after some specific manner . according to which diversity of alteration , being communicated to the common sensory by the little fibers of the nerves of the third pair inserted into them , the species of the smell is form'd , and distinguish'd by the mind , and hence the stronger the in-breathing is , the better the scent is perceiv'd . which is the reason that they who would take the pleasure of any grateful smell , snuff up the air with more vehemence into the nostrils . and they that would avoid an ill smell , stop their noses and forbear breathing . casserius endeavors to prove that respiration signifies nothing to the sence of smelling ; but because it is contrary to experience , we forbear to refute him , so much the rather , because that the experiment of gualter needham utterly overthrows his opinion . for he cuting the rough artery of a dog in the throat turn'd the same outward , so that the wound being cur'd , he could neither breath through the mouth or nostrils , but only through that opening in the throat : by which means the dog could neither bark nor smell the most nauseous scents that were held to his nose . xxviii . hence it is apparent that no creatures can smell that do not breath . thomas bauhinus supposes the contrary : because they fly the smell of brimstone , gun-powder , &c. but he never consider'd , that many insects breath , though we cannot perceive it . and such animals avoid ungrateful odors because offensive , and covet others because delightful , as we see flys and wasps covet dead carcases , and other small insects whose respiration is not perceptible , guided by their smell , swarm so far and near to the scent of corruption . moreover he did not observe that those insects that do not breath are likewise destitute of the organs not only of respiration but of smelling , without which smells can never be perceiv'd : and therefore they do not fly the smell for the smells sake , but by reason of some offensive quality which burning brimston , and other strong smells diffuse into the air , which corrode or otherwise torment the bodys of those animals . now why one smell is grateful , another displeasing , or why one smell is pleasing to one , and abominated by another ; see what we have written c. . following . chap. xx. of the lips , mouth , and the other parts of the face in general . the parts of the face expanded under the eyes , between the nose , ears and chin , by the ancients were call'd genae , 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , because hair grows upon them . these genae or cheeks , are divided into the upper and lower part. ii. the upper part under the eyes gently rising and ruddy between the nose and the ears is by hyppocrates call'd 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , the circle of of the face , and 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , or the apple of the face , in latin malum or pomum faciei , from the resemblance it has to apples both for colour and form . hence pliny calls it the seat of modesty , because people asham'd generally blush in that part. iii. the lower and broader , because it swells upon retention of the breath is call'd bucca . in this part when some people laugh , there appears a dimple , in others a large furrow , which martial calls gellasinum , or laughter from the greek word 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 . the cavity in the upper lip , under the partition of the nostrils is call'd 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 . but the rising part on each side the cavity is call'd 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , or the mustachio's . iv. the brims of the mouth are call'd labra or labia , the lips. some grammarians distinguish labra from labia , signifying by labra lipps of moderate size , by labia lips of an unreasonable bigness . but this is nothing at all to anatomists . v. there are two lips , the clift between which closes up the mouth . the extram prominent parts of these are called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 or prolabia , and the ruddy parts where they close together , are call'd 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 . but the part which under the lower lip extends it self till it end in a kind of blunt point , is call'd mentum or the chin , and the sleshy prominency below the chin , by the ancients was call'd buccula , by us the double chin. the hairs first appearing about this place is call'd lan●…go , by us down ; in persons of more maturity barba , or the beard . vi. the lips consists of a soft and spungy substance , where the skin is so exactly mixt with muscles , that it may be thought to be either a muscly-skin , or a skinny-muscle . now this flesh is outwardly covered by that same skin , inwardly by the membrane continuous to the mouth , gullet and ventricle . vii . the branchings forth of the nerves contribute an exquisite sence of feeling to the lips. and the arteries dispersed from the neighbouring places between the skin and the fleshy membrane , afford the nutritive blood , to which the lips are beholding for their splendid and rosie colour , the certain sign of beauty and health , with the arteries are intermix'd little veins , conveighing the superfluous blood to the next veins . viii . lips were given to men , as well for the convenience of eating and drinking , as for the formation of the voice , the retention of spittle , the closing of the mouth , and defending it from external injuries , as also for ornaments sake ; for which reason , in men they are covered with a beard . and because there was a necessity , that for the performance of the said offices they should be endued with a voluntary motion , therefore they are also furnished with several muscles , of which , more in the next chapter . ix . the mouth , by the greeks call'd 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , is sometimes taken only for that same cleft between the lips , sometimes for the whole cavity , conspicuous as far as the chaps . it is placed in an upper region , that is in the middle of the face under the nose , to the end that whatever it receives , may not only be distinguished by the taste , but by the smell , and what is swallowed may more easily descend into the stomach . the parts of it some constitute the mouth it self , others are contain'd in the cavity of it . the mouth it self consists partly of bony parts , as the lower and upper jaw , together with the teeth ; partly , of the fleshy parts , as the lips , the muscles of the lips , cheeks , and lower jaw . the whole inner concavity of the mouth is overspread with a tunicle ; which in the hollowness within the teeth is thicker , and full of wrinkles in the palate ; without the teeth , in the gums and lips much thinner , and it is continuous to the tunicle of the throat and ventricle , though in the tongue and palate , the constitution of it is peculiar and different from other tunicles . x. the primary use of it is , that the nourishment being received into it , as into a funnel , may be there chew'd and prepar'd , so as to descend without interruption through the gullet into the stomach , there to be the more easily digested . the secundary use of it is to afford a passage in respiration to the air passing to the lungs , and evacuation of the excrements of the head , lungs and stomach , by hawking , spitting and vomiting ; also to assist the sound of the voice . chap. xxi . of the muscles of the cheeks , lips and lower iaw . the muscles of the cheeks and lips , are either common to both parts , or proper only to the lips. i. the common muscles are four , two of each side ; the first lying hid under the skin of the neck , from the shape is call'd the square muscle , being thin and membranous , sticking very close to the skin , so that the ancients never distinguished it from the skin . thus also vestingius calls it the membrane lying under the fat , and here furnished with a contexture of fleshy fibers . it rises with a broad beginning about the clavicles , shoulders , and hinder part of the neck , and with oblique fibers , is inserted into the chin , lips and root of the nose , which parts it obliquely draws downward , and because it most coheres with the chin , therefore it is thought to contribute much to the opening of the mouth . sometimes it proceeds to the root of the ear , and where such an insertion happens , those persons can move their ears by the benefit of this muscle . it receives several branches of nerves from the nerves of the neck . therefore upon the convulsion and tension of this nerve , the cynic cramp is occasion'd , which riolanus rather attributes to the convulsion of the buccinator . the fibers of it ought to be exactly known to all chyrurgeons , as bauhinus rightly admonishes ; because of incisions frequently required to be made in those parts , for some , ignorant of the course of these fibers , and dividing them with a large transverse section , have drawn the chaps sometimes one way , sometimes another . ii. the second muscle that constitutes the chap , and is therefore call'd the buccinator , lies under the foresaid square muscle , and takes up the whole seat of the chaps . this is round like a circle , and rising almost from the whole length of the upper jaw , is inserted into the length of the lower jaw at the root of the gums ; or rather circulates from the upper gums of one jaw , into the upper gums of the other . for it is thin and membranous , interwoven with various fibers , so closely growing to the tunicle , that overspreads the inner parts of the mouth , that it cannot be separated from it without tearing . the use of this muscle is not only to move the chaps with the lips , but to streighten them , and to force again to the teeth , the meat oftentimes sliping from the mouth into the cheeks , for the more exact chewing of it , as also to cause inflation , as the chaps by their constriction send forth with more or less force , the air flowing from the lungs , through the lips more or less open . the variety of all which motitions toward the lower , upper , outer or inner parts , proceeds from the manifold variety of the fibers , wherewith it is interwoven . in the center of this muscle , is to be found a strong ligament , as placentius reports , which growing outward , and creeping through the mouth of the gums , ends in a small slender muscle , directly opposite to the chap , which ligament however riolanus will not allow of . iii. of muscles proper only to the lips , there are five pair , and one orbicular muscle . the first pair , rising with a broad and fleshie original from the upper jaw , where it causes the cavity of the cheeks , and furnish'd with several fibers , is carried obliquely downward to the foremost parts , and inserted on both sides into the side of the upper lip , and moves it upward and outward . the second pair , rising with a fleshie , but slender and thin original , and wrap'd about with much fat , is inserted into the bridle , where the lips meet , and assist the motion of the former . the third pair , by riolanus call'd the zugomatic , fleshie and round , rising outward from the jugal process , and obliquely descending along the cheeks , terminates in the confines of both cheeks , which it draws away to the sides upwards . the fourth pair , arising with a fleshie and broad original from the lower part of the lower jaw , at the sides of the chin , is inserted into the middle of the lower lip , and moves it downward and outward . the fifth pair , rising with a fleshy and broad beginning from the sides of the lower jaw in a lower place , and sometimes extended to the middle of the chin , proceeds upward , and narrowing himself by degrees , is obliquely inserted into the lower lip near the end , and draws it obliquely downward and outward . the orbicular muscle , called also the constrictor , which is common to both lips , is that which constitutes the proper figure and soft substance of the lips , and forms both lips in the circuit of the mouth , and encompassing the whole mouth like a sphincter , and drawing the lips mutually to its self , purses up the mouth with orbicular fibers , and sticks close to the cherry flesh. now all the muscles of the lips are intermix'd alike , with fibers cutting themselves like a st. andrews cross ; whence proceeds various and sundry motions of the lips. iv. the muscles of the lower iaw , for the other is immoveable , causing a strong motion in the chewing of food , are called masticatory , molary or grinders , and mansory or eaters ; of which there are reckoned five pair . v. the first pair , being the strongest and bigest , are call'd crotaphytes or temple muscle ; rising with a fleshy beginning , about the bone of the hinder part of the head and temples , is cover'd with the pericranium . the fibers of this , the farther they remove from the middle , the more obliquely they are carried toward their tendon ; and hence the more it descends , the narrower and thicker it is ; and at length embraces the acute process of the lower jaw with a short and strong tendon , and strongly elevates it together with the jaw . it receives three nerves of each side , one from the third , another from the fourth , and a third from the fifth pair ; by reason of which , this muscle being bruised or wounded , great danger of convulsion and death ensues , especially if the wound happen about the lower or nervous part . vi. the s●…cond , call'd the digastric , or double belly'd , because that being hollowed in the middle , it seems to have two bellies , rises near the mammy-form process , and about the middle where it is bow'd correspondent to the winding of the lower jaw , it is narrowed into a tendonous body ; and thence becoming fleshy again , it is fastned more withinside to the fore and middle part of the chin , and by drawing the jaw downward , opens the mouth ; the too extraordinary falling of which jaw , is also prevented by the ligament annex'd . vii . the third pair , which is lateral , call'd the first mansory , or eating pair , and proceeding partly with a fleshy , partly with a nervous original , from the upper jaw , and the jugal bone is joyned with a broad and strong connexion to the lower jaw , and through the diversity of the fibers , moves it forward , backward and side-ways , and as it were , turns it round . viii . the fourth pair , call'd the other mansory and pterygoides , or wing-like , and the internal wing-like , which is thick and short , is produced nervous from the inner wing-like processes of the sphoenoides bone , and becoming fleshy , large and thicker , is carried with a broad and strong tendon to the lower and hinder part of the inner side of the lower jaw , which by drawing upward , assists the action of the temple-muscle ; also it brings the jaw backward when turn'd outward . ix . the fifth pair , pterygoides , or external wing-like , and seated in the lower cavity of the bones of the temples , proceeds with a double original , partly nervous , partly fleshy from the sphoenoides and external wing-like process , and after a short course is inserted into the neck of the lower jaw , and the inner seat of its head , and moves and brings the face forward . besides the foresaid muscles , the pair of square muscles is properly referr'd to the muscles of the lower jaw , drawing the jaw downward , which we have already described among the muscles common to the chaps and lips. chap. xxii . of the gums , palate , uvula and chaps . i. the parts contain'd in the hollow of the mouth are various , among which , first occur two gums , consisting of a sort of flesh somewhat hard and immoveable , encompassing the teeth like a breast-work , and fixing them in their like trenches . hence the gum is called by the greeks 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 from 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , to include or involve , as being that which wraps up and enfolds the teeth . hence also a swelling in the gums is by the physitians call'd 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 . ii. the palate , which is as it were fortified with teeth , by the greeks called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 and 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , as it were the heaven of the mouth , is the upper part of the mouth , slightly concave like an arch , hence called testudo oris , or the tortois-shell of the mouth , form'd in the sphoenoides - bone , and extended from the chaps to the teeth . it consists of bones and a peculiar glandulous flesh , or of small kernels conglomerated together , and a thick tunicle , furnished with many small diminutive holes , sending forth the spitly liquor from the glandulous substance of the palate , in some places full of wrinkles , continuous with the tunicle that covers the other parts of the mouth , whence it is vulgarly said to be common to the throat and ventricle , though it has a peculiar constitution different from other tunicles , in respect of which , it perfects the sence of taste , together with the tongue , and to that purpose is furnished with nerves from the fourth pair . the use of the palate is to perfect the sence of tasting , with the assistance of the tongue ; as also to break the voice and render it more perfect ; whence it comes to pass , that those people who have this part eaten away by some unhappy ulcer , taste but imperfectly , and speak with a hoarse and ungrateful voice . iii. the uvula , by others call'd uva , gurgulio , columna , columella , and gargareon , is a little ruddy piece of flesh , spungy , somewhat long , broad above , and obtusely acute below , hanging forward like a grape from the middle of the palate near the passages of the nostrils into the mouth . this bauhinus and some other anatomists think to be nothing else but the twice doubled membrane , covering the inner parts of the mouth . it is over-spread with a very soft and loose little skin , and swells and grows longer upon flegmatic defluxions , which distemper is called the falling of the uvula . to this riolanus and veslingius attribute two pairs of muscles , the internal and external , by which it hangs , and obtains a slight motion . but that their opinion is only conjecture ; the sight it self informs us , it being a most difficult thing to shew any such muscle in that part ; and for that the uvula does not want them to hang by , nor for voluntary motion , which is never observed in that part. moreover riolanus following aretaeus ascribes to the uvula two broad ligaments , not unlike the expanded wings of bats , call'd by the arabians galsamach . but these , like the foresaid muscles , are prov'd rather by conjecture than demonstration , unless they take the hinder membranous part of the palate , from whence the uvula hangs for ligaments . iv. the use of it is manifold . . to break in some measure the force of the cold air breath'd in , from rushing in too suddenly upon the lungs , to their great dammage . . to prevent , least the humors descending through the upper parts of the palate , should fall directly in too great a quantity into the larynx ; but that only when the uvula is forc'd back by swallowing , that then they should be turn'd toward the gullet and fall into it . . to hinder the drink from running back into the nostrils . . it contributes also something to the tone of the voice , though fallopius and others deny it : for though the modulation of the voice be ordered in the larynx , yet the wider or narrower exit of that modulated voice , contributes very much to the tone of it . which is apparent from hence , that if a man sing with his spectacles upon his nose , the voice will be another thing , then when he sings with nostrils open . so also if the uvula by missing the voice grows harsh and ungrateful , as is apparent in such as have had their uvulas eaten away by ulcers . . fallopius believes the primary use of it is to moisten the epiglottis and the larynx , by distilling upon them some certain lympid liquor . v. the chaps are improperly taken for the whole gaping of the mouth ; properly they denote the hinder most and lower space , where the extremities of the tongue and rough artery , and the holes of the nostrils descending through the hinder parts of the palate , meet together , which is conspicuous upon opening the mouth and depressing the tongue , and by the greeks is call'd 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , by galen also 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , and by hippocrates , 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , by a metaphor from the narrowness ; because an isthmus properly signifies a narrow tract of land between two seas : and so the uvula in the chaps , like a neck of land hangs in the middle gaping of the chaps ; however they do not call the uvula the isthmus , but the gaping of the chaps it self ; whereas the name ought to belong to the uvula . nicholas stenonis has observ'd in a calves head under the tunicle , a little piece of flesh composed of glandulous bunches , full of l●…mphatic vessels . vi. the use of the chaps , is to transmit and swallow those things which are taken in at the mouth , which is perform'd oy three pair of muscles , common to the pharynx with the gullet , and described in the description of the gullet , chap. xxiii . of the hyoides-bone . before we enter upon the description of the tongue , we are to say something of the hyoides-bone , which is laid under it as a prop , for the firmer structure of the tongue , and to facilitate its motion . i. the hyoides-bone consists of several bones , which being joyn'd together , resemble the greek letter v. or a. and hence also is called the upsiloides , or the lambdoides , though it be more like an upsilon than a lambda , in regard it is not carried about with an acute , but an obtuse and somewhat round semicircle . it consista chiefly of three bones , very ●…eldom of five , seven , nine or eleven , of which , the middlemost exceeding the rest in bigness , large , broad , withoutside gibbous , withinside somewhat hollowed , to which the other two are joyned like horns . but if it consist of more then three bones , those are gristly . riolanus has these observations touching the hyoides-bone . but the hyoides-bone , says he , in women appears more slender and thin , and consists of fewer bones , whose room the suspensory productory ligaments supply . then you shall observe that only the epiglottis is received into the cavity of the hyoides , and that the tongue rests upon the upper side of the basis. to these little bones are joyned four small gristles , which prove sometimes bony themselves . two of these joyn to the basis of the middle bone , resembling both in form and bigness a grain of wheat . two others are placed near the side bones or horns , and are fastned with a nervous ligament to the pen-resembling appendix . and so the hyoides , upon the sides , adheres to that appendix , on the forepart to the target-form'd gristle of the larynx , but chiefly to the tongue , and receives the epiglottis into its cavity . ii. when the tongue moves , this bone also moves , and that by the assistance of eight muscles , which it has in common with the tongue . the first pair call'd sternothyoides , moves it downward and backward , and rises with a round and fleshy original from the upper inner seat of the bone of the sternum , and forward ends in the basis of the hyoides . the second pair called the long coracohyoides by the ancients , rises from the upper side of the shoulder , near the coracoides process , and in the midst of its body grown slender like a tendon , is carry'd along obliquely under the seventh muscle of the head , to the sides of the hyoides , and draws them obliquely downward . the third pair slender and round , seated under the chin , proceeds from the extream process of the styliform , with a round belly , therefore call'd styloceratoides , and being inserted into the horns of the hyoides , moves obliquely upward . the fourth pair call'd geniohyoides , drawing directly upward , and somewhat forward , arising with a large and fleshy original from the inner and lower seat of the chin , extends it self to the middlemost seat of the hyoides . to these pairs fallopius adds two more ; viz. a fifth which rising with streight fibers from the middle and inner part of the chin , is inserted into the hyoides . this pair many confound with the preceeding fourth , and look upon it to be the same ; but others number it among the muscles of the tongue . the sixth , which he says constitutes two little pieces of flesh , bearing the resemblance of muscles , which rising from the same chin , seem to be some part of them intermix'd with the first that moves the tongue ; but proceeding farther to the lower parts , are inserted into the sides of the hyoides , and draw that bone to the chin. chap. xxiv . of the tongue , the salival channels , the spittle , tast and savor . see table xvi . the tongue , by the greeks call'd 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 or 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , by the latins lingua , is an organic part , the instrument both of tast and speech , and the assistant for the swallowing of meat and drink , seated in the mouth under the palate . i. it is oblong , broad , of a moderate bigness answerable to the mouth , and toward the root of a remarkable thickness , but somewhat thinner toward the lip. ii. the substance of it is peculiar to its self , fleshy and soft cover'd with a double membrane ; the one outermost and thick , the other innermost and thin . iii. the exterior membrane that overspreads the upper surface of the tongue , very porous , and in men moderately smooth , but in most brutes , especially fourfooted beasts , very rough , and in the superficies , divided as it were into two parts , with a small running along in the middle all the length of it . this membrane is thought to proceed from the thick meninx , and is said to be common , to the mouth , the palate , the gullet and the larynx . but in regard it does not overspread the whole tongue every way , but only extends it self along the superficies , as far as the root and jaws , and does not reach either to the lower part of the tongue , nor to the gullet , but is only united to the inner tunicle , and that it is apparent that it is a thicker substance of another nature in the tongue and the palate ; it is clearly evident , that it has no community with the membrane of the gullet and larynx . for though it has not that thickness and roughness in men , which is seen in brutes , however it is thicker , and differs much from that which enfolds the larinx and gullet withinside , which difference is apparent , for then when it is dry'd up in burning fevers and other distempers , or by excess of drought , and afterwards comes to be moistned again , it is separated and falls off three times thicker then the membranes of the larynx and gullet . moreover , as the tunicles of the eyes , ears and nostrils differ very much from other membranes , nay , from one another , though we believe they proceed from the menix's ; so this tunicle of the tongue , together with the tongue and nervous little paps , being to contribute some service to the organ of tast , ought of necessity to have some constitution beyond other membranes , in respect of which it may be enabled to contribute some specific service to the tast. neither is it that we think the specific service here requir'd is due to any specific nerves , or specific spirits , in regard we have already prov'd that there is nothing of specific perform'd in the parts upon that ground . this membrane is very porous , and such it ought to be , to the end it may be able to send through the said pores in some part of it , to the nervous little paps that lye under it , those things which being to be tasted are laid upon it , and stir'd by the motion of the tongue . the tast of which things , by reason of its obtuse sence of feeling , least it should be injur'd by sharp and acrimonious gustables and tactibles , it does not of it self so quickly perceive . the very same membrane in cows , sheep , and other such like brutes , much thicker than in men , is rough in the upper region ; out of which grow forth several little sharp pointed bodies somewhat grisly , of an unequal length , disposed in a kind of order , moderately bow'd , and extended toward the root , covered with a slender tunicle taken from the membrane from whence they proceed , which cause that roughness . which little bodies , however in the more rising part of the tongue toward the root , are much fewer , much less , and in some none at all to be seen . such little bodies of so large a bigness are not to be found in the tongues of men , which is the reason they are not so rough . yet in the year . upon the dissection of one , who in his life-time had been a captain of high-way-men , i found that roughness very observable . for the upper superficies of his tongue , was as it were stuck with little strings , that look'd like a kind of down . now the reason why in brutes these grisly bodies are longer and much bigger than in men , and why they stand with their points towards the chaps , seems to be , because the nourishment which they take with their heads down upon the earth , may be the more easily retain'd , and not easily slip out of their mouths , while man that stands upright , may without trouble hold his food in his mouth ; and therefore a moderate roughness is sufficient for the retention of his food . iv. but the foresaid use of these small grisly bodys , it seems to be only the secundary use , as that which does not require so large a furniture of little bodies ; but what is the primary use is much disputed among the learned . for in regard they are not hollow like straws , which could never be discover'd by any microscope , they cannot discharge either spittle or any other humor either into the tongue or the exterior parts of the tongue , as some have imagin'd , the most acute malpigius believes that these bodies , by the motion of the tongue , make a certain compression upon the kernels in the palate observ'd by stenonis , and that so spittle and slime is squeez'd out of them , to moisten the tongue and the mouth ; and therefore that nature has given to brutes that feed upon hard and raw food , not only a thicker covering of the palate , but has also order'd these grisly bodies growing in the tongue to be harder and longer , that by continual rubbing the upper parts they may more strenuously squeeze out the moisture ; but in men has made the same bodies more lank and flexible , where the structure of the palate is more loose and soft , and therefore requiring a slighter compression to squeeze and force out the moisture . moreover , he thinks it may be questioned , and that not without reason , whether the glutinous roots of these bodies , lying under a thick covering , which are to be inserted in the holes already mentioned , while standing there side ways they force the little paps , do not cause a compression of the humid body inward , to the end the vellication and motion may be more violent . v. under the said thick membrane a certain glutinous substance shews it self , like a thick net cheifly extended through the upper part of the tongue , full of conspicuous holes , among which innumerable little passages of various figures , gaping toward the outer parts are discover'd with a microscope . which holes answer to singular grisly horns , resting upon the said exterior membrane . malpigius also has observ'd the traces of the same glutinous substance in the palate and lower cheeks . some have imagin'd that the sense of tasting lyes in this glutinous substance ; as the sight in the net-like-tunicle ; others that a certain spitly moisture is collected in it , and sent forth through the pores of the thick covering , into the tongue to moisten it . for my part i believe it conduces to receive the savoury moisture , and to retain it for the same time , that it may stick the closer to the little paps , and more conveniently alter them by their asperity , to the end they may be the better distinguished . vi. next to the said glutinous substance , lying hid under the covering of the tongue , a certain body appears , which laurentius bellinus has call'd the fleshy crust , but has given it no peculiar name , for that it has no similitude either to a membrane , or a muscle , or a nerve , or a kernel , either in color , structure , or substance . this body , as it appears in a cows tongue , malpigius has accurately describ'd . after due examination , says he , of this glutinous substance , there appears a nervous pap-like body , yellowish and whitish , running chie●…ly along the whole portion of the upper superficies , like a membrane , and of a considerable height . in this inner superficies , where it is fasten'd to the flesh under the tongue , it seems smooth and equal , besides certain nervous connexious strew'd between the fleshy fibers of the tongue , to which it grows ; in the outer part it is unequal , for it bunches forth with nervous little paps dispos'd in wonderful order . these in a cow , a goat and a sheep , and also in men , as to shape and bigness differ three maner of ways ; some are bigger , chie●…ly seated at the sides of the top of the tongue between those that are below : in the superficies of the upper part of the tongue , they are dispos'd in a square : in the upper region where the tongue looks white , they are observ'd to be very few : in the sides of the basis there are some and more remarkable . these in substance and shape seem to resemble the horns which snails thrust out and pull in . only they have a higher body , which having past the slimy substance , terminate in a round little head which is plac'd in a certain cavity of the exterior membrane where it grows thin . they take their rise from a nervous and pap-like body , observing the same continuity , the same accidents , and manner of substance in both : only this they have peculiar to themselves , that in the basis , there is a nervous shooting forth , to which they grow . next to these succeed more numerous little paps of another order ; for as many horns as cover the tongue without side , so many nervous little paps of this sort are to be found within side . these arising from the common papillary body , raise themselves to a moderate height , and send forth farther nervous out-lets from the extream part of the head ; which enter the cavities cut out for them , and meet the roots of the horns : round about these innumerable paps are to be discern'd , rising from the same place , and of the same height , but more slender , and resembling the shape of a cone , entring their proper cavities , form'd in the mucous substance already prepar'd , and terminating at length toward the outermost membrane . about the root of the basis , the nervous little paps bunching forth where the horns are seated , alter their shape , and being more obtuse , by and by more round and flat , the most remarkable of which are not much unlike those which are observ'd at the root of the teeth withinside of the cheeks . you must understand however , that the same papillary body , and both the coverings underneath , though very slender , are to be form'd in the palate , and inside of the cheeks ; with this difference that in these places the little dugs bunch forth langer , and resembling a conic figure : near which are observ'd spittle-evacuating vessels inserted into the kernels underneath , between which are scatter'd very small and nervous little duggs . vii . thus far malpigius , who concluding writes , that the original of this teat-like body is very uncertain . columbus believes that it comes from the hard meninx , after it has pass'd the scull , together with the rest of the membranes of the inner part of the mouth : but malpigius conjectures that it takes it's source from the nervous shootings forth , dilated into the membrane , as it happens in other sensory organs . the substance of the tongue , especially in men is full of slender fibers ; so that because of their slenderness some ignorant anatomists have imagin'd that the tongue has no fibers at all . in the tongues of cows , sheep and many other bruits of the larger size , these fibers are very conspicuous ; which we have also seen in the tongues of men , as well raw as boyl'd . toward the root of the tongue these fibers are interlarded with something of fat ; and in the sides of the basis , malpigius has observ'd small kernels like millet-seed to be intermix'd with them . these fibers are intermix'd one among another after so various and obscure a manner , that it is a difficult thing to demonstrate their order in situation . riolanus observing them so contrary one to another and so variously interwoven ; nevertheless these two bodies , says he , seem to be furnish'd with oblique , transverse and streight fibers , which are so mingl'd one among another , that it is impossible to find out what sort of fibers they are . but what riolanus could not find out stenonis believes he has attain'd . front the top to the basis , we may , says he , distinctly demonstrate the whole order of the fibers , if heed be taken . the outermost fibers , next the upper superficies , observe a direct course of the fibers all the length of the tongue : of the rest that are in the middle of the body , there are only two sorts . one descending from the upper superficies of the tongue : another in men run back from the middle towards the sides . these two sorts are dispos'd into two orders , receiving each other alternately : of which two orders one scarce amounts to the thickness of one fiber . thus far stenonis : but for my part , to confess the truth , i have long study'd these fibers , but impatient of the labour i'gave it over . viii . but because the tongue is interwoven with these innumerable fibers , and is furnish'd with various muscles , there arises a question , by what manner of motion the tongue , whether by its own fibers , or muscles or by both . the last opinion pleases most anatomists . casserius calls the tongue not a muscle , but a musculous part . it cannot be says he , but that the tongue must move by its own proper motion , and that voluntary too , for it is mov'd after so many manners , and so many parts , that to assert its whole motion to be perform'd by muscles alone is very ridiculous . therefore i do not call it a muscle , but a musculous flesh , as participating something of the nature of flesh , and being between a muscle and a glandulous flesh. laurentius bellinus , considering its wonderful variety and rapidness of motion , says that it is a contexture of muscles meeting together , besides fibers . riolanus following the opinion of averrhois , besides the motion by muscles , ascribes to it another proper motion , and reproves andreas laurentius , for not observing it . for that the tongue in swift and continual speech is mov'd of it self , and that the motion of the extremity so extreamly swift is not caus'd by the muscles , after so many varieties , but only that the muscles make the motion more violent . spigelius observing such a vast number of fibers absolutely pronounces it to be a muscle . but not one of these famous men seems to have observ'd , that so many several , variously overlay'd one upon another , and interwoven fibers , with so many contrary courses can supply the action of the muscles , which is attraction seeing that the drawing of one fiber , would be hindred by the operation of the other ; nor that in such a contrariety of oppositions and impositions , there can be any , that can do the tongue the service of a muscle . since therefore fibers only do not shew any part to be a muscle , for that the stomack , guts , urine and gall-bladders are furnish'd with all sorts of fibers conspicuous and numerous , yet are not to be accounted among the number of fibers . the swiftness and variety of motion does not prove the tongue to be a muscle , but rather to be rapidly mov'd by muscles , which appears from hence , because the motion is voluntary . which sort of motion is only perform'd by the muscles , in that part which is no muscle of it self . we move the extremity of the tongue at pleasure , but it is by the help of muscles , whose tendons send out their little fibers to that part . nor does the swiftness of motion prove any thing for the contrary party ; forwe may move our fingers as swift as our tongue , and yet no man will question the motion of the fingers by muscles . . no muscle is made for it self , but for another part of it self immoveable , but if the tongue were a muscle , it ought to be made for it self , seeing it is inserted into no body to move it . . no muscle is inserted into another muscle to move it , but other muscles are inserted into the tongue , therefore it cannot be a muscle . ix . arantius will needs have the tongue to be a kernel , but his proofs are not worth refuting . however riolanus seems in some measure to agree with him , taking it from galen , who says that the nature of the tongue is glandalous , and almost of the same temper . but in regard the shape , temper and use of the tongue has nothing in common with a kernel , this opinion is so rejected x. the hinder part of the tongue is joyn'd to the hyodes , the larynx , the chaps , the tonsile and the top of the gullet , the fore part being free from all connexion . in the lower superficies it has muscles fasten'd to it by means of which it is ty'd to the lower jaw . and least it should move beyond it's bounds , it is joyn'd to the parts underneath it with a strong ligament . the extremity of this ligament , being somewhat loose , is call'd frenulum or the little bridle ; the over shortness whereof hinders the free and convenient motion of the tongue , especially in infants . for which reason the physitians are forc'd to order the cutting of it betimes ; which section though it be easy , yet great care is to be taken of cutting the adjoyning nerves that lye under the tongue , which may cause a suddain convulsion of the tongue . xi . it entertains two large arteries from the carotides , and sends forth two veins to the inner branch of the external iugulars , called the frog veins , remarkably conspicuous under the tongue , from whence we often take away blood in distempers of the chaps . xii . it admits two pairs of nerves . of which the thinnest that proceeds from the fourth pair , is carry'd along quite through the substance of the tongue , and thrusts its extremities into the nervous little dugs , affording also some little branches to the nerves , powring forth spirits to perfect the sence of tasting . the others , which is thicker , proceeding from the seventh pair , enters the muscles of it , and by means of the animal spirits gives it the faculty of motion . note here , that besides that the tongue is divided into the right and left side , by a line running through the middle of it , none of these vessels are carry'd from the right to the left , nor from the left to the right side of the tongue . whence galen pronounces this instrument to be twofold like the organs of sence and hearing . this duplicity of the tongue is chiefly conspicuous in serpents , vipers , lizards , sea-calves , and other such little creatures , whose tongues seem to be divided into two or three parts , therefore call'd sometimes double , sometimes treble tongu'd . xiii . upon the hinder part of the tongue , rests the epiglottis grisle , otherwise call'd lingula or the little tongue . vid. l. . cap. . xiv . at the root of the tongue appear two small kernels call'd tonsillae of which , vid. l. . cap. . also a peice of flesh consisting of several small kernels and fat , seated under the chin and tongue , between the hyoides and the muscles of the tongue ; a glandulous piece of flesh like which takes up the whole region of the inside of the cheeks ; which small kernels or kernelly-pieces of flesh gather together the spittly humor to moisten the tongue and mouth , and discharge it as well through the lymphatic or salival vessels , as through the small holes of the thicker membrane of the mouth , especially when the mouth and tongue move . and therefore when the nourishment is chew'd in the mouth , the liquor press'd out of these small kernels by the masticated food partly of its own accord flows in greater quantity into the mouth , to be mix'd with the nourishment toward fermentaceous preparation , and to render the swallowing more easie . but in time of sleep when the mouth does not move , it ceases : which is the reason that they who sleep with their mouths open are generally a dry for want of this liquor . xv. the tongue is mov'd every way , partly by the assistance of those muscles , which it has in common with the hyoides ; partly by five proper pairs of muscles . the first by the ancients call'd styloglossum , from it's pen-resembling appendix , arising with a narrow and tendinous original , is inserted about the middle into both sides of the tongue , and both raises it and carries it inward . but about the root of the tongue it so intermixes its fibers with the fibers of the muscles , moving the tongue downward , that you would think the pair to be united with them . this pair in men is slender , but in cows double , fleshy and thick . the second pair call'd basioglossum , and upsitoglossum proceeding from the basis of the hyoides ends in the middle of the tongue , and depresses it by drawing it in a streight line inward . xvi . the third pair which is call'd genioglossum , rises in the inner seat , about the middle of the chin , and being inserted into the lower part of the middle of the tongue , thrusts it forth . this , as also the preceeding pair has several little lines in it , as if they were several small muscles . veslingius reckons this pair among the muscles of the hyoides , and asserts them to be inserted into the basis of that bone. xvii . the fourth pair rising from the horns of the hyoides , and thence call'd ceratoglossum , is inserted into the sides of the tongue , where it mixes its fibers , with the fibers of the first pair , and moves the tongue if both act together , directly downward toward the inner parts : but only one or the other act at a time , it moves the tongue to the right or left side . xviii . the first pair call'd myloglossum , rises at the sides of the lower jaw , at the roots of the hinder grinding teeth , and is inserted under the tongue into the ligament of the tongue , and draws it downward . xix . the muscles being remov'd , besides the two oblong and round little glandules lying near the begining of the gullet , several other little fleshy kernels , as it were a knot of several little kernels , furnish'd with lympatic vessels , small arteries and veins , and diminutive fibers of nerves , which are seated under the tongue about the bridle , affording continual moisture to the tongue , from the small lymphatic vessels . xx. moreover on each side , from a great and remarkable kernel , resembling the sweet-bread of a man , seated above the middle tendon between the flesh of the double belly'd muscle , proceeds a certain channel , from its use call'd the salivary channel . this channel , though not unknown to the ancients , was lost again for many ages , till of late again discover'd by glisson and wharton ; whence modern anatomists ascribe the discovery of it to them . but that these channels were known to the ancients , appears out of avicent , who thus describes them ; under the tongue are two orifices , both which a small bodkin enters , and they are the fountains of spittle , which reach to the glandulous flesh , which is in the root of it , and are call'd the generatives of the spittle ; and those two fountains are call'd the powrers forth of the spittle , and preserve the dew that moistens the tongue . the same is apparent from galen in these words . because the tongue being dry , becomes more slow in its motion , therefore nature wonderfully provides for it , to prevent its being injur'd by any such annoyance . for she has placed two fleshy little kernels in the larynx , like a spunge , one of each side , which she has also done in the tongue . from those kernels adjoyning to the larynx , certain channels discharge the spitly humor through the oblique and lower passages into the parts under the tongue , moistning the tongue it self : which haly also and carpus both observe . xxi . both these channels , in form and substance are not altogether unlike the veins , but somewhat more transparent , with a hollowness , which in men and calves admits a small bodkin , but in dogs is very streight , though in some larger , in some narrower . xxii . one of each side rises from the said kernel , with many small beginnings meeting together in one channel . ascending obliquely upward from the kernel , it is carried almost as far as the middle of the jaw , between two small kernels there seated ; which having passed by it proceeds streight forward near the nerve of the seventh pair , which at length it passes by , and so terminates somewhat toward the fore-parts , distant about a fingers breadth from the teeth , and opens into a peculiar kernel ( called the frog-kernel , or hypoglottis ) covered with a thin and porous membrane , which is seated under the tongue , one upon each side of the bridle , near the frogg veins between the flesh , which joyns the tongue to the neighbouring parts , and the kernels under the root of the tongue . these two kernels , are as it were two soft small spunges , sucking in the spitly humor from the first channel . in brutes , by reason of the length of the jaw , the channel is longer . xxiii . if in men it happen that the pores of the membrane under the tongue are too much close , or that the spitly liquor be so condensed , that it cannot pass through the pores , and flow into the mouth , then the collect●… on of much spittle causes a swelling under the tongue , which the physitians call the frogg-distemper , which increasing , causes a great obstruction in speech and swallowing , but is easily cured by incision of the membrane under the tongue . xxiv . besides , the said spittle-channels , there are yet other two of each side , one shew'd in the anatomy-theatre at leyden , by io. van-horn , anno . which he then call'd the stenonic channels from nicholas stenonis the dane , the first discoverer . xxv . they derive their original from a large kernel , seated at the root of each ear , which stenonis calls the conglomerated parotides ; from which , being dissected many little branches spring forth , and are discerned running forth into these channels . in these channels , stenonis observes , besides the proper tunicle , several nervous strings embracing the middle channel . sometimes it happens that these salival vessels about the cheeks being bruised , the lymphatic salival liquor flowing in great abundance from the wound , hinders the closing of it . thus a noble-man of nimmeghen being wounded in the middle of his cheek with a drinking-glass , thrown at his head , the wound was almost closed by the chyrurgion , but for a long time a lymphatic salival humor , weeping from a little hole in the middle of the cheek , by reason that the salival channel , then unknown to the chyrurgion , was burst by the blow , kept the wound open for two years , which at length was cur'd by my advice , upon the application of an actual cautery , which stopt the flowing of the salival humor . aquapendens also tells us of an accident of the same nature , which we also saw in a certain cook at utrecht . xxvi . these salival vessels already describ'd , are more conspicuous . but besides these , there are a great many others of lesser note in the mouth , especially in the palate and cheeks , which have hitherto lain hid invisible ; but the passage of the spittle from those parts teaches us , that the spittle distils from several small kernels seated within the membrane through some such little vessels , or the pores of the surrounding membrane . through the closing of which pores , the salival liquor being detained within the membrane , many times little swellings arise without pain . sometimes in the inside of the cheeks , sometimes in the palate of the mouth , which either break of themselves , with much spitting , or else are opened with a chyrurgions instrument . xxviii . des cartes seems to have been ignorant of these vessels , and therefore deduces the original of spitle from the stomach , and says , that certain particles of arterious blood fall into the stomach and guts , where they do the office of aqua-fortis , in assi●…ting the concoction of the nourishment , from which , because they are very hot , certain vapors ascending through the gullet into the mouth , thicken there into spittle . but in regard that the salival juice manifestly descends from the head and kernels , and whereas in a great heat of the body , hot blood flows to the stomach and intestines in greater quantity , and yet the mouth is not for all that the more moistned , when dry and parch'd up , when at that time the greater quantity of vapors ascending to the mouth , should cause the more moisture in the mouth ; whereas also , whatever ascends from the stomach , causes rather puking and vomiting , which never happen in the increase of spittle ; and lastly , seeing that in cold and flegmatic persons , in whom the arterious blood is colder , and flows in less quantity to all the parts , and consequently into the stomach , which is the reason that fewer vapors ascend from the stomach to the mouth , and yet such persons abound in spittle , all these things fully demonstrate , that the opinion of des cartes touching spittle , is but a fiction . xxix . it remains therefore unquestionable , that the salival liquor does not ascend through the oesophagus ; but is discharg'd into the mouth through the aforesaid salival vessels . but in regard the liquor of those vessels is carry'd in a very great quantity to the mouth ; the question is , out of what vessel that moisture is separated and carry'd to the said kernels of the parotides and small kernels , from thence to be discharged through the salival vessels into the mouth ? wharton asserts , that it flows out of the nerves . but in regard they are not hollow enough to give passage to so great a quantity o●… liquor , this opinion cannot be true . some would bring it from the chylebearing-vessels . but in regard those vessels do not run out so far ; and because that the chylus were it carried thither , might be concocted to a greater perfection , but not be chang'd into another less nourishing , or more fermentaceous humor ; this opinion also stands upon no ●…ottom . deusingius believes it is discharg'd out of the lymphatic vessels , and so comes into the mouth . which opinion , though something more probable ; but because the lymphatic vessels do not pour their juice into the kernels , but draw it from thence to be carry'd to other parts , neither can this opinion be true . besides , there is no question , but that the lym●…ha and the spittle , though they differ in thickness , have the same original both from the blood ; and therefore seeing this liquor cannot be separated from the veiny blood , as 〈◊〉 that which flows from the kernels and other parts , it remains , that it must be separated from the arterious blood ; for that the arteries , as they pour forth nourishing blood into all the parts , so likewise into the kernels ; the more saltish salival part of which , apt for the nourishment of the kernels , through the mixture of the animal spirits flowing through the little nerves , is separated from the rest of the particles , and in them is concocted somewhat after a specifical manner , and farther prepar'd , and the overplus of their nourishment having obtain'd a kind of slight sowrish quality in the glandules , flows through the salival vessels into the mouth . and indeed you may discern certain arteries in these kernels gaping into the kernels with small diminutive holes , and through those discharging a serous liquor into the glandules . and this opinion is confirm'd by great salivations , whether spontaneous or provok'd at what time such a vast quantity of spittle is discharg'd , which could never be supplied by the nerves , or any other vessels , but the arteries . xxx . now then spittle is a liquor slightly fermentaceous , serous and lympid , separated from the arterious blood in the parotides , and various kernels and glandulous caruncles , and discharged into the mouth through the salival vessels and other salival passages . xxxi . concerning the qualities of spittle , we find but little written by others , which nevertheless if diligently considered , sufficiently demonstrate , that it is not a simple body , but compounded and slippery , less fluid than water , but thicker and more viscous . it derives not its forthines , from its self , but from the air and tongue . in sound people , it has neither savour nor taste of it self , which in sick people it sometimes acquires , from the bad temper of the humors it self , or the mixture of other ill humors , and sometimes from the savor and taste of the nourishment received . xxxii . it would be a difficult thing to give an exact accompt of its composition , which is very wonderful . for it is easily mix'd with all sorts of nourishment , dry , moist , oyly , salt , sulphury , &c. for it mixes with all things received into the mouth . and when out of our bodies , it will mix with quick-silver ; whereas other more simple heterogeneous humors , water , spirits , oyls , salts , and other mixed humors will not associate , which salt will do , and not only mix with , but unite them all together . so that it seems to be the universal internal menstruum , by means of which , all things receiv'd into the mouth , are united together , and descend with it to the stomach , to promote a more exact dissolution of the swallowed substances . whence francis de le boe sylvius conjectures , that it contains in it self much water , somewhat of volatil spirit , least of laxivious salt , with a very small quantity of oyl and acid spirit , mixed and tempered one with another . xxxiii . as to its use , it is manifold and very remarkable . . being mixed with the meat chewed in the mouth , by its slipp●…riness it facilitates swallowing , which can hardly be done without it , as is apparent in dry fevers , and other accidents that cause drought . . it draws from the drier sorts of meat a sapid salt , which could never be drawn forth without moisture . . it quenches thirst , which is the reason that they who spit much , are seldom adry . . it renders slippery , the inner parts of the mouth , the chaps , the organs of speech , and the gullet . . in the stomach it promotes the fermentation of the nourishment receiv'd ; nay , it is their primary ferment , containing all things in it self to perfect that fermentation , that is to say , some slight acidity tempered with a volatil spirit in a great quantity of water . which fermenting power appears from hence , for that if a piece of white-bread chewed and moistned with much spittle , be mixed with dow kneaded with luke-warm-water , it will cause it to ferment . xxxiv . however , there is some difference to be observ'd between sputum and salivam ; by sputum , the physitians mean that tenacious humor , the superfluity of which , becomes troublesome in the mouth , as happens in defluxions of catarhs , or such as is generated by some corruption of the spittle , or is coughed up by the lungs . by saliva , they understand the natural liquor , not superfluous in healthy people , nor to be spit out , but necessary for the moistning the mouth , the mixture of the nourishment , and its preparation and fermentation for concoction . there is also some difference between spittle & that snot which falls down from the brain through the sive-like-bone , and is partly discharged through the nostrils , partly descends to the chaps , through the hinder parts of the palate . not that these humors differ in respect of their original ; but for that the snot , by reason of its longer stay by the way , obtains another quality besides it , before it comes to the mouth , and hence it becomes thicker , more tenacious , yellowish , and sometimes otherwise ▪ ill colour'd . which qualities nevertheless , when it has not , then it differs little from the salival humor , and moistens , and renders slippety the chaps , gullet , and adjoyning part●… and being mixed with the nourishment in the stomach , promotes fermentation in like manner as the spittle . this liquor , when a man is in health , is fluid and thin in the ventricles of the brain , not like the spittle in the mouth , but almost like the lymphatic humor contained in the lymphatic vessels , and by reason of its being so thin , easily slides down through the small holes of the sive-like-bone , into the spungy bones of the nostrils , wherein , if it stay long , by reason of the passage of the cold air breath'd in and out , it frequently becomes thick , colour'd and endu'd with other qualities ; as the lympha gathers out of lymphatic vessels near the liver , and other vessels near the cochlear , grow into gelly through the cold air , and sometimes becomes yellow , sometimes of another colour . so that these two liquors differ little or nothing from the lympha , and this same snivel and spittle may well be call'd the lympha carried to the mouth . xxxv . the primary action of the tongue is to taste , for which it seems to be chiefly form'd ; the secundarv end is for speech and swallowing . xxxvi . tasting , is a sence by which the gustable or relishing qualities of relishable bodies are distinguish'd in moisture by the organ of taste , through the motion of the tongue and the adjoyning parts . xxxvii . this sence many confound with feeling ; following the opinion of plato , and make it a species of feeling , but erroneously ; for though feeling conduces to the organ of taste , yet taste and feeling differ , both as to the organ and the object . for the organ of feeling is a membrane ; the organs of taste are certain nervous little teats , sprouting out from the second thin membrane of the tongue , the like to which are not to be found in the whole body beside . the objects of feeling are all manner of tangible qualities , hard , soft , cold , hot , &c. the objects of tastes , are relishes . moreover , the taste may be lost , yet the feeling remain entire ; thus many sick people can relish nothing of savour , but they can at the same time feel a prick or a burn , or cold , or the like . for which reason we must conclude , that the sence of tasting is a sence peculiarly distinct from that of feeling ; as the sence of sight is perform'd by the eye , which is endued with the sence of feeling , and yet sight is altogether distinct from feeling . xxxviii . from what has been said , it is also apparent , that there is no medium of tasting : seeing that tasting is performed when the relishable bodies immediately touch the relishing organ , and hit upon it . xxxix . the primary organ of taste , is the tongue , or some parts of the tongue . but being composed of various parts , flesh , membranes , nerves , kernels , nervous teats , &c. the question is , in which of these the sence of taste is seated ? xl. the aristotelics , whom bauhinus , veslingius , deusingius , bartholine and others follow , affirm it to lye in the fleshy part of the tongue , which is therefore spungy and porous . partly for the more easie entrance of the tastable moistures ; partly to contain a specific liquor for the perfection of the taste . as to perfect the hearing , there is required an air within , and an air without . but in regard the fleshy parts over the whole body only feel and distinguish tactible objects , never gustable objects , as bitter salt , &c. nor so much as feel them as such , shall the tongue alone , by means of its fleshy particles , endued with nerves and membranes , be able to judg of tastes likewise ? but you will say the tongue is more spungy then the heart , reins , muscles , and other spungy parts , and therefore more easily admits the gustable humors within its pores , which the thickness of the other fleshy parts will not admit : to which i answer , let them view the tongue more considerately , and they will find the tongue less spungy than the muscly flesh. besides , there is no sense in the pores , but in the substance it self of the fleshy parts that are sensible . hence ▪ when a salt or bitter sweat , as in the jaundice , passes the pores , and twitches their substance more or less , they feel it indeed in their substance , as soft or painful , but not as salt or bitter . the reins and lungs are also loose and spungy , wherefore are not they also endued with the gift of tasting ? xli . others , with laurentius , seat the sense of tasting in the membranes of the tongue . but the membranes of the tongue , like all other membranes , only perceive by feeling what is hard or soft , hot or cold , &c. but they distinguish savours no more then the membranes of the eyes or ears . and the same reason there is to be given for the nerves . to say the nerves and membranes of the tongue are of another nature and construction then others , signifies nothing ; for that the difference of construction can produce nothing else , but a more obtuse or quicker sence of feeling , but nothing of taste or judgment of savors . as to the blood-bearing vessels , there is no thought that the taste should lye in them . xlii . wharton believes it lies in the tonsils , others , in all the kernels seated in the mouth and round about the tongue . but in regard the taste is most accurate at the tip of the tongue , remote from the tonsils and other kernels , and more dull at the root of the tongue , where the tonsils and many other kernels lye ; and seeing that the taste is a peculiar acute sence , requiring an acute specific sensory , whereas the glandules are dull of sence , and contain nothing for the perfection of taste , nor ever were observ'd to distinguish savors , i see not how this opinion can be defended . xliii . the last things to be considered , are the nervous little paps , into which several small branches of nerves , rising out of the substance of the tongue it self , are inserted and covered with a thin porous film , and being endued with a peculiar substance , i believe the sence of taste to be brought to perfection , by the help of the foresaid porous pellicle , or slimy fleshy crust , environing them like a net , and absolutely affirm it to be true . . because in what part of the tongue these little nervous fleshy bags are most numerous , as at the tip , in the sides , and upon the superficies , there the sence of tasting is most swift , most acute , and most exact ; where they appear less numerous , the sence of tasting is more dull ; and where there are none at all , as underneath between the tip and the bridle , there is no taste at all . . because in those parts of the palate where those fleshbaggs lye hid under the thick membrane , the taste has its operation . which is easily made out , laying a little aloes or salt , now to one , now to another part of the tongue , by which you shall easily discern the difference of the taste ; in one place more quick , in another duller , in another no taste at all , according as the places are more or less furnished with flesh-bags , or want them all together . besides , if we more diligently inspect the substance of the flesh-bags it self , we shall find in it something absolutely specific , which we may admire , but never be able to explain . xliv . nor are we less unable to unfold by what means the perception and distinction of savors is perform'd by those little nervous flesh-bags , then how their sight or hearing are caused by their particular organs . but then another question arises , how it comes to pass that one and the same taste , for example , sweet , or bitter , always offers it self in the same manner . this happens , because the tastable salt strikes into the pores of the little fibers of those small flesh-bags , with its particles constituted after the same manner , and in the same form , which impulse , by means of the nerves , is presently communicated to the mind . so that as long as those particles of salt have the same proportion of measure to the little pores of the small flesh-bags , they communicate the same savors . but if the constitution of the particles of salt be alter'd by the mixture of some sulphury or other humor , so that the particles which before were stiff , hard , and pointed , become flexible , soft or round , then the little flesh-bags and nerves come to be otherwise affected , whence the alteration of the relish , and another perception of the taste . now the agitation and motion of the tongue , is that which chiefly strikes the gustable bodies into the little flesh-bags , by which motion being forced into the flesh-bags , they alter them after a specific manner , and imprint the species of the relish into them with their sharp points and slender asperities , to be communicated to the mind by means of the nerves . which species sometimes fixes within them , when the said bodies being more violently forced into them , and by reason of the unequal proportion of the particles of salt to the figure of the pores , cannot be got out or washed away by the spittle . xlv . as to the great disputes what savor is , and wherein it consists , aristotle affirms it to be nothing else but a certain quality in determin'd compounds , arising from the mixture of the elements ; but what that savory quality is , he leaves in the dark . in another place , he believes it to be something arising from water and earth , being mixt together , the heat of fire concurring . for though water be of it self insipid , yet it is capable to receive any relish , and so , as the fire variously acts upon that and the water , the diversity of savors arises . but in regard that fire contributes to water only heat , attenuation and discussion , and driness and hardness to the earth , this opinion must fall to the ground . nor does galen determine any thing certain concerning this matter , when he says that savor is a water intermixed with some dry body by the operation of heat . in which sence , alstedius will have it to be a mixture of the watry humid , with the dry terrestrial . others alledg that the stupid quality is the certain figure , magnitude and motion of the smallest particles . but seeing they never explain in what things that figure , magnitude and motion ought to be considered , and how savor proceeds from them , they leave the matter as obscure as they found it . xlvi . now therefore to deliver our own thoughts , 't is our opinion that savour is not any specific flowing out of any things , but a certain specific suffering imprinted by the asperities of certain things into the organs of taste , the perception and iudgment of which suffering is the taste . xlvii . now we believe , that the foresaid asperities and their diversities are to be fetch'd from the principles of the things themselves , as , salt , sulphur , mercury , &c. concerning which , see l. . c. . xlviii . the asperities causing savor consist in salt , which as it is variously mix'd , concocted and united with sulphur or mercury , the asperities are greater or lesser , more pointed , stiff , hard , pricking , or more flexible , soft , or smooth : which diversity begets the manifold variety of savors as the suffering of the tongue , according to the asperities of the salt becomes pleasing or ungrateful . which is the opinion of fracassarus in these words . let us conclu●…e , says he , that savors owe their effects to the figures which are only taken from the corporeal principles , which in mixt things is chiefly the salt it self , and from the observ'd figures in salts we collect this , that salt is the figurative principle of savor . xlix . the differences of savors from the various figures of salt atoms gassendus endeavours thus to demonstrate . by which it comes to pass , says he , that he will not incongruously determine the matter , that round atoms of a just proportion cause a sweet savor ; the great figure produces sowre ; those of many angles not orbicular , sharp , acute , conic , bow'd , not thin nor round , pricking ; thin and orbicular , with corners and bow'd , biting ; with corners bow'd unequal in their sides , salt ; round smooth , writh'd , equal in their sides bitter ; thin , round and small , fat . l. now that savor proceeds only from salt is apparent by chimistry . for if carduus benedictus , which is bitter , be burnt to ashes , and a salt extracted out of them , those ashes will be altogether insipid ; but restore their salt to them and they will recover their savor ; but not the bitter savor which the carduus had before it was burnt , because the sulphury particles were consum'd by the fire , and thence the asperities of the salt were alter'd . li. if any one ask me , if savor be caus'd by salt , whence comes the insipidness of any thing which is also perceiv'd by the last ? i answer'd , that insippidness is not any thing positive which moves the taste , being nothing else but a privation of the salt and consequently of the savor , and it is vulgarly said to be perceiv'd by the taste , as silence is said to be heard ; or darkness to be seen , when there is no light to peirce the eye . lii . but the savor which proceeds from salt is communicated to the fleshy teats by the means of humids . for whatsoever things are dry , unless they deposite their salt asperities in something humid , loose their savor . this humid is either the soporiserous bodies themselves , wine , honey , juices of herbs and flowers , &c. or water , ptisans , broth , spittle , or any other liquor , wherein dry things being bruis'd , dissolv'd , boyl'd or macerated , dissolve and discharge themselves of savory salt , which then by means of that humid may be imprinted into the little fleshy teats of the tongue , and perceiv'd by the taste . liii . when things tastable are put into the mouth and mov'd therein upon the tongue , then their salt asperities being prest into the humid , through the pores of the tongue fall into the little fleshy teats , and alter after a specific manner so or so , according to the variety of the figures of the salt particles , and so the several sorts of savor come to be produc'd , the idea of which being carry'd to the common sensory through the little fibers of the nerves of the fourth pair , inserted into the tongue , and comm●…icated to the mind . thus if the particles of the salt are long , hard , pricking or c●…tting , and fall into the round pores of the tongue , then by reason of the disparity of the figures of the pores and the salt difficultly getting in , they cause a pricking trouble , as in acid , bitter and sharp things . but if the particles of the salt are soft , flexible or round , then they easily enter the pores of the little fleshy teats , and of the tongue , and delighting the tongue cause a grateful relish ; as in sugar , honey , &c. in the same sence lucretius says , that the little atoms of sweet things are smooth and round : of bitter and acid things , poynted and forked . liv. the agitation or stirring of the mouth is requisite , to the end the savor may the better be perceiv'd ; though liquids require a less motion , dry things more vehement , and a longer agitation . for in the liquids the savory salt already dissolv'd , glides more suddainly through the membrane covering the tongue into the nervous teats : but in dry things the salt particles adhering to the thicker substance , require longer time for this dissolution and mixture with the spittle before they can be felt . besides that by the same stirring the pores of the membrane of the tongue are open'd and dilated , by which means the said salt particles now adhering to the liquor , are forc'd upon them by a kind of violence . for without stirring the mouth the savor is not so perceptible in liquids as in dry things . for if salt , sugar , or ashes be put upon the tongue continuing motionless the the taste will not be so quick ; but upon stirring the tongue the taste is presently perceiv'd , and the difference proceeding from the diversity of the figures of the salt , is judg'd of by the mind . lv. yet the various figure of the salt alone is not always the reason of the different sorts of tastes , seeing that sometimes the different constitution of the organ conduces much to it . for the pores of it in all men , are not always of the same figure ; but those which are round in some , shall be oblong in others , or quadrangular , which will admit the smooth round particles with some difficulty , but the long and pointed without any trouble . which is the reason that sweet things are not grateful to all , nor bitter things nauseous to others . lvi . but notwithstanding all that has been said , we must understand , that the imagination contributes very much to the gratefulness or dispeasing relish of the taste . in regard that some imagin more pleasure from tastes that please their fancy by pleasing the organs of taste , others from such things as strike the organs of taste with a kind of sharpness . thus we see many people delighted with the taste of wormwood-wine , vinegar , salted herrings , though they cause some trouble in the organs of taste ; others abhor sweet things , not but they that perceive the tastes such as they are sweet or bitter , &c. but because a moderate sharpness pleases their fancy more than the pleasantness of sweet things . concerning speech and voice , so which the tongue also mainly contributes , see l. . cap. . the fourth book of anatomy . concering the joynts . chap. i. of the hand . the limbs , by the greeks call'd 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , are members growing to the bellys , and distinguish'd with joynts . these are twofold , the upermost commonly call'd manus the hands , in greek 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , and the lowermost , pedes or the feet , in greek 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 . i. between these limbs there is requir'd a convenient proportion in men well shap'd ; that is , that there should be almost the same proportion from the share-bone to the extremity of the heel , as from the arm-hole to the top of the middle finger , i say almost , for that for the most part the thighs are somewhat longer than the arms. and the length of the thighs ought to be the length of the trunk , measuring from the share-bo●…e to the top of the forehead . here spigelius observes , that they who have long feet , are most commonly loose in their body , and therefore strong purgations are never to be given to such persons . ii. the hands were given to man for grasping , that being a naked and unarm'd creature , by the assistance of his reason , he might be able by the help of these instruments to provide himself not only with one sort of weapons , garments and habitations , but with infinite numbers ; and by that means subdue all manner of beasts , though never so fierce and untam'd . moreover to the end so divine a creature might be enabl'd to commit to writing the laws of god , the histories and transactions of worthy hero's , the miracles of god and wonders of nature , to paint forth the ornaments of heaven and earth , the delineations of arts and sciences , and other monuments of his divinity , therefore two hands were given him that if the one fail'd , the other might be serviceable to him . iii. now the hand is an organic part extending from the uper part of the shoulders to the extremities of the fingers . iv. it is divided into the arm and extream hand . the arm brachium , in greek 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 is divided into the arm strictly so taken and the elbow . the one reaching from the top of the shoulder , to the bending of the elbow ; the other from the b●…nding of the elbow to the wrist . v. the hollow under the ioynt of the shoulder is call'd axilla , or ala , the arm-hole covered with hair. which hair prevents the skin from gauling through the continual motion of the arm. vi. in this cavity , under a little panicle lye conceal'd three considerable kernels , joyn'd to the divarication of the vessels , which being clos'd together seem to make one . these the ancient physitians thought to be emunctories of the heart . vii . the elbow , in latin cubitus , or ulna , by tully is call'd lacertus , and by the greeks 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 . viii . the hand at the end , being expanded is simply called manus , being clutch'd pugnus , and the ioynts of the inner part of the fingers are call'd internodia : but being shut the protuberances of the ioynts are call'd conditi . the hand is divided into the wrist , the space between the wrist , and the fingers . ix . the wrists in latin carpus , in the greek 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , being next adjoyning to the elbow , consists of eight bones dispos'd in a double order , which want their proper names . x. the space between the wrists , call'd meta carpium consists of four bones connex'd with a close and strong ioynt . xi . the inner part composing the hollow of the hand , in latin vola manus or palma , and the external part by the greeks 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , by the latins is call'd dorsum manus , or the back of the hand . in the hollow of the hand several particulars are to be taken notice of : chiefly the little mounts , in greek properly call'd 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 and the lines . xii . the little mounts are the more prominent and fleshy parts of the hand . the little mount under the thumb is call'd the mount of mars . that next the fore-finger , the mount of iupiter . that next the middle finger , the mount of saturn . that next the ring-finger , the mount of the sun : and that next the little-finger , the mount of the moon . xiii . there are many and various lines in the hollow of the hand , not the same nor alike in all men . from whence they that study palmistry , leaning upon ridiculous and vain conjecture , are wont to tell the fortunes of many people , prosperous matrimony , long life , numerous off-spring , riches and the like , milking the purses of the credulous and deceiving their expectations . by these people there are chiefly observ'd fourteen lines ; from the meetings inter-sections , crookedness or streightness , &c. of which they gather their presages . but three they look upon more considerable than all the rest . the line of life ; the second running athwart through the middle of the hollow of the hand , to the mount of the moon , and call'd the liver-line : and the third call'd the table-line , or the line of venus . xiv . the fingers , digiti in the greek 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , are five in number upon each hand , differing in length and thickness . the first which is the thickest , and equals all the rest for strength , is call'd pollex , or the thumb . the second is the fore-finger from the use , call'd the index , or demonstrator , the pointer , because it is us'd in the demonstration of things . the third , or middle-finger , is call'd impudicus , famosus and obscoenus , the obsence and in●…amous , because it is usually held forth at men pointed at for infamy , and in derision . the fourth , the ring-finger , or annularis and medicus , the physitian's-finger ; because that persons formerly admitted doctors of physic were wont to wear a gold ring upon that finger . the fifth call'd the little-finger , in latin auricularis , or the ear-finger , for that men generally pick their ears with it . every finger is furnish'd with three bones knit together with the gynglymus , to which are joyn'd the sesamina . as to the length of the fingers , rases and avicen notably observe , that the shortness of the fingers denotes the smalness of the liver , and consequently from the length of the finger , the bigness of the liver . whether it be true or no , i have not try'd my self , neither have i met with any anatomists that confirm it , however certain it is , that avicen rejects it as an uncertain observation . xv. at the end of the fingers on the outside , grow the nails , by the greeks call'd 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 ; of which the hinder whitish part is call'd the root of the the white spots are call'd mendacia , or lyes , and the hidden parts under the nails cruptae . the nails are hard , to defend the tender extremities of the fingers , which are endued with a most exact sence of feeling , and for the conveniency of scratching , they are also flexible by nature , to the end they may not easily be broken ; and as to their shape , they are somewhat convex . they are transparent , so that according to the colour of the flesh and the blood underneath , they are either black and blew , red , pale , yellow , &c. from which colors , the physitians make many conjectures of health , or a bad constitution . the skin grows about them on the out-side , under lye the tendons of the muscles . for which reason , because of the exquisite sence of the place , upon any bruise , the pain becomes terrible under the nail . the whole arm , together with the hand , consists of coverings , membranes , bones , ligaments , muscles , arteries , veins and nerves , which are common to all the parts of the body . such are likewise the inner coverings , skin , cuticles and fat. the membranes are periostiums , membranes of the muscles , and tendons , &c. the bones are many and various , fast●…ed together with ligaments , of which , see lib. . c. . &c. the arteries proceed from the axillary artery , the b●…anchings forth of which are described , lib. . chap. . there are many veins in the hand and arm , which meet however all together at the axillary vein , and discharge their blood into it . of these , three are chiefly remarkable by peculiar names at the bending of the elbow , the cephalic , basilic , and median ; which are often opened in letting blood. moreover , in the outer part of the extremity of the hand , there is one between the middle and ring finger , call'd by a private name salvat●…lla , the opening of which in melancholy distempers , and quartan agues , is very much commended , especially in the left-hand . but this is only a meer supposition , ( grounded upon nothing of reason ) of those that being ignorant of the circulation of the blood , believe this vein more especially to discharge the melancholy blood of the spleen . six pair of nerves enter the arm , the productions of which , see lib. . c. . chap. ii. of the foot. i. the foot , call'd in latin pes , in greek 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , is an organic part , beginning from the ioynt of the hip , and extending to the extremities of the toes . it is divided into the thigh , leg and small foot. the thigh , femur , 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , proceeds from the joynt of the hip , to the first lower joynt , which in the fore-part is call'd the knee , in the hinder-part the ham. ii. the inner part of the thigh , is call'd , femur , the outer protuberance about the upper joynt , the hip , the space to the buttocks between the two thighs , the perinaeum . iii. at the top , near the bending , is the groin , where lyes a remarkable kernel , composed of eight lesser kernels , which was firmly said to be the emunctory of the liver . of the use of which , see lib. . chap. . iv. the leg , by the greeks call'd 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , beginning at the knee , reaches down to the heel , of which , the fore-part is called tibia , the shin , and the hinder part sura the calf ; but the two inferior latter prominences are called malleoli , or the ancles . the physiognomists observe , that they who have large heels are envious , they that have flat heels are slothful ; but i cannot believe there is any credit to be given to these indications . v. the foot pes , 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , which for distinction sake they call the small foot , is the foundation upon which the body stands , and is divided into the foot , the metapedium , and the toes . the foot , of which the hinder part is called calx , or the heel , consists of seven bones , the metapedium of five , the toes consist of three bones , except the great toe , which has but two , to which are also added the sesamina . the upper part of the foot , which is ruddy , is called the top of the foot , and the lower part the sole of the foot , which if it be so flat as to press the ground without any hollowness , denotes the person to be cunning and fraudulent . vi. at the end of the toes grow nails of the same substance and nature with those of the hands . the whole leg is composed of membranes , bones , ligaments , muscles , arteries , veins and nerves , common to all the rest of the body . the membranes are periosteum's , membranes of the muscles , and their tendons . the bones are many and various , fastned together with ligaments . of which , lib. . of the muscles , some extend the thigh , some the leg , others the foot , and others the toes . of which , lib. . the arteries proceed from the crural artery , and are dispersed through all the parts of the leg with several ramifactions . in like manner a great number of veins are dispersed through all parts of the leg , following , for the most part , in their assent , the colours of the descending arteries . of which , more lib. . four remarkable nerves also for the faculties of feeling and motion , are distributed through the whole leg. of which , three proceed from the lower pairs of the loyns , and the fourth takes its original from the four upper pairs of the os sacrum . of which more , lib. . the fifth book of anatomy . concerning the muscles . with an appendix concerning the membranes and fibres . chap. i. of the muscles in general . a muscle is called musculus in latin , by the greeks 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 from 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , to contract , or from its resemblance ; for that some muscles seem to resemble a flead mouse slender at the head and tail , and large in the middle ; by the latins also called lac●…rtus , from its resemblance to a lizard . i. a muscle is an organic part , the instrument of voluntary motion . ii. a muscle is composed of dissimular parts , as fibres , flesh , veins , nerves , a tendon , a covering membrane , and in fat people , with some fat to moisten it . through the arteries , the vital blood is conveighed for nourishment , and the residue returns through the veins to its fountain . through the nerves the animal spirits flow into it , contributing feeling and motion , and doing their duty in the act of nutrition . the fleshy substance abounds with fibres for strength and bulk , and these fibres are for the most part streight . sometimes where they proceed to their tendon , somewhat bow'd , as in the muscles of the temples , sometimes orbicular , as in the sphincters ; seldom one muscle has two fibres . it is enfolded with a membrane to strengthen and cover it , and to separate the muscles one from another , and from the adjoyning parts . it includes these fibres , and in the whole circuit sticks to them rolfinch , bauhinus , and stenonis believes it also admits the prroductions and fastnings to the inner substance of the muscle , by which the fibres are knit together . iii. andreas laurentius was in an error , to assert that there is a power of acting in the muscles , which only proceeds from the fibres and tendony strings , as is apparent in persons languishing with hectic-fevers and consumptions , who still retain their faculty of motion , though the fleshy parts are consumed away . iv. the muscles are two-fold , some which draw no parts , as the orbicular sphincters of the fundament and bladder , which are orbicularly and equally contracted within themselves , every way like a ring without any manifest beginning , middle or end. to which the muscly membranes are to be reckoned , which only move the skin upward and downward , as are the muscles of the forehead and hinder part of the head , in which there is no manifest distinction to be observed . others , which more violently move the bones and other parts , may be distinguished into beginning , middle and end , or else , as others will have it , into the head , belly and tail. v. the beginning , or head , is that part of the muscle , toward which the motion is made ; for this is a perpetual rule , every muscle is moved toward its beginning . this head is sometimes fleshy , often membranous , in others longer , in others shorter , sometimes thicker , sometimes thinner . vi. every muscle has a nerve inserted into its head , or else about the middle ; sometimes one , sometimes more , as the diaphragma , which has two that are remarkable , and the muscle of the temples , which receives three nerves . whence galen makes it a certain rule , where the nerve is inserted , there is the head of the muscle . which rule , however bartholin , following walaeus , seems to reject , affirming that sometimes the nerve is inserted into the end of the muscle , and that there is no necessity that the nerve should be inserted rather into the head than the tail of the muscle ; and that it happens only by accident , that the nerve is inserted into the head of the muscle , for that the nerves , while the descend , are more easily inserted into the heads , which are higher , then into the tails that lye lower . but experience overthrows the main prop of this opinion , by which we find that never any nerve was inserted into the tail of any muscle , or if it may seem to enter it by chance , 't is only through the error of the anatomist , who mistakes the head for the tail. thus hitherto the middle membranous part of the diaphragma , into which the nerves are inserted , has been taken for the tendon or tail of that muscle , whereas really it is the beginning of it . the second argument , reason evinces , which teaches us , that of necessity the nerve ought to enter that part from which the swelling of it ought to begin from the entrance of the spirits ; which when it ought to begin from that part toward which the motion must be made , of necessity it must be inserted into the head. for if the swelling should begin from the end of the muscle , then the beginning would be drawn toward the tail. then experience or common sight destroys the third argument , seeing that in nerves which turn back , though they tend upward , nevertheless one inserted into the heads of the muscles of the larynx , as looking upward . vii . the middle or belly of the muscle is the thicker and more fleshy part , and is for the most part continuous , sometimes , but rarely separated , with tendonous intersections , as in the streight muscles of the abdomen , and the digastricks opening the lower jaw , and some few others , concerning which intersections , however , some are of this opinion , that another muscle begins at each , and that the intersected muscles are not one , but several muscles conjoyned together , for the more conveniency of use . viii . the end or tail of the muscle , is that which is fastned to the part which is to be moved . this is called a tendon , in latin tendo , because it may be stretched , and therefore by some called chorda , or a string . which name of tendon , is by some also translated to the membranous beginnings of some muscles , as also to the tendonous separations of the middle muscle , such as are in the streight muscles of the abdomen . ix . now a tendon is a part continuous to a muscle , extended through the whole length of the muscle . many formerly thought that a tendon was only the extremity of the muscle , which is fastned to the other part , whereas indeed the strings of it are extended through the whole length of the muscle . hence lindan says , that a muscle is nothing else but a tendon cloathed with flesh , and that they are deceived , who think that a tendon begins beyond the flesh ; not considering that experience teaches us , that it is extended through the whole length of the muscle , and that it is as well in the beginning as in the middle . which extention of the fibres through the whole muscle , riolanus also confirms . the continuity of the tendon through the whole muscle , to the very end , manifestly appears in the legs of feathered fowl , and which is a wonder , is many times observed to be grisly . and in an accurate dissection , you may observe the continuity of the fibres from the head of the muscle to the end , in a ram or boyl'd muscle . x. 't is a doubt , whether all muscles have tendons ? bauhinus says , that the tendons were not ordained barely for motion , but to cause the more violent motions , and to move the more heavy members , and to strengthen the muscles to prevent their bursting , and therefore the muscles do not all end in tendons . but this is only true in those muscles where the tendon is stretched beyond the flesh , not in general as to all : for they which never move other parts , but are contracted into themselves as the sphincters of the fundament and bladder , do not end in tendons extended beyond the flesh , but have tendonous strings interlaced between their fibres ; as in the muscles of the forehead , hinder part of the head , and several muscles of the face that stick close to the skin . but the muscles that move other parts , extend their tendons into them beyond the flesh , for ●…lower motions thin and less discernible ; for more violent motions , stronger and thicker . therefore we must conclude in opposition to bauhinus , that all muscles have tendons , some stronger and more conspicuous , extended beyond the flesh , others slender and not discernible , either lying hid under their flesh , or interlaced with their fibres . this tendon , according to the weak or strong motion of the parts , various in bigness and form , sometimes round , sometimes broad , sometimes long , sometimes short , sometimes slender , sometimes strong , and sometimes fixed to the part to be moved with several ends. xi . bauhinus with aquapendens asserts , that a tendon is a similar body , continuous from the beginning to the end of the muscle , simple , of a kind by its self , and produced out of the seed like the other seminal parts . which is the opinion of many at this time . but vesalius , laurentius , silvius , and others , with galen , will have it to be a dissimilar part , composed of a concourse of fibres , ligaments , and slender nerves , by degrees uniting together into one body . they will have the nerve , so soon as it has entered the muscle , to be divided into many small branches or diminutive fibres , which are met by a ligament divided in the same manner , and that those little branches , traversing to and from , and by that means intermixing with the interlaced fibres , and united to the end of the muscle , constitute the tendon , and that the more bulky part proceeds from the ligament , the lesser part from the nerves and fibres ; and because of necessity there must be some empty spaces between the fibres , nature has fill'd them up with flesh , to assist those little fibrous branches in contraction and relaxation , and to defend them from external injuries . this latter opinion bartholinus rejects , but does not sufficiently refute ; only he alledges , that production of the nerve , through the middle of the nerve to the tendon , could never be discovered either by them or any body else ; which is no argument there is no such thing . for the chylifer pectoral channel , lymphatic vessels have lain hid for many ages , which were at length discovered , and the same may be said as to the production of the nerve ; for the exact feeling of the tendon shews , it cannot be without a nerve , though not to be discern'd ; and though a tendon be not a nerve , yet it may have fibres and a membrane intermixed with it , together with a ligament . hence perhaps it may be concluded , that a tendon is the most necessary part of a muscle , and extended through the whole muscle , but that it is most conspicuous at the end . i answer , that though the tendons of many muscles are covered with much flesh , the reason why the tendonous substance is less conspicuous , it does not follow that it is altogether absent , for in fat people , the mesenterium sometimes is so covered with fat , that no vessels can be discern'd in it ; and thus it happens in the fleshy tendons of some muscles . the muscles vary many ways . . in respect of their substance , fleshy , membranous , or half nervous . . in respect of their quantity , thick , thin , long , short , round , broad . . in respect of their shape , round , flat , delta-like , or resembling a monks hood , &c. . in respect of their situation ; withinside , oblique , orbicular , transverse ; also some in the head , some in the trunk , some in the joynts , &c. . in respect of their original , some from the bones , others from the gristles or tendons . . in respect of their insertion ; some with one , others with a double , others with a threefold tendon . . in respect of their colour ; red , white , or livid . . in respect of their closing together , some in one part , some with another , or with one or more muscles . . in respect of their use , some bending , others stretching forth , drawing to , drawing from , lifting up , pulling down , and some wheeling . xii . the use of the muscles is to contribute to voluntary motion ; which is performed by these instruments alone : for no part moves with that motion which is not a muscle it self or mov'd by a muscle . and this motion is call'd animal or voluntary being perform'd at the will of the creature . here picolhomini and some others start a question , whether the motion of the muscles can be said to be voluntary ? since it is common to beasts , which have no reason , and consequently no will , and therefore believe spontaneous to be more proper . nor can it be called voluntary , as being performed in the womb by the birth without will ; as also when it sucks before it knows what the breast or milk is ; also the pulmonary muscles move the breast when men are asleep , and consequently cannot be said to will. to the first i answer , that there is a sort of will in brutes , arising from something analogous to the rational soul , and proceeding from natural appetite , and therefore they may be said to have a voluntary motion . as to the motion of the birth , and breathing of those that are asleep , i say that animal motion is not always directed by the will ; but it is sufficient in persons healthy , a sleep or waking , that it be performed according to the will. moreover , the will is twofold , either by election or by instinct , as in men sleeping , or the birth in the womb. galen upon this subject writes , that of those things which are mov'd by voluntary motion , some are free , others are serviceable to the several affections of the body . and that every creature knows to what uses the faculties of his soul are ordained , without an instructor . therefore the motion of the muscles is voluntary , and not spontaneous ; in regard that spontaneous motion , such as that of the heart , is truly natural , as not depending upon the will of the creature . seeing then the motion of the muscle is an animal action , and that the muscle it self is the instrument of voluntary motion ; it is a certain rule , that where-ever there is a muscle , there , in the same part may be action , and that what part cannot be moved at pleasure , that is neither a muscle , nor mov'd by a muscle , though the structure of it may seem to resemble that of a muscle . therefore the heart is no muscle , nor moved by a muscle . on the contrary , stenonis affirms , that there are several muscles of the larynx , tongue and back , which are never mov'd at the will of the mind . though it is never to be prov'd that there is any of them , but what may be mov'd at pleasure ; and to confirm his opinion , he maintains the heart to be a muscle . xiv . whatever part , says he , neither requires any part necessary for a muscle , nor possesses any part deny'd to a muscle , yet in structure is like a muscle , cannot but deserve the name of a muscle , though it be not subject to the power of the will. but the heart , &c. which way of arguing , were it allowable , i might argue thus . whatever part , neither requires any part necessary for the stomach , nor possesses any part deny'd the stomach , yet in structure and composition , is like the stomach , cannot but deserve the name of the stomach , though it do not concoct the nourishment ; but all these things requisite , are found in the urinary bladder ; figure , shape , substance , arteries , veins , nerves , &c. therefore the urinary bladder deserves the name of the stomach . then says stenonis , nor possesses any part deny'd to a muscle ; where as 't is obvious , that there are in the heart two little ears , two wide ventricles , and eleven large valves , the like to which , were never seen in any muscle . so that the heart possessing many parts deny'd to a muscle , the structure of it cannot be like to that of a muscle . then the action of the heart is to make blood , which no muscle in the whole body can pretend to do . if he draws his argument from the contraction of the fibers in the motion of the pulse , which is a voluntary motion , and hence we prove the heart to be a muscle ; he may as well prove the ventricle to be a muscle , which offended by corroding things , contracts it self by the help of the muscles , to expel the offending matter by vomit or hickup ; or the gall-bladder , which does the same , when offended with boiling choler ; or the womb contracting it self for the expulsion of the birth . nay , the very membranes of the brain , which in sneezing , contract themselves , would come to be muscles ; which being all absurdities , prove the certainty of our axiom before mentioned . xv. there is but one action of the muscle , which is to draw ; which is performed by the animal spirits determined into the muscle , and flowing into the fiber , which causes the swelling muscle to contract it self according to its length . for so the tendon is drawn toward the head ; which determination , and copious influx of the spirits , so long as i●… lasts , so long the muscle remains contracted . while this muscle is contracted , the opposite muscle relaxes , because the spirits , before determined into that , flow into another , which causes it to grow languid , so that the swelling and contraction ceases ; because the alteration of the determination of the animal spirits may happen in a moment ; though how it is done , we cannot so well explain . xvi . but this relaxation of the muscle is no action , but a ceasing from action ; and therefore they are in an error , who think it so to be . which galen seems to assert in one place , though in another , he says , that contraction is more proper to the body of the muscle then extension ; and so he seems to make relaxation a kind of secundary action . but if we rightly consider it , it is no action , either primary or secundary , but only a motion by accident . xvii . another question is , whether there be any action in the tonic motion , when the muscles being every way contracted together , the parts to be mov'd are never bent , but are at rest ; nor do the muscles themselves seem to be moved ? i answer , there is a manifest motion in that case ; for the muscles act every way with equal stri●…e , and that which is thought to be the motionless rest of any part , is caused by the opposite muscles acting together at the same time , and at the same time drawing every way the part to be mov'd . xviii . riolanus seems to make some difference between contraction and tension , and this he calls the conservation of the thing contracted . but in regard this tension is nothing else but the continuation of contraction , it cannot be separated from contraction . but , says riolanus , many things are extended which are not contracted . as the yard is extended by a distensive faculty , but then it is not contracted like a muscle . worms are distended , but not contracted ; but the muscles are both distended and contracted . but all this signifies nothing to the muscles , which by their own ordinary voluntary motion contract and relax ; but by some preternatural cause are hindered from that motion , and many times distended , when voluntarily they ought to be relaxed , as in convulsions , and relax and flax when they ought to be contracted , as in the palsie . xix . the action of the muscle is performed by its fibres , tendons and nerves . the fibres cause contraction , by which the tendon is drawn to , together with the part which is fastned to it . through the nerves , the animal spirits flow in , causing feeling , swelling and contraction . but if one of these three be wanting , or hindered , the action cannot be perform'd . for if the nerve be obstructed or cut , then the animal spirits not flowing into it , there can be no swelling or contraction of the muscle . if the fibres are cut athwart , their contraction is made toward two several parts , upward and downward , and so the part to be moved is not brought to . if the tendon be wanting , though the muscles swell , because it is not fastned to the part that is to be moved , it does not draw it . as to the flesh that is interlarded among the fibers that contributes nothing to the motion , but only strengthens the fibers , and by its heat cherishes and renders them nimble , and defends them against the injuries of heat and cold ; but is unfit for the motion of contraction , by reason of its softness and loosness , which renders it unable to contract it self , or raise other parts . which vesalius , erastus and laurentius not aware of erroneously affirming this flesh to be the chief instrument of motion ; the absurdities of which is apparent , for that the muscles of meager men are stronger than the muscles of those who are more fleshy . if any one object that the muscles of the calves of the legs and arms draw with more force , by reason of their carnosity ; i answer , that their carnosity is not the reason , but because they are furnished with stronger , and more numerous fibers than others . xx. the operations of the muscles are various , according to the variety of the muscles , to which they are fastned . in the breast they dilate and contract , in the gullet they facilitate swallowing ; in the larinx , they cause the modulation of the voice , &c. xxi . but how the animal spirits causing the operation of the muscle , flow , and are determined in greater quantity at the pleasure of the mind , sometimes into these , sometimes into those muscles , is a difficult question : some will have them conveighed through imaginary valves , which they ascribe to the nerves . others , not satisfied with this fiction , have invented double tubes , so placed from one muscle to the other , that in the contraction of the muscle , the orifice , guarded by a peculiar valve , opens ; and that through that same passage , the spirits flow out of the relaxed muscle , into that which is to be contracted , the valve of the other closing at the same moment ; so that they cannot flow forth again , but of necessity must distend the muscle , until the situation of the parts being again altered , that valve opens , and the other shuts , by which means there is a passage opened for the contracting the other muscle . this is indeed ingenious , but little to the purpose . . because the muscles that move the part to the opposite part , are most commonly too far distant from the former , so that those little pipes must be very long , as in those muscles that move the part forward and backward . . these little pipes , if not every where , yet would be some where visible , seeing that the small little nerves , through which the spirits flow , are visible . . for that in wounds , the muscles are many times divided one from another , and yet notwithstanding their separation , their motion proceeds in good order every way . which could not be if there were any such intervening pipes in those places cut , and then cicatrized . for by reason of their smallness , they must of necessity be quite closed up by the scar. . the altered situation of the parts , cannot cause an opening and shutting of the valves . for it is supposed that the situation of the parts alters , as the spirits flow into this or that muscle , and so the thing caused would precede the cause , and the influx of the spirits must be before the cause of the influx . xxii . cartesius seems to favour this opinion of the little pipes . for , says he , there are little gapings in every one of these muscles , through which those spirits may slow out of one into the other , and which are so disposed , that when the spirits come from the brain toward one of those , they have somewhat a greater force than those that go toward the other , and together close up all those passages , through which the spirits of this may pass into the other . by which means , all the spirits before contained in these two muscles , immediately slow into one of them , and so swell and contract it , while the other relaxes . this seems a fpecious fiction , and needs no other refutation than the story of the little pipes . add to this , that when a body is bended forward and backward , who can imagine such gapings can be extended from the muscles before , to those behind ? shall those gapings and the spirits pass in a streight line through all the other parts that lye between ? to this de la forge answers , that those spirits do not pass through all the parts that lye between , but from the tendon of the whole muscle , through the pores and invisible channels , into the tendon of the other , for though the muscles are remote one from another , the muscles lye close together . this specious fiction pretends that the spirits flow rapidly from the tendon of the acting muscle , through those supposed channels , in the tendon and belly of the muscle which is to act : but what if the opposite muscle should not act but lye still , wherefore then , the action of the acting muscle ceasing , do not those spirits flow into the opposite that rests , when the passages are open , and the muscle is capable to receive them . if it be impossible they should be so soon dissipated through the pores of the muscle , or return into the veins or arteries , where do they then remain ? since they do not enter any other from the acting muscle surceasing its action so suddainly ? or if they cannot enter the muscle that is to act by reason of the length of the distance ; what hinders their entrance into the next adjoyning muscles or tendon ? this the valves occasion adjoyning to the channels , says de la forge . but wherefore are they not sufficiently open when the violent rushing of the spirits into the acting muscle and it's tendon is sufficient to open the valves of the channels , tending toward the other opposite , and so to make a free passage for its self from that into this : besides that all valves give passage to one part , but still prevent the flowing back . so that those valves that open to transmit the spirits from the right acting muscle to the left , which never permit the same spirits to pass back from the left to the right . besides , if those spirits enter the muscle , which is to act through the tendon , then the tayl of the muscle will swell sooner then the head , and so the tayl shall be drawn toward the head , and not the head toward the tayl. then if the muscles that are to act , could not swell so soon as they ought , unless they borrow'd spirits from the neighbouring muscles ceasing to act , nor fall again , unless they discharg'd their spirits into the adjoyning muscles , what shall we think of the sphincters that rise and fall , act and surcease to act , yet neither receive any spirits , nor discharge any into any opposite muscles , as having no such . or else as if the spirits were endu'd with reason , and knew when to open or when to shut the valves , or when to pass through and when not : certainly such philosophers seek rather to wrest nature to their conceits , then to direct their conceits according to the laws of nature . see more of this l. . c. . chap. ii. of the muscles of the head. the muscles of the head , either move the whole head , or some parts belonging to the head. the whole head is mov'd either secundarily , as it follows the muscles of the neck , caus'd by the muscles of the neck ; or primarily , as it is turn'd by its proper muscles above the first verteber , upon which it is immediately placed , either forward , backward or sideways : also as it is turn'd above the tooth-resembling process of the second verteber , as upon an axle . the first motion is perform'd by nine pair of muscles . i. the first pair , call'd splenium , oblong , thick , fleshy and spread over both vertebers . it rises from a nervous beginning , partly from the spines of the five upper vertebers of the breast ; partly from the lower spines of the vertebers of the neck , and ascending upwards inserted with a broad end into the hinder part of the head ; and draws the head directly to the hinder parts : or if one only act , it draws the head backward toward the side . ii. the second pair , call'd the complex pair , because every muscle seems to consist of three muscles , as having various beginnings and many tendonous and fleshy parts . this pair arises at the seventh verteber of the neck , and the first , second , third , fourth , and fifth vertebers of the breast , and is most firmly fasten'd to the hinder part of the head , sometimes with a single , sometimes with a treble tendon . whence galen affirms these muscles to be three fold . nevertheless that they are single is apparent , because there is no separation of any membrane , but are included within their own membrane only , which could not be , if they were divided into many muscles . for then they would have every one their proper membrane , by means whereof it might be separted from the other . iii. the third pair call'd the small and thick pair , ●…eated under the second pair , rises with a nervous beginning from the transverse processes of the first vertebers of the neck , rarely from the five pairs of the upper vertebers of of the breast , and growing fleshy , extends it self obliquely upward and inward , and is inserted with a nervous end into the hindermost root of the mamillary process , and lighty draws the head backward ; but if one only act , it bends it backward toward the side . riolanus believes this pair to be nothing else , but a production of the spinatic muscle , reaching to the head near the mamillary process . iv. the fourth pair , call'd the bigger , streight pair , is small , fleshy and slen●…er , and rises from the top of the spine of the second verteber of the neck , and ending in the middle of the hinder part of the head , assists the motion of the third pair . v. the fifth pair , call'd the lesser streight pair , lyes under the former , and resembles it in substance , shape and course . it rises from the hinder part of the first verteber , and being inserted into the hinder part of the head , assists the motion of the third and the preceding muscle . vi. the sixth pair , call'd the upper oblique pair , is seated under the right pairs , and resembles them in substance and shape . it is small and rises from the process of the first verteber of the neck , and ends in the hinder part of the head , near the outward side of the right pair . bauhinus says it rises in the hinder part of the head , and ends at the lateral processes of the first verteber of the neck . this acting we nod slightly streight forward : if either act , it inclines the head backward to one side . vii . the seventh is the lower oblique pair , oblong , fleshly and round , rising from the spine of the second verteber of the neck , and inserted into the transverse process of the first verteber , and turns it round with the head annex'd to it , to the sides . viii . the eighth , call'd mastoides , seated in the fore-part of the neck , strong , long and round , which by reason of its two beginings , some assert to be two-fold . it rises nervous and broad from the upper part of the sternon and clavicle , and with a fleshy tayl is inserted into the mamillary process and the hinder part of the head ; this pair bends the head forward and downward , and if one act at a time turns it obliquely to the side . ix . the ninth pair , discover'd by fallopius , which may be call'd the inner streight pair , seated under the gullet in the fore-part of the neck , joyns to the first pair of the neck . it rises with a nervous beginning from the ligaments of almost all the vertebers of the neck , and with a fleshy tayl is inserted into the basis of the head , between both processes , where it is joynted with the first verteber , and bends the head forward , when we nod . x. the muscles which move the parts contain'd in the head are many and various : two in the forehead four belonging to the eye-lids ; twelve to the eyes ; eight to the ears ; four to the membranes of the tympanum ; eight to the nose ; fifteen to the cheeks and lips ; ten to the lower jaw ; ten to the tongue ; eight to the hyoides bone ; the form , beginning , insertion , situation and use of all which we have describ'd , l. . so that the muscles of the head in all are ninety and nine . chap. iii. of the muscles of the neck . the muscles which primarily move the neck , and secondarily the head , are four on each side , which move the neck forward , backward and sideways . i. two long , which lye hid under the gullet . these rise fleshy from the fifth and sixth verteber of the breast , and ascending upward , with a sharp tendon are inserted together into the extuberant processes of the first verteber of the neck : sometimes they are fasten'd to the hinder part of the head near the great hole . by the benefit of these muscles , the neck together with the head is bent directly toward the the fore parts ; but sideways , by the single motion of one . ii. two scalen's , ( these some reckon among the muscles of the breast ) which are more properly seated in the sides , and proceeding from the first rib with a fleshy beginning , are inserted within side into all the transverse processes of the vertebers of the neck , the first and second sometimes excepted , and assist the motion of those already mentioned . these muscles have a peculiar hole , through which the arteries descending to the arm , and the veins ascending thence , find their passage . iii. two transversals , seated in the back ; these arising from the roots of the processes of the six superior vertebers , and insensibly becoming more fleshy , are fastned to all the transverse processes of the vertebers of the neck without-side , and bend the neck to the hinder parts , or by the single motion of one , obliquely backward . between these muscles the nerves of the spinal pith are carried , arising from the vertebers of the neck . iv. two called spinati , which being long and broad , possesses the whole neck between the spines . they arise from seven spines of the breast , and five of the vertebers of the neck , lying one upon another , and distinguished only by the spines , and are implanted into the whole inferior seat of the second spine of the verteber of the neck . and together with the transversals move the neck obliquely toward the hinder parts . to these eight muscles of the neck , if you reckon the thirteen muscles of the larynx , seven of the gullet , the eight of the hyoides-bone , and ten of the tongue , which are all seated in the neck , the muscles of the neck will amount to forty six . chap. iv. of the muscles of the arms or shoulders . the upper part of the arm , reaching from the top of the shoulder to the elbow , which they call the shoulder , is moved by various motions ; five in the first place , forward , backward , upward , downward and circular . which motions are performed by nine muscles . i. the first , by reason of its situation , is called the pectoral ; which being of a fleshy substance , and incumbent upon the breast , which arises with a membranous beginning from the middle clavicle , and the whole sternon bone , as also from the muscles of the sixth , seventh and eighth rib ; as if it were composed of several muscles , and being streightned toward the end , is implanted with a streight and narrow tendon into the bone of the shoulder , a little below the head of it , and brings the arm forward before the breast , and that either in a streight line , or somewhat upward or downward , as sometimes all , sometimes the middlemost or uppermost , or lowermost fibers are contracted . this may be manifestly divided into two muscles , but not into three or four , as bauhinus was of opinion . ii. the second , from the figure of the greek delta , is called deltoides , and the triangular humeral . this proceeds with a broad and nervous beginning from the middle part of the clavicle , to the top of the shoulder , and the whole spine of the scapula , and with a strong tendon , fleshy without , nervous within , is extended to the middle of the shoulder-bone , and raises the arm upward , sometimes before , sometimes backward , according to the various contraction of the foremost , hindermost , middlemost , or all the fibres . in the middle part of this , unskilful chyrurgeons make little issues ; but very erroneously ; for that upon contraction of the muscle , the hole of the fontanel must be contracted , by which means , the pea or pellet is forced out with violence and pain , and the fontanel suddenly closes up again . which mistake is easily avoided , by making the issue between this and the biceps muscle , four or five fingers breadth below the joynt of the shoulder ; in which place , while the arm is bent , this space between the two muscles is presently perceived . iii. the third , from the use of it , aniscalptor , or buttock-scratcher , because it draws the arm downward behind ; but by reason of its largeness , it is called latissimus , or the broadest ; because , that together with its ●…llow muscle , it covers the whole back . it arises with a membranous and broad original from the tops of the vertebers of the spine , which are seated between the os sacrum and the sixth verteber of the breast ; as also from the upper part of the hion-bone ; from thence , being become fleshy , it approaches the basis of the scapula , from whence sometimes it receives several fleshy fibers , and at length , with a short , but strong and broad tendon , it is inserted between the pectoral and the round muscle , and draws the arm downward behind ; sometimes more to the upper , sometimes more toward the lower parts , according as these or those fibres are contracted , of which it has many , by reason of its large beginning . iv. the fourth , called the bigger round muscle , which being fleshy , is seated behind u●…der the arm-pit , arises with a fleshy beginning from the whole lower rib of the scapula , and with a short , broad and strong tendon , ends in the bone of the arm , a little below the neck , and draws the arm downward behind . v. the fifth , from its situation , called the shorter transversal muscle , from its form , the lesser round muscle , rises from the lower corner of the scapula , and being extended to the neck of the arm , assists the motion of the fourth muscle , of which , some think it to be a portion . vi. the sixth , is called supra scapularis inferior , by others , infra spinatus , because it covers the whole exterior part of the scapula , that lies under the spine . this arising from the basis of the scapula , below the spine , is inserted with a short and broad tendon into the ligament of the shoulder , which fastens the joynt , as into a semicircle , and winds the arm to the hinder parts . vii . the seventh , is called super scapularis , superior , by others , supra spinatus . it arises from the basis of the scapula , and filling the whole cavity between the spine and the upper rib of the scapula , is inserted obliquely into the neck with a broad and strong tendon that passes beyond the joynt , and together with the former , causes the circular motion of the arm ; though others believe , that together with the deltoides , it moves the arm upward . viii . the eighth , which is called the subscapulary or the immers'd , is very fleshy , and being seated between the scapula and the ribs , possesses the inner part of the scapula , and is inserted with a broad tendon withinside into the second ligament of the shoulder , and brings about the arm toward the inner parts . the tendons of these three muscles , sixth , seventh , and eighth , that bring about the arm , as it were orbicularly enfold the whole ligament of the joynt . nevertheless we are to understand , that this same circumacting motion is very much assisted by the rest of the muscles , acting successively . ix . the ninth , is called perforatus coracoides , and coracobrachiaeus , which rises with a short and nervous beginning from the process of the scapula , and with a strong tendon runs almost to the middle of the arm before , and together with the pectoral , brings it forward toward the breast . the belly of this is boar'd through , and affords a passage to the nerves , which are distributed to the muscles of the elbow . riolanus believes this muscle to be a portion of the biceps , or first muscle of the elbow . chap. v. of the muscles of the scapula . the scapula , ( which is joynted with the bone of the shoulder , by means of a most thick ligament , and a large nerve ) besides that , it is moved by accident by the foresaid muscles of the shoulder , has also four peculiar motions , which are performed by the benefit of the four following muscles . i. the lesser serratus , which lying under the pectoral muscle , arises , as it were , like so many fingers , from the four uppermost ribs , the first excepted , and is inserted into the scapula , at the corocoides process , and brings forward toward the breast . ii. the trapezius , or cucullaris , because that together with its pair covering the back , it has some kind of resemblance to a monks hood . it takes its beginning from the hinder part of the head , and the top of the five spines of the neck , and the upper eight or nine of the breast ; thence growing more narrow , it proceeds toward the scapula , is inserted into the whole spine of it , the top of the shoulder , and the broader part of the clavicle , and moves the scapula , by reason of its various original , and several fibres , upward , downward , right forward , oblique , according to the contraction of these or those fibres . iii. the rhomboides , which is thin , broad and quadrangular , lying hid under the skin , and arises with a fleshy original , from the spines of the three lower vertebers of the neck , and the three uppermost of the breast , and is inserted into the external basis of the scapula , and draws it somewhat upward toward the hinder parts , and brings it to the back . iv. the levator , which proceeding from the transverse processes of the second , third and fourth verteber of the neck ( the diverse heads uniting about the middle ) is by a broad and fleshy tendon inserted into the upper and lower angle of the scapula , and draws it up forwards , and raises it with the shoulder . to these muscles of the shoulders , some there are who add the larger serratus and the deltoides ; but erroneously , when the one belongs properly to the breast , and the other is a muscle of the shoulder . chap. vi. of the muscles assisting respiration . seeing that the blood which rarified in the right ventricle of the heart , ought to be refrigerated and condensed , before it comes to the left ventricle , there is a necessity for respiration , that by the alternate dilatation and contraction of the breast , the cold air may be received into the lungs , and again expell'd from thence , together with the vapors ; and there is so great a necessity of this , that without it , it is impossible for man , after he is born to live , but that he must dye upon the suffocation of the heat . now this motion of respiration , not being a natural , but an animal motion , it must be performed by instruments that serve the animal motion , that is to say , the muscles , of which , though the lungs are destitute , yet to the end , this motion may continually go forward , the supream creator has added to the breast seven and fifty muscles for the service of respiration , to dilate and contract it by continual alternation , and after the same manner , by accident to move the lungs . i. the broadest and biggest of these muscles , which more inwardly separates the breast from the lower belly , is called the diaphragma . the rest are interwoven with the ribs , or else are spread upon them . ii. those that are interwoven with the ribs , are the intercostals , forty four in all , on each side twenty two , eleven external , and as many internal ; all short and fleshy , sprinkled with oblique fibres , carried from one rib to that which is next , and mutually cutting each other like the greek letter χ. of which , these arise from the lower parts of the upper ribs ; and descending obliquely toward the hinder parts , are inserted into the lower parts of the upper ribs ; the other are carried a contrary course , these end in the gristles , the other fill the spaces of the ribs and gristles . here nicholas stenonis well observes , that there are some muscles besides the intercostals , which are vulgarly numbred among the intercostals , whereas they are muscles quite different from them ; that is to say , those which from the transverse processes of the vertebers terminate in the upper side of the lower ribs , and properly to be called the lifters of the ribs . moreover , he adds this caution , that neither that same part of the exterior intercostals is to be pass'd slightly over , which fastens the bony extremity of the upper rib , with the gristle of the lower . iii. the intercostals receive arteries from each intercostal artery , and send forth veins to the azygon , and upper intercostal . they receive nerves from the sixth pair , to which are joyned those which proceed from the pith of the back . iv. as to the action of the intercostals , anatomists are in dispute about it . iohn mayo , an english man , ascribes to these muscles , the office of dilating the ribs in respiration , or of removing them one from another , and adds also , that the diaphragma dilates the breast . but the first is impossible , seeing that the office of the muscles , is by contracting themselves to draw with them the parts fastned to them , and so the intercostals would draw the ribs which are fastned to them , and streighten the brea●… . the latter , concerning the diaphragma , we have refuted al ▪ ready . some believe that the internal dilate , and the external contract the breast ; others assert quite the contrary , both erroneously , for the reason last alledged . others believe they act nothing in respiration ; but that in expiration they contract the ribs together , and help the motion of the diaphragma ; which is our opinion also , because their actions cannot be different , but that they must conspire to one end , which is to draw the ribs to themselves , and contract the breast . by reason of the smallness and thinness of these muscles , fallopius was of opinion , that they were not muscles , but only fleshy ligaments of the ribs . which were it true , the ribs had not wanted fibres cross-wise cutting one another , as we observe in these muscles . the respiratory muscles which are spread upon the ribs , are six of each side . i. the subclavial , seated under the clavicle , arises fleshy from the inner clavicle near the acromium , and carried forward with oblique fibers , for the most part transverse , is inserted into the first rib near the sternon , and by drawing it upward and outward , dilates the breast . ii. the bigger serratus , seated in the side of the breast , and remarkable for its singular broadness and carnosity , reaches from the inner basis of the scapula to six or seven ribs , and with five unequal extremities , is inserted into five true , and two or three spurious ribs , before they terminate in the gristles ; though riolanus will have it arise from the two upper ribs , and extend it self to the clavicle . however spigelius and vestingius , ascribe an original and use quite contrary , but erroneously . the motion of this muscle is much assisted by the oblique descending muscle of the abdomen , and the motion of this by that . and hence it is that the extremities of the one are interposed into the extremities of the other , finger-wise , and so they both together form a serrate joynture , like the lower serratus posticus . iii. the upper serratus posticus , which being small , is seated in the back under the rhomboides , between both scapulas , and above the first pair of the muscles of the head , and rises with a membrany substance from the spines of the three inferior vertebres of the neck , and of the first of the breast , and is inserted into the intervals of the three or four uppermost ribs , and by lifting them upward dilates the breast . iv. the lower serratus posticus , broad and membranous , seated almost in the middle of the back , under the third broadest muscle of the back , or the aniscalpter , proceeds from the spines of the three inferior muscles of the back ; and of the first of the loins ; and terminates in the three or four lower spurious ribs , by drawing which outward , it dilates the lower part of the breast . v. the sacrolumbus , spread under the preceeding , which arising from the brim of the ilion bone , the hinder part of the os sacrum , and the spiny apophysis of the loins , ascends with a fleshy portion even to the ribs , into all and every one of which it is inserted in the lower part ; and about three fingers distance from the spines , in the place where the ribs begin to bow fastens to a tendon , concerning which tendon anatomists have been much mistaken , some with laurentius , were of opinion that this muscle sent forth a double tendon , one upward to the inferior part of the ribs ; another downward toward their upper part , and that so by the means of these various tendons , ( which are manifest by seven about the ribs ) the ribs were lifted up in fetching breath , and drawn downward in expiration . but in regard such contrary actions cannot be performed by one and the same motion , i thought it probable that the descending tendons proceed from some other peculiar muscle , and therefore upon diligent search i found , that they proceeded from a certain muscle , that lyes spread under the sacrolumbus , and sticks so close to it , that it can hardly be parted . this i perceived ow'd its original to the three , four , five , six , seaven vertebers of the neck ( and therefore i call'd it the descending cervical ) and that it rose from them with a fleshy substance and sent forth tendons downward to the upper part of all the ribs , directly opposite to the tendons of the sacrolumbus , and that the tendons of these two muscles mutual inter-cut one another crose-wise , and that they did not act together but alternately . for that the tendons of the descending cervical draw the ribs upward in fetching breath , so that they may not be remov'd or dilated in the middle spaces one by another ; but the tendons of the sacrolumbus in expiration draw the ribs downward ; so that they may not be contracted to themselves . as to the insertion of the tendons of the sacrolumbus , nicholas stenonis makes this observation . the fibres saith he , are not presently carry'd from the lower rib to the next inferior , but some pass over three , others more that lye in the middle ; neither are those which one fibre sends forth inserted into one fibre only , but some provide for three , others five , others seven ribs . by the same reason , every conspicuous tendon , not contented with that flesh which one rib affords , in some places muster fibres together from four or five ribs together . neither are these things so confus'd , but that in a carkass of any reasonable bigness they may be easily demonstrated and shown ; as well by streight dissection from a tendon descending back ward ; as in a transverse dissection , proceeding upward from the intercepted space between the ribs ; to the end the number of the tendons of one belly may be seen . in regard that every entire belly affords its part to each : so that every entire tendon proceeding from several bellys , receives its portion from every one in particular . vi. the triangular , vulgarly so call'd , though it does not form a true triangle . this being very small and slender proceeds from the middle line of the sternon , and sends forth on each side four small projections to the bony extremities , of the three , four , five and six true ribs , ( where they are joyn'd to the grisles ) by lifting up which ribs they streighten the breast , and depress the fore-part of it . to these six muscles fallopius adds three others seated in the neck , which vesalius with more reason judges to be part of the muscles of the neck and back . these respiratory muscles are secundarily assisted in their duty by the muscles of the abdomen , scapula's , and arms. chap. vii . of the muscles of the back and loyns . by reason of the various motions of the back , and especially of the loyns , forwards , backward and side-ways , tendons of muscles are inserted into every one of the vertebers ; as if there were many muscles there ; which nevertheless some anatomists refer to one great muscle , from which they hold all those tendons are produc'd . which opinion seems to have been grounded upon this , that the muscles of the back and loyns in many places stick so close one to another , that they can hardly be separated , but an exact and curious dissection will shew four pairs of muscles , in the back and loyns , by means of which the violent motions of those parts are perform'd , especially about the last verteber of the breast , and first of the loyns , as being those which stick less close together then the rest . i. the first pair consists of two triangular muscles , which being joyn'd together make a kind of a square , vulgarly call'd par quadratum . these being broad and thick internally proceed from the hindermost upper cavity of the ilion bone , and the lateral part of the os sacrum ; and are inserted into the transverse extuberances of the lumbal vertebers , as far as the last ribs , being of a fleshy substance , and bend the vertebers of the loyns foward , or one or other acting obliquely forward toward the sides . ii. the second and primary pair , consist of the longest muscles , which are extended from the extremity of the os sacrum and ill●…um to the mamillary processes , near the temple bones ; and afford tendons to the several processes of the lumbal vertebers and back ; and for the most part are confus'd with the sacrolumb ●…s , and semi-spinatus as far as the lowermost verteber of the back ; being separated from it toward the upper parts which is the reason that many mistake these three for one muscle , in regard it is so hard a matter to separate them . some have divided this pair , into as many pairs as there are muscles ; but galen rightly describes it for one pair affording tendons to all the muscles . iii. the third pair of the sacred muscles , which rise with a sharp and fleshy beginning from the hinder part of the os sacrum , and terminate with several tendons in the spine of the twelsth verteber of the breast , and for the most part in the spines and oblique processes of the lumbal vertebers also , and assist the action of the former . iv. the fourth pair is compos'd of the semi spinati , which rising with a nervous beginning from all the spines of the os sacrum and loins , in the processes of the loins , and lower transverse ones of the breast ; and lift up the breast . all these muscles acting together the spine is lifted up , and so upheld or bow'd . but when those that are in either side act alone , it is writh'd to the sides . but the muscles of the abdomen , especially the streight ones , mainly assist the bowing of the loins and the whole spine toward the fore-parts . for while they are contracted they depress the abdomen and breast , and withal bow the spine , which he who lying upon his back , and would raise himself without the help of his hands , shall manifestly perceive . chap. viii . of the muscles of the abdomen and the parts contain'd in the lower belly . i. the abdomen is furnish'd with ten muscles , for squeezing down the nourishment and violent expulsion of the excrements and birth . two obliquely ascending , and as many obliquely descending ; two streight , and as many pyramidical , these adhereing together in the lower part ; and two transverse . the podex has three muscles one sphincter and two lifters up . l. . cap. . the bladder is purs'd together with one sphincter . l. . cap. . the testicles of men hang by two muscles call'd free-masters . l. . cap. . the yard has four muscles . l. . cap. . the clitoris in women is furnish'd with four muscles . l. . cap. . chap. ix . of the muscles of the elbow . the elbow consists of two bones , which as they are knit together with various articulations , so have they their motions somewhat various . the bone of the elbow directs bending and extention . the radius turns the palm and back of the hand either upward or downward ; and therefore they have their proper muscles to direct their different motions . i. the bone of the elbow is mov'd with four muscles , two bending , seated in the fore-part of the arm , and two extending , which possesses the hinder part of the arm. the first are call'd biceps and brachioeus , the latter long and short. ii. that call'd biceps , rises with a double and strong beginning , the one nervous , from the acetabula of the scapula it self . the other partly fleshy , partly nervous , from the coracoides excrescence of the scapula . which beginnings being afterwards united , it takes up with its body the inner seat of the arm , and is inserted with a thick tendon into the innermost prominency , somewhat fasten'd to the ligament of the joynt . iii. the brachiaeus is lay'd or spread underneath the former , and is altogether fleshy , proceeding from the middle part of the bone of the arm , and terminating between the radius and the elbow , in the place where they are fasten'd together , this with the former most rightly bends the elbow . iv. the long muscle shews it self with a strong , broad , but double beginning , the higher , from the lower rib of the omoplate ; the other lower , which being joyn'd together , under the head of the shoulder-bone terminates in the olicrane or top of the elbow . v. the short one , arising from the hinder neck of the arm , terminates in that part of the olicrane , where the former ends , and upon which it rests . this together with the former makes a strong and sinewy tendon , by which the arm is extended . to these four muscles the two former are added by latter anatomists . vi. . the externai brachiaeus , by riolane so call'd , which is a fleshy lump , confounded with the long and the short , and inserted into the same part. vii . the aconaeus , which being but of a small bulk , rises from the lower part of the shoulder behind , and runing along between the two bones of the elbow obliquely descends to the side of the arm. these if they are to be accounted particular muscles , must assist the extension of the long and the short. chap. x. of the muscles of the radius . four muscles move the radius , of which the two innermost , which move it inward , are call'd pronators . the two outermost which turn it outward are call'd supinators . i. the first of the pronatores , from its round form is call'd rotundus ; which being produc'd from the inner part of the little swelling of the shoulder runs with a membranous tehdon , almost to the middle of the radius . ii. the second , which is the lowermost , and is call'd quadratus ; being extended from the inner side of the arm athawrt , proceeds above the ligament , which fastens the radius to the elbow , and is joyn'd to the inner part of the radius . iii. the first of the supinators , which is the longer , arising from the extream little bunch of the shoulder , descends to the lowermost top of the radius . iv. the other proceeding from the external apophysis of the arm , terminates near the middle of the radius . note , that although the descriptions of the muscles of the radius follow next in order to that of the muscles of the elbow , however in demonstrations the muscles of the fingers , thumb and wrist are first to be shewn ; afterwards the muscles of the radius , as being more commodiously to be seen , when the others are taken away . chap. xi . of the muscles of the wrist , and hollow of the hand . the wrist is extended , bended , and moved sideways by the benefit of four muscles , two external , and as many internal . i. nevertheless , before these , the palmary muscle is in the first place to be demonstrated , which is spread under almost all the muscles of the inner part of the hand . it derives its original from the inner little bunch of the shoulder , fleshy at the beginning , afterwards attenuated into a slender tendon , which passing beyond the annulary ligament of the wrist , is dilated into the sinewy membrane through the hollow of the hand , expanded to the confines of the fingers , so closely adhering to the skin , that it can hardly be separated from it . this by wrinkling the skin , strengthens the force of grasping , and endues the hollow of the hand with an extraordinary sence of feeling . next to the palmary muscle , lies a certain piece of flesh at the beginning of the inner part of the hand , in the lower part of the mount of the moon , close by the eighth little bone of the wrist , sometimes divided into two , sometimes into three , outwardly representing the form of two sometimes three muscles , and is carried into the inner and middle part of the hollow of the hand , stretched under , and folded into , the palmary muscle . this , by bringing the fleshy eminency lying under the articular finger to the tenar , renders the hand hollow , and forms a diogenes's dish . ii. the first of the inner muscles of the wrist , called by the name of the inner cubitaeus , rises from the inner apophysis of the arm , and being fastned to the elbow , is inserted with a thick tendon into the fifth bone of the wrist . iii. the second , called radiaeus internus , being produced from the same place , is extended through the radius , and terminates in the bone which sustains the index of the metacarpus . these two clutch the hand . the first of the external mufcles of the wrist , called the external radiaeus , or double-horned , proceeding with a broad and two-fold original from the bony sharpness of the arm , rests with a fleshy substance upon the radius , and with a double tendon is inserted into the first and second bone of the metacarpus . this , by reason of its double beginning , and double insertion , by some is described as double . iv. the other called the external cubitaeus , rises from the external apophysis of the arm , and being carried through the elbow , is inserted with one tendon into the fourth bone of the metacarpus , lying under the little-finger . if only one or two of these four muscles act on one side , then the hand is moved sideways , and that either upward or downward , or in the middle , as either the external or internal only , or both move together . chap. xii . of the muscles of the fingers and thumb . the fingers have several strong muscles allotted them , as well to strengthen them , as for the performance of their various motions ; by which they are bended , extended , or moved side-ways . the sublimae , the profound , and the lumbrical bend . i. the sublime , which is also call'd the perforated , arises from the inner bunch of the shoulder-bone , and is divided about the wrist into four tendons , being as it were slit toward the end like a chink , through which the tendon of the following muscle passes , which are inserted into the second internode of the fingers . ii. the profound , called also the boaring-muscle , rises from the upper parts of the elbow and radius a little below the joynt , and passing in four divisions , with strong tendons through the chinks and clefts of the former , is inserted into the third bone of the fingers . iii. now that there may be a direct bending of the fingers , and that the contracted tendons may not rise and lift up the fingers , they are enclosed in a channel composed of strong membranes , and fat and oyly withinside , running the whole length of the inner part of the hand , wherein they have a free course . iv. those which are called the lumbricals , rising with a slender substance from the tendons of the profound muscle , terminate in the first internode with a round tendon , intermix'd with the tendons of the inter-bone muscles . sometimes mixing themselves farther with the inter-bone muscles , they run along the sides of the fingers , as far as the third internode , and bend the fingers side-ways . v. muscles of two sorts extend the fingers , some common , others proper . vi. the common ones , which serve to all the four fingers , are two , rising from the extream part of the shoulder-bunch , which in their progress unite together , and are firmly knit with united tendons to the second and third bone of the fingers . whence sylvius and riolanus describe them for one muscle , which they call by the name of the great extender , or magni tensoris . vii . those called proper , being such as extend one finger only , are of two sorts . viii . the first , the proper extender of the fore-finger , which it has besides the common one , by riolanus and veslingius called the indicator , rising from the middle and extream region of the elbow , and is inserted with a forked tendon into the second articulation ; of which two tendons , the other unites with the tendon of the common extensor . ix . the other is the proper extender of the little-finger , which rising from the upper part of the radius , and running between the elbow and the radius , is externally inserted with a double tendon into the auricular finger , one of which intermixes with the tendon of the common extensor . x. the fingers are drawn side-ways , either toward the thumb , or from it , by the assistance of the eight inter-bone muscles ; of which , the four innermost obtain the interval between the bones of the metacarp ; the four outermost being placed in the palm of the hand , rest upon the upper side of the former . they rise from the upper part of the metacarp near the wrist ; thence sometimes alone , sometimes united with the lumbricals , with their tendons , creep along the sides of the three bones of the fingers , to the very root of the nails , where the tendons uniting above and below , terminate . from these the middle and ring-finger receive two tendons , the fore-finger and little-finger one ; galen believes the hinder bones of the fingers to be extended also by these muscles . besides the lumbricals aforesaid , these are two proper muscles that move side-ways . xi . the first is the proper aductor of the fore-finger , by some confounded with the proper extensor of the fore-finger , which rises from the first internal internode of the thumb , terminates in the bones of the fore-finger , and brings the fore-finger toward the thumb . xii . the other , called the proper adductor of the little-finger , and which riolanus believes may be slit in two , takes its rise in the hollow of the hand , from the third and second bone of the wrist , of the second order , and is inserted into the side of the first joynt of the little-finger , and draws it from the rest of the fingers . xiii . the thumb , which is equal in strength to all the rest of the fingers , is extended by the benefit of two long muscles , which arise from the exterior side of the elbow ; of which , the one reaches to the third internode . the other carried beyond the wrist , is inserted withoutside with a double tendon , into the first and second joynt of the thumb . xiv . it is bended by two muscles , the one a strong one , which rising from the upper part of the radius , runs forth to the first and second internode of the thumb ; the other of a lesser bulk , which proceeding from the bone of the wrist , is spread underneath the other , and extended to the middle of the thumb . riolanus will not acknowledge this latter for a bender , but believes the muscles rising from the bones of the wrist and metacarp , to be the adductors and abductors . xv. it is drawn to the other fingers by three muscles , proceeding from the three lower bones of the metacarp , and inserted into the second bone of the thumb . xvi . it is drawn outward by two muscles , of which , the one arising from the inner bone of the wrist , which sustains the thumb , is inserted into the second internode of the thumb , with a membranous tendon . the other possessing the space between the thumb and fore-finger , rises from the hinder seat of the bone of the metacarp that lies under the fore-finger , and with a fleshy substance , is inserted into the internode of the thumb , all along the outermost side , whence it sends a membranous tendon to the second . chap. xiii . of the muscles of the thigh . in regard the office of the foot is to walk and stand , which consists in fixation and motion , for that in walking , while one foot is set to the ground , the other still moves forward ; for the performance of both these offices , there is a necessity of various muscles , of which , some move the thigh , others the leg , others the feet , together with the toes . the thigh is extended , bended , brought forward , carried backward , and turned about . three muscles therefore bend the thigh . i. first , the lumbar muscle , which is for the most part round , thick , and livid , and seated in the hollow capacity of the abdomen . it arises with a fleshy beginning about the two lower vertebers of the breast , and the three upper vertebers of the loyns , and descending along the inner superficies of the ilion bone is inserted with a round and strong tendon into the lesser little wheel of the thigh , in the higher part before , and strongly draws the thigh upward . but because the reins lye upon this muscle , being endued with a remarkable sinew , in the same place where the sinew enters them ; hence it comes to pass , that if any stone be in the kidneys , there happens a numness in the thigh on that side , by reason of its compression . over this , sometimes is spread the other small muscle , called the small lumbal , which where it begins for about a fingers length , being carried over the lumbal it self , fleshy , slender , and with a flat tendon , terminates together with the lumbal and iliac , closely embraces it and keeps it firm in its seat. this riolanus reports is not to be found in women . bartholine also writes , that in the year . he saw another psoa , somewhat bigger than this , about the breadth of three fingers , which bending outwards more to the sides , lay partly under the great lumbal , and lastly , was inserted with a fleshy substance into the upper edge of the iliac bone , where the inner iliac muscle rises . ii. . the internal iliacus , which with a slender and fleshy beginning rising in the inner con●…avity of the ilian bone , unites with its tendon to the lumbal , and terminates forward between the greater and the lesser trochanter . iii. . the pectineus , which is of a livid colour ; this rising broad and fleshy from the upper part of the share-bone , near the commissure , close by its gristle , is inserted with a short and broad tendon into the inner side of the thigh , and starts out to the hinder parts , where the thigh bends strongly upward and inward , and by that means one thigh is laid upon another . and therefore not without reason , it is by bartholin referred to the adducting muscles . three muscles extend the thigh , which are called glutaei , and constitute the buttocks , and are besides serviceable to the act of walking . iv. . the larger glutaeus , which rising very fleshy from the coccyx , the spine of the os sacrum , and the rib of the ilion bone , terminates with a strong tendon four fingers below the great trochanther . v. . the middle glutaeus , both for situation and bigness , is for the most part spread under the former . this springing forth with a fleshy beginning from the rib and back of the ilion bone , in the forepart , and possessing almost the whole region of the ilion bone , is inserted with a broad tendon into the foremost and higher part of the bigger trochanter , girdling it every way . vi. . the lesser glutaeus , which lies altogether hidden under the second ; this comes out of a fleshy substance from the back of the ilion bone , and from the hinder and lower seat of it , and is inserted with a strong and robust tendon into the inner part and top of the larger trochanter or extuberance of the thigh . vii . the three-headed muscle draws the thigh inward , which from its fourfold beginning , according to fallopius , bauhinus and riolanus , more truly deserves to be called the four-headed muscle . this is the thickest of all the muscles in the whole body , of which , the several parts , as they vary in their rise and insertion , so also in their fibers , and somewhat as to their use . for which reason , bartholinus divides it into three muscles , though he had done better to have made it four . the first part rises with a sinewy beginning from the upper line of the share bone , and is inserted into the rough line of the thigh . the second comes out from the lowest commissure of the share-bone , and terminates in the sharp line of the thigh , at the upper part. the third part arises from the whole lower part of the hip , and is inserted into the hinder rough line of the thigh under the lesser rotator . the fourth part proceeding from the top of the hip with a round tendon , which unites with a slender tendon of a portion of the first part , terminates in the inner and inferior extuberance of the thigh . riolanuus writes , that the first part is inserted into the middle of the thigh , the second below the neck , and that the third extends it self with a most robust tendon to the extremity of the thigh . they who allow but three beginnings to this muscle , instead of a fourth beginning , add to it a peculiar muscle , which riolanus calls the pectineus , veslingius the livid muscle , which indeed is but the forth part of the three headed muscle . viii . four small muscles bring the thigh to the outer side , called quadrigemini , because they are almost alike one to another , and alternately placed in the part behind , above the articulation of the thigh . the first and uppermost quadrigeminus , from its pear-like shape , call'd pyriformis , from its situation , the external iliacus , comes out from the lowermost part of the os sacrum . the second from the extuberance of the thigh-bone . the third contiguous to it from the same place . the fourth called quadratus , broader and more fleshy than the rest , and about two fingers breadth distant from the third arises from the inner part of the protuberancy of the ischion , and terminates in the external part of the great trochanter . ix . two muscles wheel the thigh obliquely , call'd the coverers or obturators , which possess an open hole between the share-bone and the thigh-bone , and assist the thigh in going backward ; one internal , the other external . the internal which is the stronger , proceeding fleshy and broad from the inner circumference of the said hole , and being carry'd transversly outward above the hip , with a three headed tendon , passing through a purse for securities sake , enters the concavity of the great trochanter , and there causes external rotation . the external , which lyes under the pectineus , beginning from the outward circumference of the said hole , with a fleshy substance , and winding through the neck of the thigh , like a periwincle shell is inserted into the concavity of the great trochanter with a large and strong tendon , and directs internal rotation . note , that although the muscles of the thigh , in the order of demonstration hold the first place , yet in dissection they cannot so commodiously be shewn unless the muscles of the leg be first remov'd . which are therefore in demonstrations first to be shew'd . chap. xiv . of the muscles of the leg. the leg is mov'd three ways , bent , extended and mov'd obliquely . five muscles bend the leg. i. . the longest , also called fascialis , or the swath-band muscle , presently occuring before , under the skin rises with a sinewy and fleshy beginning from the inner extuberance of the illion-bone , and being spread , slender as it is , like a swath-band over other muscles , is carry'd through the inner parts of the thigh , and terminates near the knee , in a tendon , which is inserted into the fore-part of the shin-bone , in an acute line ; and therefore riolan●…s not without reason justifies , that this muscle rather extends the leg than brings it inward . ii. . call'd gracilis , or slender , resting toward the inside upon the longest , rises at the commissure of the share-bone , with a large and sinewy beginning , and running out into the inner parts of the thigh , is inserted into the inner part of the leg with a round tendon . iii. . call'd the seminervous , rising from the extuberancy of the ischion , with a nervous and slender beginning , obliquely descends through the hinder and inner parts of the thigh , and terminates with a round tendon , in the hinder and inner part of the leg , and its tendon runs out into the middle of the leg. iv. . the fourth call'd the semimembranous , rises from the same place and extends it self to the hinder part of the leg with a tendon somewhat broader . v. . the two-headed muscle , proceeds from the same extuberancy of the hip , and in being carry'd through the external part of the thigh , and about the middle of the thigh assuming a new fleshy lump , as it were a new muscle , and so descending downward , is inserted with a remarkable tendon , into the process of the bone of the button in the lower part. this muscle has been observ'd , to have a double rise and termination : for that reason by vesalius call'd the double muscle . to the extention of the leg belong five or six muscles . vi. . the membranous proceeding accute and spiny from the upper spine of the ilion bone ; in the outer part , near the larger process of the thigh it alters into a very long and broad membrane , which like a transverse ligament , therefore call'd the broad swath-band enfolds all the muscles of the leg and thigh , and by that means keeps them fix'd in their seat , running out to the extream part of the thigh . it is intermixt , about its insertion with the tendons of the following muscles , and is inserted into the fore part of the leg and button , toward the outer side ; and extends the leg right forward , and draws it , as others affirm , somewhat outward . vii . . the long muscle , by riolanus call'd sutorius , by veslingius fascialis , rises from the foremost appendix of the ilion-bone , and carry'd with an oblique course through the inner parts of the thigh , descends under the knee to the leg , within side , and extending it , brings it to , and lays one upon the other , after the manner of shoo-makers . viii . . the streight muscle , growing from the lower spine of the ilionbone , runs along with a fleshy and round belly all the length of the thigh , and with a strong and round tendon including the little dish , terminates under it in the leg. ix . . the internal vast muscle , arising from the neck and lesser rotator of the thigh , is inserted into the leg with inside a little below the small cup. x. . the external vast muscle , taking its rise more outwardly from the lesser rotator of the thigh , terminates a little below the small cup , with a large tendon in the outer part of the leg. xi . to these five extensory muscles some there are who add a sixth muscle adhering to the thigh , which they call crureus ; whose original they place between the two rotators of the thigh , and give it the same ending with the vast muscles . the four last of these extensory muscles uniting together about the knee , from one common broad and strong tendon , wherewith they involve the cup , and strongly bind together the bones of the thigh and leg. xii . the poplitan or ham-muscle , brings the leg obliquely to , lying hid in the hollow of the ham , and rising from the lower and exterior extuberance of the thigh , and carry'd obliquely through the hinder and inner part of the upper appendix of the leg , is inserted therein , with a square body . this muscle riolanus asserts , that he has seen double . chap. xv. of the muscles of the foot or ball of the foot. the foot is bent , extended , and mov'd sideways . two muscles before bend the foot upward . i. . the tibial before , arising from the upper part of the leg and button , adheres to the whole leg upon the outside . thence running out under the annular ligament of the foot , terminates in the bone of the ball under the great toe . sometimes it is divided under the ligament of the foot into two tendons . of which the one is inserted into the first nameless bone , the other is inserted into the bone of the metatarsus just before the great toe . this muscle , where it winds back under the ball , is furnish'd with a gristle and a little sessamoides bone. ii. . the peronaeus before , which all along its whole progress is joyn'd to the side of the preceding muscle , and terminates in the outer side of the leg. this beginning fleshy and nervous from the upper part of the button , and passing the fissure of the external part of the heel , with a strong tendon , sometimes parted into two , is fix'd into the bone of the metatarsus , which sustains the little toe . when the muscle is parted in two , then the bigger part of it runing obliquely under the sole of the foot , is inserted into the bone of the pedion just against the great toe . but when the tendon is divided , then the beginning of it uses to be double ; that is one from the upper part of the button , the other from the middle of the heel : and hence it is that some anatomists make two buttons of it . three muscles extend the foot ; call'd by the names of gastrocnemius , soleus , and plantaris ; of which the two first by means of their thickness and bulk , constitute the belly of the calf . iii. the gastrocnemius , rises with a twofold beginning from the internal and external head of the inside of the thigh , under the ham ; and by reason of its double beginning is taken for two muscles . this , growing out into a tumid belly , at the lower part by means of a strong tendon united with the tendon of the selo●…s , is inserted into the heel . iv. the soleus , so call'd from a fish nam'd a sole , is a muscle broad and thick , which rising from the hinder and uppermost commissure of the leg and button , and uniting a little above the heel , with the tendon of the gastrocnem●…us is inserted into the hinder part of the bone of the heel . v. the plantaris lyes hid among the rest in the ham , and proceeds with a small and fleshy body , from the outermost head of the lower part of the thigh , and then terminates under the knee into a long and slender tendon : which being close united with the tendons of the gastrocnemius and soleus is fix'd into the heel , and extends it self half way to the bottom of the foot. these three muscles toward the end are intermix'd together , and form one strong tendon inserted into the hinder part of the heel , which by reason of its extraordinary strength , is call'd the great cord , the wounds of which are very dangerous causing fevers , hickups and convulsions . veslingius believes this tendon not only to be inserted into the heel , but also to extend it self to the very confines of the toes . however , that before its insertion , by reason of the prominency of the heel-bone , it separates somewhat from the leg , and forms that space , where achilles so luckily hit hector when he slew him . vi. the hinder tibial muscle moves the foot inward , which rising between the leg and the button and assix'd to the whole leg , runs out underneath to the bone of the ball , which is fasten'd to the cube-form'd bone . sometimes it produces double tendons , of which one is inserted into the navicular-bone , the other into the first nameless-bone . vii . the hinder peronaeus draws the foot outward , which being produc'd from the upper and hindermost part of the button , and carry'd through the fissure of the external part of the malleoles , together with the foremost peronaeus , with a hard and round tendon , separated from the tendon of the antic peronaeus , winds towards the lower parts of the feet , about the region of the cube-form'dbone , and carry'd below the pedion , is inserted into the root of the large cubeform'd-bone , which is plac'd before the thumb . riolanus numbers this postic peronaeus among the benders , perhaps because it bends the foot at the same time it carrys it away . viii . sometimes , though very rarely a third peronaeus is found , very slender , which runs forth together with the postic , through the lower parts of the foot , nothing different either in its insertion or use , though much inferiour in strength . chap. xvi . of the muscles of the toes and great toe . the toes have several muscles , which bend , extend and move them obliquely . the four lesser toes are extended by two muscles which are call'd tensors . i. . the long tensor , which being hid under the fore-part of the leg , rises from the fore-part and inner part of the leg , where it is joyn'd to the button under the knee . hence it descends in a streight line all along the length of the button , and separated into four tendons , passes beyond the anulary ligaments , and is inserted into the three articulations of the four fingers at the upper part . ii. . the short tensor , rising not far from the bone call'd astragalus at the upper part , and spread under the long tensor , thrusts it self into all the joynts of the first internode with its tendons , which are cross'd like an x with other long tendons above the meta-tarsus . the four lesser toes are bent by six little muscles call'd flexores or benders . iii. . the long bender or broad , and sublime , which together with the following short lyes hid behind under the muscles that constitute the calf . this derives its original from the upper part of the muscle behind , and about the inside of the malleolus creeping under the ligament of the leg and heel , in the sole of the foot is shiver'd into four tendons , which passing through the holes of the short flexor is inserted into the third articulation of the four toes . iv. . the short flexor which is also call'd the bor'd and deep proceeds more below , and more inwardly from the heel , and sending forth four tendons , divided toward the end with a cleft at the passage of the tendons of the preceding muscle , runs forth into the second internode of the toes . v. , , , . call'd the four lumbrical muscles , proceeding from the tendons of the long and short tensor , or rather from the ligament enfolding them , and augmented by a certain piece of flesh rising from the heel , are inserted with their tendons into the first internode of the four lesser toes , with their several tendons . bartholinus , writes that he has observed another flexor of the little toe , rising from the head of the leg , and divided into two tendons about its insertion into the toe . vi. the oblique motion of the toe is perform'd by ten inter-bone muscles , seated both in and between the bones of the metatarsus , and springing from a fleshy mass ; of which the external terminate in the first internode of the toes ; the innermost run forth to the second internode , by the first the toes are drawn outward , by the second they are bent inward ; and when both act together , they are extended . vii . the litle toe has a peculiar abductor proceeding from the heel , and fix'd without side to the fifth bone of the metatarsus ; which is inserted into the outmost side of the first internode . the great toe has several muscles . viii . . the flexor , joyning to the long tensor of the toes , which rises more behind with a fleshy substance from the upper part of the button , and following the boaring muscle , is fasten'd with a strong tendon to the third bone of the great toe . sometimes it is divided under the sole of foot into two tendons , of which one goes to the great , the other to the second toe ; and then the long flexor sends but three tendons to the other toes . ix . . the extensor rising from the outer side of the leg , where the button goes back , and creeping through the upper parts of the foot , is inserted into the whole great toe on the upper part . sometimes it sends forth a double tendon , one to the last joynt of the great toe , the other to the bone of the metatarsus , that lyes under the great toe . x. . the abductor proceeding from the inner part of the heel , and being fasten'd to the inner side of the foot all the length of it , is fasten'd without side into the first bone of the thumb . xi . . the abductor major arising from the ligament of the bone of the metatarsus , which lyes under the little toe and the next to it , terminates with a short and strong tendon , in the first joynt of the great toe in the inner part. xii . . abductor minor , by casserius call'd the transversal proceeding from the ligament of the little toe , which binds the first internode , is carry'd transverse and fleshy , and stretches it self more inwardly to the first bone of the great toe , with a short and broad tendon . to this some ascribe another use , believing it there apply'd to gather together the first bones of the toes . riolanus believes that it serves only for a pillow , least the tendons should be injur'd by the hardness of the ground and the bones . casserius , who is said to be the first discoverer of this muscle , will have it assign'd to bring the great toe toward the little toe , thereby to make the foot hollow , for the more easie walking in stony and unequal places , by the more firm taking hold of the step . xiii . in the flat of the foot , which is called vestigium , or the footstep , there is to be observ'd a fleshy mass , which like a cushion , lyes under the muscles and tendons . which some confound with the universal muscle . an appendix concerning the membranes and fibres . chap. i. of the membranes in general . i. a membrane is a white similar part , broad , flat , thick , and extensible , produc'd out of the clammy and viscous part of the seed , preserving , containing , gathering together , corroborating and disterminating the parts that lye under it or contained within it . ii. it was call'd by the antient 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , and 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 . all which words at that time signify'd one and the same thing . afterwards these words became particular , and were attributed to particular membranes . for now hymen properly signifies that membrane which resides in the neck of the womb , vulgarly called claustrum virginitatis , the fence of virginity . menina , signifies that membrane that enfolds the brain . and 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 or t●…nica , is the general name for all membranes that cover the veins , arteries , ureters , &c. at this day membrane is a general word , signifying any membrane that enfolds a fleshy part , the pericardium , periosteum , peritonaeum , the membrane of the muscles , &c. iii. there can be hardly any certain original of the membranes describ'd ; as being parts subsisting of themselves , form'd out of seed , and every where conspicuous in the body . many have with probability enough deriv'd them from the menin●…es . lindan writes , that the substance of the heart is wrapt about with a very transparent and very thick membrane , which he believes to grow from the dilated extremities of the fibres of the heart , and thence would have us consider whether all the rest of the membranes do not arise by a certain propagation from this membrane of the heart . but these are mere conjectures , hardly credible ; rather it is to be said , that the membranes are spermatic parts , form'd with other spermatic parts , out of the seed at the first formation of the embryo , and that therefore they have no other original than the seed . iv. the membranes are nourish'd like the rest of the parts by arterious blood , flowing out of the arteries into their substance , and fermented therein , by the mixture of animal spirits , the residue of which either unapt for nourishment or superfluous , is carry'd back through the tubes of the veins , into the hollow vein . v. now the membranes are the organs of feeling , for all the sensible parts , even the nerves themselves , feel by the help of the membranes only : which those parts that want are destitute of sence , as the bones , gristles , the fleshy parts of many bowels , wherein the sence of feeling no farther extends it self then to the membrane that enfolds it . this faculty of feeling is bequeathed to them by the animal spirits continually flowing into them through the nerves , which influx ceasing , the sence of feeling also fails , as in apoplexies , palsies , &c. such membranes also into which few spirits flow , are dull of feeling . thus veins and arteries are said to be void of sence , because they feel but dully . vi. the differences of membranes are many . in respect of their substance ; some thin , some thick , some legitimate , as the pleura , periosteum , &c. others illegitimate , as being rather membranous bodies , such are membranous ligaments , tendons , the stomac , intestines , bladder , &c. in respect of their figure , some broad , some long , some triangular , &c. in respect of their situation , some inward , some outward . vii . the number of the membranes is almost infinite , but the most considerable are these that follow . in the birth , the chorion , amnios , the urinary membrane , and in brutes , the alantois . in the whole body of man , the cuticle , the skin , the fleshy pannicle , the membranes of the muscles , the periostea , and the membranes of the vessels . in the head without , the pericranium , more inward , both the meninxes , which descend from the cranium into the spinal concavity , involving the spinal pith , and extends themselves the whole length of the nerves . in the eye , seven tunicles , the nameless , the conjunctive , the horny , uveous , net-like , spiders web , and vitreous . in the ear , the membrane of the tympanum . in the mouth , the tunicle proper to the tongue and palate , as also that which is common to the mouth , the chaps , the gullet and stomach . in the breast , the pleura , the mediastinum , the pericardium , the tunicle investing the lungs and heart , and the valves of the heart . in the lower belly , the peritonaeum , epiploon , the mesenterie , and the membranes that enfold the several bowels ; as also those of which the intestines , the bladder , and other parts are composed . of all which primary membranes , mention has been already made in their proper places . besides these , there is an infinite number of thin membranes that have no names . chap. ii. of the fibres . fibres are white similar parts , solid , oblong , like little strings , designed for the motion of some , and the preservation of other parts . i. they are parts which are not derived from others , but existing of themselves , for the complement of those parts where they are required . and therefore they mistake , who believe them to be produced from the brain , or from the spinal marrow , as are also they who think them the productions of the nerves , it being impossible that the nerves should be expanded into so many strings . for example , a small nerve , which shall consist of twenty fibrous strings , is inserted into some larger muscle , consisting of a hundred fibrous strings , much bigger and stronger than those in the nerve . thus the whole body of the heart is fibrous , whereas it has very few , and those very small nerves . the fibres indeed communicate with the nerves , so far as they receive animal spirits from them , yet they are no more productions from them , then the veins are productions of the arteries , from whence they receive blood. therefore they are parts existing of themselves , united to others for common use . ii. their action is , to be contracted into one another . though riolanus believes , that rather use than action is to be attributed to them . all the muscles are moved by fibres , which being cut or wounded , their motion ceases . therefore the wonderful contexture of the fibres of the heart , is the reason that it is able to endure such a continual motion . the stomach , intestines , womb , bladder , and the like parts are furnished with fibres , the more to strengthen them in retention and expulsion . lastly , all the parts that are appointed for actual performance , are full of fibres . however , some do question whether there be any such things as the little fibres of the brain , lungs and liver , and fallopius positively denies them ; but now adays there is no body doubts of them , more than that the arteries and veins are not without fibres ; though fallopius and vesalius will hardly admit them , because they are so very small : however fernelius brisot , fuchsius , and other eminent men allow them , for the strength and preservation of the vein , and teach us that their streightness is to be observed in blood-letting . and this experience teaches us in warts , when the orbicular and oblique fibres being broken , the tunicle of the veins will be extended after a strange manner , nor can ever be again contracted or reduc'd to its first condition . iii. vulgarly there is a threefold difference observed from their situation . some are streight , which are extended at full length ; some are transverse , which intercut the streight ones ; others oblique , which mutually cut both . but to these three differences we must add orbicular fibres , as in the sphincter muscle , unless you will reckon them among the transverse ones . the streight ones , are vulgarly said to attract , the oblique to retain , the transverse to expel ; which three distinctions , fallopius , not undeservedly derides , and teaches us how that all the fibres expel , but that none in respect of themselves either attract or retain . but the parts that perform one single action , have single fibres , as several muscles whose action is single , that is to say , contraction . but they that perform many actions , are furnished with various fibers , as the intestines which retain and expel , to which the streight ones are added to strengthen and corroborate . but the membranes which ought to be every way fitted and prepared for action , have fibres so intermixed , that their whole substance seems to be but a contexture of fibres joyned together . the sixth book of anatomy . treating of the arteries . chap. i. of the arteries in general . in the body of man there are three vessels that go under the name of arteries . . the aspera or trachea , lib. . cap. . . the pulmonary , by some erroneously called the arterious vein , lib. . cap. . . the great artery , or aorta , to be discoursed of in this book . i. this great artery is an organic similar part , oblong , round , hollow , appointed for conveighing the spirituous blood. it is called organic , because it is appointed for a certain use , that is , to conveigh the blood. it is called similar , not in a strict , but profunctory sence . for though it be thought to be composed of fibres and membranes , yet because it is every where compacted after the same manner , the artery in the hand not differing from the artery in the foot , or in any other part , hence it is reckoned among the similar parts . it is said to be appointed to carry or convey the spirituous blood. ii. not that the arterious blood is altogether spirituous , but the greater part of it is such , from which greater part the denomination is taken . for some parts of it are more , others less spirituous . for when the chylus being mixt with the blood of the hollow vein , enters the heart the first time , it does not presently obtain so great a subtilty , attenuation , and spirituosity , as those particles of the blood mixed with the chylus , have obtain'd , which have passed many times through the heart by circulation , and have been many times dilated therein . for as in the distillation of wine , the oftner it is distilled , the more subtil , the more pure and efficacious the spirit is , which is drawn off from it ; so the blood , the oftner it is dilated , the spirituous particles are the better separated from the thick mass , and the more attenuated , and what is not yet so perfectly attenuated , and consequently less fit for nourishment , returns through the heart again , to be therein more perfectly dilated . and therefore , i admire at the learned ent , who says that the arterious blood is worse than the veiny blood , whereas the first is far more spituous than the latter . but , says he , it is much thinner and more serous than the veiny . however it is much more spirituous ; whence that thinness , which seems to be serosity , though it be not so . thus spirit of wine is thinner and more fluid than wine , is it therefore more serous and worse ? but , says he , the arterious blood has left much of its oyl in the lap of life , the heart . i deny it , for there is no comparison to be made betwen a lighted lamp and the spiritification of the heart , vid. lib. . c. . besides the blood , the arteries sometimes by accident , carry depraved and corrupt humors mixt with the blood , though there be no mention made of this in the definition , because it is not their designed use . iii. andreas , laurentius , emilius , parisanus and others , believe , that the arteries attract air through their ends and invisible pores to cool and ventilate the blood. but then there would be two contrary motions at the same time in the same arteries , of the blood push'd forth to the exterior parts , and of the air entring the inner parts , which can never be . besides , there being a necessity that the vital spirits should be conveighed through the heart through all parts of the body , it would be a dangerous thing to cool that heat so necessary to life , especially in cold and phlegmatic people . iv. rolfinch believes the arteries serve for the dissipation of vapors . but the thickness of their substance declares this to be false , that nothing , or very little of spirituous and serous liquor can exhale through it , but less what is thick and earthy as adust vapors , therefore those adust vapors are dissipated and separated from the blood , when the blood is poured forth out of the arteries into the substance of the parts , whose larger pores are proper to evacuate those adust vapors , either insensibly or by heat . more absurd are they , who believe the blood to be carried through certain arteries to the right ventricle of the liver , and through certain others from the spleen to the left ventricle of the heart , and as ridiculous are they , who think they carry nothing but vital spirits , and no alimentary blood. baertholin believes the limpha to be carried through the arteries , and with him rolfinch . for that the lympha being mixed with the chylus and veiny blood , when the whole mass is dilated in the heart , it ceases to be lympha any more . nor do any lymphatic vessels open into the arteries in the mid-way ; neither do the arterious blood , when sufficiently spirituous , stand in need of that fermentaceous liquor . the great artery , from whence the lesser branches spring , derives its original from the left ventricle of the heart , as from its local principle , but not as its material beginning , or principle of generation , for that as hippocrates says , no part arises from another . v. the substance of the arteries is membranous , for the more easie contraction and dilatation . they also consist of a double proper tunicle , the one external , the other internal . which least they should be pain'd with continual pulsation , are endued but with an ordinary sence of feeling , and are therefore vulgarly thought to be quite void of sence . vi. the outward tunicle is thin and soft , endowed with many streight , and some few oblique figures ; which seems to be derived from the exterior tunicle of the heart , and to be continuous with it . vii . the innermost , harder and much thicker , to conveigh the spirituous and vaporous blood with more security ; which thickness and hardness is more conspicuous in the great arteries next the heart , which first receive the boiling blood from the heart , both thickness and hardness abating , the farther off they recede from the heart , and as the blood by the way relaxes of its heat and subtilty , so that toward the ends it is very thin and soft ; very little differing from the substance of the veins , only in the whiteness of their colour . viii . vulgarly this tunicle is said to have many transverse fibres , few oblique . but rolfinch deni●…s any fibres proper to the arteries . but the contrary appears in the great arteries being boil'd , where the fibres are manifestly to be discern'd . besides that , unless the arteries were strengthened by transverse fibres , they would be two much dilated by violent pulsation , and would so remain , as being destitute of contracting fibres , which is the reason of the tumor called aneurisma , for that this tunicle being burst , together with its fibres , the blood slips into the first soft tunicle , and presently swells it up . ix . the inner tunicle , as galen observes , is overcast with a very thin little skin within side , like a broad cobweb , which may be said to be a third proper tunicle . riolanus writes , that he never could find it ; but for all that it is sufficiently conspicuous in the greater arteries , and therefore probable to be in the lesser , and appears continuous with the tunicle ensolding the inner ventricles of the heart , when it is manifest , that the arteries borrow this inner tunicle , as well as the outermost , from the heart , as the nerves borrow two tunicles from the brain . x. besides the foresaid tunicles , a certain improper or common tunicle enfolds the aorta with its branches lying hid in the trunk of the body ; in the breast , proceeding from the pleura , in the lower belly , from the peritonaeum , by means of which it feels more sensibly , and is fastned to the neighbouring parts ; but this tunicle it puts off when it enters the fleshy parts of the bowels . and so in other parts , the arteries which do not enter the muscles , borrow an outer tunicle from the neighbouring membranes . for the substance of the arteries ought to be very strong , for fear of being burst by the violent impulse of the spirituous blood , and to enable them to endure the strongest pulsations without prejudice . xi . we lately made mention of a preternatural tumor in the arteries , called aneurisma , which happens when the second harder tunicle of the arterie comes to be burst by any accident with its fibres , by which means , the blood flowing upon the soft external tunicle , dilates it , and gathered together therein , as in a little bag , causes a swelling , wherein there is many times a very painful pulsation and reciprocation of dilation and contraction ; which tumor , if it be burst or opened by an unskilful chyrurgion , the patient presently dies of a violent bleeding not to be stopt . regius opposing this opinion of the best and most famous chyrurgions , attributes the cause of an aneurisma , to the flowing of the blood into the muscles , out of an artery burst or wounded ; which blood wraps it self about with a little pellicle , generated out of its own more viscous particles . led into this opinion by iames de back , a physitian of rotterdam , who told him the accident of a man wounded in the arm , to the dammage of an artery ; in which arm , being open , a great quantity of arterious blood was found among the muscles , wrapt about with a pellicle . upon this , regius arrogantly grounds his opinion , and makes it his own ; not considering , that the blood contained in an aneurisma , is never corrupted , nor ever apostemates , nor engenders inflammations , and that extravasated blood never generate investing membranes , but presently putrifies : and lastly , that in such a tumor , caused by extravasated blood , there is never any remarkable pulsation perceived , as is continually to be felt in an aneurisma . regius writes farther , that in that same wound of his patient , almost brought to a cicatrice , there appeared a tumor that beat very much about the place affected , and which encreased more and more every day ; but this which is related of back 's patient and not his , has not one word of truth . for neither was the wound cicatrized before my coming , which was within eight or ten hours after the man was wounded , neither was there any pulsation to be perceived in the arm , very much swell'd by reason of the extravasated blood poured forth among the muscles ; neither was there any pellicle to be found afterwards upon incision . xii . as to the substance of the arteries , there is a great duspute , whether it be nervous or gristly . aristotle asserts the aorta to be nervous , and calls it in many places 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , the nervous vein . others believe it rather of a gristly nature , by reason of the heat and hardness of the arteries ; of which opinion , galen seems to be . but fallopius believes them to be of a middle nature , between nervous and gristly , but most gristly , and hence it has been observed , that the arteries near the heart have been observed to be sometimes gristly and bony in old beasts of the larger sort , as also in man himself . of which gemma , solenander , riolanus , harvey and others , produce several examples . but reason evinces the mistake of these three opinions . for that the substance of the arteries is not nervous , their most obtuse sence evinces , whereas all nervous parts seel most exactly . nor gristly , because of its fibres , which gristles and gristly parts want : lastly , not of a middle nature for the same reasons . it remains then that the substance of the arteries is membranous , proper , and of a nature peculiar to its self . xiii . the arteries are nourished by the spirituous blood passing through them , wherein , because there are many salt , volatil and dissolv'd particles , a good part of which grows to its tunicles , hence their substance becomes more firm and thick . xiv . the bulk of the arteries varies very much . the bigness and thickness of the aorta is very remarkable , but the part of it ascending from the heart , is less ; the other descending larger , by reason of the greater bulk and number of the lower parts to be nourished . the rest vary in bigness , according to their use , as they are required to stretch themselves shorter or longer , as they are required to supply the arteries derived from them with more or less blood , and the farther they are from the heart , the narrower they are , and of a thinner and softer substance : for that the blood , the more remote it is from the heart , looses much of its spirituousity , and consequently less salt particles grow to the tunicles , there not being so much strength required in these remote vessels , as in those which are nearer the heart , in regard the less spirituous blood may be contained in weaker vessels . xv. some assert the number of the arteries to be less than that of the veins ; which however cannot be certainly determined , seeing that the little arteries are much more white and pellucid , and consequently less discernable . others make the number equal , others , that of the arteries more , in regard there is a greater quantity of blood thrust forth through the arteries , for the nourishment of the parts then is carried back through the veins , seeing that a good part of it is consum'd in nourishment , and no less dissipated through the pores before it comes to the veins . but then you 'l say , how comes a greater quantity of blood to be contained in the veins then in the arteries , and a more conspicuous swelling of the veins , by reason of the blood ? the reason is , because the motion of the blood is more rapid through the arteries than through the veins ; for there passes more through the arteries in the space of one moment , then through the veins in ten , by reason of the greater force by which the blood is expelled by the heart into the arteries ; whereas the motion of the blood is remiss and weak in the veins , and consequently there is more blood stays in the veins than in the arteries . xvi . the arteries lye hid in most places under the veins , partly for securities sake , partly to stir the blood residing in the veins forward , by their neighbouring pulsation . sometimes they separate from the veins , but rarely cross over them ; only in the lower belly about the os sacrum , where the great artery surmounts the hollow vein . xvii . the arteries differ , either in respect of their magnitude , some being very large , as the aorta and the pulmonary ; some indifferent , as the carotides , emulgent , and iliac ; others lesser , as those that creep through the joynts and head ; others least of all , as the capellaries dispierced through the whole habit of the body , and the substance of the bowels . in respect of their progression , some streight , others winding like vine-twigs : in respect of their situation in the breast , in the head , in the lower belly , in the joynts ; others in the superficies , others deeper in the body . in respect to their connexion ; some to the veins , others to the nerves ; some to the membranes , some to other parts . xviii . the arteries run along through all parts of the body , there being no part to which arterious blood is not conveighed for nourishment . yet ent and glisson seem to affirm , that all the parts of the body are not nourished with blood. but this difficulty is easily resolved by distinguishing between those parts that are immediately nourished with the blood , as the flesh of the muscles , the parenchym's of the heart , liver and kidneys ; others mediately , as when another sort of juice is first made out of the blood for the nourishment of some parts . as when for the nourishment of the nerves , not only arterious blood is required , but also there is a necessity that a good part of it be first turned into animal spirits , for the nourishment of the bones , the arteries are extended to their inner parts , and powr forth blood into their concavities and porosities , for the generating of marrow ; also , that the arteries themselves and veins may be nourish'd with the blood which passes through them : the one with the saltish particles of the blood and nearest to fixation , which renders their substance thicker and more solid : the other with the sulphury and more humid particles , whence the substance becomes more moist and languid . the manner of nourishment fernelius thus describes . the veins and arteries says he , are nourish'd much after the the same manner , which though they contain in themselves , the blood which is the next cause of their nourishment , yet cannot in a moment alter it into their own substance . but the portion which lyes next the tunicles , and being first alter'd grows whitish , like dew , is hurry'd away into the little holes or pores of the veins and arteries , to which when once oppos'd and made thicker , it is first fasten'd , and then assimilated . xix . the blood is carry'd to the several parts by the means of the beating of the heart , which at every stroak contracting it self , and squeezing the blood into the arteries , causes the arteries at the same time to be dilated and to beat : for as the heart beats when it contracts it self and expels the blood , so on the contrary the arteries beat , when they receive the blood , and are fill'd and dilated by it . xix . the reason of this many with praxagorus and galen assert to be a pulsific and proper faculty , which causes all the arteries to be distended and beat at the same time that the heart is contracted . to confirm which plater asserts , the arteries tobe form'd and beat , before the heart . the arteries , says he , are form'd and beat , and carry spirits , before the heart perceives any motion , which is a mistaken opinion . for first , upon all alterations of the pulse of the heart , presently the pulse of the arteries is changed , whether weak , strong , swift , slow , or interrupted , & c. which would not happen if the arteries had a proper pulsific faculty . secondly , let an artery be bound in a living creature , at the very same moment the motion shall cease beyond the ligature ; which certainly would remain a small while , if the faculty of moving were innate . but you 'l say , that the tunicle of the artery being compress'd by the ligature the irradiation of the heart , which should excite the motive faculty to act , cannot pass beyond the ligature . in opposition to which i shall make use of the experiment of plembius . in a living animal , compress with your finger the aorta , or any other bigger artery near the heart , and below the pressure make an incision , and thrust a little cotton into the hole , only to a slight obstruction of the artery , then take off your finger from above the incision , and then it will appear , that the artery below the cotton will not move at all , though the tunicles be neither compressed nor bound . as to platerus's opinion we have already answer'd it , l. . cap. . xx. therefore the cause of the pulsation of the arteries is only repletion , and the violent impulse of the blood into them from the heart . which walaeus , bartholin and others think impossible , because the blood fills the arteries successively , and one part is mov'd after the other , and therefore they believe one artery beats after another and not altogether . not considering that the arterious blood is rarify'd , hot , thin and easily mov'd , and that it is forc'd into the arteries full of the same blood before ; so that upon the forcing of never so little into the great artery from the heart , the whole is forc'd forward into all the rest of the arteries , and so all the arteries must of necessity be distended at the same time . thus if you lay a circle of contiguous balls upon a pewter-plate , and thrust forward but one , that moves first , then the second , then the third , and so all move at the same time . and thus it is in the areries , where one part of the blood being mov'd , all the rest of the parts of it must of necessity give way , by reason of its contiguity . indeed the heart might fill and cause the heart to beat successvely , were they empty , but not in arteries full before . these reasons experience confirms , which teaches us , that so soon as the heart ceases to force blood into the great artery presently the pulse of all the arteries ceases . thus at nimmeghen i saw a man in a duel thrust through the left ventricle of the heart , as afterward it appear'd upon opening the body : presently the wounded person fell down like a man thunder-strook and dy'd : so soon as he fell , i made up to him and sought for his pulse in his wrist and temples , but could not perceive the least motion ; because the blood flowing through the wound into the cavity of the breast , could not be forc'd into the aorta , which rendred the blood of all the rest of the arteries immoveable without the least pulsation . the like i saw at leyden and utrecht . also in such as dye of a syncope , when the motion of the heart ceases , the pulse of the arteries fails , or at least as the pulse of the heart grows weaker and weaker , so does the pulse of the arteries answerably . therefore all physitians agree , that the beating of the arteries is the most certain indication of the constitution of the heart . but if the arteries had an innate pulsific faculty , the pulse would indicate the constitution of the arteries , and so all the physitians had been in an error from hippocrates till this time : therefore we must conclude that the motion of the arteries proceeds only from the motion of the heart . which motion is somewhat help'd in the depression of the arteries , by their transverse fibres . tho' those fibres are not mov'd of themselves , unless there be a distention first by the blood expell'd from the heart ; for they only contract to their first estate , the arteries distended beyond their usual rest , wherein they remain till again distended . some put the question , whether the heart beating all the arteries beat to their utmost extremities , i answer , that if the pulses of the heart be very violent , then it is sensibly perceiv'd ; but if weak and languid the motion is not so sensibly perceiv'd in their extremities . hence says harvey , not without good reason , the impulse of the heart diminishes by parts according to the several divisions of the arteries ; so that in their extream divisions the arteries becoming plainly capillary , are like the veins not only in their constitution and tunicles , but also in their rest ; while no sensible pulse or none at all is performed by them , unless the heart beat violently , or the heart be over dilated . and this is the reason why at the fingers ends we sometimes feel a pulse and sometimes none ; and why harvey knew those children in a fever , if the pulse sensibly beat at the tops of their fingers . of the motion of the arteries , read the epistle of descartes to the lovain physitian . tom. . epist. . chap. ii. of the great artery , or trunk of the aorta . the great artery from whence all the arteries of the body , except the rough , and pulmonary , proceed , very much exceeds all the rest of the arteries in thickness and length of course . nevertheless in substance and largeness it is not much different from the great pulmonary artery , extended from the right ventricle of the heart into the lungs , which is vulgarly though erroneously call'd the right arterious vein . i. now it is requisite that the aorta should have such a solid substance , least the hot and spiritous blood , forc'd into it from the very furnace it self , should be dissipated ; and largeness is moreover required , to the end it may contain a sufficient quantity of blood to be distributed to all the other arteries proceeding from it . ii. the orifice of the heart being laid open , it adheres continuous to the left ventricle ; at it 's very rise being furnish'd with three remarkable valves , fashion'd like a sigma prominent from the heart toward the outward parts , and hindring the return of the blood from the artery into the ventricle of the heart . before it issues forth from the pericardium it emits from it's self the coronary artery , sometimes single , sometimes double , encircling the basis of the heart like a crown , and thence scattering branches the whole length of it , accompany'd with the coronary veins , with which some affirm it to be united by anatomists , which however would be a very difficult thing to demonstrate . near the orifice of this coronary artery stands a valve , so order'd , that the blood may easily flow back out of the great artery into the coronary . this will not admit a slender bodkin thrust into it , from the part next the heart into the great artery ; but from the part next the great artery a bodkin will easily enter the coronary ; by which means we find where the valve is , which otherwise is hardly discernible . the aorta having left the piricardium , constitutes a trunk , the smaller part of which ascends upward , the larger part slides down toward the lower parts . chap. iii. of the branches proceeding from the subclavial arteries . the lesser ascending part of the aorta , spread between the inner separating membranes of the hollow vein , rests upon the aspera arteria . i. rising from the heart , it is presently divided into two subclavial branches ; the right being the higher and the larger , which proceeds from the same place where the aorta is ●…lit into the carotides : the left more low and narrow , which rises where the aorta winds downward , and with a more oblique channel then the other is carry'd to the arm. from both these branches several subclavials proceed ; some before it falls into the concavity of the breast ; others , after it has left the breast . ii. while both the subclavials lye hid in the breast , it sends forth from the lower part the upper intercostal , which being fasten'd on each side to the roots of the ribs , communicates several branches to three or four spaces of the upper ribs of its own side , from which other little branches are imparted to the adjoyning muscles and the pith of the back . however sometimes these intercostals are derived from the cervical arteries , passing thence through the holes of the vertebers . from the upper part of both the subclavials proceed these three arteries . iii. . the mammary , which descends through the muscles possessing the spaces of the gristles of the true ribs , and proceeding to the side of the mucronated gristle , is divided into several branches under the streight muscles of the abdomen , which till of late most anatomists would have to be united at their ends by anastomosis , with the ascending extremities of the branches of the epigastric artery . but i could never observe that conjunction , nor does it stand with reason , seeing that the arterious blood redundant in the artery , cannot be transfus'd into another artery annex'd to its ending ; for the blood is forc'd from the heart through both the arteries to the end , and therefore can neither be receiv'd nor carry'd to the heart by the end of either artery . so that if there were any anastomosis under the said muscles , it ought to be of the mammary artery with the epigastic veins , and the epigastic artery with the mammary veins . which conjunction however i could never observe . iv. . the cervical , which contributing little branches to the vertebers and muscles of the neck , passes to the seventh verteber of the neck , through the holes of the tranverse apophyses , and under the pith uniting with the branch of the opposite side , is shatter'd into an infinite number of diminutive branches , which running along with the little branches of the cervical of the opposite side , intermix'd and in several places as it were ingrafted into one another from the wonderful net-like-fold in the thin meninx belonging to the cerebel . which little branches partly creep through the substance of the cerebel invisibly ; partly gaping toward the inner parts of it , pour forth a great quantity of the most pure and subtil blood into the pores of the cerebel ; the little drops of which are seen to weep out of the dissected substance . moreover little branches run out toward the horses saddle , which are intermix'd with the innumerable branches of the carotides , at the lower part of the wonderful net , and so seem to contribute toward the compleating of the net , though the cheifest part of it be made by the carotides . v. . the muscula , which imparts little branches to the muscles resting upon the neck , and sometimes to the muscles of the arm. vi. when the subclavial has forsaken the breast it changes it's name for that of axillaris , because it runs to the arm-hole , and before it descends to the arm , sends forth from its upper part the humerary artery to the muscles covering the shoulder and the gibbous part of the scapula . from the lower part it casts ●…orth three arteries . vii . . the upper pectoral , which runs forth with several little branches to the muscles spread under the breast . viii . . the lower pectoral , which runs downward by the side of the breast , but is chiefly carry'd through the broad muscle . ix . . the scapulary , which enters the muscles possessing the concavity of the scapula . x. these branches sent forth , the rest of the axillary artery , after it hath communicated the little branches to the kernels , seated under the arm-holes , goes away to the arm , call'd therefore by some the brachial artery , through the inner part of which descending between the muscles , together with the basilic vein , distributes on both sides slender little branches to the muscles embracing the inner seat of the shoulder : there rising outward with a deep branch of the basilic vein , it runs to the outer parts of the elbow , and affords branches to the joynt and neighbouring parts , but then descending inward , under the bending of the elbow , is divided into two remarkable branches , of which the uppermost carrying along the radius , goes to the wrist , where the physitians feel the pulse , and thence proceeding under the annulary ligament , sends forth the following branches . . between the bone of the thumb , and metacarpus to the muscles of the outer part of the hand . nor has the outer part of the hand any other arteries but these discernible . . a double branch , to the inner parts of the thumb . . a double branch to the inner seat of the fore-finger . . one to the middle-finger . the lower branch runs along the lower arm to the wrist , from whence the following branches proceed . . to the muscles seated next the little-finger . . to the middle-finger . . a double branch to the middle-finger . . a double branch to the little-finger . chap. iv. of the carotides and their branches . i. the subclavials being sent forth , presently the carotides start out from the ascending aorta ; of which the left arises from its upper trunck , then proceeds from the beginning of the right subclavial , sirmounting the clavicula ; though many by mistake will have it to rise from the same trunck with the former . these two corotides , near the upper part of the sternon , being supported with the thymis glandule about the beginning , take their course upward , and with their external and internal branch ascend to the head. for after they have distributed branches to the larynx , tongue , the hyoides muscles , and the neighbouring glandules , they ascend on both sides along the aspera artera , together with the jugular vein to the chaps , and there are parted into the inner and outer branches . ii. the outer branch , which is the slenderest is dispeirs'd with a vast number of scarce discernible sprigs through the face and cheeks , and waters the forehead and pericranium ; partly crawling to the ears , sends forth the following branches . . one branch forward toward the temples , which is perceiv'd in that place by the pulse , and sometimes is open'd , in obdurate pains of the head. . a branch to the hinder place of ear. . a branch to the lower jaw ; the small boughs of which are inserted into the lower lip ; and entring the bone of the lower jaw , run with a little branch to the roots of all the teeth . from this branch , little small twigs penetrate the external table of the cranium through diminitive holes , and enter the deploids , to which they convey blood for the making the medullary juice . the innermost branch which is the larger , is carry'd first to the chaps , where it affords branches to the larynx , the paristhmii and the tongue , and sends little branches to the kernels behind the ears , and the spungy parts of the palate and nose . then it enters the upper jaw , and affords a little branch to every tooth , through which when sharp humors descend , they cause the tooth-ach ; with the remaining part ascending the skull , toward the bottom of it , it is divided into two branches of an unequal bigness . one of these , which is the lesser , and the hindermost , affords a little branch to the inner muscle of the neck , and having sent another through the hole of the upper verteber into the hard meninx , involving the pith of the spine , ascending farther , it enters the cranium through the hole in the vagous nerve , and creeps through the hard meninx , and about the hollow of the thick meninx , into which it seems to open it self with slender little branches , the end of it vanishes . iv. the other , which is bigger and almost equal to the trunk ; tending upward , through the bony channel in the wedg like-bone , near the fore-side of the auditory passage , is carried with a winding course to the mares saddle . at the bottom of which , after it has sent a branch on both sides into the side of the thick meninx , expands it self into several minute tendons , which inserted into the little branches of the cervical artery , form the wonderful net , conspicuous in calves , cows and sheep , but more obscure in men , unless upon the dissection of a body but newly deceased . v. nevertheless , the said branch does not terminate in those tendrils , but making way through the hard meninx , enters the thin meninx with two remarkable branches , which intermix infinite little strings , with the little branches of the cervical artery fastned to the marrow ; and also without the skull , accompany the spinal pith to the loyns . this done , it sends another lesser branch through the second hole of the wedg-like-bone , together with the optic nerve without side the skull to the eye . also it stretches out another branch through a torn hole , not far from the infundibilum , which is ●…lit into two stocks at the side of the spittle kernel ; the innermost of which being united with the inner artery of the opposite side , and shivered into diminutive arteries , is scattered all over a thin membrane , at the beginning of the optic nerves , and partly with innumerable visible tendrils passes through the bulk of the brain , partly discharges the spirituous blood through the gaping orifices into the pores of the substance of the brain . the other more outward , more reflex and wrapt about with a thin membrane , and united to its own little branches , with the diminutive arteries carried from the cervical to that seat , is partly disseminated through the thin meninx , partly ascends upward to the foremost ventricles of the brain , wherein it constitutes the choroide fold . from the same larger branch of the carotis , another artery proceeds , which after it has passed the skull through the second hole of the temple , is presently parted into two stocks , of which the exterior runs through the eight hole of the wedg-like-bone , into the larger concavity , winding a little branch to the extremity of the nose . the innermost , which is bipartited at first , sends a slender branch to the thick meninx . chap. v. of the arteries proceeding from the descending trunk of the aorta , before it comes to be divided . the descending part of the trunk of the aorta , which is larger at the upper part , adheres to the gullet . hence some vainly believe , that a man overheated with violent exercise , or the rays of the sun , perceives such a remarkable refrigeration from a large drought of cold water ; the gullet being thereby cold , and by that means the blood being also cold that is contain'd in the trunk of the great contiguous artery ; and that some in the same cases sound away , upon drinking cold water too freely , because , as they say , that which is contain'd in the adjoyning great artery , being too suddenly cool'd by the cold water passing through the gullet , is somewhat thickned , and the motion of it thereby interrupted . i. this descending part of the trunk , before it passes the diaphragma , sends forth the lower intercostals , which are sent from the hinder seat of it on both sides , to eight or nine intervals of the lower ribs , and communicate little tendrils to the muscles of the back and breast , through the holes in the nerves . ii. moreover , about the diaphragma , from the trunk comes forth the phrenic , from hence the right , from thence the left , which is carried to the diaphragma , the mediastinum , and sometimes to the pericardium . the remainder of the trunk of the aorta penetrating the diaphragma , scatters branches every way through the lower parts of the body . some before it is parted into the iliac arteries , others after it is divided from them . the branches which proceed from it before division , some accompany the vena porta , others the branches of the hollow vein . the branches that accompany the vena porta , are two , the coeliac and mesenteric . iii. the coeliac , which some also call the stomachic , proceeds from the body of the aorta before , at the first verteber of the loyns , and descending under the hollow of the liver , is divided above the trunk of the vena porta into two branches , which adhere to the sweet-bread under the hinder seat of the stomac . iv. of these , that on the right-hand , and the more slender , produces the dexter gastric , which approaches the pylorus , and by spigelius is called the pylorie ; also the double cystic's , being very small , dispeirsed through the gall-bladder with several branches . but in the lower part , these three following , have their original , and proceed . v. . the right-hand epiplois , to the right-hand seat of the lower caul , and the colon annexed to it . vi. . the intestinal , to the duodenum , and beginning of the iejunum . vii . . the right-hand gastro-epiplois , to the bottom and middle of the stomach . viii . . two small hepatic arteries , concerning which there is some dispute . for as galen says , they enter the parenchyma of the liver , and so betake themselves for the greatest part into the hollow of it . rolfinch affirms , that he has observed them very numerous in the convex part. glisson affirms , that they do not enter the parenchyma of the liver , but only insinuate themselves into the common capsula , and therewith are divided into the capillary vessels , and communicate several branches to the gall-bladder , and bilary pores . the remaining portion of this right-hand branch enters the mesentery , and waters it with many sprigs . ix . the left-hand branch of the coeliac , which is called the splenic , larger than that on the right-hand , and somewhat swollen , with a winding course proceeds above the sweet-bread to the spleen , at the upper part sends forth the larger gastric , which afterwards bestows a little branch upon the higher and middle seat of the ventricle , and throws out two stocks of arteries , noted with particular names , to the stomach . x. . the coronary stomachic , which girds the upper orifice of the ventricle like a crown ; and affords several little branches to the body it self of the stomach . xi . . the left-hand gastric , which is carried toward the right-hand to the upper parts of the ventricle , and to the pylorus . besides these , there proceed also from the splenic branch , but at the lower part. xii . . the postic epiplois , to the lower part of the caul , and annexed to the colon it self . xiii . . the sinister epiplois , to the lower and left-side of the caul . xiv . the remainder of the splenic branch approaching the spleen , enters its parenchyma , after that , a little before its entrance at the upper part , it has sent forth a short arterious vessel to the left-side of the bottom of the stomach , and the left-hand gastro-epiplois , which being supported by the upper part of the caul , crawls along the left-side of the bottom of the stomach , affording little branches to the fore and hinder part of it , as also to the caul ; this branch entring the spleen , is distributed through the substance of it with several divarications . xv. the mesenteric artery , which also accompanies the roots of the vena porta , proceeds from the forepart of the trunk , sometimes single , sometimes divided into two branches , presently after its exit . of these , the uppermost , rising below the coeliac , is extended through the whole upper part of the mesentery ( where it constitutes the mesaraics ) as also into the jejunum , ileon , and part of the colon , to the right-hand kidney . xvi . the lower , rising below the spermatics , near the holy-bone , enters the lower region of the mesentery , and is distributed with several branches into the lest part of the colon , and the streight gut , and lastly , descending to the podex , constitutes the inner hemorrhoidal arteries . through the said branches , proceeding from the mesenteric , the arterious blood is caried for the nourishment of the intestines and the mesentery it self . nor are they to be credited , who upon galens authority , affirm that the mesenteric arteries suck in the thinner part of the chylus . for the heart continually forces the blood through the arteries from its self to the parts , but receives nothing through them from the parts . nor can the two contrary motions of expulsion and reception be allowed at the same time in the arteries . which mistake proceeded from hence , that galen did not understand the milky vessels , but judg'd them from their white colour to be arteries . the branches proceeding from the trunk of the aorta before its division , which follow the stocks of the vena cava , are several . xvii . . the emulgent artery , of each side one , rarely more , to each kidney , which begins about the conjunction of the first and second verteber of the loyns . the right a little lower , the left a little higher , and slit into two ; three or four branches enters the kidneys of its own side . rolfinch writes , that the extremities of this unites after many fashions , with the extremity of the emulgent vein , by anastomose's , which is no way probable . vide l. . c. . xviii . . the spermatics , both proceeding from contiguous beginnings , of which , the right surmounts the trunk of the hollow vein ; rarely the right-hand one proceeds from the emulgent , though the left , in women , has been observed so to do . each of these uniting with the vein of its own side , presently after their rise , scarce two fingers breadth from the emulgent , in men , descend through the process of the peritonaeum to the testicles ; in women , so soon as they approach the testicles , they are divided into three little branches , of which , the first is inserted into the testicles ; the second enters the bottom of the womb with many little sprigs , and the third is distributed into the tube and ligament of the womb. xix . . the lumbars , which are not only distributed to the muscles adjoyning to the loyns and peritonaeum ; but in the hinder part , where the trunk of the great artery rests upon the vertebers , are carryed through the holes of the vertebers of the loyns to the spinal marrow ; which some think thence ascend to the brain , all the whole length of the pith , together with the veins adjoyning . xx. . the upper muscula , of each side one , which runs out to the sides of the abdomen and its muscles . chap. vi. of the arteries rising from the descending trunk of the aorta , after its division within the peritonaeum . i. the trunk of the aorta , descending when it comes to the region of the fifth verteber of the loyns , ascends the hollow vein , and is divided into two branches called iliac . now at the division it self comes forth the sacred artery which passing the holes of the os sacrum with little sprigs , opens it self into its marrow . every branch , not far from its biforcation , is again divided into the inner and outer branch . from the inner iliac branch , which is the lesser , proceed three stocks . ii. . the inferior muscula , which proceeds to the muscles called glutei , constituting the buttocs , as also to the extremity of the iliac muscle , and psoa . about the first beginning of this artery , sometimes from each trunk , a branch runs out to the skinny parts of the pubes , ilion and abdomen . iii. . the hypogastric , which is large , and at the lower seat of the os sacrum , proceeds to the bladder , and the neck of it , and the muscles covering the share-bone , and with some root-strings , runs to the podex , where it constitutes the external hemorrhoidals . but in men it is carried through the two hollow bodies of the yard to the nut. in women , it is distributed through the bottom of the womb , and the neck of it , with a numerous attendance of root-strings . iv. . the umbilical artery , which ascending near the sides of the bladder , and inserted into the doubling of the peritonaeum , proceeds to the navel , from whence it passes forth again , while the birth is in the womb , and runs into the uterine cheeskake . but in a man born , after the navel-string is cut , it ceases any more the conveyance of blood ; and therefore becomes more solid and harder , and is extended like a string from both the iliac arteries to the navel . the remainder of the inner branch , assuming a scien or graft of the external branch is dispeirsed into the muscle possessing the hole of the share-bone and the muscles adjoyning . from the outer iliac branch two sprigs go forth . v. . the epigastric , which winding upward without the peritonaeum ascends the streight muscle of the abdomen in the inner part , and is met above the region of the navel by the descending mammary , and with the extremities of which it is thought to unite by anatomists : which is a mistake : as is prov'd already , cap. . and lib. . cap. . vi. . the pudenda arteria , which sends forth on each side a remarkable artery into the sinewy or fungous bodies of the yard , and in women into the clitoris . hence it is carry'd inward along the commissure of the share-bone , to the privities and groins , and their kernels , and is lost in the skin of those parts and of the yard . these branches being sent forth , the iliacs forsake the peritonaeum , and are carry'd to the thighs , and then changing their name , are called crural . chap. vii . of the crural arteries . i. the crural artery , which is less then the true crural , descending towards the lower parts of the thigh , sends forth some branches above , and others below the ham. above the ham three branches issue from it . ii. . the exterior crural muscula , from the exterior part of the crural trunk . iii. . the inner crural muscula , from the innner part of the trunk . iv. . the poplitea , or ham-artery , which descending through the hinder muscles of the thigh , runs out as far as the ham , whence it derives its name . v. below the ham the sural proceeds from it , which lying hid a while under the ham , sends forth on each side , a deep sprig to the knee and the muscles constituting the calf . thence descending toward the small of the leg , it is divided into the tibiaean arteries . vi. . the exterior tibiaean , which descending along the button is consumed in the muscles of the leg. vii . . the hinder tibiaean , which runs to the commissure of the tendons of the muscles of the calf . viii . . the lowermost hinder tibiaean , which passes through the membranous ligaments of the button joyning the muscles of the leg , and is distributed into the upper parts of the foot , and the muscles carrying the toes outward . ix . the remainder of the crural artery , descends directly streight between the second and third muscle of the toes , and proceeds between the heel and the malleolus to the lower parts of the foot , sending forth a little branch from the side not far from the malleolus , to the muscle of the great toe , and the upper parts of the foot. what remains is divided between the tendons of the muscles of the toes into two little branches . of which the innermost affords two little sprigs to the great toe , to the next toe two , and to the middle-toe one . the outermost affords two little sprigs to the little-toe , two to the next , and one to the middle-toe . note , that in the description of the arteries all anatomists mention , only those which are manifestly conspicuous ; the rest , as not so apparent or not discernible they omit ; the nutrition shews , they are in the parts . thus we see the skin is nourish'd by the arterious blood , though we can find no conspicuous arteries therein : and the same may be said of other parts . the seventh book of anatomy . concerning the veins . chap. i. of the veins in general . i. a vein is an organic similar part , membranous , long , round , hollow , containing the less spirituous blood , and carrying it to the heart . it is call'd organic , as design'd for a certain use , which is to carry the blood. it is call'd similar , in the same manner as the arteries are said to be . the form is expressed in the words long , round and hollow , for that it resembles a pipe. the use is declar'd in the last words . containing the less spirituous blood , &c. for that the blood is the primary humor which is carry'd through them . i say less spirituous , to distinguish it from the arterious blood which is much more spirituous , and comes not to the veins till it has lost a great part of its spirituosity . i say containing ; not because such blood is contained in the veins only , for there is sufficient found in the substance of many parts ; but because the greatest quantity is carry'd in these vessels , and as much as may be preserv'd from putrifaction , which otherwise being so great a quantity would be soon corrupted . i say , carrying to the heart ; because this appears to be their primary office. lib. . cap. . but the blood is carry'd through the veins without pulsation ; but flows only and is push'd forward as one wave pushes forward another . the antients ascrib'd two other uses to the veins . . distribution of the blood. for they thought the blood flow'd out of the hollow vein into the lesser veins which is now disprov'd by the circulation of the blood. . the concoction and making of the blood. which was galens opinion , who affirms that the veins were made for the generating and conveighing the blood into all the parts ; and farther least the nourishment should loose time , while they were busied only in conveighing the blood ; moreover , he says that the distempers of the veins oft-times hinder the generation of profitable blood. and among the moderns , spigelius agrees with galen . the veins , saith he , which boyl and concoct the blood , and have in themselves an innate sangulfying faculty . and a little after , if we conclude that the brain is the domicel of reason , because that being injured , we find our understanding craz'd ; we may justly call the veins the work-house of blood , because that they being injured , we find depraved and bad blood to be generated . vesalius , ioubertus , laurentius , schenkius , and others , consent with galen . however , this operation belongs not to the veins , but to the heart , as being the only sanguifying bowel , from which , the farther the blood departs , so much the more imperfect it becomes and never is restored or elaborated to a better condition in the veins ; and therefore for that very reason , there is a necessity for the blood to be return'd again to the heart , there to be a new concocted and wrought to perfection . which highmore considered , and therefore signally refutes this opinion . vide lib. . cap. , and . ii. the vein is of a membranous substance , indifferently soft , to the end it may the more easily be distended , and grow languid again . iii. it consists of one proper tunicle , soft and dull of feeling , so that it is vulgarly said to have no feeling at all . it is also thought to be interwoven with a threefold sort of fibres . concerning which , there is a great dispute among the anatomists . fallopius and vesalius very much question , whether there be any or no ? because with all their industry they could never observe any . scaliger also denies them strenuously . on the other side brissot and fernelius admits fibres in the veins ; telling us , that the fibres of the veins are to be observed in letting blood , with whom fuchsius and dunius agree . to give our own judgment in this case , we think , that though no anatomist can manifestly demonstrate fibres in the veins , yet that they are easily to be imagined by any one that considers their necessary use , which is to preserve the veins in their due state , and to bring them to their natural condition , after being distended with too great a quantity of blood , by contraction . which is manifestly apparent in warts , when the transverse and oblique fibres being burst , the tunicle of the veins is very much relaxed , nor can ever be reduced to its first estate . which lindan seems not to have considered , wonders that physitians should admit such a multitude of fibres in the veins , when the streight ones are only requisite . which was lindans mistake , for if the streight ones are to be admitted , much more the transverse and oblique . spigelius and plempius observe that these fibres may be demonstrated by boyling the trunks of remarkable veins in large animals . deusingius believes , that by means of these fibres , the veins attract the blood , and carry it to the heart ; and affirms , that the meseraics also draw the chylus . but these are meer imaginations , contrary to reason and experience . iv. that the tunicle of the veins has little or no sence of feeling ▪ appears by the opening of it in blood-letting , at what time , if there be any pain , it proceeds from the skin , and other adjoyning sensible parts , that adhere to the vein . riolanus reproves bauhinus , for saying the veins do not feel ; citing out of plutarch , that marius felt an extream pain upon the cutting his warts ; and farther , that the swelling of the hemorrhoids causes a most sharp pain . but this pain was felt in the skin and adjacent parts , not in the vein . we have also ordered warts to be cut , which have been very painful till the vein has been freed from the incumbent membranes , but no longer . v. besides the foresaid proper tunicle , a vein has also another improper and common , with the neighbouring parts , in the breast from the pleura , in the abdomen from the peritoneum , in other parts from the next membrane , the more to secure it , being annexed to the neighbouring parts in the length of its progress . this tunicle it puts off , when it enters the perenchymas of the bowels , and the substance of the muscles or other parts . vi. the vein is nourished with the blood which flows through it , with which , by reason few salt spirits are mixed , there being nourished with a moister juice , the substance of it becomes more soft . the manner of its nourishment , see l. . c. . vii . here arises a question , why the veins do not beat ? seeing they receive the blood from the arteries , and carry it back to the heart . i answer , that the motion of pulsation in the arteries , is continued to their very extremities . but by reason of their divarications , the violence of it is diminished more and more by degrees , and toward the ends is but very weak ; if it does not cease altogether , so that there can be no pulsation in the veins . besides , the blood gently gliding out of the small ends of the diminutive arteries , and entring the narrow orifices of the veins , presently flows into the broader veins ; so that then all violent motion ceases , and consequently all pulsation . see the comparison concerning this matter , l. . c. . the veins more inwardly are furnished with several valves membranous and thin , however close and compact , and are sometimes single like a little half-moon ; or double , two opposite one to another , as is observed in some of the larger vessels . sometimes threefold , triangularly opposed one to another . these are all so situated , as to give free passage to the blood flowing through them to the heart , but preventing its reflux from the heart . and therefore the valves of the veins of the head look downward , but the valves of the lower parts look upwards . viii . the number of the valves is infinite , neither can they be all discovered by the anatomists . yet some have taken an accompt of the most conspicuous , which they reckon to be a hundred and eight . but that is nothing , in the lesser veins there are myriads of veins not to be discovered ; but that they are there , is apparent , for that the blood is so restrained by those valves , that you cannot force it back with your finger into those parts from whence it flow'd . ix . the bigness of the veins is very various . in general , the soft , hot , and most moving parts , have the bigest veins , because the most blood is required from them ; the hard , colder , and less moving parts have smaller veins for the contrary reason . the biggest of all , by reason of its remarkable hollowness , is call'd vena cava , which is , as it were , the main river of the blood , into which , the lesser veins , like lesser streams discharge their blood. the bigger sort are by hippocrates called blood-powrers , because that being broken or cut , they powre forth a great deal of blood ; the lesser he calls capillaries , as resembling so many hairs . some few veins proceed unaccompanied , but most have an artery that runs along with them ; frequently jigg by jowl , rarely spread under it , but more frequently by resting upon it . many at their extremities unite with the ends of the arteries , by anastomasis , but the capillary ends of most vanish in the substance of the parts . x. the veins differ , . in respect of their substance , some having a thicker , some a thinner tunicle . . in respect of the bigness , some large , some indifferent , some capill●…ry ▪ . in respect of the figure ; some streight , some arch'd , others winding . . in respect of their situation ; some in the head , some in the breast , others in the abdomen or joynts . . others in respect of their connexion ; some to the flesh , some to the arteries , others to the nerves , bones , and other parts . but in regard there is but one use of the veins to carry blood to the heart , there can be no difference observed from hence . xi . the number of the veins , some think to be greater than that of the arteries , others equal , which is a hard thing to determine ; seeing it is impossible to discern all the productions , either of the veins or arteries . if you mean the main trunks , then they are equal . three main arteries ▪ and three primary veins , the porta , cava , and pulmonary . to which , if we add the umbilical , then we may the umbilical arteries to their number . and as the latter are the productions of the iliac arteries , so is the former the product of the vena porta . xii . no man questions but that the veins have their material beginning from the seed . but whether they first proceed from the liver or the heart , is much disputed . most affirm that they rise from the heart . hence epigelius , the veins , saith he , are so intermixed with its parenchyma , that hardly any anatomist could be hitherto perswaded , but that they arise from the liver . but these disputants are all out of the way , for every part is said to spring from another three manner of ways . either by way of generation , radication , or distribution . in respect of generation , a vein cannot be said to spring from another part , seeing that all the solid parts , heart , liver and veins , &c. are all formed at the beginning out of the seed , one before another , not one by another . not in respect of radication , seeing that a vein has no roots to conveigh alimentary juice for the nourishment of its parts drawn from matter forreign from the body of man , nor the ends of the veins be said to be roots , but only their beginnings , through which the blood , which has lost its spirituosity , and is become useless for nourishment is conveighed back to the heart to be new concocted and restored to its first purity . nor in respect of distribution ; seeing the blood is not distributed to the parts through the veins , or by any of their productions , but rather taken away from the parts to be carried back to the heart ; whence it is apparent , that the veins arise from no part. with much more reason they might be derived from the substance of the parts , from whence they seem to rise with little roots , and grow into a stalk , such as the vena cava , like a tree , whose root receives the juice of the earth , and conveighs it to the trunk , as the veins receive the blood from the parts themselves , and from the arteries therein contain'd . but this is easily disproved by what has been said before , so that we must conclude the veins to be parts subsisting of themselves , formed with other spermaticks out of the seed . as to any farther enquiry , hippocrates said well , the veins diffused through the body , and many springing from one , but whence that one derives its self , or where it terminates , i do not know ; for the circle being made , there is no end to be found . in the mean time , as the rivolets , which are the first receptacles of the water flowing from springs and mountains , do not derive their beginning from the channel of the river : so the small veins cannot be said to rise from the great ones , or the bowels thereto annexed , but are the first springs that suck in the blood , and carry it to the larger vessels ; otherwise than in the nerves and arteries , wherein there is a progress of the blood and spirits from the primary bowels to the larger vessels , and from them to the lesser ; and consequently the primary and larger vessels are first to be described . but in the description of the veins , we must begin with the capillaries , which are the least , to the end we may understand more easily , how , from whence , and whither the blood is conveighed . which is the reason we make use of this method , quite contrary to what has hither been observed in the beginning , with the springs and fountains and smallest roots of the veins . as to the umbilical vein , see l. . c. . concerning the pulmonary we have sufficiently discoursed , l. . c. . and . here therefore we shall only treat of the porta and cava , and the lesser rivolets that discharge themselves into them . chap. ii. of the vena porta , and the veins united to it . i. the vena porta enters the hollow part of the liver between the two eminences , which hippocrates calls 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , or gates with a broad , but short trunk , seated under the duodenum . ii. the beginning of this vein , is by some derived from the liver , by others from the mesentery . but the doubt is easily resolved , by saying that it takes its rise from the intestines and the mesentery both . for that from those parts through its roots , it receives the blood remaining after nourishment , and conveighs it to the liver , being poured forth into its trunk through its ramification expanded into the liver ; to the end it may be therein converted into bilous ferment , as in l. . c. . but to prevent the blood from slipping back from whence it came , it has many valves both in the roots and little branches , none in the trunk to withstand the force of the retiring blood. into this vena porta several lesser veins discharge the blood as into a channel , thence to be carried to the liver , into which it is inserted in with an extraordinary ramification . but how those little branches are intermixed in the liver with the roots of the vena cava , and porus bilarus , has been already said in the forementioned place . these following veins enter into the vena porta . iii. . the umbilical vein , proceeding from the navel , and uterine cheeskake . iv. . the suspensory vein , observed by fallopius and eustachius , which descends from the septum to the porta . v. . the double cystics , which are two small veins running forth from the bilary bladder to the left part of the porta . vi. . the right-hand gastric , which proceeding from the hinder part of the ventricle and pylorus , from the right-hand , enters the trunk of the porta , somewhat lower than the cystic . vii . . the branch or splenic channel , which being very large , and supported by the membranous body of the caul , is carried from the spleen , transverse to the vena porta , and opens its self into its trunk in the higher and left part. viii . . the mesenteric vein , which is larger than the former , and proceeds from the mesentery to the lower and right part of the porta . but because that by the means of these two larger veins , the splenic and the mesenteric , the blood of many parts seated in the lower belly , is carried to the porta , we must enquire what lesser veins , and whence they come to these greater . many veins terminate in the splenic channel ; some at its double beginning above and below , where it first issues out of the spleen ; others , after the beginning unite into one channel . into the lower beginning these veins open themselves . ix . . an innumerable number of diminutive veins dispiersed through the spleen , and at length unites into one trunk , continuous with the splenic branch , to which it gives its name . x. . the left epiplois , which crawls from the interior membrane of the caul , with a double sprig . yet vesalius and bauhinus tells us , that this is not always to be found . xi . . the left gastro-epiplois , which is sufficiently remarkable , starting from the left part of the bottom of the ventricle , together with the branches ascending from the upper membrane of the caul , proceeds thither . xii . into the upper beginning of the splenic channel , sometimes two , sometimes three , sometimes more short branches descend from the stomach ; frequently one , which they call the short veiny vessel , which is many times as big as a goos-quil . after these two beginnings are united , the trunk of the splenic channel is formed , into which they descend at the upper part. xiii . . the lesser gastric , from the hinder gibbous part of the ventricle . xiv . . the larger gastric , into which , several branches are united from the larger part of the whole ventricle , and the upper part of the orifice it self , wherein is constituted the stomachic coronary , and sometimes from the lower part. xv. at the lower part enter the dexter epiplois , which is lesser , from the lower membrane of the caul , and the place annexed to it ; and the postic epiplois , which is the bigger ; also the sweet-bread vein , from the pancreas , carried between both the epiplois's . xvi . several lesser veins enter the meseraic , which exceeds the splenic channel in bigness , and those either at its double beginning , or at the right or left mesenteric , or into the trunk of it . in the mesenteric , on the right side , meet an innumerable company of veins , called mesaraic veins , ascending from the iejunum , ileon , blind gut , and right-hand part of the colon , supported with many kernels interspeirsed , receiving the milky vessels , which nevertheless they do not enter . these , at first uniting into fourteen branches for the most part terminate at length in the said mesenteraic . xvii . several mesaraic veins terminate also in the left mesenteric , ascending from the left and middle part of the mesentery . among which , the most remarkable is the inner hemorrhoidal , which at its beginning orbicularly embraces the podex with slender roots , and thence ascending under the right intestine , receives little sprigs from the whole colon , till it enter the mesenteric with the rest . however , in some bodies it has been observed that this vein runs directly to the splenic branch , and opens into it . but into the trunk of the mesenteric , which the veins meeting both on the right and left side , two veins enter . xviii . . the other right hand epiplois , rising from the bottom of the ventricle and the upper part of the caul , and this sometimes , but very seldom enters the left mesenteric , after it comes to be divided . in dogs , this sometimes proceeds to the intestinal , sometimes is wanting , and then the left supplys the place of both , xix . . the intestinal proceeding from the middle of the duodenum , and the beginning of the iejunum , as also from the upper part of the caul and sweat-bread . xx. the vena porta by the physitians is assign'd to several uses . for the ancients asserted that their veins and the mesaraics the blood flow'd for the nourishment of the intestines and other parts contained in the abdomen ; that the chylus also ascends through the same passages to the liver ; moreover that the more feculent part of the chylus was carry'd through the splenic channel to the spleen , and was there concocted into a certain acid juice , afterwards for the stimulating of hunger to be conveigh'd into the stomach through the short ▪ veiny vessel . but dr. harvey's discovery of the circulation of the blood has scatter'd all these mists of error ; so that now adays there is no man vers'd in dissection but will deride these vanities . for in the dissection of a living animal , the short veiny vessel being ty'd , presently by the swelling between the ventricle and the ligature , and the falling on the other side , it is apparent that the blood flows from the ventricle to the splenic channel , but nothing from the spleen or channel to the ventricle . also bind the splenic channel , and by the swelling between the ligature and the spleen , and the falling toward the porta vein , 't is manifest that the blood is carry'd from the spleen to the porta trunck , but not the chylus from the porta vein to the spleen . as to the motion of the chylus and the blood moving upward and downward though the mesaraics 't is contrary to sence ; since such a contrary motion of two different humors can never be at the same time in those vessels so extreamly narrow . nor will the similitude signifie any thing of shavings of iron and straw mix'd together in one pipe , and putting a load-stone at one end to draw the iron , and a piece of amber at the other to draw the straw . for two dry bodies of that nature do not unite like two moist bodies . nor are there any two such different magnets belonging to the mesaraics , to draw the chylus upward and the blood downward , but in the whole body of man a single propulsion of the blood from the heart . xxi . others affirm the blood and chylus to pass through by turns ; as if there were a certain contract between the blood and the chylus , that when the chylus is coming , the blood should go back or stop in the liver , and cease to flow for that time to the bowels , which is ridiculous . xxii . others will have the chylus only ascend to the liver through these veins , and that they have a proper faculty to die the chylus of a red color . but neither is there any such faculty in the veins , nor could the blood remaining after nourishment return to the heart , if the misaraic veins were only design'd to carry the chylus . plempius , says , that the arterious blood remaining after nourishment flows back to the porta through the mesaraics , and that the chylus from the intestines is mix'd with it . but he should have shew'd us which way the chylus enters the veins : which ought somewhere to open into the intestines , to receive the chylus : rather why does not the blood which is thinner and more spirituous then the chylus flow through those openings into the intestines ? why should the thicker chylus enter , rather then the thinner blood go forth ? if plempius plead attraction in those veins , there is no such thing to be allow'd in our bodies , as you may see more at large . lib. . cap. . and lib. . cap. . if he fly to the diversity of the pores or mouths of the vessels ; i answer that through whatever pores the thicker chylus can pass , with more ease the thinner blood may go through . besides that never any man could hitherto observe any thing so much as like the chylus in the misaraics , which is always to be found in the milky and other chylifer vessels . xxiv . these last assertions of mine perhaps lewis de bills may oppose , agreeing with plempius ; to which end he has feigned certain valves at the ends of the misaraics to withstand the exit of the blood , but admitting the chylus , in his epistle to d. iordaen physitian at dort , wherein he endeavours to prove the entrance of the chylus into the mesaraics by this experiment . dissect the abdomen of a living dog , separate the arteries and mesaraic veins one from another , and tye strings about all the arteries , to prevent any more blood from running into the veins ; then sow up the abdomen again and keep the dog alive for three or four hours , till the meat given him before dissection be turned into chylus ; then opening the abdomen again , and you shall find the arteries quite empty , but the veins full of a muddy liquor , of a dark ash colour . this experiment the bilsianists admire ; but if we consider the thing more narrowly , we shall find that neither the colour , consistence or quantity of the blood contained in the veins , can perswade us that the chylus runs through those passages . for the blood contained in the meseraic veins , considering the part may be more feculent than that contained in other parts . and perhaps the blood mentioned in the experiment might be of a bad colour , by reason of the arterious blood , because the ligatures could not come to purifie it ; but this does not prove that feculency doth proceed from any mixture of the chylus . now why the blood is better and more pure at the same time in some parts of the same person than in other parts , where it is more feculent and dissolved ; fernelius tells us , l. . potholog c. . which experience also confirms ; for that upon opening a vein , the first blood shall be more feculent and discoloured than the last , and many times out of the arm the blood shall be fresh and good , and at the same time taken from the foot feculent and livid , and yet no man will believe that the chylus comes to the foot to change the colour of the blood. but this proceeds from the deprav'd constitution or specific temper of the foot. thus , by reason of the specific temper of the mesentery , the blood passing through it may be more feculent and discoloured by passing through a muddy channel , then that which passes through the fleshy and well tempered parts , which feculency vanishes when concocted by the liver , it acquires a fermentaceous quality , and comes to be again dilated by the heart . and this is the reason , that in the vena porta and the meseraic branches , sometimes more thick and impure blood is found , than in the hollow and other veins . i say sometimes , because that for the most part it does not differ from the blood in other parts , or other sanguiferous vessels . we our selves also have taken blood out of the meseraics of beasts , at the same time , when all the lacteous channels swell'd with milky juice , and have compared it with the blood of other veins , but could find no manifest difference either in colour , substance or coagulation . the same has also been observed by nicholas stenonis , i observed , saith he , bilsius's method , bound the arteries , kept the dog alive , the first time three hours , the next four , and then cut open his abdomen again , and exposed the blood separately taken out of the porta and aorta to the air , but they coagulated with equal swiftness , glisten'd both alike , and blackened both alike . and therefore clement niloe frivolously asserts , that the blood taken under the porta from the meseraics coagulates otherwise than the blood of other veins ; nay , that it coagulates into a glassie hardness . nor do i admire that l. de bils found all the meseraics full . for what should force the blood farther out of them , when all the arteries were bound ? and therefore if you bind the arm too hard , before you prick the vein , by which means the arteries are compressed after the wound is made , the blood will never come forth ; for the impulse of the arteries ceasing , the blood ceases to flow through the veins . but yet still to perswade us that the chylus passes through the meseraics , lewis de bils tells us , that these veins about the intestines , exceed the lacteous veins in bigness and capaciousness . which is contrary to sight it self , the lacteous swelling with chylus being no less conspicuous about the meseraics , then the other swelling with blood : though indeed when the lacteous veins are empty , the meseraic are more apparent , because of the ruddy blood contained therein . so that this is but a weak argument of bils to prove his assertion . besides that , that iames henry pauli , professor at coppenhagen , writes , that he has observed the milky vessels to be larger at their insertion into the intestines than the meseraics ; and that the milky vessels passed directly into the tunicles of the intestines , gaped toward their inner parts , and being squeez'd , poured forth chylus , whereas the meseraics being squeez'd , did not pour forth blood until the inner tunicle of the intestine were scraped away . but though these things might be sufficient , yet some were so curious to invent the following experiment to put all things out of doubt . they take the iejunum with part of the ilium and mesentery annext to it , out of the live animal , and tye it strongly to both ends . then before the knot , they pour in a certain liquor blackned with ink , and gently squeezing the intestine swelling with that liquor , they find that nothing of the black liquor enters the meseraics , but that very much enters the milky vessels . much more of this , see l. . c. , . xxv . now then the true use of the vena porta is threefold . . to receive the blood of the birth included in the womb , the sanguinous alimentary juice out of the uterine cheescake , through the umbilical vein , and deliver it to the liver or the hollow vein . . to conveigh to the liver and hollow vein the blood which is forced to the intestines and other various bowels of the abdomen , and remaining after nourishment , and carried thither through the meseraics and other lesser veins . . to conveigh to the same place , the arterious blood concocted after a specific manner , and endued with a subacidish , fermentaceous quality . therefore in its use , the vena porta differs very little from the vena cava , and other productions of the cava , for all the veins of the body return the blood to the heart , which the arteries took away from it . there is indeed some little difference in the thickness of the tunicle from the hollow vein , and the darkness of the colour ; but for any difference in substance , as bauhinus and some others assert , 't is a meer notion . chap. iii. of the hollow vein , and the veins united to it above the diaphragma . i. the hollow vein is the largest of all the veins in the body , and the river into which all the other blood-bearing vessels like so many little streams discharge their blood. ii. it is seated all along the spine of the back , from the os sacrum to the jugulum , and so is carried with a streight course through the middle and lower belly , there immediately fastned to the heart , here to the liver . several veins enter this vein , some above and some below the diaphragma . above the diaphragma , these that follow . ii. . the phrenic or diaphragmatic , of each side one , the roots of which , adhere to the mediastinum , diaphragma and pericardium ; some write , that it has a valve at its entrance into the hollow vein , preventing the sliding back of the blood from the hollow vein , which is very probable , both in this and many other veins gaping into the hollow vein . iii. . the pneumonic , which proceeding out of the lungs , not far from the phrenic , opens it self into the trunk . this , by reason of its slenderness , is not easie to be found , but has been observed by sammichelius , whom aquapendens , castius and mongius cite . iv. . the coronary of the heart , sometimes double , into which many lesser veins ascending from the point to the basis of the heart , and girding it like a crown , assemble together . at its ingress into the hollow vein , eustachius first discovered a valve like a little half-moon . this , bauhinus says , is so seated , that it hinders the flowing back of the blood from the heart to the hollow vein , wherein he is grosly mistaken ; for it is to hinder an influx of the blood out of the hollow into the coronary vein . v. . the vein without a pair or 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , because in men it is single , having no fellow on the opposite side . yet fallopius and bauhinus have sometimes observed in men another vein like to it on the opposite side , and inserted into the left branch of the subclavial , and sometimes into the hollow vein it self on the left side , about the region of the third verteber of the breast , which supplies the office of the azygos , and receives the blood some spaces distant from the intercostals , and then , about the sixth or seventh verteber of the breast united with the azygos . however , this rarely happens in the body of man , though bauhinus asserts it to be frequent in goats and hogs , and many creatures chewing the cud , wherein it is many times double , one on the left , the other on the right side . riolanus derides this second vein , or if it be found , declares it preternatural , as all things are which he discovers not himself . in man , the azygos enters the hollow vein about the fourth and fifth verteber of the breast , a little above the heart , on the hinder and right side , but in sheep and many other animals it enters it on the left-hand . it receives blood from the intercostal veins , possessing the intervals of the ten inferior ribs , rarely of the uppermost ; sometimes also from the mediastinum , the vertebers , the gullet , the intercostal muscles , and those of the abdomen , and some other parts from whence branches ascend to it . sometimes also a branch from the sinister emulgent , and sometimes another branch from the trunk of the hollow vein above the emulgent , ascending upwards and passing the diaphragma , is united above the spine with the roots of the azygos , and then the blood not only flows through the trunk of the azygos , but also through these passages out of the intercostal spaces , and the parts adjoyning to the hollow vein . by vertue of the communion of these passages , aquapendens asserted for a certain , that snivel and purulent matter in those that are troubled with much spitting , may be easily purged out of the hollow of the breast , by the urinary passages , not considering that such an evacuation can never pass by these ways . first , because these veins in the breast being enveloped with the pleura membrane , can by no means receive that matter . secondly , that they must of necessity open to receive it ; but being opened , the fluid blood may easily flow into the cavity of the breast , but that it would be a difficult thing for the slimy flegm to flow through the narrow passages of these veins . thirdly , because the valves stand in the way , preventing the efflux of any liquor out of the breast to the kidneys . for at the root of the azigos , many times three valves are observed , one at its entrance into the hollow vein , two in the middle of the trunk , by which the influx of the blood out of the hollow vein into the azygos is prevented , but free egress out of the azygos into the hollow vein is allowed . bauhinus writes , that he never observed these valves , either in men or beasts . riolanus avers , that he has shewn them in all sorts of carkasses ; but both seem to speak over absolutely . for i have diligently sought for them , both in publique and private , as well in men as in brutes , but never found them all in every one ; only in some i have observed one valve at the entrance of the hollow vein , in some none at all , so that there is no certain determination to be given . vi. . the upper intercostal , of each side one , which oft-times however enters the subclavial branch , near the beginnings of the jugular veins . sometimes the right-hand intercostal is inserted into the trunk of the hollow vein , the left into the subclavial branch ; but at the entrance , fortified with a valve to hinder the relaps of the blood. the roots of it rises from three or four intervals of the superior ribs , and are frequently mixed with the mammary roots , creeping through the gristles . sometimes it happens that veins are carried from all the spaces of the ribs to the azygos , and then this upper intercostal is wanting . . two subclavials , of which , in the next chapter . chap. iv. of the subclavial veins , and veins of the head. two subclavial veins , the right and left enter the supream part of the trunk of the cava , and while they stay within the breast , are called subclavial ; but having forsaken the cavity of the breast , are called axillary . many lesser veins carry the blood to these subclavials , some of which , open themselves into them at the lower part , others at the upper part . at the lower part , five veins enter each subclavial . i. . the upper intercostal , rising from the intervals of the three upper ribs . but this frequently enters the trunk of the hollow vein also . ii. . the mammary , which however is not always inserted into the subclavial , but sometimes into the trunk of the hollow vein . the roots of it are both internal and external . the internal arises from the gristly extremities of the ribs , and their intercostal spaces , as also from the glandules of the paps : the external , from the streight muscles of the abdomen , the glandules of the teats , the skin , and the muscles spread over the breast . iii. . the mediastine , which carries blood from the mediastinum , the pericardium , and the thymus kernel : though neither doth this always enter the subclavial , but sometimes the trunk of the hollow vein . iv. . the cervical , which adheres partly to the slender roots passing the lateral holes of the vertebers , the pith of the neck , or rather the membranes wrapt about it ; partly to the muscles next incumbent upon the vertebers . v. . the inferior muscula , which proceed from the superior muscles of the breast , and the lower of the neck . this also sometimes opens into the exterior jugular . at the upper part , three veins enter the subclavial . vi. . the superior muscula , rising from the skin and the muscles of the neck . vii . . and . the external and internal iugular , whose entrance is guarded by one thin valve only , though there are two , looking from above toward the subclavial , and preventing the ascent of the blood cut of the subclavial to the upper parts . riolanus denies any valve to the external , and boasts himself the discoverer of the valve in the internal , though there be no reason why the external should want a valve more than the internal , since there is the same necessity of stopping the reflux of the blood out of the subclavial into the one as well as the other . these jugulars are seated in the sides of the neck , and adhere to the neighbouring parts . they descend from the head , and the blood of the whole head remaining after nourishment , slides into them through several lesser veins and hollownesses of the hard meninx ; for several veins open into each jugular with many valves , hindring the reflux of the descending blood. viii . the external jugulars admits two veins , of which , the exterior adheres with its roots to the skinny parts of the head , face , top of the head , temples , hinder part of the head , cheeks , nostrils , the muscles adjoyning , and the bones of the jaws ; and receives thin fibres from the menix's themselves through their sutures . into this also the forehead vein seated in the forehead , exhonerates it self , arising from the concourse of the vein on each side . also the vena puppis , seated in the hinder part of the head ; the opening of which veins is highly extolled in distempers of the fore-part and hinder-part of the head , as the distemper lies . the roots of the inner vein are inserted partly into the mouth , that is , the muscles of the chaps , larynx , hyoides , palate and tongue , under which they constitute the ranaries or hypoglottides , wont to be opened in inflammations of the chaps ; partly into the inner membrane of the nose . some little diminutive veins proceed also hither from the seith , through the hole of the temple bone. the internal jugular vein receives two veins of each side , through the holes of the cranium ; of which , the first which is the bigest , being produced from the bosom of the thick meninx , lying under the lamdoidal suture , and is continued with its vein , which passes through the bone of the hinder part of the head in the sixth pair of the nerves , and admits an ascending root from the pith of the spine . the other which is lesser proceeding partly from the thick meninx passes through the holes of the second , third and fourth pair of the nerves ; partly from the organ of hearing through the hole of the bone of the temples . chap. v. of the axillaries and veins of the arm. i. the axillary veins are continuous with the subclavials , and indeed the same , only changing their names according to the diversity of situation . for where it lyes under the clavicles , it is call'd subclavial ; when it extends it self to the arm-pits , it is call'd axillaris . ii. to the axillary , at its first issuing forth from the breast there come two lesser veins ; the internal and external scapularis ; of which the one proceeds from the muscles occupying the hollow of the scapula , the other from the muscles covering the scapula's . a little farther , at the very beginning of the axillary , two larger veins are continu'd with it , which pour forth the veiny blood of the whole arm into the axillary , of which the upper is called the cephalic , and the lower the basilic . iii. the cephalic ( which is also call'd humeraria , and the outer part of the elbow ) so call'd , because the ignorant anatomists in former times thought this vein descended directly from the head to the arm , and brought its blood along with it , and therefore in distempers of the head prescrib'd it to be open'd before any other vein , whereas this vein ascends from the arm to the axillary , and neither receives from , nor carrys any thing to the head ; but only empties the blood ascending from the lower part of the hand into the hollow vein through the axillary . now this cephalic in human bodies enters the axillary at the upper part , and sometimes but rarely runs forth with a little branch toward the external jugular , for in many four-fo●…ted beasts it is inserted into the external jugular . iv. it receives blood from the hand , and parts adjoyning to the arm , into which the roots of it are inserted . for from the outer seat of the hand , after the salvatella or suele of the arabians is form'd between the ring and little-finger , several branches arise , making a conflux into this cephalic about the elbow ; which cephalic ascends from the elbow along the superficies of the elbow , to the shoulder , between the fleshy membrane , and the tunicle of the muscles ; receiving as it runs little small veins from the muscles of the arm and shoulder . v. the basilic vein , which more below and more inward enters the axillary , exceeds the cephalic in magnitude ; and in the right arm is call'd the hepatic , in the left the spleen vein , for the distempers of which the ignorance of former times order'd them to be opened as the distempers lay . the basilic receives blood from the lower and adjoyning parts . from each finger two , from the skin of the hand as well outward as inward several ramifications grow , which first unite into four , and those about the joynt of the elbow into two veins . of which the one lyes very deep conceal'd ; the other under the skin . these both ascend upward from the bending of the elbow . the pr●…found one along the bone of the radius and elbow ; the other along the outer parts ; and both receive several branches from the adjacent parts , as well exterior as interior . when they come to the shoulder they unite together in one vein . into which two other veins insinuate themselves besides the cutaneous vein of the shoulder and breast . vi. . the upper thoracy , which rises from the skin , and the inner part of the pectoral muscle , and the hand . vii . . the inferior thoracy , adhereing with its roots to the broad muscle and the whole side of the breast , and some affirm that it unites with the orifices of three or four of the intercostal roots of the azygos . viii . out of the basilic and cephalic is made a third vein , of which that part which is in the midst between the said veins is call'd mediana , or the common vein , as being made of both concurring a little below the bending of the elbow . this is double ; the one conspicuous under the skin ; the other , lying deep ; but both inserted with many roots into the hand and fingers , as also into the membranes and muscles of the hand and elbow . it would be a difficult thing to describe all the divarications of the small veins belonging to the hand , though some have in vain attempted it . so frequent are the conjunctions , intermixtures and distributions . and therefore we leave those exact investigations to such as have more patience and more leasure . and what i say of the hand is also to be said of the feet . chap. vi. of that part of the vena cava below the diaphragma , and the veins discharging themselves into it . as all the parts seated above the diaphragma transmit the residue of the blood remaining after nutrition through the lesser vein to the vena cava , so do all the parts below the diaphragma . i. . through the broad orifice , where it adheres to the liver innumerable little veins discharge themselves out of the liver into the vena cava . between which and the vena porta , there is said to be a great communication . riolanus mentions a valve within the trunk of the hollow vein near the liver , to let in the blood out of the liver into the hollow vein , but to prevent its egress into the liver . this he says was discover'd by stephanus and silvius and found in cows , but whether in men or no , he knows not . ii. . the adipous or fatty vein , both right and left . the left proceeding with its roots from the exterior membrane of the kidney , the fat of it , and the kernel laid upon it , is inserted into the left side of the trunk of the hollow vein a little below the emulgent . the right , proceeding from the same parts most commonly approaches the higher and middle emulgent channel , but seldom both enter the emulgent , and more rarely the hollow vein . iii. . the emulgent , large , but short , and both right and left . these each of them adhere with their stringy roots to the kidney of it's own side , which meeting at length about the middle and hollow part of the kidney , break forth out of it sometimes with one , two , three , and sometimes more branches , after their egress concurring into one short and broad channel , which descending somewhat obliquely opens with a broad orifice into the trunk of the hollow vein , the left in a place somewhat higher then the right . at the orifice of the emulgent gaping into the hollow vein stands a remarkable valve , looking upward from the inferior part of the orifice and granting a free influx of the blood out of the kidney into the hollow vein , but preventing the reflux of it into the emulgent . there is great variety in the number of the emulgents ; which though most commonly are from each kidney , yet sometimes two , many times single by themselves , many times meeting half way , fall into the vena cava ; and only one rises from one kidney , and two from the other . sometimes a branch descends from the breast to the emulgent , which is believed in this place to intermix with the roots of the azygos , and here and there to unite . sometimes a branch slides down to the emulgent from the loins and spinal pith. seldom any branch is extended thither from the succenturiated kernel . sometimes also little branches gape into it from the neighbouring parts ; for nature often varys in these particulars . iv. . the spermatic or seminal , of each side one , a right and left. riolanus writes , that sometimes in lustful persons that have been hang'd for adultery , he has often found these veins double especially on the right side . but there is no certain reason why men should be more lustful for that ; and therefore i question his assertion . the right-hand vein enters the higher part of the trunk it self , below the emulgent of the same side , which has been often observ'd by galen and vesalius . at its enterance into the hollow vein , it bunches forth with somewhat a thick prominence ; which riolanus believes to proceed from the valve distended by the ascending blood , and looking toward the hollow vein . this valve by reason of its extream smallness and slenderness can hardly be shewn , but reason perswades us it must be there ; there being a necessity of some obstacle to prevent the blood from flowing back from the hollow into the spermatic vein . to which end 't is probable that all the veins gaping into the vena cava are so furnish'd , unless the iliac and sub clavial , whose valves are more remote . the left seminal enters the middle left emulgent , at the lower part , guarded with a valve at the orifice . from this another branch is sometimes sent forth to the trunk of the cava . but nature varies in the spermatic veins : for that their ends sometimes enter the cava on both sides , sometimes the emulgent on both sides ; and the left enters the cava , and sometimes though rare the emulgent and cava on both sides with a forked end . these veins rise in men without the abdomen from the testicles themselves , and the warty substance , from which they carry back the blood remaining after nourishment of the parts , and generation of seed to the hollow vein , in women they rise within the abdomen , partly from the bottom of the womb and neighbouring membranes , with innumerable stringy roots ; partly they rise up from the testicles . besides , it has been observ'd by some that three or four roots are extended further from the spinal pi●…h . v. . the lumbaries , two , three or four , which enter the trunk of the cava , at the hinder seat looking toward the vertebres , so that their ingress cannot be perceiv'd but by raising the cava . they proceed from the lumbary muscles and the spinal pith , between four v●…rtebres of the loyns through the holes of the nerves perforated on each side , and receive on each side a little branch inserted into the involvings of the marrow , and descending all along the whole length of it , through those m●…ninx's that enfold it . this riolanus believes at its beginning to be united by anastomosis with the beginning of the root of the ascending jugular ; which seems not probable . vi. . the two illiacs , large veins , which about the fifth verteber of the loyns , and the beginning of the os sacrum , enter the end of trunk of the cava ; so that the cava seems to rest upon these two veins as upon two thighs . a little above their ingress into the lower belly , beforethey are united with the cava , they are guarded with a large valve looking upward , which transmits the ascending , but stops the descending blood. these iliacs discharge into the cava the blood of all the inferior parts , brought to them out of the lesser veins which are under them . chap. vii . of the veins which open into the iliacs . i. to each of the iliacs , about the same place , where it approaches the cava , the upper muscle extends it self , which proceeds from the peritonaeum and muscles as well as of the loyns and abdomen . hither also reaches the sacred vein sometimes single , sometimes double , which ●…uns forth from the membranes investing the marrow through the holes of the os sacrum . ii. a little lower a large vein but short enters the iliac call'd the lower iliac , into which only two lesser veins enter . iii. . the middle muscula , at the outer seat , which with its roots adheres to the inferior muscles of the thigh , possessing the seat of the hip ; as also to the skin of the buttocks and the adjacent parts . iv. . at the inner seat the hypogastric ; which is larger then the first , sometimes double to which most of the veins of the hypogastrium are carry'd . . in men , several little branches from the yard and bladder . . in women , several branches from the bladder , but more from the bottom and neck of the womb. . the external haemorrhoidals , from the streight gut , or the podex . . a branch from the parts adhereing to the hole of the share-bone , which perforating the tenth muscles of the thigh , and peritonaeum , reaches hither . v. where the iliac admits this inferior branch , in a place somewhat lower it receives from above the epi gastric , adhereing with its roots to the womb , skin of the groins , and muscles of the epigastrion , especially the streight ones . to the roots of these are joyn'd the two mammary roots under the muscles of the abdomen , near about the navel ; thence ascending to the teats , but not united with the epigastrics by anastomosis , whatever laurentius , fallopius , bauhinus , and other anatomists write , vid. l. . c. . & l. . c. . a little below the peritonaeum , two more veins open into the iliac . vi. . the pudenda , which enters the inner seat , before the iliac branch enters into the peritonaeum ; rising in men from the scrotum and skin of the yard ; in women , from the sinus muliebris , the lips of the privities , the nympha , and parts adjoyning . vii . . the inferior muscula , which adheres with its roots to the skin and muscles possessing the hip , and the muscles adjoyning . chap. viii . of the crural veins , and veins of the foot. i. the crural vein in both thighs is continuous and the same with the iliac , and only changes its name according to it's situation ; for that rising from the foot it is call'd crural , as far as the groin , but when it is goes about to enter the peritonaeum it is call'd the iliac . this crural is a great vein , into which the lesser veins of the whole thigh discharge the blood remaining after nutrition , to be conveigh'd to the cava . but in the folding of the thigh where it is accompany'd with nerves and arteries , it is underpropt with several kernels . besides many other small veins , the crural receives from the neighbouring and lower parts six remarkable veins , . the saphaena . . the lesser ischias . . the muscula . . the poplite . . the sural . . the larger muscula . ii. the saphaena , is the longest , and most remarkable unaccompany'd by any artery , adhereing to the foot and toes with its lowest roots , of which some uniting at the upper part of the great toe , make the vein vulgarly call'd the cephalic ; and this proceeding farther , and meeting again with other veins in the inner part of malleolus , constitutes the said saphaena , which is usually open'd in distempers of the womb ; which ascending hence between the skin and the fleshy pannicle through the inner parts of the thigh in the mid-way admits several little veins into the leg , thigh and knee . the roots of which adhere to the skin , muscles and other neighbouring parts , and so at length it enters the crural vein near the groin . iii. the lesser ischias , proceeding from the fore-part of the hip , and the muscles of that place , at the exterior seat approaches the crural , right against the saphaena . iv. the muscula being double , the exterior which is the lesser arises from the second and fourth muscle extending the leg ; and from the skin . the innermost , which is the larger and deep , proceeds from the knee and almost all the muscles of the thigh , especially from the fifth , and the third extending the leg. these two , directly opposite one to another , enter the crural within the groins . v. the poplite vein , adheres with its roots to the heel , and sometimes to the malleolus . then ascending upwards , it admits from the skin and muscles of the calf , oblique and transverse branches ; and so perambulating the muscle of the ham , is divided into two branches , which being parted a little above the ham , not far from one another , sometimes one enters the crural , and another the saphaena . the opening of this vein was very frequent among the ancients in distempers of the kidneys , and prescribed by hippocrates . vi. the sural , is a larger vein , which about the bending of the leg , and a little above , is joyned continuous to the crural . it is formed out of the two branches meeting above the region of the ham ; of which , the exterior rises from the toes and extremity of the foot ( wherein meeting and concurring with the roots of the poplite , it forms that various fold of veins , conspicuous under the skin ) the outer part of the malleolus , and the muscles lying hid betwen the button . the lower rises from the great toe , the heel , and the muscle constituting the calf . vii . the larger ischias , approaches the crural , being deeply hid , a little below the entrance of the sural . this rises from the musculous substance of the teeth and toes , and so ascending , penetrates the exterior part of the malleolus , and in its farther progress , admits several branches from the forepart of the leg to the muscle of the calf and the parts adjoyning , till at length it reaches the crural , and opens its self into it . the eighth book of anatomy . concerning the nerves . chap. i. of the nerves in general . a nerve is called by the greeks 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 from 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , to bend , and 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 from 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 to stretch . for that the nerves give to the muscles a power to bend and extend the parts . some of which , galen is the chief , divide the nerves into three sorts , ligamentous , tendonous , and nervous . but only the last is a true nerve , proceeding from the marrow of the brain . the other two rather nervous bodies , so called from their resemblance of hardness and driness ; for that they neither proceed from the marrow , neither are they similar bodies , but composed of membranes and nerves , and concurring little arteries and veins . but here we shall treat only of the true nerves , proceeding from the marrow . i. a nerve is an organic similar part , white , long and round , appointed to conveigh the animal spirit . ii. the substance of it is white , thick , and consisting of many slender threads , growing together by the means of little membranes , with no conspicuous hollowness , but endued with most suttle pores , for the passage of the animal spirits ; which that they are present within them , and diffused through them , both wounds , and the obstructions wherewith they are afflicted , abundantly argue . iii. as to what i say , that they are endued with no manifest hollowness , the authority of galen is opposed against me , who writes , that the optic nerves are hollow ; and where he says , that the influx of the animal faculty is hindered , when the nerve which has a passage , is either obstructed or compressed . from which words of galen , bauhinus , riolanus , gemma , spigelius , and others conclude , that the nerves are hollow . nay , some have asserted , that they have observed a manifest hollowness in the larger nerves , as in the optics , and in the trunk of the nerve near the hips . to which purpose they propose certain conditions out of galen and plempius . . to make a dissection in a larger creature . . to make use of a clear light , and a sharp knife , for fear of compressing or extending the nerve . . that it be divided beyond its coition . these conditions observed , bartholin writes , that he has both seen and shewn a cavity in the optics , which i will believe when i see it ; for with all my industry i could never find any . their middle substance is more porous indeed , but never discern'd to be hollow , which vesalius , fallopius , coiter , aquapendens and columbus assert to be true . nor could we by any art or help of microscopes perceive any cavity in any other of the nerves . and therefore i believe those assertors of cavity in the nerves to be in an error . and bartholinus himself , who admits cavity in the optics , condemns the opinion in general . as for the mamillary processes , they are no nerves , vid. l. . c. . nor are the spungy bodies of the yard nerves , though erroneously so called ; besides that , hollowness in the nerves is against reason : for they carry invisible spirits through the invisible pores of their strings , but no conspicuous liquor , there being no such thing ever known to flow from them , either upon wounds or dissections . moreover , seeing the spinal marrow , from whence they derive their original , has no cavities , much less the hard and dry nerves that proceed from it . now that the long marrow is not hollow , we have often try'd , by means of a long pipe , through which we could never make any breath to pass , though the pipe being thrust into the division , easily went to the end of it . nor do galens words contradict my opinion , who does not speak of any sensible cavity , but of an insensible hollowness , meaning the pores , in which respect they may be said to be insensibly hollow . therefore says nellianus glancanus , though the nerves do not appear sensibly perforated , yet they are esteemed capable to conveigh the animal spirits : for that the spirits is most subtil , and the marrow of the nerves so spungy , as to be easily penetrated by a subtil spirit , vid. l. . c. . iv. the substance of the nerves is thought to be threefold . the first the internal medullary substance , proceeding from the marrow of the brain . the second and third is the double membrane , investing the inner substance ; of which , the one thinner and more inward , is the production of the pi●… meninx ; the other thicker and more outward , the production of the hard meninx : but this threefold substance ; though perhaps it may be conspicuous in the optic nerves , in the rest is rather to be distinguished by reason than sense : seeing all the nerves are only long threads , wherein there is no pith or medullary substance to be seen , whence some deny that there is any marrow at all in the nerves . and hence it is , that that the nerves which seem to be composed of threads only , are numbred among the similar parts ; not that they are simply so , but seem to be so , and are all alike in all parts . v. how the nerves are nourished , is hard to judge . ves●…ingius allows them veins and arteries for nourishment and vital heat : for which reason , hossman will have them hollow . lindan says , that all the nerves are not only hollow , but admit a little capillary artery . stenonis also believes , that he has observed blood-bearing vessels between the strings of the nerves . we have our selves observed in the optics some slight foot-steps of a blood-bearing vessel , passing and expanding it self into the net-resembling-tunicle , for the nourishment of the humors and tunicles of the eye ; but never in any other of the nerves . and therefore i hold the opinion that extends to all the nerves , to be groundless . . because never any such little arteries were ever discernible in any of the largest nerves , except the optics ; and what stenonis observed among the threads , i should rather think might be found in the enfolding tunicles , if there were any such thing . . because the narrowness of the pores is not only extreamly streight , but plainly invisible , not able to admit a small hair , much less a capillary artery . . because the pulsation of the arteries would be a hindrance to the passage of the animal spirits , especially the passage of the nerve being streightned by the swelling of the artery in a violent pulsation of the heart . . because that upon the dissection of any nerve , not the least drop of blood appears to flow out of any artery , supposed to be within side . glisson writes , that the nerves , by conveighing the animal spirits , are not only serviceable to sense and motion , but also carry a certain nutritive humor for the nourishment of themselves and the parts which they enter , and that they do not receive this humor from the muscles , bones , heart , lungs and kidneys , but from the spleen , stomach and intestines , and partly also mediately from the brain . but the narrowness of the nerves is sufficient to refute this vain opinion ; and we see that the least humor getting into them , obstructs the spirits and causes the palsie . besides that , no juice can be squeez'd out of the nerve when hurt at any time ; nor does the nerve , being ty'd with any ligature , either swell or grow languid in any part ; nor is there the least tumor to be observed , either about or beyond the ligature . to this add the experiment of regner de graef ; we laid bare , says he , the remarkable nerve tending to the hinder part of the thighs , and slit it athwart through the middle , and being freed from the lymphatic vessels , put it into a glass viol , such as wherein we used to collect the pancreatic iuice ; the neck of which was so narrow , that the thickness of the dissected nerve gently closed the orifice of it , least any spirit , or whatever passes more suttle through the nerves , might exhale into the air. this viol we fixed to the skin , in hopes , that if any thing of liquid passed through the skin , we should by that means preserve it ; but all in vain . for during the space of four or five hours , not a drop came forth ; nor could we perceive any sticking of the animal spirits to the sides of the glass by condensation . moreover , what glisson propounds in the last place , is remote from truth ; for if any liquor were received by the nerves , it must necessarily flow into their beginnings ; but there are no beginnings of the nerves that open either into the stomach , intestines or spleen ; but they all proceed without exception , from the long pith of the brain . read what we have discoursed upon this point , l. . c. . and a farther refutation , see l. . c. . vii . wharton and charlton admits this nutritious juice , but will have it prepared and made in the glandules , seated up and down in the body , and appointed for this use . but in regard that only thick and visible juices are prepared in the kernels , no way possible to enter the nerves , and that juice ought to flow with a contrary stream to the animal spirits , and for that either none at all , or at least no preceptible nerves reach to the glandules , most certainly it cannot be the office of the glandules to carry nutritious humors . viii . malpigius believes some notable juice to be conveighed through the fibres of the nerves ; but that it is derived from the glandulous cortex of the brain , and for this reason he numbers the nervous fibres among the vessels . the nervous fibres , saith he , are to be reckoned among the sorts of vessels , which being cut , i have observed a certain iuice like the white of an egg , and thickning before the fire , to flow forth in a considerable quantity . but still what has been already said concerning the streightness of the nerves , sufficiently evinces the falshood of this opinion ; the cavity of their fibres being such , as not able to transmit the thinnest juice . ix . therefore it is most probable , that the nerves are nourished by the arterious blood , but chiefly by the animal spirits . for though they admit no blood-bearing vessels into their inner parts , yet they are nourished like the thin and thick meninx in the head by the arterious blood ; the exterior tunicles of the nerves , which are derived from the menixes , receiving through their invisible arteries , some little portion of blood for their nourishment , and communicating something of the same blood by exhalation to the inner substance . in the mean time it is unquestionable that these tunicles , but chiefly the inner fibres are more especially nourished by the animal spirits passing through them ( vid. l. . c. ) of which , the more fixed particles growing to their substance , turn to nourishment . the arteries and veins are nourished with the same blood which they carry , and therefore why not the nerves ? which may be the reason also that they have such a quick sense of feeling , and have their peculiar hardness and driness ; in regard the spirits , with which they are nourished , are like a most volatil and dry salt , or like a dry and subtil exhalation . and then , that besides these spirits , there is something of arterious blood which concur to the nourishment of the exterior tunicles , and communicates something by exhalation to the interior tunicles , is apparent from hence , that the nerves being obstructed , though they are deprived of sense and grow languid , yet they are not deprived of life , nor dry up for want of nourishment , for the obstruction being removed , they shall , after many years , be restored to their pristine sanity . i knew a woman so paralytic , on one side , for thirty years together , that she had no use either of her left-arm or thigh , besides that , all that side of her was num , till at length , the fright of a most hideous tempest , with thunder and lightning , having expell'd the obstructing matter from the nerves , she was free'd from her palsie , and walked abroad the next day , to the admiration of all that beh●…ld her . which could not have been , if the nerves had been all that time without nourishment ; for they must have been dried up in so many years time ; which they must have been , had they been only nourished by the animal spirits , which could not flow into the nerve while obstructed . a story much like to this , valleriola reports of one that had been paralytic for several years , but suddenly freed from his distemper by the fright of a house on fite . however those little arteries are only derived from those that crawl through the menixes of the brain . x. the nerves vary in bigness , according to the variety and necessity of their use , the organs to which they run forth , and the importance of the actions which they are to perform . xi . the original of the nerves is twofold , in respect of generation and administration . in respect of the first , they are generated from the seed , as are all the solid parts . in respect of the latter , from the brain , or its appendent matter . for , to reject the opinion of aristotle and others , that the nerves arise from the heart , or partly from the heart , and partly from the brain ; we say that all the nerves rise from the long pith of the brain , contained as well within the brain , as the cavity of the spine . which varolius , picholhominus , bauhinus and others testifie upon orbicular view . xii . from that pith they proceed all through the holes of the pith and vertebres , but not all after the same manner . for some pass through the holes nearest the place where they make their exit ; some pass by two , three or four holes before they make their egress . for the more the marrow tends to the lower parts , the more holes the nerves pass by , before they transmit themselves . xiii . the nerves , some are softer and some are harder , according to the variety of the use , and difference of length and situation , as also in respect of the parts which they enter . galen writes , that their softer parts are the only parts that are sensible of feeling ; but that those which both feel and move , are the harder . xiv . the use of the nerves is to conveigh animal spirits to the parts , that by their ordinary influx , nutrition may go forward , and by their determinative motion , that the parts destin'd for sense and m●…tion , may be made more sensible and more vigorous , vi●… . l. . c. . to which purpose they are inserted into the sensible and moving parts with wonderful artifice . and those that move the muscles are inserted into their heads , or a little below or at least not beyond the middle , of which insertion see the reason , lib. . cap . xv. hence some conclude , that they are the instruments of sense and motion ; whereas they are rather the channels to which the animal spirits are conveighed to the instruments of sense and motion . the instruments of feeling , are the membranes , which the more nerves they receive , the more acutely they feel ; the fewer they admit the more dully . and this appears in palsies ; for though the nerve be present , yet the absence of the obstructed spirit causes the defect of sense . now because the nerves are furnished with membranes , 't is no wonder their sense of feeling is so quick ; more especially , since they contain a greater quantity of animal spirits , which are the immediate causes of the senses . the muscles are the instruments of voluntary motion , which the nerves do not move by contracting themselves ; but only by infusing into them store of animal spirits which cause the motion . fernelius , laurentius , mercurialis and others , observing in the palsie , the sense sometimes stupified , sometimes the motion to cease , and sometimes both lost , thought the motory and sensory nerves to be distinct , and that as the one or the other come to be obstructed , it causes a variety in the distemper . but there is no more diversity of the nerves than of the animal spirits , only the diversity of operations proceed from the diversity of the parts which they enter . thus they infuse into the eyes , the faculty of seeing , into the ears , the faculties of hearing , &c. nay , sometimes one and the same nerve inserted into several parts , contributes to one sence only , to another both sence and motion . thus the pleura , mediastinum , stomach , and several other parts , feel by means of the nerves of the sixth conjunction , and by means of the same nerves and muscles of the neck , the hyoides , larynx , and other parts , both feel and move . but willis observing that the stomach , ventricle , intestines , and many other parts , had a spontaneous motion , though not arbitrary , believed there were two sorts of nerves , and two sorts of animal spirits . one that assisted spontaneous motion , by means of the spirits generated in the cerebel ; the other voluntary or arbitrary motion , by means of the spirits generated in the brain . to which , what has been said already will serve for answer , that the diversity of motion does not proceed from the variety of nerves or spirits , but the diversity of the parts to which the spirits are conveighed . thus carried to the muscles , they cause arbitrary motion ; to places wanting muscles , but endued with moveable fibres , they cause spontaneous motion . xvii . note by the way , that no muscle is moved which is not sensible at the same time , and that the motion of the muscle may fail , and yet the sence remain , but not the contrary ; few spirits being requisite for the sence of feeling , but many to cause and perform motion . and therefore it is a false notion , that the sence may fail in the same member , and yet the motion remain . for common practice tells us , that sometimes the feeling may fail in the skin , so as not to feel the heat of a burning coal ; but pierce the skin with a needle , and you shall find a most acute sence in the muscles , moving underneath , which would not feel , if this hypothesis were true . as frivolous is the example produced by regius , of a young man , who had lost the sence of feeling in his hand , the motion remaining ; for i can never believe any perforations were made to the muscles in that hand , which had they been done , regius must have been of another opinion ; but persons as ignorant as himself will believe any thing . but these physitians seem not to have observed , that this stupidity of the sence is not in the muscles , but only in the skin , or perhaps in the cutaneous pannicle , which being vitiated , they thought the inner parts of the member to have lost the sence of feeling . so that the mistake proceeds from hence , that because the sence of feeling failed in the skin , which might happen through vitious humors obstructing or contracting the pores of the skin , or else extremity of benumming cold , the physitian never minded the muscles , which had they diligently inspected , they had found by them , that the sence never fails in them while the motion remains . xviii . i shall clear this by some examples . a woman came to me for advice , she mov'd all her limbs indifferent well ; but her skin , that was wrinkled and somewhat cold , had no feeling in it , though prick'd with a needle , or held to the fire ; but if you thrust the needle deep into any muscle that lay underneath , she was presently sensible of the pain of the inner muscle . in like manner i met with a seamen , returning scorbutic from the east indies , who had no more feeling in his skin than a stone , though you held his hand to a scorching fire . but if you thrust a needle more deeply into the muscles , he was presently sensible of pain . the same story i could tell of a tobacco merchant , whose skin had quite lost its feeling ; but when you pricked him to the muscles , he was presently sensible of the pain . so that most certain it is , that in the moving parts the sence never fails , unless at the same time the motion also fail . xix . they that imprudently maintain this argument , assert , that sence is contributed to the parts by the little fibres of the nerves ; but motion by the animal spirits , which flow into the muscles through their little pipes in great quantity , and so that the fibres may be obstructed , though the passage of the animal spirits may be free ; by which means the sence fails , the motion remaining . on the other side , that the lower cavity may be obstructed , the fibres remaining free and entire , and then the motion fails , the sence remaining perfect . true it is , that the nerves feel by reason of the fibres and tunicles proceeding from the meninx ; but that they contribute sence to all the feeling parts by means of their little fibres , is altogether false . for they are not the little fibres , but the animal spirits flowing through the porosities of the nerves that cause the faculty of feeling in all the membranous parts ; without the influx of which , the little fibres never feel , as appears in the palsie . and hence it appears , how absurd it is to say , that the inner porosity being obstructed , and the passage of the spirits by that means hindred , the motion fails , but the sence remains , seeing that the sence proceeds from the influx , and fails without it . but it may be objected , that though the inner porosity of the nerve be obstructed , yet a sufficient quantity of spirits may pass through the substance of the fibres to create motion . but in the same manner it may as well be said , that the artery being obstructed within side , and the passage of the blood being hindred , suff●…cient vivific heat and spirit may pass through its substance to preserve the natural heat of the parts ; whereas the preservation of the heat proceeds from the due influx of the blood , and that failing , the heat also fails in the upper substance of the artery , which is warmed and nourished by the substance that passes through it . besides , how can the inner cavity of a nerve or artery be obstructed without the compression of the little fibres and the substance it self ? for that if the obstructing matter exactly close up the inner cavity , so that the most subtil and invisible spirit cannot pass , of necessity it must more closely compress the substance of the vessel and the little fibres , seeing that without such an exact compression , the stoppage cannot be ; but the substance being compressed with the little fibres , the pores therein , and the fibres are quite stopped up , and they being stopped , how shall the spirits pass , either through the fibres or the substance ? then again , seeing that in the motion of the muscles their fibres and membranes must require a greater quantity of animal spirits , which spirits cause a quick sence of feeling in the fibres and membranes , how is it possible , that a great quantity of spirits being employed toward motion , which the fibres and membranes necessarily supply at the same time with the same spirits , should be deprived of sence , which requires much fewer spirits than motion ? is not the feeling granted , by granting the necessary means of feeling ? but this axiom they seem to reject , who say , that the feeling is lost in the muscle , yet grant that many spirits flow thither to compleat the motion . lastly , they should prove that there is an inner cavity in the nerves , which could never yet be made out by any person in the world. xx. but there arising another question , while many believe sensation to be communicated to the brain by the animal spirits contained in the little tubes and membranous substance of the nerves ; others by the little fibres of the nerves . the first opinion seems less probable , because the animal spirits are continually pressed away from the brain through the nerves , but never ascend or return from the nerves to the brain ; and this seems strange again , that the ideas imprinted in the spirits should in a moment of time be carried from the remotest members of the body , against the stream of the spirits , to the brain , to be there offered to the mind . nevertheless gass●…ndus describes a single way , by which he believes , this return of the spirits to the brain may be effected . for , saith he , a nerve , or little nerve cannot be touched , but it must be compressed ; nor can it be compressed , but the spirit contained must be provoked by distention , and being stirred , it must push forward , or rather repel the next to it , and by the same reason , the spirit coming from the brain ; nor can that be repelled , but the whole series , by reason of repletion and continuity being repelled , the spirit at the beginning of the nerve flies back to the brain . and therefore it is that the faculty of sence residi●…g in the brain , is moved by this flying back , and presently perceives and apprehends the touch which is made . and afterwards he adds , that nothing is sent , but rather seems to be remitie●… and repelled ; that is to say , the spirit contained in the nerves ; neither does 〈◊〉 appear that any thing else can touch the brain . but after this manner the nerve being compressed , the spirit flowing into it , being by that pressure hindred from any farther passage , may be stopp'd indeed , but no way repelled to the brain , or any idea-carrying motion be made from thence to the brain , because the continual pressure , or impulsive motion of the brain it self , is an obstacle to hinder the spirits from being so strongly provoked toward the nerves or their ends , that no contrary motion can repel them to the brain ; and that so much the less , for that granting a stopping cause , yet there is no other repelling cause . therefore it is with the nerves , as with the arteries ; for the arteries being squeezed , the blood is stopped from passing , but does not flow back to the heart , because the pulsation drives it so strongly from it , that it cannot by any outward pressure , return again through the arteries to the heart : and thus , seeing the brain with the same force expels the spirits from it into the nerves ; and seeing also that when any contract is made in any of the remotest parts of the body , it is perceiv'd at the very same moment in the head ; and in regard so rapid a motion of the spirits from the foot to the head cannot be comp●…ehended by thought ; neither by reason of repletion or continuity , the spirits being prohibited farther , passes through the pressure of the nerve , can those spirits which are at the original of the nerve fly back to the brain , because of the propulsion aforesaid , by which , the brain by its own proper motion urges the spirits continually toward the nerves , not permitting any to fly back . lastly , seeing that by that stoppage of spirits , no idea of feeling , whether soft or hard , &c. can be carryed to the brain from the thing felt , and there be represented to the mind , it is manifest that gassendus's opinion is but a fiction . xxi . the latter opinion , that sensation is caused in the little fibres constituting the body of the nerve , though more plausible , yet it is hard to understand , how in a moment of time the specific image of sensation can be carried from the thigh to the brain , through the solid substance of little fibres and nerves to be there apprehended by the mind . i know that some would make this out by the similitude of the strings in a musical instrument , which being touch'd at the lower end , will tremble at the same time at the top . but in the bodies of men , there is not so strong a tension of the nerves , not that streightness of situation , as in strings pegg'd up ; but a great laxity and contortedness , and a manifold connexion every where with the parts , that such a continued trembling should happen in the little fibres of the nerves . which gassendus observes , where he says , that it is not the spirit contained , but the containing tunicle , which by reason of its continuation and distention to the brain , carries the affection thither . but because the nerves are not extended in a streight line , like the strings of a lute , but contorted and relaxed , they cannot repress the motion which is made at one end in the other extremity . lewis de la forge opposing these words of gassendus , proves indeed , that the perception of sense is caused by the spirits flowing from the part felt to the brain ; but does not sufficiently convince us , that this perception is caused by the motion communicated to the brain . his whole argument rests upon the influx of the animal spirits into the little fibres of the nerves , which are thereby kept continually stretched . but that loose tension is not sufficient to enable a small nerve that has so many windings from the foot to the head , and intervening connexions to extend its motion ; being lightly touched in the foot , so suddenly to the brain . the noise of a gun does not presently reach the ear , through the air , which is a yielding body ; consequently there is a longer space of time required in the solid body of a nerve , passing through so many intricate and various turnings , and yet at the very individual point of time that the foot is touched , the idea of the touch is felt in the brain . so that the touch and the perception seem to be both at the same instant , which could not be , if the motion of the fibres were to extend it self to the brain before the touch could be perceived in the brain . if it be objected , that this is done by the continuity of the nerve : i answer , that it may be done in hard extended things , but not in soft and languid . thus , if you set a stick twenty foot long to the ear , and slightly strike the t'other end , the ear will presently perceive the percussion ; but take the gut of any large beast , and put it to the ear blown up with wind , and h●…ld it to the ear , and strike at the other end , the motion shall never extend it self much above a span , much less will it reach the end next the ear. and so it is with any motion made in a soft , languid and contorted nerve , at a distance from the head. besides the nerve is composed of innumerable nerves so strongly adhering together , that they cannot be parted asunder but by force . now if any small fibre be moved in the foot , how shall that motion reach the brain , when none of the rest which are annext to it , never so much as stir ? if you say , the first being moved , the rest move , and so the whole nerve moves , then the perception of the brain will be uncertain , not being able to judge whether the first motion were in the toe , or any other part of the foot. des cartes makes mention of this question , and the better , as he thinks , to explain it , we are to understand , says he , that those little threads , which , as i said , arise from the innermost recesses of the brain , and compose the marrow of those nerves , are in all the parts of the body , which serve for the organ of any sense , and these strings may be most easily mov'd by the objects of those senses . but when they are mov'd never so little , presently they attract the parts of the brain from whence they derive their original , and at the same time open the passages of some pores in the foremost superficies of the brain . whence the animal spirits taking their course , and carried through the same into the nerves and muscles , stir up motions altogether like to those with which we also are excited , our senses being affected after the same manner . here the two former opinions seem to be joyned together by the most excellent philosophers of our age , to extract the perception of the senses out of this conjunction . for he believes that the idea of the object is to be carried through the small fibres to the brain , and that then in the brain , certain pores being opened , the animal spirits flow through the porosities of their fibres into the nerves and muscles , and so excite a motion which causes the perception . but still i wish that this ingenious invention would teach us , how at the same instant of time , that motion of the fibres can be carried from the toes to the head , and at the same instant , the influx of the spirits from the brain to the feet . mechanics here will not serve turn . pull a rope , says he , at one end , and the bell at the other end of the rope will presently sound : but the parallel will not hold . for in man there is a rational soul and life : now the soul perceives , and moves the parts without any external object . 't is otherwise with a bell , which is void of life and soul , nor can be moved but by some external agent , and consequently has need of other organs than a living body . for example ; the rope does not move the bell , unless pulled by some external mover ; but there is no such mover , or pulling in the nerves or their little fibres , much less in the soft and marrowy substance of the nerves . when a man lyes crumpled up several ways in his bed , there is neither sreightness nor tension , but many times a compression of the nerves , and yet he feels the least prick in his little toe . is the soft medullary fibre of the nerve , notwithstanding the crooked posture of the body moved through so many windings and turnings to the innermost recesses of the brain ? is there then any tension of the fibres and nerves ? rather will there not be some pressure to intercept and stop that motion ? no , says des cartes , because these fibres are included in those little tubes through which the animal spirits are carried into the muscles , which always swelling , those little tubes prevent the little threads from being too much compressed . as if , when the nerves are up and down compressed by that crooked posture of the body , those fictitious tubes remained open and dist●…nded , to prevent the compression of those little strings . now compare the two sentences of des cartes , from his similitude of a bell-rope , he says , the more extended the nerves are , the more easily and suddainly those threads are moved to the innermost recesses of the brain . on the other side , in another place he says , that the filaments that serve the organs of taste , are more easily mov'd than those that officiate for the sense of feelling , because they are more relaxed . shall then the more relaxed string more suddainly and easily be moved , than another more distended ? lastly , i would fain know , whether that thin invisible fibres being mov'd , has any faculty to open in the brain any pores for the influx of spirits . this is an action of the mind , not of any nerves or fibres : for the mind can open or shut the pores , sometimes of these , sometimes of those nerves , and has power to appoint the spirit to these or those parts , in greater or lesser quantity , vid. l. . c. . xxii . no less difficult it seems to explain , how the determinative motion of the spirits through the nerves proceeds , and how they come to flow and cease to flow , sometimes into these , sometimes into those muscles so suddenly , in a moment of time . a question which the ancients , by reason of its difficulty , car'd not to meddle with . but lately , regius has undertook the point , and tells us there are many valves in the nerves , for the opening and shutting of which , the animal spirits flow and re-flow , sometimes to these , sometimes to those parts , according to the determination of the mind . but not to believe any thing rashly , no man shall perswade me that there are any valves in the nerves , the opening or shutting of which , either admits or restrains the flowing or reflux of the animal spirits , according to the determination of the mind , the least shadow of which could never be demonstrated by any anatomist that ever i heard of , so that this opinion falls to the ground . first , because that if the determinated influx of the spirits should take effect , the soul while it finishes those determinations , would only be employ'd in the opening and shutting of those valves , but not in the emission of spirits ( for those flow continually and spontaneously through the impulse of the heart and brain ) like an organist ; who laying his fingers upon these or those keys , causes the wind to enter these or those pipes from the bellows according to his own determination , and as he opens or shuts the valves of the pipes with his fingers , so the several strings in the brain , from whence the operations of the mind proceed , ought to be extendded , like the conveyances of an organ , to the several valves of the nerves by which they may be shut or opened at pleasure . but in regard that many times one nerve sends it branches to many muscles ; as the turning-back nerve , sends its branches to many muscles , hyoides , neck and other parts , and several to the diaphragma , consequently there ought to be valves belonging to every branch , from each of which peculiar strings ought to be extended to the brain , and so should ascend of-times through one nerve , which runs out to various parts , though very slender , like the vagous nerve of the sixth conjunction , a hundred , two hundred , or more according to the number of the valves ; but that there are such filaments , there is no man of reason but may easily conceive . secondly , seeing that as those valves are open'd and shut , the motion of the parts is said to be swifter or slower , and for the same reason by the determination of the mind , the sense of feeling would move more or less acute at pleasure nay some times would intermit ; which that it never happens is known to all men. any man may either move or not move his hand as he pleases , but he can never so move it at his pleasure , but the skin of the hand shall be more or less sensible of it , which he might do if those valves were allow'd in the nerves , and were mov'd at the determination of the mind . thirdly , perhaps you 'l say these valves are not mov'd like the valves of an organ by the help of keys , but that they are open and shut by the influx of the animal spirits . but this is easily refuted : for that the animal spirits flowing into the nerves from the brain and pith , always proceed directly , but that they never return , is apparent from the continual expulsion of the brain , but repelling of nothing . now in their progress , their passage is always open through the valves , so seated , as to give free egress . but what is that which in the various determination of the spirits shuts and opens them again in a moment of time ? the spirits flowing in , only open the valves ; and there is no spirit allowed to return , because there is nothing that can expel it ; nor can the soul do it ; for what is already flow'd into the nerves , out of the brain , is without the instruction of the determiner ; having already perform'd the commands of the mind by its efflux , neither can it in a moment of time recal it at libitum back from the part , because the blood and spirits are always mov'd forward in the bodys by impulsion , but never repell'd by the same ways . fourthly , valves are allow'd in bodies that have a manifest cavity , as the milky , lymphatic vessels and veins ; where there is only a space for expansion ; but in the nerves there is no cavity to be discerned ; besides that in the cure of a wounded nerve , we have seen those filaments which were cut off , to the great pain of the patient , as long as a mans hand separated from the rest not cut off , the rest remaining entire about the half way of the nerve , and the cure being perfected , officiating as before ; and yet in such rare accidents could we observe any hollowness in the nerves : and had there been any valves therein , they must have been dilacerated upon taking away half the length of the nerve , nor could the nerves have afterward , as they did , perform their duty . des cartes and his followers , to avoid these rocks , tells us , that ▪ the valves are only in those places of the nerves , where being divided into branches they enter several muscles . and so they write , that one muscle being dilated by the spirits more impetuously flowing into it from the brain , and swelling at its full breadth , and contracted at its full length , by the compression made by the dilated muscle , the spirits are repell'd upward , and forc'd into that valve seated at the biforcation of the nerve . so that when they cannot pass it , they presently flow into the other branch of the biforcation to contract and encrease the swelling of another adjoyning or opposite muscle . but this is easily refuted , for that the ramifications of the same nerve are inserted into the muscles , either adjoyning or opposite , and moving the members by contrary motions , so that there can be no such regress of the spirits to the valve seated next the biforcation , there being many times no such biforcation , but only several muscles receiving several nerves . xxiii . the nerves differ in respect of their substance and quality ; some are thicker , some thinner ; some softer ; as those which proceed from the marrow within the cranium , as also those which extend but a short way to the sensitive parts , or require but little motion , and proceed from the pith without the brain . . in respect of their quantity , some are large , some small , others long , others short . . in respect of their rise , some from the pith within , others from the pith without the cranium . . in respect of the pairs ; some more porous , as the ceptics , some less , as the rest of the lesser nerves . xxiv . the pairs or conjunctions of the nerves are reckon'd to be thirty nine , with one nerve that is not pair'd . that is to say nine pair arising from the pith of the brain , within the cranium ; and thirty without side of the cranium , proceeding from the spinal pith through the holes of the vertebres , eight pairs of the neck , twelve of the breast , five of the loyns , and five of the os sacrum . to this number is to be added the nerve that has no pair , going forth at the end of the spinal pith , which fernelius will have to be rather number'd among the ligaments . but this number differs from the computation of those who will have but only seven pair of nerves within the cranium according to galen , whereas there are rather nine , ( see lib. . cap. ) and so they number thirty seven pairs , with one odd pair . as to the devarications of the nerves , they are innumerable , not to be described by all the art of anatomists , and therefore we shall only mention those which are most remarkable . chap. ii. of the nerves of the neck . of the nerves proceeding from the long pith of the brain , within the cranium we have discover'd sufficiently , lib. . cap. . but from the pith of the spine several nerves proceed , of which more at large lib. . cap. . of which anatomists number so many conjunctions , as there are wholes in the vertebres out of which they proceed . the nerves proceeding from the spinal marrow , consist of several little strings , which tack'd together from the thin meninx , make one nerve , which the thicker it is , into so many the more little threads it is divided , which appears upon the diffection of the membrane . but least the said little strings , at their first egress , should be parted one from another , first they are wrapt above with the thin meninx call'd the dura mater , and no sooner have they made their egress through the holes of the vertebres , but they are bound about with a strong fleshy substance , like a ligament . the nerves proceeding from the marrow descending into the spine , ( where it uses to be call'd the spinal , or the dorsal morrow ) according to the order in which they descend from the marrow , and divided into the nerves of the neck , the back or breast , the loyns , and of the os sacrum . from the pith passing through the vertebres of the neck , proceed eight pairs ; though others count but seven , numbring the lowermos●… pair among the nerves of the 〈◊〉 ii. the first and second pair , springing out from the fore-part of the marrow , not from the side , least they should be prejudic'd by the peculiar articulation of the first and second vertebre , arise with a double beginning ; the one between the hinder part of the head of the first vertebre ; the other between the first and second vertebre , at the sides of the denti-form'd process . but the first beginning of the pair is distributed into the muscles resting upon the neck , and lying under the oesophagus or benders of the neck . the hinder beginning of it proceeds with a double dissemination . of which the slendrest is distributed into the lesser streight muscles , and the upper oblique extenders of the head ; the other is inserted into the beginning of the muscle rasing up the scapula . but the first , and most slender beginning of the second pair , making its egress at the side of the denti-form'd process , is distributed into the muscles of the neck , and wasts it self in the skin of the face . the hinder beginning , bursting forth at the sides of the process of the hinder vertebre , is presently after divided into two unequal branches . of which the thicker , tending toward the hinder parts , and joyning its self with the third branch of the third pair of the nerves , crawls over all the hinder muscles of the neck , and partly communicated to the ears , ascends the very top of the head , and there wasts it self into the skin . the other which is more thin , is distributed into the larger streight and oblique muscles of the lower part of the head. iii. the third pair , rises in each side , between the lateral hole , between the second vertebre , immediately after its egress is divided into two branches . the foremost of these is again subdivided into four stocks of which the first runs out to the first muscle , of those that bend the neck , call'd the long muscle the second , descending , and united with a sprig of the fourth pair , ends in the muscles lying under the gullet . the third ascending , and concurring with the thicker branch of the second pair , vanishes in the skinny parts of the hinder part of the head. the fourth , sending forth branches to the muscle . extending the neck , in the transverse processes at the end of the neck and the raiser of the scapula , seated at the beginning of the neck , terminates in the four square muscle , drawing down the cheeks . the hinder branch of this pair is inserted into the second pair of the muscles extending the breast . iv. the fourth pair , rising between the third and fourth vertebre , is presently divided into two unequal branches . of these , the foremost and biggest is again tripartited into three little sprigs . of which the first being joyn'd with another branch of the third , enters the first and long pair of the muscles bending the neck ; the other is carry'd to the transversal muscle , extending the neck , and the first of the scapula , called the cucular . the third , slenderer then the rest , being joyn'd with a little sprig descending close by the mediastinum and pericardium , together with those little sprigs constitutes the diaphramatic nerve . the hindermost and least , proceeding backward toward the spine , affords several branches , to the muscles of that place , and thence is carry'd between the four square muscle drawing down the cheeks . v. the fifth pair , rising between the fourth and fifth vertebre , is also divided into two branches , the foremost and the hindermost . the foremost sends forth four little sprigs ; of which the first is carry'd to the benders of the neck ; the second , together with the stocks of the fourth and sixth pair , and somtimes the seventh , when the branch of the seventh is wanting , descending by the sides of the vertebres , along the fore-parts of the vertebres , is inserted into the middle of the diaphragma , and therein constitutes the phrenic nerve . the third proceeds to the deltoides , or muscle that raises the shoulder , through the upper and outer-most seat of the shoulder , and thence sends forth little branches to the cucular , and muscle rearing the scapula . the fourth , approaching the neck of the scapula , is divided into two branches ; of which the one is carry'd to the deltoides , where it parts from the scapula ; the other which is somewhat thicker , is contorted toward the spine , and is distributed in the same manner as the hinder part of the fourth pair . vi. the sixth pair , breaking forth under the fifth vertebre , and being divided also into two branches , when it has sent forth a little sprig to constitute the phrenic nerve , which being joyn'd with a little branch of the fourth and fifth pair , it forms , proceeding farther , is united with the seventh of the neck , and the first pair of the breast , and then parts from them , but being again united , forms the net-resembling fold , from whence the nerves proceed which are carry'd to the arm. the hindermost is carry'd to the hinder muscles extending the head and neck . vii . the seventh pair makes its passage through the common hole of the sixth and seventh vertebres . the foremost and biggest branch of this pair , is united presently after its egress with the sixth of the neck , and first of the breast , which we reckon the eighth of the neck , and with the rest , is carried the greatest part of it to the arm. the hindermost and lesser branch goes away to the muscles resting upon the neck , and the foursquare muscle drawing down the cheeks . viii . the eighth pair , which some call the first of the breast , coming forth between the last of the neck and the first vertebre of the breast , is presently slit into two branches . the foremost and biggest is united with the seventh of the neck , and the first nerve of the breast , and so is afterwards altogether dispersed into the arms. except one stock , which rising at the beginning of it , is united with the nerves aforesaid , and carried into the fore-parts as far as the sternon , all the length of the first rib of the breast ; affording also a little sprig to the subclavial muscle ; then winding back upwards , terminates in the muscles rising from the upper part of the sternon , that is to say , the mastoides , sternon hyoides , and hyoides ; into which , nevertheless some branches are transmitted from the sixth conjugation of the brain , and the third of the breast . however , from the same branch ready to go into the arm , another ramification proceeds at the hinder part , which enters the muscle possessing the cavity of the scapula . the hindermost and the lesser , lyes hid under the muscles which grow to the vertebres ; from whence it sends some ramifications into the second muscle bending the neck , as also into those which extend the head and neck ; but descending about the spine of the seventh vertebre , it sends forth little sprigs into the lower part of the first muscle of the scapula , that is to say , the cucullar , and of the third , or rhamboides , and the upper postic serratus . chap. iii. of the nerves of the breast o●… back . twelve pair arise out of the dorsal marrow , all which nerves , after their egress , are divided into two branches , of which , the biggest is contorted toward the fore-parts , the lesser toward the hinder parts . i. the first pair , rising between the first and second vertebre of the breast , is presently divided into two branches : of which the foremost and biggest is united with the fifth , sixth , seventh and eighth pair of the neck , and with them forms the net-resembling contexture , from whence all the nerves arise that are to descend to the arm. this also sends forth a branch all along the course of the first rib , to the sternon-bone , which constitutes the first intercostal nerve , and distributes little twigs into the muscles , resting upon the breast . the hindermost and lesser branch is disseminated into the same manner as the hinder branch of the eighth pair of the neck . ii. the ten following pairs , are likewise divided into the foremost bigger branch , and the hindermost lesser : of which , the foremost branches being accompanied with as many branches descending under the ple●…ra from the inner branch of the nerve of the sixth pair , constitute the intercostals ; which , together with the intercostal arteries and veins , are carried all the length of the rib toward the fore-parts , through the cavity in the lower and innermost seat of the ribs . but those which belong to the true ribs , proceed as far as the sternon . but those which belong to the spurious ribs , are carried to the fore-parts of the abdomen above the peritonaeum . from these several little branches run out to several muscles ; as to the external and internal intercostals , the two antic serrati , the broad withdrawer of the shoulder , and the pectoral , which brings the shoulder to ; also to the first pair of the muscles of the abdomen , and the whole skin of the breast , and the nipples of the breast , to which they impart a most acute sense . the latter branches hasten toward the spine between the muscles growing to the vertebres , and send branches both to them , the muscles rising from the tops of the vertebres , and the skin of the back . galen observes , that the nerves which issue from the bastard ribs , are bigger than those which proceed from the superior ribs , and are always bipartited about the middle of the ribs , make their egress at one part , and at the other crawl through the inner rib. but we have observed that division not about the middle of the rib , but presently after they have made their egress out of the holes of the vertebres . iii. the twelfth pair , which others reckon to be the first of the loyns , breaks forth between the last of the breast , and the first of the loyns , and is presently divided into two branches ; of which , the foremost , which is the biggest , is inserted into the fleshy appendix's of the diaphragma , the obliquely descending muscles of the abdomen , and the first of the bending muscles called the psoas ; the compression of which , by the stone in the kidneys , causes a numness in the thigh on that side . from this branch , that little sprig derives is original , which , together with the preparing artery is carried to the testicles . l. . c. . which vesalius , plater and laurentius affirm to proceed from the first pair of the loyns , being our twelfth pair of the breast . the hindermost enters the muscles of the loyns , resting upon the hinder part of the vertebres ; that is to say , the longest , the sacrolumbus , and the broadest withdrawer of the shoulder . chap. iv. of the nerves of the loins . from the spinal marrow contained in the vertebres of the loyns , proceed five pairs , which are bigger than the dorsals , and divided into two branches ; of which , the four branches are carried to the muscles of the abdomen ; the hindermost to the muscles of the vertebres , resting upon the spines and nameless bones , and afford some little branches to the skin investing the loyns . the foremost being united at some distance , constitute that fold from whence the nerves proceed , that are to be sent to the thighs . i. the first pair makes its egress between the first and second vertebre of the loyns , under the psoas or ploas muscle , and is carried with its foremost branch to the second muscle bending the thigh , and the first fascial bending the leg , as also to the skin of the thigh . with the latter , going forth from the abdomen , it provides for the three glutaei extending the thigh , and the membranous extensor of the leg. ii. the second pair proceeds between the first and second vertebre under the first muscle bending the thigh . the fore-branch of this passing near the ileon bones , sends forth two stalks ; one to the knee and its skin ; the other long , which accompanies the saphaena . the other turns backward and enters the muscles that cover the loyns . iii. the third pair , which is the biggest of the lumbal nerves carried under the said muscle bending the thigh and the share-bone , accompanies the crural vein and and artery . columbus writes , that there is a branch extended from it to the groin , scrotum and skin of the yard ; which bauhinus however derives from the pith of the os sacrum . iv. the fourth pair rises between the fourth and fifth vertebre ; and its foremost branch passes through the hole between the bone of the hip , the share-bone , and the ileon , and sends forth branches to the two muscles that fling the thigh about ; as also to the muscles second and third that send the thigh and others to the muscles of the yard ; some believe that it sends other branches to the neck of the womb and bladder . the hinder most goes away into the muscles and skin that covers the vertebres . v. the fifth pair , which some will have to be the first of the os sacrum , rising between the last vertebre of the loyns , and the upper part of the os sacrum , is divided into two branches ; of which , the foremost is intermixed for the most part with the nerves going to the thigh , and sends forth a little branch near the inner region of the ileon-bone , to the muscles of the abdomen , and the second of the thigh-benders . the latter is disseminated into the muscles growing from the ileon bone , chiefly the greater gluteus , and the skin of the bottocks . chap. v. of the nerves proceeding from the pith of the os sacrum . from the marrow contained in the cavity of the os sacrum , five pairs proceed ; which nerves , before they take their progress through the holes of this bone , are divided each into an inner and outer branch , which go forth before and behind through the transverse hole . the three inner and uppermost go away to the thigh ; the two lowermost to the vessels of the bladder and podex , also to the perinaeum , the yard and scrotum , and the neck of the womb. the hindermost are distributed to the muscles possessing the hinder seat of the ileum and os sacrum ; the first and second extenders of the breast , the longest muscle of the back and sacrolumbus ; the bender of the loyns , called the holy muscle , the broad muscle withdrawing the shoulder , and the three glutaei which constitute the buttocks . the end of the spinal marrow , penetrating into the coccyx-bone , sends forth one stock , therefore called the pairless , which is first divided into two , then more branches running forth to the buttocks , podex , and certain muscles of the thigh . this pairless nerve , fernelius reckons among the ligaments . chap. vi. of the nerves of the arm and hand . from the spinal marrow through the holes of the vertebres , five nerves are carried into each arm , that is to say , from the fifth , sixth , seventh and eighth pair of the neck , and the first of the breast . these nerves presently after their egress are united with the foremost and larger branches , which are presently parted again , and again united , are a second time separated , and so form a certain net-resembling fold , which proceeds under the clavicle , at the egress of the axillary vein and artery . from which fold , having at length freed themselves , they descend to the arm of their own side ; yet so , that the true original of either is uncertain , by reason of the foresaid reiterated implication and extrication ; nor can the anatomists decribe it otherwise than by conjecture . i. the first pair is produced with a double branch from the fifth pair ; of which , the one is carried to the second deltoides muscle of the shoulder , and the skin that covers it . the other toward the neck of the scapula , and there is cleft into two branches , of which , the first is inserted into the deltoides , where it rises from the clavicle . the latter enters the fourth pair of muscles of the hyoides-bone , or coracohyoides ; the other affords a branch to the upper scapulary and deltoides , in the same place where the spine of the scapula rises . this is carried through the upper part of the shoulder , as the rest of the nerves are carried through the ala to the arm , and there are slit into many branches . ii. the second , which is the thicker , and carried through the fore-part and middle part of the arm , under the two-headed muscle , and affording little branches to the two heads of the same , as also to the head of the longer muscle depressing the hand , is divided below the bending of the elbow into two branches : of which , the external and the slenderest being carried along , together with a branch of the cephalic , through the external seat of the elbow , enters the first and second internode of the thumb . the larger internal is divided under the median vein into two branches ; of which , the exterior proceeding obliquely under the skin , after it has left the vein , runs toward the radius as far as the wrist . the innermost being fastned to the inner branch of the basilic , and taking an oblique course , is divided about the elbow into two principal branches ; of which , one goes away to the wrist through the region of the radius ; the other through the region of the elbow , and having passed beyond that , vanishes in the skin of the inside of the hand . iii. the third , before it comes to the arm , throws forth a little branch between the muscle , withdrawing the shoulder and the deltoides ; thence proceeding to the arm under the two-headed muscle , sends forth a little sprig into the head of the second , bending the elbow . from hence descending with a branch of the second nerve , it approaches the inner tubercle of the bone of the shoulder in the bending of the elbow on the fore-side , which having past , it casts forth several little branches , which being united with other little branches from the fifth nerve , carried through the hinder region of the said eminency , are distributed into the muscles possessing the inner seat of the elbow , and springing from the internal eminency of the shoulder , viz. into the two muscles of the fingers , bending the external internodes , and another that bends the third joynt of the thumb . from thence it casts forth another stock , which descends between the said muscles through the radius toward the wrist , and passing under the transverse ligament , sends forth certain ▪ little sprigs to the withdrawing muscle of the thumb , and the other two bending the first joynt of it . afterwards , coming to the hollow of the hand , it is divided into three branches ; of which , the first gives two little sprigs to the thumb ; the second , two to the fore-finger ; the third , one to the middle-finger about the inner side . iv. the fourth , three times as thick as the rest , is carried through the arm , deeply concealed among the muscles , together with the axillary artery and the basilic vein . but entring the arm , it sends forth upward and downward several little sprigs into the heads of the muscles extending the elbow , and the skin investing the internal seat of the elbow . hence through the inner hollowness in the eminency of the shoulder-bone , proceeding toward the hinder parts , there it goes away into the skin of the arm , and descends from thence to the wrist . now the joynt of the elbow , it is divided into two branches , which descend between the muscles to the wrist . of which , the external being produced all the length of the radius , and at the wrist , on the outer side , passing the transverse ligament , is there divided into two branches , of which , one is inserted with a double sprig into the external seat of the thumb ; the other partly into the fore-finger , and partly into the middle-finger . the internal , stretch'd out all the length of the elbow , sends forth several ramifications . . into the first muscle , extending the fingers . . into the second muscle , extending the fingers . . into the inner muscle , extending the wrist ; hence it affords several stalks in its progress , to the three beginnings of the muscles , deriving their original from the bone of the elbow . what remains , termiminates in the wrist . v. the fifth , proceeding from the inferior part of the foresaid net-resembling fold , and joyned to the fourth , descends between the muscles bending and extending the elbow , and proceeds entire to the internal eminency of the shoulder , and there , together with the third nerve , sends forth branches to the muscles springing from that eminency , and possessing the inner seat of the elbow . it also throws forth somewhat farther , between the muscles bending the second and third internodes of the fingers , a little sprig to the hollow of the hand , where it brings forth three branches : of which , the first being bipartited , enters the inner part of the little-finger ; the second , being bipartited , enters the ring-finger ; the third proceeds to the external seat of the inner side of the middle-finger . besides this fifth nerve casts forth another little sprig from the outer side , all along the middle of the length of the radius ; which sprig being again divided into three branches , enters the external part of the middle , ring , and little-finger . vi. the sixth , which is sometimes added to the preceeding five , arises from the inner part of the net-resembling fold descends through the inner seat of the shoulder and elbow , with many little sprigs dispers'd by the way to the neighbouring skin . but when it touches the internal eminency of the shoulder bone , it is divided into several stalks , which being accompanied with the branches of the basilic vein , when they come to the wrist vanish under the skin . chap. vii . of the nerves of the thighs and feet . there are four pair of nerves that descend to the thighs , which rise from the seven pairs descending from the spinal marrow ; that is , the four lower pairs of the loyns , the three upper pair of the o●… sacrum which being all intermix'd at their beginning from the net-resembling fold , from which on each side the four aforesaid nerves issue differing both in thickness and course . the first and third , because they do not stir out of the thigh , are shorter and more slender , the second longer and thicker is carried through the middle of the thigh and extended to to the leg. the fourth much thicker and longer then the former , is carry'd through the thigh and legs to the tops of the fingers . of those the three foremost appear before the fourth behind . i. the first , rises from the upper part of the net-resembling fold , where the second nerve of the loyns unites with the third , and enters the two muscles extending the thigh , and its skin ; distributing little branches to the first of the leg-benders , and to the second and third extending it , and terminates above the joynt of the knee . ii. the second , rising from the same fountain , next under the first , goes away with the crural arteries and vein through the groyns to the thigh , and enters its inner and foremost muscles , distributing little branches also to the adjoyning membranes and skin , and sending one remarkable branch to the foot. laurentius spigelius , and others erroneously assert , that this nerve is united with the saphena vein , for which reason it is somewhat dangerous to open this vein ; whereas it takes its course all alone without any companion . the third , rising from the fold presently under the second , and carry'd about the second muscle bending the thigh . iv. the fourth , which bartholin has observ'd double both at its beginning and progress , and which is the thickest , dryest and strongest of all the nerves in the whole body , form'd out of the lowest of the loyns ; and the three upper pairs of the os sacrum , after it has provided for the thigh and the skin of the buttocks , sends forth little branches to some muscles of the thigh , leg and foot. thence descending farther with its trunk , at the bending of the knee in the ham , it is divided into an outer and inner branch . of which the outermost , which is the slenderest , is produc'd to the ham , the outer parts of the foot , perinaean muscles and the internal part of the malleolus by the way affording many little sprigs to the skin ; the innermost , which is the bigger , all along the length of the leg dispatches other sprigs to the muscles of the feet and toes , to the great toe , the sole of the foot , and the skin of the calf , and to both the lower sides of the toes . wherefore all the nerves , carry'd below the knee to the nerves , proceed from this crural trunk except that branch which descends from the second pair next the heel . we have not given any particular description of the cutaneous nerves , which are only little branches sent to the skin from the nerves adjoyning , whose productions are only conspicuous , but their particular descriptions are impossible , and therefore never undertaken . the ninth book of anatomy . concerning the bones . chap. i. of the bones in general . many anatomists begin their anatomical descriptions from the bones , in imitation of galen ; because the bones are the establishment of the whole body , without which the rest of the parts could not subsist . for nature says galen imitates the building of ships ; adapting the vertebres in the place of the keel , to which she afterwards fits the ribs , beams , planks , and sides , and the rest of the wood-work . and therefore galen begins with the bones presupposing them to be found before the other parts as being the ground-work upon which all the other parts must subsist . but we dislike that method for more pregnant reasons . . because the bones are not form'd before the other parts , but at the same times , lib. . cap. . . because they are later compleated then the other parts . . because the bones are not the necessary basis for a ground ▪ work at the beginning , until they have obtain'd a convenient hardness , which they have not at the beginning , but some months after conception and the formation of the whole , nay many are wanting till after the birth . . because the bones cannot be shown , till all the parts annexed are remov'd , and the bones be laid bare . . because all the softer parts , are lyable to putrefaction , which the bones are not , and therefore necessarily the soft parts are first to be demonstrated ; as leading the nearest way to instruction and dueness of method . and therefore we have observed this course ; adding in the last place the gristles and ligaments which fasten the bones together . but here you 'l say , that the knowledge of the bones is beneath a physitian , and only fit for chyrurgions whose manual operations are only proper , in fractures and luxations of the bones . but in regard it is necessary for a physitian to understand the whole body of physic which consists but of two parts , knowing , and curing , and that curation is perform'd by dyet , chyrurgery and pharmacy , a physitian certainly ought to have the perfect knowledg not only of the whole body of man , it 's health and distempers , but also of the remedies , and consequently of chyrurgery , which is certainly the most noble and antient part of medicinal cure ; and although a physitian taken up with more profound speculations , may not practise chyrurgery , yet the knowledge of it is absolutely necessary for him , that he may be able to perform the office of a chyrurgion , where a chyrurgeon is not to be had ; and that he may be able many times to direct a chyrurgeon in his operation , to which purpose , the knowledg of the bones is of great importance . for which reason , hippocrates , the father of all physitians , recommends it to his son tessalus . and for the same reason , galen would have all that read hippocrates's books of fractures and luxations , to be perfectly skill'd in the skeleton . i. the bones , by the greeks called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 from 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 to stand , because the whole structure of the body stands by means of bones ; according to that of hippocrates , the bones afford stability , streightness , and form to the whole body . ii. the bones are similar parts , very hard , very dry , and destitute of sense , colder than all the rest of the parts , framed for the support of the whole body . they are called similar , not that they are absolutely , but because they appear so to the sense , nor can be easily divided into other parts . for the clearer explanation of which , s●…igelius distinguishes between simile and similare , which he says differ as much as the denominative from the thing from whence the denomination is derived . iii. the bones are generated in the womb out of the thicker and more tartareous , or earthly part of the seed , nourished with the tartareous particles of the blood , and moistned with the marrowie fat. iv. but the marrowy fat called marrow , is not of the same sort in all the bones ; for that in the large hollownesses of the larger bones , it is very oyly and fat , yet of a colour somewhat inclining to red ; but in the cavities of the lesser bones it is white . but in the spungy bones the marrow is less thick and unctuous . the marrow is generated out of the blood thrust forward into the inner parts ●…f the bones through the little arteries , of which , more by and by . two things are here to be noted . . that the marrow is plainly destitute of feeling ; though formerly paraeus thought otherwise . . that it is not enveloped with any membrane in the cavity of the bones . by which mark , hippocrates distinguishes it from the spinal marrow . the spinal marrow , says he , is not like the m●…rrow which is in the other bones , for only this has membranes , which the other marrow has not . this marrow is very useful to the bones , for that the tartareous particles , when they are near to fixation , quickly congeal into an icy hardness ; so that the bones would become very brittle , and never grow to their due magnitude , unless that marrowy fat penetrating the whole bone , did not temper and s●…ften the extream hardness of the tartareous particles , and so provide that in the growth of the whole body that the tartareous particles do not separate , but still continue new intermixtures with fresh particles , till the bone have attained its perfection . which growth surceases , when by reason of the increasing heat of the body , these particles are so drved up , that they can no longer be mollified by the marrowy fat ; nor extend themselves . whence it comes to pass , that the more the heat of the body encreases , the less the body shoots out in length ; because the bones which are the basis's and props of the body become more and more dry and hard●…ed , and the marrow grows thicker and less moist . hence it comes to pass , that insants grow much in a short time , children less , and youth less than they , and aged persons never grow at all , by reason their marrow is less in quantity , and less moist and oyly ; and their dryness of their bones causes them to be more brittle and easily broken . now the tartareous particles are separated from the arterious blood by the mixture of the animal spirits , which that they flow in great quantity to the periostea , the quick sense of the periostea testifies , vid. l. . c. . after which separation , the particles are opposed to the bones by the help of the marrowy fat which moistens them . v. but the blood ▪ flows to the periostea and inner parts , through the arteries , and the less useful remainder flows back again through the veins . to which purpose , those vessels not only terminate with their extremities in the periostea , but also penetrate the bones themselves , and pour forth blood into their innermost concavities , to be changed into marrow , which is the proper nourishment for the bones . and though their ingress is not discernable in all , yet in the larger bones of the shoulder and thigh , it is apparent , where the cavities are perspicuously pervious , as far as the marrow , affording passage to the arteries . besides , their ingress into the bones , appears by the sanguinous juice which is form'd in the deplois , the middle spungy table of the skull , and in the inner spungy substance of the ribs of infants , and many other bones , which could never come thither through any other channels . to this , add the observation of spigelius , who at padua , in a great rottenness of the shin-bone , saw the substance of the bone perforated by the arteries , at what time , plempius was present by his own report . i my self , in the year . had a young man in cure , whose shin-bone in the fore-part was corroded with an extraordinary rottenness . after i had taken away the flesh about it with the periosteum . i perceived in the inner cavity , which reached to the marrow , a little artery beating very quick ; whereas no man could dream of an artery in the hardest place of all the bone ; nor was the artery continuous with the flesh , for that was taken away , and yet the pulse remained for many days in the inner rotten cavity of the bone. which makes me believe that these arteries are seldom conspicuous in the hard part of the bone , when men are at their full maturity ; perhaps because the arteries being pressed by the hardness of the growing bone , at length vanish all together ; and where they are somewhat bigger than ordinary , those people , by reason of some ill humors in their bodies , are easily subject to rottenness in their bones , by reason of the sharp and corrupt blood poured into them through the arteries , which by the infusion of good blood , when bones are broken , afford matter for callosity . however , this shews platerus's error , denying that the arteries never enter the bones ; and how much galen was in the right , who allows to every bone a blood-bearing vessel , bigger or lesser , according to the proportion of the bone. now that the bones harden by reason of the increasing heat , is plain from those men who are born and bred in hot countries ; for by reason of the great external heat , and the internal sooner increasing within , they are generally shorter , dryer and leaner , the humidity of the body being sooner wasted . on the other side , they who inhabit cold and most countries ; and eat and drink plentifully , they grow tall , by reason of the flower increase of their heat and drought ; as we find by the danes , norwegians , muscovites , &c. now that growth is hindred from the increase of heat and drought , is apparent from hence , that ladies , to prevent their lap-dog puppies from growing , take away their milk and moist food , and feed them with wine or spirit of wine , which causes a quicker increase of the natural heat , and renders the alimentary blood more dry and sharp ; by which means , the bones being dry'd more suddenly , the puppies cease to grow . vi. the officient cause of the bones , is the vivific spirit seated in the seed , which galen calls the ossific faculty , disposing the more tartareous parts of the seed , for the materials of bones . these spirits therefore may be said to be the essential form of the bones , which some physitians will have to be their cold and dry temper ; but aristotle will have it to be the same . rolsinch finding that the bones were still the same in dead bodies as in living , believes the formal cause of the bones to be no more known than the formal cause of a stone . but what if we say , that the vivific spirit is the form of living bones , and their cold and dry temper , together with their own conformation the form of living bones . as for their accidental form it is their shape and figure , whether round , flat , streight , or crooked , according to their various use . vii . as to the time of their formation , aquapendens believes , that the bones are first generated among the other parts , resting upon galens argument at the beginning of the chapter . harvey believes them not to be sooner generated than other parts , of which , many turn into bones of the birth , as in the teeth . neither is there any thing to be seen in the first principles and beginnings of formation , but a soft , slimy , gluteous substance , that approaches no way to the constitution or nature of bones , which constitution it acquires afterwards by degrees . viii . the end of the bones , when arrived at their just hardness is no action but a use , for no bone exercises any action . this end is either common or particular ; common to be the props and supports of all the parts . their particular use is various , to defend many principal parts and bowels from external injuries , to afford a secure passage for others , as in the spine ; to bind the laxity of the joynts , as in the knee-pan , &c. ix . the differences between the bones , according to galen , are three . in respect of their bulk , some larger , some little ; in respect of their cavity , some hollow , others solid ; in respect of what they contain , some containing marrow , others none . the other differences we shall shew as we go along . x. their substance is whitish and hard , though harder or softer according to the difference of age , not altogether dry in living creatures , but bespread with a certain fat and viscous moisture , which the more plentifully it abounds in the bones , the more tenacious they are , and the less brittle , and being broken , they the sooner unite together again , by means of the brawny callosity . xi . i say that they unite by means of the brawny callosity ; for that the bones being taken away , never grow again , according to that maxim of hippocrates , a perfect bone , or gristle , or nerve , or any thin particle of the preputium , neither grows again nor unites . that is , it does not unite without a heterogeneous medium . but the callosity , by means of which , broken bones unite , by degrees hardens and becomes bony in such a manner , as if it were a real bone. this lindan seems to have observed , where he says , that in children some bones are consolidated together without the help of any callosity ; for proof of which , he produces the example of a boy of six years old , that broke his thigh-bone , the fragments of which , being sequestred by art and nature , there happens in the middle of the bone , a boneless space of about four thumbs breadth . this was at length so filled up by the rest of the parts of the bone insensibly increased , and at last united together , that you could not tell where the bone had been wanting , or that the fracture had done any harm . i remember something like this story in a person full grown . in the year . a miller of nimmeghen falling from his mill , broke his leg with a button in the middle , with that violence , that the upper part-of the bone boaring the flesh , stuck in the ground , which not only deprived it of the flesh , but of the periosteum . my self , with three chyrurgeons more , were of opinion , the leg was to be cut off , there being no hopes of cure : but one of the chyrurgions being old and experienced , resolved first to cut of that part of the bone which was bereft of its periosteum , about the breadth of two fingers : so said , so done , and then the chyrurgion extended the leg to its first length , and splintered it up all alike , dressing and cleansing the wound every day ; in a short time there grew a callus from each end of the bone , which at length uniting , grew into a bony hardness , and the wound being cured , retained its due length , so that you could not perceive the bone to have been taken away by any limping of the patient afterward ; which cure proved the more successful , because there was no great artery or vein broken , and the blood which flowed out of the small ones easily stopped by the first ligature . from whence it is apparent , that broken bones do not unite but by means of the callus . as for the bones of infants , that unite and consolidate without the help of any heterogeneous medium , this is to be said , that in new-born infants , many bones have not attained their due hardness , but are as yet soft and flexible like membranes , whereas really they appear to be such as when they have acquired their hardness ; and such are the bones of the bregma in infants , of the hinder part of the head , and the nameless bones , which are still bones , though they have not attained their due hardness , which being afterwards acquired , they become absolute bones . xii . many bones , as those of the thigh , shoulder , leg , &c. have a remarkable concavity , the domicel of much marrow . others , as of the cranium and ribs , &c. have only small and obscure little cells , fill'd with a sanguineous and marrowy juice , necessary for their nourishment . but these cavities are so small , that they can either be hardly , or not very plainly discerned , and then those bones are said to be sollid , as the bones of the nose , the little bones of the wrist and foot , &c. which without question are furnished however with some small porosities , though not manifestly conspicuous . in the superficies of the bones are to be considered cavities and prominences , made for the convenience of the joyntings , the insertion of the tendons , of the muscles , ligaments , &c. the cavity , if it be deep , and receive the head of another bone , as in the ischion-bone , is called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 ; if superficiary , as in the knee , 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 and sinus , or a hollowness . the processes which occur at the top of the hollownesses like lips , and most conspicuous in deep hollownesses , are called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , in latin , labra and supercilia , lips and brains . xiii . a prominence is either round , as in the head of the thigh-bone ; or long , as in the stytoides ; or hollow , as in the scapula-bone . the round prominence is called the head , and if it be low and depressed , is called condilus . a prominency is twofold , apophysis and epiphysis . xiv . apophysis , in latin processus or process , is the continuous part of a bone , manifestly bunching out beyond the flat superficies , for the more commodious insertion of the muscles , tendons , and other parts ; of which processes , there are many in the vertebres of the back , also in the lower jaw and scapula . there is another short apophysis , as in the bones of the fingers ; and another long , and that either sharp pointed , or simply long , variously named , according to the figure which it resembles , as styloides , coracoides , odontoides , &c. xv. epiphysis , or appendix , is a bone growing to a bone , like an addition , by simple and immediate contiguity , and that by the inlet of small heads or bosoms , like a gynglynos , though without motion . the substance of the epiphysis in infants new born , is thin and gristly , in men of ripe years it hardens into a thin and spungy bone , and so in progress of time , is united with the bone , as if it were an apophysis , and were one continuous bone , so that it cannot be separated again , unless by long maceration and boiling , if the party were young . but it is no where more soft and weak than about its connexion , for there as spungy as a pumice stone , it is furnished with many little cels : but it has no remarkable cavity containing marrow ; only a certain marrowy juice in its porous little cells , for its own nourishment . but it is broader than the bone it self , and for that reason , renders the articulation the stronger . xvi . the bones are destitute of the sense of feeling ; neither are they furnished with any conspicuous nerves , except the grinding teeth ; but without side they are wrapt about with a thin membrane very quick of feeling , that is to say , a periosteum , which because it immediately adheres to the bones , and is cruelly pain'd upon any distemper , hence that painful sensation is improperly attributed to the bones ; not that the bones are affected , but the periostea that lye next the bones and the adjoyning membranes . however the teeth are destitute of periosteums , after they make their egress out of their proper seats ; as also the little sesamoid bones , the four little bones of the ears , and the ends of the bones constituting the joynts , to prevent their being pain'd by overmuch motion and collision . nicholas massa relates an unusual accident , that he saw an ulcer'd thigh the bone of which , after the periosteum , was scraped off , felt an extraordinary pain , that it would hardly endure to be touch'd ; nay , that he boar'd the bone , and that there was within a most cruel sense of pain , which , as he says , he therefore set down in writing , that anatomists might observe whether any sensation of the nerves penetrated to the bones : from which observation , some conclude , that some of the bones , if not all , are endued with the sense of feeling : but rather we must believe , that that same corruption of the bone being freed from its periosteum , extended it self farther to those parts of the bone which were not yet covered with a periosteum ; and thence , by the motion of the bone laid bare , there might be some pain in the parts adjoyning to the periosteum , still remaining covered ; which pains , i have often observed in my practise , which were caused by the motion of the particles without sense , but really proceeded from the next adjoyning sensible parts . against this opinion of ours , there is an objection raised from the words of avenzoa , who argues thus . the bones participate of the rational soul , and are nourished , therefore they are sensible ; for there is , according to aristotle , both a vigitative and a sensible faculty in every thing that is rational , as in a pentagon , a triangle and a square ; therefore there must be either two souls in the bones , or of necessity they must be sensible . moreover , if they were not endued with the sense of feeling , the greatest part of animals would not differ from plants . lastly , if the vital spirits could slow into their substance without the help of the arteries , much more easily the animal , which is much more spirituous , without the assistance of the nerve . which arguments , some have improved so far , as to deny any obtuseness of sense , but all quickness of feeling to the bones . but these arguments fall to the ground , being seriously examined . for the consequence of the first does not follow , where there is a soul and nutrition , there is sense : for there is a rational soul and nutrition in the carotides , in cataleptics and apoplectics , but no sense . nay , the contrary to this is manifest in brutes , which are quick of sense , though destitute of a rational soul. moreover , a rational soul operates variously , according to the diversity of the organs ; in the eyes , it causes sight ; in the membranes , feeling ; in the muscles , motion ; and there all the parts that want the sense of feeling , are not to be proscribed out of the jurisdiction of the soul ; otherwise the parenchyma's of the bowels , the fat , and other parts must be exil'd . a man differs from plants , in that he feels both pain and pleasure ; but hence it does not follow , that all his parts must of necessity be sensible ; it is enough that a man has those sensible parts which the plants have not . for because a man differs from plants in seeing , does it follow that all his parts must see ? but lastly , experience teaches us , that all the bones are not sensible of feeling . for we have often trepann'd and fil'd the skull and bones , and burnt them with red hot instruments , without any sense of pain ; so that if you blind-folded the patient , he knew nothing of the operation . thus scaliger writes , that he has pulled bones out of his own gaping wounds without any pain . xvii . the number of the bones is not the same in all ages . for in infants and children they are more , which as the heat encreases , unite and become fewer , as the bones of the sternon unite into one or three ; the share-bones , hip-bones , and ilion-bones into one , &c. nor is there always the same number at the same age. for sometimes one rib is either superfluous or wanting of each side : sometimes the vertebres of the neck and back ; as also the bones of the thighs unite into one . sometimes you shall find one vertebre added to the vertebres of the loyns . as was observed in a skeleton preserved by antony polt of utrecht , wherein there were six vertebres of the loyns . lastly , anatomists vary in the computation of the bones . some computing epiphyses among bones , and others reckoning in the sesamoids . xviii . the qualities of the bones consist in their substance , in those things which follow the substance , and in the accidents . their proper temper compleats the substance of the bones , as being that which gives them their being . hardness and colour follow substance . the accidents , are bigness , figure , number , situation and connexion . from these three qualities , proceed the judgment of the constitution of the bones , whether entire and well , or endamaged and ill constituted . bones in living creatures , sound and well constituted , ought to be hard , wrapt about with a periosteum , whitish , not absolutely dry , but somewhat unctuous ; their substance also ought to be equal and continuous , and their figure proper ; otherwise they are diseased and out of order . chap. ii. of the conjunction of the bones . the bones are fastned one to another , either for rest or motion . connexion for rest is called coalition , and is a firm natural connexion of the bones without motion , when two bones are so united one within another , that they seem to be one bone. i. symphysis is twofold , real , and not real . real , is when two bones harden and unite without any manifest heterogeneous medium ; thus the chin or lower jaw consists of two bones , united without any manifest heterogeneous medium , and this is done three manner of ways . ii. . by syneurosin , when the bones are joyned by a medium that seems to be nervous or membranous , as in infants , the bones of the skull , the name-less bones , and bodies of the vertebres cohere together . i say , seems to be ; because that medium is not really nervous or membranous , but is truly bony ; but such as has not yet acquir'd a perfect hardness ; such as are many bones of the birth in the womb , till the fourth month after the first formation . iii. . by synchondrosin , by the means of some gristly interceeding medium , as the share-bones are united one with another , and the os sacrum with the bones of the hip. iv. . by sysarcosin , when the conjunction is made by means of the flesh , as that of the teeth in the gums . spigelius rejects syneurosis , and instead thereof , sets up three other sorts of coalition : syndesmosis , when the bones are bound together by means of a ligament . syntenosis , when they are knit together by means of a tendon ; and synemeusis , when the conjunction happens by means of a membrane . now the reason why some bones unite without a medium , and some not , is given by galen . bones that are hard , solid and thick , require a medium to to unite them . for those things which differ much one from another , as hard and soft , cannot be united but by a medium ; soft with soft easily unites , but hard with hard cannot unite , unless something intervene to bind both together . v. for motion , bones are joyned together by articulation ; which composition consists in contiguity , and the connexion is for the most part made by the ligaments , and either it is to cause a conspicuous or a less violent motion . vi. in order to a violent motion , the bones are joyned by diarthrosis , that is , by a loose articulation that has an evident motion . and this is threefold . vii . enarthrosis , when the great head of the bone , protuberant from the long neck , enters the profound cavity or cotyle , as in the articulation of the thigh bone , with the ischion . viii . arthrodia , when the lesser head of the muscle protuberant from the neck , which is not so large , is inserted into the superficiary cavity , and such is the articulation of the shoulder-bone with the scapula . ix . ginglymus , when one bone with one or two protuberances enters the cavity of another bone , and also possesses the cavity into which it receives the protuberances of the other bones , as in the bone of the arm and shoulder . gynglism happens three manner of ways . . when the bone is received by one bone , and receives the other . . when one bone receives , and is received by another which it does not receive , as in the vertebres . . when articulation is made after the same manner as of a wheel to the axle ; as is the articulation of the first vertebre of the neck , with the second . ix . for slow motion or rest , the bones are joyned by synarthrosis , which articulation , has but little motion , or none at all , unless upon necessity . the conjunction of the bones for slow motion , is threefold . . enarthrosis in synarthrosis , as between the bone of the heel and the astragalus . . arthrodia in synarthrosis , as between the cyboid-bone , and the bone of the heel ; the bone of the wrist and matacarpus . . gynglymus in synarthrosis , as between the bone of the heel and the ancle . synarthrosis is not moved of it self to rest , unless great necessity require , which moves the parts not subject to arbitrary motion , without drawing them one or t'other way . xi . . the suture , when the bones are so unequally joyned together , as if they were sowed on . xii . . harmonia , which is a conjunction of the bones by a simple streight , oblique or circular line , as in the bones of the upper jaw and nose . xiii . gomphosis , when the bones seem to be driven in like a nail , as the teeth into the jaws . chap. iii. of the cranium in general . i. the whole frame of all the bones in the body of man adhering together , is called a skeleton , from the greek , 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 to dry up , because in dry'd bones such a conjunction is made by art. this conjunction is either of the bones of grown persons , or of infants . the skeleton of grown persons is divided into the head , trunk and joynts . the head is all that which is set upon the neck , and is divided into the cranium and face . ii. the cranium is globous and round , withinside the concave bony part of the head , containing the brain ; by some called calva and calvaria , the skull or scalp . iii. the face is that part of the head which is extended between the fore-head , ears and chin. iv. the figure of the skull is oblong , protuberant before and behind , and depressed on both sides . whatever figure deviates from this is vitious , and the more it deviates , the more vitious it is . but here arises a doubt , whether the head shapes the brain , or the brain the head ? hippocrates says , the bones give the shape to the body . galen writes , that nature , in imitation of the bones , forms all the other parts in a living creature . others add , that the house is first built and form'd for the person that is to inhabit it , and that the softer is more easily shaped by the hard , than the hard by the soft . which reasons so far prevailed with arnold senguerdius , that he subscribed to it . on the other side , galen teaches us in several places , that the brain shapes the cranium , not the cranium the brain , which seems to us the more rational opinion . . because the brain was not made for the cranium , but the cranium for the brain . . because the house is never made before the person , for whom it is designed , but is generally built by the person that is to inhabit it . thus the heart is conspicuous before its domicil the breast ; in the salient point , in the bubble of an egg , after the he●… has sate some few days . . because the brain in an embrio is as soft as the brain it self , as being alt●…gether membranous , so that it is easily and naturally shaped according to the figure of the brain , as the membranes take their shapes in other places from the parts contained ; nor is there any necessity that the hard should be shap'd by the soft , because that when it is figur'd , it is not soft , but after it is shap'd , it grows hard by degrees . . because the wrinkles which are imprinted into the insides of the skull , and which receive the more eminent veins of the hard meninx and other protuberances of the brain sufficiently shew , that they were not furrowed in the harden'd brain , but while the birth was in the womb , by the protuberances of the brain and veins , making an impression in the soft and membranous substance of the skull . v. the substance of the skull in the embryo , is altogether membranous , and in new-born infants , for the most part bony , but so soft , that it will yield to compression , especially at the upper part of the head about the sutures , where at that time it has hardly attained its due bony hardness , but is extraordinary thin , to the end the plentiful moisture of the brain abounding in children , may the more commodiously exhale . afterwards , for the greater security of the brain , it grows hard by degrees , like other bones , but in the middle , remains spungy , for the more easie passage of the vapors . vi. the thickness of it is various , according to the variety of ages ; nor is it always the same in the same age. for the diversity of regions also causes a great difference . thus herodotus relates , that the skulls of the persians are very thin and brittle , and easily crack'd ; those of the ●…gyptians very strong and thick , hardly to be broken with the fall of a large stone . moreover the skulls of tender people , are less thick and hard than in labouring folks , enur'd to hardship . the cause of which carpus believes to be , for that tender people always keep their heads cover'd from heat and cold ; but husband-men , sea-men and the like are used to go bare-headed winter and summer , for which reason , he advises not to cover over much the heads of children , which are strengthened by being left bare , and rendred more sit to endure external injuries . vii . the cranium consists of two tables or slates , the external and internal , thinner in women than in men. of which , the one is thicker and smoother , the other harder , hollowed with several furrows , to give way to the vessels creeping through the hard meninx , from which meninx , some remarkable vessels insinuate themselves near the ears into the plates of the skull , and moisten the space between . and the reason why the cranium is made of a double table , least any con●…usion of the head should easily penetrate the whole cranium , by which means , sometimes one table is only broken , the other remaining entire . viii . in the middle , between these tables , lies hid a certain spungy and cavernous substance , containing a marrowy juice , somewhat bloody , for the nourishment of the cranium , which is made out of the blood flowing through the small arteries , which pass through the little holes of the tables . and this is that blood , which when the skull is trepann'd , when you come to the diplois , flows forth somewhat ruddy . concerning this blood , riolanus has 〈◊〉 worthy to be observed by all practitioners . from these caruncles , says he , ( that is , the spungy little caverns , seated between each table ) being very much contus'd , the blood being sque●…z'd and putrifying , ulcerates the bone , outwardly appearing entire ; but the matter ▪ sweating forth from the inner table , putrifies the brain it self . wherefore , if in scraping the cranium , you perceive the blood to distil forth , never think for that reason that the blood penetrates the second table , because the blood flows from the foresaid middle space . this middle spungy space between the double tablature of the cranium , by hippocrates and the anatomists is call'd diploe , though galen rather chooses to call the external and internal table , both taken together diploe . this middle space is sometime bigger , sometimes less , sometimes scarcely discernable , where both tables seem to unite and constitute the simple and pelucid cranium . bartholinus reports that he dissected a cranium wherein this middle space was altogether wanting ; and all the cranium seem to consist all of one table : perhaps , because the bones being dryed and contracted through age , it did not manifestly appear : or else , because the cranium was only dissected in that part by bartholin , where both the tables unite together , and left the other spungy part untouch'd . for anatomists rarely cut the whole cranium into small parts . hippocrates making mention of some certain caruncles , means that middle spungy substance of the cranium , which fallopius not perceiving , seeks after other particular caruncles in that spungy substance ; but erroncously ; for hippocrates by those caruncles , means no other than that spungy substance ; for that there are no other caruncles in that substance . but sometimes it happens , that in wounds and grievous contusions of the head , that a spungy hyposarcosis grows out from that middle space ; which nevertheless was no more in that spunginess before , than the flesh in the pyramidical body near the testicle before the sarcocele burstness . in this spungy middle space , especially where the persons are infected with the french disease , a certain vitious humor gathers together , which in time growing more sharp and virulent , corrodes the tables themselves , but more frequently the exterior , as being less hard , and causes dreadful pains in the perios●…eum and pericranium : sometimes we have seen both the interior and exterior corroded , and so the whole cranium perforated . which palmarius , riolanus and benivenius confirm by their own observation . chap. iv. of the commissures of the bones of the cranium . the bones of the cranium are joyned together with various commissures , which some call generally sutures : others more properly distinguish into sutures and harmonies . i. a suture is a certain composure of the bones , like things sow'd with seams , distinguishing and conjoyning the bones . which in the upper part of the head resembles two saws with their teeth clapt together . in the cranium there are many sutures , alike both for number and situation , both in men and women , con trary to aristotles opinion . the skull is seldom seen without sutures . and probable it is , that in young people it is never without sutures , for that such a skull as it would be less apt to resist external injuries , and it would hinder the growth and distention of the head , with the rest of the body . yet aristotle tells of skulls that have been seen without sutures ; and among the neoterics , vesalius , fallopius , coiter , iohannes à cruce , alexander benedictus , and others assert the same , and as is shewn at helmstadt , and the monastery of the french at heidelbergh ; which were perhaps the skulls of old men , in which those sutures were dry'd up ; such as i have two by me at this present , and as have been many times seen in other places . and thus we are to understand herodotus , arrianus , and arrian concerning the heads of the moors and ethiopians , by them reported to be without sutures , not that they were without sutures when they were young , but were afterwards so hardned by the extream heat of the air , and driness of age , that the sutures united . ii. these sutures are twofold ; some proper to the skull , others call'd illegitimate . iii. the real sutures resembling the teeth of two saws clapp'd one into another , and hence call'd serratae . these , i say , will sometimes part asunder and give way to humors and vapors molesting the brain , as in those hydrocephalics troubled with redundancy of ●…erous humors . iv. the illegitimate sutures lying upon the bone like scales , are therefore call'd squamous . but these commissures are rather to be referred to harmony than suture , or else to the middle between both , and therefore are not unduly called harmonical sutures . the real sutures are three . v. the first , which is foremost , is the coronal , because it surrounds the fore-part of the head like a crown . this runs forth from one temple to the other transverse above the forehead , and joyns the bones of the forehead with the bones of the hinder part of the head. vi. the second , which is the hindermost , opposed to this , resembling a greek ●… and therefore call'd lamdoidalis , by others , from the figure of a ypsilon , hysiloides , and by others , the suture of the prow . this rises from the basis of the hinder part of the head , about the roots of the mammary processes , and ascending obliquely to both ears , terminates in a cone at the sagittale , and distinguishes the bone of the hinder part of the head , from that of the temples and fore-part of the head. but in the bone of the hinder part of the head , frequent in children , especially such as have large skulls behind , nature seems to sport her self . for sometimes it is separated with a transverse suture , sometimes bounded with a double suture , as if the lesser triangle were included in the greater , and sometimes with a triple suture , the greater triangle including two lesser . which included bones , are called by the anatomists triangulars and triqueters . for which reason , sometimes , but very rarely , certain other little triangular , oblong , oval bones are there found , as well in the right as left side of the bone ; many times two , three , or four , conjoyn'd with their sutures , first observ'd by olaus worm , and more conspicuous in the concave part of the head , than in the convex , of which , the biggest does not exceed a thumb-nail . but notwithstanding all this multiformity , the whole bone of the head , even in young people , is one continu'd bone , but such whose other parts have already acquired a bony hardness , others not , which when they have once attained , then they differ nothing from the rest of the particles of the bone. vii . the third , which is the middlemost , is called the sagittal , because that like an arrow it is carried from the top of the lambdoidal all the length of the upper part of the head to the middle of the coronal in grown people . this distinguishes and joyns the bone of the bregma ; and in infants , for the first two or three years , and in some children , to the eight or ninth year , passing the middle of the coronal , runs forth to the upper part of the nose , dividing the bone of the forehead into two . which suture of the forehead , in grown people , unites by true symphosis , in such a manner , that no foot-steps are to be seen . yet i have by me the skull of a certain person fi●…ty years of age , wherein this suture is altogether entire , the sagittal between the bones of the bregma , and the lambdoidal being hardly conspicuous . galen , vesalius and sylvius have also observed the s●…gittal suture in infants reaching through the middle bone of the hi●…der part of the head to the beginning of the spinal marrow . which fallopius utterly denies to have ever been . viii . the illegitimate sutures are two . ix . the first carried upward with a circular course from the root of the mammilary process , surrounds the temple-bone on each side of the head , and proceeds downwards to the basis of the ear , joyning the bones of the hinder and fore-part of the head and the sphenoides with the temples , with a scalie contexture , therefore call'd the squamoides suture ; which loose conjunction is most commodious for this part , in regard of some motion of the temple-bone , which it performs , together with its muscle in mastication . the second is carried downwards at the sid●…s , from the top of the scalie conjunction , obliquely toward the orbit of the eye to the beginning of the first common suture , and this joyns the upper bones of the fore-part of the head , and the lower bone , with the bone of the forehead . x. besides these sutur●…s , there are also four other sutures proper to the cranium , to be referred to harmony , though bauhinus will have them to be sutures . the first proceeds from the extremity of the lambdoidal suture , at the root of the stony bones , obliquely to the basis of the head toward the inner parts , and is as it were an addition to the lambdoidal suture . the second is a line in the middle basis , which is carried on both sides with a short course to the chink or cleft which is common to the sphoenoides with the bone of the temples . the third , more inwardly conspicuous in the fore-seat of the skull , is carry'd to the lower corners of the sphenoides , and the hinder part of the orbits of the eyes . the fourth proceeds under the spungy bones of the nostrils , with an oblique course to the hole of the sphenoides-bone . besides the foresaid sutures , some describe several others which are only the parts of the said sutures extended farther , and only various harmonies . xi . the commissures common to the skull and the iaw , are reckoned to be five ; which being of a middle sort , between suture and harmony , are to be called harmonial sutures . the first , in the right seat of the orbit of the eye , proceeds outward from the end of the fifth suture , and imitates the real suture , and is common to the bone of the forehead , and the first bone of the upper jaw . the second appears in the lateral and lower seat of the eye . the third ascends from the inner and latteral seat of the eye , obliquely to the upper part of the nose . the fourth proceeds obliquely through the middle of the jugal-bone , and joyns it with the temple-bone , and imitates a real suture . the fifth below , tends forward in the spaciousness of the nostrils from the hinder parts . these sutures riolanus describes somewhat otherwise , and adds five more to these , which we believe to be only the productions or appendixes of the other . xii . the use of these sutures is partly to afford a more easie passage to the vapors , partly to prevent any contusions in the skull from going any farther than one bone. add to this , that the small fibres pass through these from the hard meni●…x , arnexed to the pericranium , by which , the hard meninx , together with the brain , are kept tite , to prevent their being mov'd out of their place by any violent motion , which might cause the falling of the ventricles of the brain . therefore , said hippocrates , and that truly , that they have soundest heads who have most sutures , and that heads without sutures are continually distempered with many and various vapors , which cause the head-ach , epilepsie and several other grievous diseases ; besides that , by any blow or fall , their skulls are easily broken , and contract long fissures . xiii . this occasions the mentioning of fissures in the skull , which we have said are not extended farther than one bone , but stop at the next suture , and gives us an opportunity to enquire , how that decry'd contra-fissure happens , when the skull is split in the opposite part , to that where the blow is given ? which hippocrates is thought to describe in these words . the bone is broken under the wound in another part of the head than where the ulcer is , and the bone is laid bare . many have taken this place for a confirmation of a contra-fissure , and has drawn galen , avicen , celsus , soranus , iohannes de cruce , iohannes de vigo , and others , into the same opinion ; and which fontanus endeavours to maintain , by the example of a boy that fell from a wall fifteen foot high , in whose head there was a fracture with many fissures , about the temporal muscle , but the skull being opened after his death , two other counter-fractures were found in the opposite side . but fallopius strenuously denies these counter-fractures , not only from the authorities of galen , paulus and others , but by his own experience , and writes , that he has an hundred times seen persons bruised in the head , but never could find any counter-fractures . to which , we add our own practise , who in the field , have above two hundred times seen soldiers , especially horse-men , whose skulls have been broken , but never could see any counter-fractures ; sometimes indeed we have seen fissures on both sides , but it was only where the persons were wounded on both sides their heads . and so , without doubt , it was with that boy , mentioned by fontanus ; though it was not known how he came to be hurt on the other side . so that we are clearly for denying counter-fissures . as for hippocrates , he speaks nothing of any counter-fissures ; only he says that matter is gathered together on the opposite side of the skull to that which was broken , which we have also seen , but cannot allow it for any proof of a counter-fissure . chap. v. of the bones of the whole head in general . the bones of the head , some belong to the cranium , others to the jaws . i. the skull is cast about the brain like a head-piece for its security , as we have said before . now the bones of the skull are either proper or common . ii. the proper are either containing , or contain'd . the containing bones that constitute the outward scutel of the skull , are six or seven . . the bone of the forehead , which in young lads , rarely in those that are of mature age , is divided into two . . two bones of the fore-part of the head. . one bone of the hinder part of the head. . two bones of the temples . the contained bones , are eight little bones lying hid , in every stony bone four , and serving for the sense of hearing , the anvil , little hammer , stirrup and orbicular bone. to these bauhinus adds two bones of the labirinth , and two nameless bones . iii. the bones common to the skull with the upper iaw , are two ; the wedg-resembling-bone , and the sieve-like-bone , with the spungy appendix . and thus the bones of the cranium are reckon'd to be sometimes more , sometimes fewer , according to the diversity of age , sutures and computation . the bones of the jaws constitute the chiefest part of the face , and these are the bones either of the upper or lower jaws . iv. the bones of the upper iaws are reckoned to be five ; two of the lower jaw in children , which afterwards unite together , and in grown people become one bone. in these jaws are twenty or thirty teeth . v. now in these forementioned bones of the head , are several occult cavities , concerning the use of which there is great dispute amongst the anatomists . riolanus describes them joyntly together in these words . in the head , says he , are many remarkable cavities . there are four of each side , the maxillary lying hid between the upper iaws . the frontal plac'd near the eye-brows in the forehead . the sphenoidean , latent under the seat of the sphenoides . the mastoidean , contained within the mastoides . only the mastoidean is hollow and empty ; but distinguished into seven , eight , or nine little cells like a hony-comb . the entrance of the frontal cavity is discerned at the top and inner parts of the nostrils . the ingress into the maxillary cavity , appears within the cavity of the nostrils , at the side of the spungy bone. the entrance into the sphenoidean cavity ●…yes more deep within the nostrils , the spungy bones being taken away . the entrance into the maxillary cavity is evident without incision of the bones . the entrance of the frontal cavity is seen , the frontal cavity being cut away above the eye-brows . the entrance of the sphenoides , appears upon taking away the inner table of the sphenoides . the entrance into the mastoidean , is contained in the left side of the concha , near the mastoidean apophysis , nor does it appear without breaking the arch of the concha , or tearing the auditory porus. vi. besides these cavities , there are several holes in the bones of the skull , and some furrows . of which riolanus thus writes . the holes are inward and outward . the inner holes are often twenty five , sometimes twenty seven , of each side twelve or thirteen , and one without a pair , which affords a passage to the spinal marrow . the first , is the ethmoides ; the second , the sphenoides ; the third , the optic ; the fourth , the orbitane sissure ; the fifth , the templehole , for the nerve of the third conjunction passing into the temporal muscle . the sixth , the gustative ; the seventh , the second gustative ; the eighth , the iugular ; the ninth , the carotic ; the tenth , the auditory ; the eleventh , the i●…gular ; the twelfth , the ligous ; the thirteenth , the last uneven cervical . the external , according to sylvius , are ten on each side ; to which , i add the eleventh , i. e. the external hole of the ear. also at the root of the styloides , at the extremity of the auricular apophysis , without-side there is a hole bipartited withinside , and divided with a thin scale , which appears , and looks into the beginning of the hollowness . of the external holes , the first is the superciliar ; the second , the lachrymal ; the third , the external orbitary ; the fourth , the ethmoids orbitary ; the fifth , above the palate ; the sixth , in the extremity of the palate ; the seventh , the scissure under the zygoma ; the eighth and ninth , within the gaping above the wing-resembling apophysis ; the tenth , the mastoides ; the eleventh , the external auditory hole . vii . the furrows or moats , are external and internal . the internal six in the basis of the inner part of the skull . two frontals , two temple furrows , and two occipitals . the external are seven on each side ; to which i add an eight , which is the cavity of the nostrils . . the ocular . . the nasal . . the zygomatic . . above the palate . . the wing-resembling . , . the auditory of the lower iaw . . in the hole of the sixth conjunction . thus far roilanus , now we shall see the difference between him and us in the following descriptions . chap. vi. of the proper bones of the skull in specie . the bones of the skull are several , the bones of the forehead , fore and hinder part of the head and temples . i. the fore-head bone , by others call'd os puppis , in infants at the upper part is soft and double , as being divided by the sagittal suture , running out to the top of the nose , which uniting and vanishing in grown people , becomes one , and that so exactly , as if it had never been divided . in old men it is rarely seen divided by a suture . ii. it possesses the fore-part of the head , and is of a semicircular figure between both tables , distinguished with a little cell , and bony scales , and girt with a most slender membrane , sometimes empty , sometimes full of a slimy juice , which in infants especially flat fac'd , or that have a divided forehead is hardly conspicuous . this is not very large in men , but in oxen , horses , sheep and the like , it has a remarkable large cavity , which breeds worms as some say in the summer time which makes those animals run mad ; which make expert farriers , for the cure of that disease , open the head about that place and take out the worms . the exterior table making this moat , forms the upper flat part of the orbit of the eye . the other constitutes the gibbous extuberance with many prominences as if it were an arch on each side above the eyes . this furrow or moat is furnish'd with several little holes terminating in the spaciousness of the nose ; to which little holes is added one little hole ending within the skull above the fence of the sphenoides-bone : which nevertheless for the most part is not found to be previous ; because perhaps it consolidates in persons of mature age. riolanus believes that it assists the long adhesion of the hard meninx . iii. concerning the use of this little cell , there are various opinions . some think it serves for the preparation of the air in the generation of animal spirits : others for the longer preservation of the odoriferous air , others for the reception of the flegmatic excrement , others to render the voice sonorous . but these are all groundless conjectures . for neither can any air meet here to compleat the generation of animal spirits ; nor is there any need of the preservation of odoriferous airs in this place ; besides that the ventricles of the brain are appointed for t he receptacles of flegmatic excrements , which are rarely found here , and then but in small quantities : nor does it give any sound to the voice , which proceeds from the larynx and passage of the nose , so that we are still at a loss what the use of this cavity is , nevertheless , we believe so remarkable a cavity , especially in brutes was not granted for nothing . iv. there are small processes belonging to this bone of the forehead prominent on both sides at the corners of the eyes , constituting the upper part of the orbit . v. withinside also it has a furrow not very deep , hollow'd upwards through the middle , affording room to the large hollowness of the hard meninx . vi. it has also holes , sometimes one oblong or found , sometime two at the middle of each eyebrow , and terminating into the orbit of the eye ; through which a nerve of the third conjunction ascends from the seat of the eye to the eye-lids , the muscles of the forehead and skin . to this we may add a third hole seated about the crested bone , and ending in the foresaid furrow ; which is often observed not to be perforated . vii . the bones of the mold of the head , or top of the head , or bregma , are two , placed in the upper part of the head , and joyn'd together by a real suture , as also to the bones of the forehead and hinder part of the head , and adhering to the temples by a bastard suture . viii . being joyned together they form a convex and semicircular figure . ix . the substance is hard in grown persons , but thinner and more porous then the rest of the bones ; for the more easie passage of the vapours : in infants by reason of their redundant moisture they are membranous and soft , but begin to harden when they begin to speak , seldom that softness remains to perfect age ; yet i observed it once in a lady of forty years of age ; and bauhinus writes , that it was so with his first wife . and lyndan relates laxities and softness in the skull of a woman thirty years old , that if her head ak'd , or that she fell in labour , the coronal suture would gape the breadth of four thumbs , and shew the motion of the thumb conspicuous . x. the use of this gaping is , . for the exhalation of thick and viscous humors , that redound in the moist brain of children . . to the end that in the delivery these upper bones closing by compression may afford the more easie passage to the infant through the streights of the hupogastrion-bone . these bones of the fore-part of the head , though they are generally two , yet in old men the suture being clos'd up , they become one solid bone. xi . without side they are smooth , within side rough , having several furrows in the inner part long and winding and receiving the veins of the hard meninx ; two also , and sometimes three or four at the sides of the sagittal suture , as it were imprinted with the top of the finger , and furnish'd with several little holes penetrating to the delplois , to which furrows the dura mater firmly adheres , so that it often tears it taking away the skull . through those little holes certain diminutive arteries enter the diplois out of the dura mater , and divers little veins go from the diplois to the dura mater , which vessels being broken in taking off the skull discovers a great many little drops of blood in those places , at the top of the menynx . xii . the bone of the hinder part of the head , call'd the basillary , the prow and box-bone , constitutes the hinder and lower part of the head. this is all one in grown people , very seldom divided into several bones : but in children frequently into three or four , or according to some into five , six or seven bones . but fallopius never observ'd more then four , with whom eisson agrees . xiii . the figure of it is triangular , hollow within , convex without . xiv . the substance of it is thick and hard , stronger then the rest of the bones of the skull to preserve the hinder part of the head from external injuries . yet is it not in all places of an equal thickness , but in some parts thicker , in some parts thinner . it is fastened to the bones of the fore-part of the head and temples , and to the wedg-like bone. xv. there are nine cavities in it , which riolanus calls ditches ; two withoutside , in the lower part of the sides of the great hole . seven within , of which the lowest and biggest receive the protuberances of the cerebel . to which are joyn'd two others , one of each side , which ascend obliquely from the bones of the temples , and proceed transversly through the bones of the hinder part of the head , unite in the middle of it and receive the lateral cavities of the hard meninx . from these a third ascends in a streight line to the bones of the bregma , and admit the upper and large cavity of the same meninx . xvi . two larger processes stand at the side of the large hole of the marrow , looking toward the inner parts of the mouth : to which two othes somewhat less and plain , are joyned toward the hinder parts , which being all covered with a slippery gristle , are received by the cavities of the first , and serve for the articulation of the head. to these within side two other eminencies are oppos'd ; so that in the same place the bone bunches forth both inward and outward . there is also a fifth to be added , which is the biggest process contributing great strength to this bone at the lower end , where it is slenderer , which ascending within side directly from the great hole , distinguishes the protuberances of the cerebel . in dogs the transverse process rests upon this at the upper part , dividing the brain from the cerebel . xvii . it hath five holes ; one which is the largest below , through which the long marrow slides into the cavity of the vertebres . to which at the sides two more holes joyn , for the passage of the seventh pair of the nerves , and artery and a vein . at the sides of these on both sides , between the little head of the hinder part of the head , and the styloides appendix , there is a large long hole to be seen , common to the bone of the temples , affording passage to the sixth pair of the nerves , as also to a branch of the carotis artery and the iugular vein . besides this hole , some anatomstis observe sometime though very seldome in the outward capital seat of this bone on each side , a proper hole , not very large , which also transmits an artery and a vein . xviii . the bones of the temples , possess the lateral regions of the head , on each side one , of which the exterior and superior part is called the scaly bone , by reason of the flat thinness of the scale , the lower is called the stony bone , which hardness it requires to render it more fit for the repercussion of sound . all these particular bones of the temples , in persons of mature age , are one continuous bone ; but in infants the scaly part is divided from the bony ; also in children till the seventh year , the foremost circle of the auditory passage is divided from it by an interceding gristle ; the foot-steps of which division , in persons grown up are in some measure to be seen remaining at the beginning of that passage . xix . the figure of it more upward is semicircular and equal , more below and more inward , rough and unequal with many protuberances , like the jetting forth of the rocks . the substance also of it at the sides is thinner ; below and within side much thicker . xx. there are two cavities in this bone to be considered . the more outward larger , overcast with a gristle , between the auditory passage and the process of the jugal bone , which receives the long head of the lower jaw . the inner most is less , common to the bone of the hinder part of the head , seated at the said process behind . xxi . close by those cavities stands a long appendix , sharp-pointed and slender , called the styloides or bodkin-bone , which in infants appears gristly , in men grown is bony . this in boyl'd carkasses is easily distinguished . xxii . also there are two other external processes to be observed . the first obtuse , thick and short , withinside somewhat concave from the like of a cows teat , call'd the mamillary process ; which fallopius and bauhinus deny to be in children , but that it grows afterwards . xxiii . the second is carry'd forward from the passage of the ear , and by a long suture is joyned with the bone of the upper jaw , and so by the means of two apophysis concurring and united together is form'd the bone of the zygoma or jugal , so called , because it resembles an oxes yoke , and extends it self like a bridg from the eye to the ear ; and is very hard and ●…olid , contrary to what columbus thought , who would have it to be hollow . proceeding on both sides with thick roots , it grows slender in the middle . it is made for the security of the temple muscle , and the rise of the master muscle ; also to the end the tendon of the crataphyte muscle may be fortify'd with a kind of stony bulwark , and the protuberant bone of the cheeks underpropt with a sort of strong joynt . the third , bunching out in length to the inner basis of the skull , from its singular hardness and inequality call'd the rocky , proceeds with a broad beginning from the bone of the temples and ends by degrees in a sharp point , without side somewhat rough , within side altogether smooth , but unequal with many tubercles , by reason of the cavities which are to be form'd therein . this has two holes within the skull , through the foremost and least of which a small artery ; through the other which is bigger and looks towards the hinder parts , the auditory nerve enters the inner cavity and caverns , which presently after its ingress being divided into two branches , goes away through two inner different holes into the upper and lower cavity , the labyrinth , and the periwinckle . without side of the skull it has three holes . the first is the auditory passage , with which a broad passage opens into it , and carr●…'d from the hinder part obliquely forward and upward , grows narrow by degrees , to collect the reverberated air ; entring at a larger passage within that narrow streight , for the more perfection of the hearing . moreover to the end that in that oblique tortuosity the violence of the airs may be somewhat broken , and so strike upon the tympanum with less force . the orifice of this passage in children new born is altother gristly , but in a short time it grows bony by degrees ; and after seven or eight months by means of the gristle is still distinguished from the rest of the bone , and is separated by boyling , but afterwards it is dry'd to that degree , that it can never more be separated tho there may some appearance of the first separtion remain in the skulls of men perfectly grown up . adjoyning to this passage , near the passage of the sphenoides bone stands the second hole , narrow , short and oblique , through which a vein runs to the jugulars through the inner cavity . the third hole is seated between the mamillary process , and the st●…loides appendix ; and terminates in the passage that goes from the ear to the mouth . in this process or rocky bone is comprehended the organ of hearing , and theein lye hid the tympanum , labyrinth and periwincle ; as also four bones , the anvile , hammer , stirrup , and orbicular-bone . of which lib. . cap. . chap. vii . of the bones common to the skull , with the upper iaw . there are two bones common to the skull , with the upper jaw , the wedge-like , and the sieve-like bones . i. the wedge-like , by the greeks 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , not that it resembles a wedge in shape , but is as it were wedg'd in among the rest of the bones . but because it is of various figures , it is therefore called the multiform bone , and because it constitutes the basis of the skull is the basilar bone. in infants it consists of several bones united by a gristle , of which , the first is said to separate scarce a fingers breadth from the crowns of the hinder part of the head. the second comprehends the horses saddle , and the processes design'd for the visory nerves . the third and fourth are the winged and flat processes . on the other side , riolanus writes that the wedge-bone in children , till the twelfth year , consists of a double bone only . but if the wedge-bone in infants be but more accurately observed , you shall find it to consist of three bones , the biggest in the middle , which constitutes the basis , forms the saddle , and spreads forth two wings forward toward the sides , and two less , constituting the batts wings . in progress of years , all these three bones are joyned and united into one bone. to these some add the bone called the plough-share bone , or os vomer , as a part of the sphenoides , because it is fixed to it below . which however dislikes fallopius and riolanus , who describe that bone distinct and separate . ii. it is seated in the middle basis of the head , and adjoyning to it on every side , stands the proper bones of the cranium , as also the bones of the upper jaw , and are fasten'd to it by bastard sutures and harmonies , which in the perfection of age are quite obliterated . iii. the substance of it in the middle is thick , but in the lateral expansions thinner , hard and scaly , which in children till twelve years of age seems to be solid , but in men grown , consists of two tables , and a middle spungy cavity , which appears under the saddle . iv. it is furnished with various processes , external and internal . the external are four ; of which , two are conspicuous near the bony fence of the nostrils and palate , where it coheres with the upper jaw ; from their figure call'd 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , or wing-resembling , by others call'd the batts-wings . the other two occurring behind , are extended toward the styloides , with double tops or points . the internal are also four opposite to each other , and call'd 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , because they resemble the four legs of a bed or table . of these , the two foremost and bigest are taper'd by degrees , from a broad basis to a sharp point . the two hindermost in some never jet out , but resemble a wall , and are accounted as one . however , most commonly being stretched out in breadth , they taper into two points , ●…omewhat hollowed in the middle , and these processes , together with the spaces between them , from the likeness of a turkish saddle , is called sella equina , sella turcica , sella sphenoidis , and in one word , ephippion . v. galen writes , that the sieve-like bone is perforated with many holes , for the passage of the flegm collected in the kernel ; which opinion is applauded by i. sylvius , riolanus , casser , h●…ffman , and de le boe sylvius . puteus also writes , that he saw these holes in an anatomy at versailles ; and laurentius reports , that he has found them in some dry'd skulls , but that they are not to be found in a fresh carkass , as being stuft up with flegm . but as galen was deceived , so were all his followers . for the cavity of the bone of the saddle is overcast with a continuous hard and thick seat , never perforated with any holes ; which vesalius also observes ; with whom fallopius , columbus , valverda , and baubinus agree . but which way the flegm is evacuated , ●…ee lib. . cap. . vi. there are many cavities in this bone ; without side , in each wing-like process , one long and deep , affording a seat to the inner wing-like muscle . within side , one in the middle of the ephippium , remarkable above the rest , and almost round , underpropping the pituitary kernel , upon which another transverse and long one rests at the sore and upper part , affording room for the conjunction of the optic nerves , and at the sides there is another to be seen less deep of each side . vii . there are numbered seven bones in both sides of the sphoenoides . the first , which is round , and a●…fords a passage for the optic nerve to the eye , near the foremost processes of the ephippion . the second , which is long and large , and transmits the second pair of nerves to the muscles of the eye , and a branch of the third pair to the forehead , cheeks and nostrils , as also a large branch of the carotis artery and temple vein . ingrassias and other anatomists assert , that through the first , second and third neck , the pituitous matter flows out of the spitly kernel , into the spaciousness of the nostrils , and thence proceeds forth into the muscles of the eyes , and that tears are also generated by them . but this opinion has been already refuted , lib. . c. . and lib. . c. . and . the third , which is small and round , lies under the second , and carries a branch of the third and fifth pair of the nerves to the temple muscle and pterygoides , as also to the inner membrane of the nostrils , and the upper fore-teeth . the fourth , called the torn-hole , which is large , long and unequal , like a ditch , seated in the outer side of the orbit of the eye , and is common to the sphoenoides , with the bone of the jaw , and sends forth a branch of the fourth and preceding third pair of the nerves to the temple ▪ muscle and palate . the fifth , which is long , but obvious to the hinder process of the ephippion , admits a remarkable branch of the carotis artery . vesalius also believes , that it sends forth a branch also of the jugular vein . the sixth , which is oval , joyns to the sides of the preceding , and grants a passage to the fourth pair of the nerves . the seventh , next to the preceding , small and round , sends forth a root of the jugular vein from the hard meninx . viii . the sieve-like bone , or ethmoids , seated in the middle basis of the front between the convex part o●… each eye , lies upon the top of the nostrils , and is joyned with slight harmonies to the bone of the forehead , the second of the upper jaw , and the sphoenoides , which riper years frequently abolishes altogether . this is perforated like a sieve , with many little holes like a sieve , some streight , some winding and oblique , among which , the biggest are those which joyn to the cocks-comb . it is covered with the hard meninx , which is vulgarly said to be very porous in this part , and pervious with many little holes , which is not altogether true : for the meninx , through those little holes , sends forth several little pipes towards the spungy bones , filling the upper parts of the nostrils through wh●…ch the flegm descending from the ventricles of the brain may flow , but nothing can ascend upwards from the nostrils . vid. l. . c. . ix . at the middle of this bone stands an oblong , triangular , and sharp pointed process , which from its resemblance , is called the cocks-comb ; by fern●…lius , the hard wart , and by sneider , the fence of the spungy b●…ne ; and this divides the sieve-like bone like a hedg into two parts , and distinguishes the mamillary processes of the brain . therefore some anatomists will have the sieve-like bone to be double , and reckon the cocks-comb for a bone. this cocks-comb in the upper part , has a protuberance somewhat unequal , with a certain hollow asperity , to which , the upper hollowness of the scithe is strongly fastned . in new born infants this cocks-comb is not to be found . to the cocks-comb on the other part another process is opposed , thin and hard , distinguishing the nostrils at the upper part , whence it is called the plough-share , or the diaphragma of the nostrils , or the interstitium . x. to the upper cavity of the nostrils the spungy bones adhere , resembling a pumice stone , furnished with innumerable labyrinthy caverns , and winding little holes fill'd with a very spungy sort of flesh. of which , hippocrates , in the nostrils there is n●… hole , says he , but somewhat as spungy as a spunge . however hippocrates , galen , and other anatomists , oft-times confound these with the sieve-like bones , and when they name bones , oft times mean the sieve-like . but we believe them to be distinct bones , of which , the spungy sort are pendulous , and adhere to the sides of the bones of the nose , but yet are different from both . xi . galen , with others , will have the use of these spungy sieve-like bones to be for the evacuation of the flegmatic excrements out of the brain ; partly to carry the exhalations to be smelt to the mamillary processes ; partly to stop the too sudden ingress of the cold air , or any ill smell to the brain . but this opinion is refuted also at large , l. . c. . and . chap. viii . of the upper iaw . the jaws are two , the upper and the lower , constituting the outer part of the face . i. the upper comprehends the lower and lateral parts of the orbit of the eyes , the nostrils , cheeks , palate and the whole order of the upper teeth . this in men is short and semicircular for handsomeness sake . in brutes long . moreover it is immoveable in man , as it is in most other creatures , unless parrots , phoenicopters and crocodiles , unless there be any other creatures unknown to us that move the upper jaw . ii. the substance of it is solid , but cavernous within , especially toward the teeth ; in which place , in children the marrowy juice is contained for the nourishment , but that being consumed by age , the cavernous bones remains . highmore having diligently scarched into this cavernosity , found on each side , under the lower seat of the eye , where the bone jets forth for the guard of the eye , a certain den , seated at the lower sides of the nose , remarkably hollow , spherical and somewhat oblong , and covered with a thin bony scale , in the bottom of which , certain protuberances rise up , wherein the slender points of the roots of the teeth are included . this den is frequently empty , but sometimes found full of s●…ime , which he believes distils through a certain cavity from the little caverns of the fore-head bone and the ethmoids . iii. it receives blood for nourishment through the branches of the soporal arteries , and the remainder after nourishment , it sends through little veins to the external jugular . it is composed of twelve bones , six on each side , all joyned together by harmonies , rather than thin sutures . the first , almost triangular , is seated at the outer corner of the eye . this by means of its apophysis , joyned with the foremost process of the temporal bone , by an oblique suture , forms the iugal bone , which being gibbous without , and hollow within , covers the temple muscle . the second , which is small , thin , pellucid and brittle , constitutes the corner of the eye , and in this the lachrymal hole is pervious to the nostrils , through which the serous humor distilling from the ventricles of the brain , causes tears in the eyes , vid. lib. . cap. . but to stop their continual flowing , there is a little caruncle which lies upon this hole , which hinders the ordinary efflux , but gives way to it when more violent . sometimes near this tender bone , about the top of the nose , and the bigger corner of the eye , certain abscesses happen , which the greeks call aegylopas , which if neglected , corrode the bone it self , and cause a lachrymal fistula . the third is thin and pellucid , within the inner side of the orbit of the eye , interposed between the rest , and more inward continuous to the spungy bones of the nostrils . the fourth is the least bone of all , which constitutes the most porous parts of the cheeks and palate , and receives the upper row of the teeth into its caverns . it has a conspicuous hole , seated under the orbit of the eye , producing a branch of the third pair of the nerves to the face ; also another hole at the hinder part of the cutting teeth , in the middle bony fence , again divided into two holes toward the upper parts . of which , one tends to each nostril , and r●…mits a little vein thither out of it . some think that the spitly humors , descending this way to the nostrils , flow into the mouth ; which is not probable . moreover , under the orbit of the eye , at the lower side of the nose , there is a remarkable hollowness , which however in children is not easily found , but is hollowed by age. the fifth , which is thin , little , long , and almost quadrangular , with its pair , constitutes the more eminent part of the bones of the nose . the sixth , which is broad and thin , with its pair , forms the palate . to these fallopius adds one more , as does also columbus and laurentius , interposed between the innermost part of the palate and the sphenoides , separating the lower part of the nostrils like a fence , and thence called the plough share . to which vesalius adds the spungy bones already described . chap. ix . of the lower iaw . the lower jaw in man is moveable . this in children till about seven years old , according to laurentius and bartholine , but not beyond the second year according to riolanus , consists of two bones , joyned in the chin by synchondrosin , which afterwards in riper years unite into one bone , thick , hard and strong . this conjunction , as galen writes , is afterwards dissolved , as was also observed by the french chyrurgions , as riolanus reports , and that the jaw being broken by a stone , was often cut away in that part where the bones united together . but notwithstanding all this , the said coalescency has been observed in men grown to be firmer than the rest of the bones of the jaw , and that the jaw is sooner broken at the sides than in that coalescency . eisson observes , that he has sometimes found another division in infants on both sides , almost in the middle place of each side , where the bone acquires a thicker protuberance , and endeavors to enlarge it self . i. this iaw is shorter in men and almost semicircular , thick and broad before , behind divided like a greek hypsylon , or as platerus will have it resembling a fork , for handsomness sake . ii. on both sides at the end , it advances two processes , by some called horns . the first of which being thin and broad , terminates in a sharp point , called in greek 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 ; to this also a tendon of the temple muscle is strongly knit , and therefore the laxation of this jaw is accounted dangerous . the hinder process is obtuse , furnished with a neck and a long little head , called condylus , wrapt about with a gristle for the more easie motion , by which it is joyned into the cavity of the rocky bone , smooth'd with a gristle also , and is ty'd to it with a common membranous ligament . iii. more inward it has a cavity containing a marrowy iuice for the nourishment of the bone. which in men appears chiefly in the fore-part toward the region of the chin. iv. it is furnished with four holes , of which , there is one internal on both sides , seated at the beginnings of the said processes , which admits a nerve of the fourth conjunction to be distributed to the teeth , together with a small artery , and sends forth a little vein . so likewise the two other , which are lesser and round , are both placed at the sides of the chin on each side , and sends forth little branches of the foresaid nerve outward to the lower lip , its muscles and skin . in the fore-part it is somewhat rough , having an unequal excrescence in the inner and middle seat of the chin , for the faster insertion of the nerves . it has also superficial cavities , both external and internal , about the beginnings of the processes , for the insertion of the muscles . it is also full of little holes for the insertion of the teeth , of which there is no certain number , in regard the number of the teeth is not alike in all persons , but in some more , in some fewer . these holes sometimes perish , sometimes grow again . for upon the pulling out of a tooth , if another does not presently succeed , the hole closes up so hard , that it is able to supply the office of a tooth . on the other side , when the teeth of wisdom break forth at fifty or threescore years of age , as sometimes they do , you shall have new holes made . in children also , when they shed a tooth , it often happens that a new hole is made , the other being quite stopp'd up . below the lower jaw , under the tongue , the hyoides bone is sea●…ed , of which , lib. . cap. . chap. x. of the teeth . i. the teeth , by the greeks call'd 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 are small bones , hard , white , fixed into the holes of the iaws , by the way call'd gomphosis , appointed for the chewing of food and serving also for pronunciation . i say they are bones : though it has been greatly disputed whether they are bones or no. but for the affirmative , riolanus produces these reasons . . because they were form'd out of the seed with the rest of the bones . . because they are nourished by the blood ; as the rest of the bones . . because they are hard like the rest of the bones . . because they do not feel in their own substance , but only by the periosteums of their roots , and by means of the little nerves that enter into them , no otherwise than all the rest of the bones are sensible . iii. now for the chewing of hard things , the substance of the teeth is also very hard , and where they appear above their holes smooth and naked , without any periosteu●… , but within their holes rough , and enfolded with a thin pellicle of a most quick sense , having a cavity withinside , which is manifest in the grinding teeth when broken , but invisible in the dog-teeth and nibblingteeth , whereby they receive through the little holes in the roots , besides a little artery from the roots , a little nerve also from the branch of the fourth pair , expanded through a most thin little membrane , which enfolds the said cavity ; by means of which , and the periosteum investing the roots , the teeth are so sensible of pain , though their bony substance , which is destitute of the inner little membrane and nerve , is altogether insensible . iv. now these three vessels , artery , nerve and vein , being first united , and wreath as it were into one small chard , begirt with a small membrane , enter the inner part of the iaw , and in a peculiar channel different from the caverns of the marrow , run under the teeth , though how they enter the teeth in men , we must confess is not discernible to the sight ; for that although the small holes of the roots , though they are somewhat conspicuous in infants , and seem to penetrate to the slimy substance of the roots , yet in men of riper years become so narrow , that they are not to be discern'd by the eye . but reason tells us however , that there must be some ways , by means of which , those vessels enter the inner parts of the teeth ; which is apparent by their continual nourishment from the arteries and veins ; besides that , the inner cavity of the grinding teeth , especially the first mucous substance is seen to be somewhat discoloured with blood , and many times there follows a flux of blood upon drawing the tooth . that there is some little nerve that enters , is apparent by the quick sense of the tooth . moreover , though the ingress of these vessels in the teeth cannot be so well demonstrated in men ; yet if you open the lower jaw of an ox at the inside , presently the cavity containing the marrow , and the artery , nerve and vein , enfolded with their peculiar membrane , appear in their proper channel . the membrane being cut , the little nerve appears , consisting of several small threads , between which , the veins and arteries are carried , and the membrane being removed , certain fibres like cobwebs are seen to be stretched from thence to the roots of the teeth . and upon the drawing of a grinder or a cutting tooth , you shall perceive small fibres sticking to the root of the teeth , which are extended from the hollowness of the jaw . but this is to be wondered at , that the dogs teeth and cutting teeth , which are less and fix'd with one root , should have large and conspicuous branches openly coming to them , and that the grinders , which are larger , and fix'd with four snaggs , should only have capillary branches to attend them , and that in a kind of hugger mugger . which , no question , is no otherwise in men , were it discernible to the sight . v. the principles or beginnings of the teeth , generated with the rest of the parts in the womb , lye latent between the jaws and the gums , within whose enclosures they are brought to perfection by degrees , wherein are first observed the follicle , the bony part , and the mucous part. vi. the white little bladder , not exactly membranous , but somewhat slimy , covers the whole teeth , as the cortex of the seed covers the pith of a plant , but never inseparably unites to the plant. this by degrees is perforated upwards and downwards , and then the tooth it self buds forth ; in which beginning of it , two substances are to be observed , the one bony , the other slimy . vii . the bony part is the basis of the tooth , which by degrees is hardned into a firm and white substance , and thrust forth without the gums . the beginnings are more conspicuous in the new born infants in the cutting teeth , less in the dog-teeth , but in the dog-teeth , 't is long before they appear . vesalius , columbus and sylvius thought this basis to be an epiphysis ; which eustachius , riolanus , and fallopius with good reason denies . the slimy part is the root of the tooth which is fixed in the jaw , and consists of a thin pellicle less white , which contains that pellucid slime , somewhat hard , of a colour betwixt white and red , wherein you may perceive the small rudiments of the vessels to be intermix'd . which slime being enfolded within that pellicle , continues so till the age of two years , more or less , and is so soft , that being squeezed with the fingers , the root of the tooth sweats forth blood in the same manner as the quills of chickens or pigeons feathers ; of which the upper part is hard , and as it were solid , the lower hollow and mucous , and sweats forth blood , being more vehemently squeez'd . in progress of time , this mucous or slime is first more and more hardned , and grows bony in the circumference , then by degrees it hardens in the middle , yet so that there is a certain cavity remaining at the middle of its thickness at the root , in the grinders conspicuous enough , in others not ; as being hardly extended to that part of the tooth , eminent beyond the gum ; and is encompassed with a most thin membrane of an acute sense , constituted by the expansion of a small nerve . thus this slime being hardned by degrees , the root encreases , perforates the little bladder , and is fix'd into the jaw it self . then the little bladder changing its use , becomes a binding , or rather soder to the tooth ; by means of which , it sticks as it were glew'd and plaistered to the gums . viii . in this manner are the teeth perfected that lye hid under the gums ; out of which they do not break forth till some months after the birth , at the time which is call'd the toothing-time . first break forth the upper and lower cutting teeth , as of which , there is greatest use ; afterwards the dog-teeth , and lastly the grinders , and that with a great deal of pain , in regard they perforate the flesh of the gums ; which if it be hard , makes the passage more troublesome , and causes convulsions and loosness of the belly , especially when the dog-teeth cut the gums . now why the cutting teeth break forth first , the dog-teeth afterwards , aristo●…le gives us the reason . because their office is the first , for that the food must first be bitten , before it can be chew'd ; besides that , a lesser thing is sooner brought to perfection , than a greater , and the fore-teeth are less than the cheek-teeth . after the twenty teeth are come forth above and below , then the grinders follow more l●…isurely , and that not before the fifth , sixth , or seventh year , till which time , they lye hid like small points within the jaws . probably , because the jaws before were not grown to a sufficient bigness , so that it had not room for twenty eight or thirty teeth . ix . about the seventh or eight year , the foremost teeth shed , and others come in their place . however all the teeth do not always shed ; but for the most part the cutters and dog-teeth , and of the grinders those that stand next the dog-teeth . nay , i have observed that some have only shed their cutting-teeth , and no other , and some only two or three of the cutters , the rest remaining ; so that there is nothing of certainty in this matter . this shedding of the teeth never happens but once , or very seldom . thus once in forty years i have known a grinder to have shed , and another come in its room ; and i have observed some children to have shed their fore-teeth twice , which have come again . which variety eustachius observes , where he tells us , that some renew their teeth in the thirteenth and fourteenth year ; others at certain times , once after the seventh , and again after the fourteenth ; and some have had a tooth come again at twenty years of age , instead of another pull'd out . and sometimes young men , well temper'd and lusty , have had their cheek-teeth grown again , and supply the room of that which was pull'd out before . x. this change of the teeth has caused a great dispute , whether the first teeth are true teeth ? and whether those that succeed are new teeth , or only new branches from the same root ? it being absurd to avouch a new generation of the parts after the first formation . for which reason , some aver that the first teeth are no true parts of the body , but only various particles generated from superfluous matter , and doing the office of teeth till the true teeth come to perfection . others say that the first and last teeth are both generated in the womb ; but that the first teeth being soonest perfected , are soonest come forth ; the latter , being more slowly perfected , come out afterward , and thrust the former out of their holes . it being visible in anatomy , that those teeth which one shed in the seventh year , are separated but a little way from those which break forth in the seventh , and that there is no communion between them . but neither of these opinions come to the point . for the first teeth , about the seventh year first grow loose , and afterwards shed . only it is to be observed , that the root it self does not shed , but the upper part that is next the root . for we find by experience , that if the teeth be drawn root and all , 't is very seldom that another comes in the room , or if another tooth doth come , then 't is certain that the root was not wholy drawn ; but that the lower part being broken , remained in the gum. and therefore great care is to be taken , that in pulling out loose teeth , you do not pull out root and all , for then you can never expect a new tooth . for this rolfinch reproves columbus , avouching that the tooth sheds root and all , and renews root and all , which is contrary to reason and experience , and therefore let it go . we have observed in a tame deer , every year or half year , a certain soft and slimy substance under the foundation of the horns , to rise like a stool-ball from the root of the horns , upon which the loose horns insisted , which , as might be observed by the restlesness of the beast , caused either pain or some extream itching in those parts , till the horns fell off , and that then , from the same root , new horns grew again by degrees . so it is with the teeth , in which that mucous substance rises from the root under the basis of the tooth , and loosens it with pain , so that you may easily pull it out with your fingers ; and that unless it be pull'd out in time , the soft substance being afterwards dry'd and hardened , it becomes strongly fixed again , and another tooth grows to the side of it from the same root , which however is no new tooth , but a new branch proceeding from the same root . so that 't is no wonder the former tooth is separated at some distance from the latter branch , because it has no other communion with it , than by one root common to both . this deceived eustachius and riolanus , who perceiving the beginning of the second branch sprouting forth under the former , write that they saw new teeth lying hid under the first . now the reason why the latter branch thrusts out the former , is by reason that the hole is so narrow that it will not admit two branches together , which however sometimes it does , and then the latter branch is joyned to the former at its beginning . only because the first branch grows out of order , and defaces the beauty of the mouth , therefore generally it is either drawn or fil'd away . in the same manner it has sometimes happen'd , that old men have had new teeth spring up from the remaining roots of the old ones . of which , ioubert produces an example in a toothless lady of seventy years of age , most of whose teeth came again , but small and weak . and sennertus also relates another story , upon the authority of george tithscard , a silesian physitian , of an old matron almost seventy years of age , who bred twenty new teeth with the same pain , and the same symptoms as happen in young children . at utrecht , there lives an old woman at this time , of fourscore years of age , who having lost all her teeth , had four of her cutting teeth grew again , but two years since . and you shall find many other examples of this nature in pliny , naevisanus , and alexander benedictus . however it is to be understood , that in these ancient people , the roots of the teeth remain entire , though the basis of the teeth that advances it self above the gums , were quite eaten away and perished . xi . about one , or six and twenty , or thirty years of age , the two farthest cheek-teeth break forth with great pain , the materials of which , remain so long hidden in the little holes of the jaw imperfect , before it could acquire perfection of substance . these are generally call'd double teeth , or the teeth of understanding , because they shoot forth at the time when a man arrives to his most solid understanding . xii . the teeth have also this peculiar above the nature of other bones , that their growth and increase is not prefixed , but grow continually all a man's life-time , so that what is dayly worn away by mastication and chewing , renews again , which is apparent , if the tooth , to which the opposite tooth being drawn , upon which it usually lights , be not worn away , for then it grows to such a length , as to fill the opposite hole . or if the tooth shooting forth out of its hole transversly toward the foremost or hinder parts , exceeds the row of the teeth . for then if it shoot forward , the tooth will perforate the lip it self , if backward , it will hinder the motion of the tongue . thus i knew two young ladies , who had each a sharp tooth which shot forth from the inner root of the upper cutting-tooth , and grew to that length , that it perforated the tongue with an extraordinary pain , and hindred the speech ; for which reason , i caused them both be to drawn . and thus pliny , eustachius , and alexander benedict are to be understood , when they write that they saw teeth growing out of the palate , as meaning-teeth , which shooting forth from the root of some upper cutting-teeth through the membrane of the palate , extend themselves toward the inner parts of the mouth . however there are certain limits , beyond which the teeth never grow ; notwithstanding that they are sometimes longer than ordinary . xiii . the teeth are placed in the iaws in one single row : seldom two rows are seen , as pliny reports of laodice , the daughter of mithridates , and trimarchus the son of nicholes . but more rarely three rows , which rhodiginus reports of hercules , and columbus observes in his own son phaebus . in tigers and elephants , three rows are common . in like manner the monster call'd a manticora , and the fish call'd a moraxus , are said to have three rows of teeth . sometimes indeed it happens in men that here and there one of the fore-teeth may stand in a double row ; which comes to pass when the teeth shed , and that a new spring grows from the same root , which growing upward , fixes it self before another tooth , either not shed or not pull'd out . xiv . the bigness of the teeth is of a moderate size ; yet some are broader , some narrower , some longer , some shorter . xv. the number in all people is not the same ; some●…imes fifteen or sixteen in each jaw ; yet some have more , some fewer , and they that have fewest , have generally the broadest . hippocrates , galen , and aristotle prefer the greater number before the smaller , as betokening long life ; perhaps denoting the plenty of the first matter , and the strength of the forming faculty ; or else because the nourishment is better prepared for concoction , by the mastication of more , then few teeth . it rarely happens , what plutarch testifies of pyrrhus king of the epirotes , and pliny , concerning the son of prusias king of bithynia , and what others write of eryptolemus king of cyprus , the poet pherecrates and sicinius , that instead of teeth , they had one continu'd bone , distinguished only with lines , such a one as bartholin testifies he saw in a certain barbarian ; and melanthon , in a certain virgin , at the court of prince ernest of luneburgh . the teeth differ both in shape and use. xvi . some are broad , sharp and cutting , therefore call'd incisorii ; by the greeks 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , from 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 to cut , the first that appear , seated in the forepart of the mouth , and furnished with one single root , ending in a sharp point . these are four above and below , sometimes three , seldom two , where they are very broad , so that they fill the whole space between the dog-teeth . xvii . others are very sharp and strong , and deeply rooted , called canini , or dog-teeth , by aristotle and galen 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , two in each jaw , next to the cutting-teeth on each side , which break what the other cannot cut . these the vulgar call the eye-teeth , and account it a dangerous thing to draw them , believing that their roots reach to the eyes , whereas the uppermost hardly pass beyond the lower brim of the wings of the nose , with their roots , and the lowermost are far distant from the eyes . others , with laurentius and riolanus believe that some portion of the nerve moving the eye is carryed to these teeth , which is nothing so . riolanus and spigelius observe , that the roots of the fore-teeth and dog-teeth , are frequently observed to be crooked , and that such teeth cannot be drawn without pulling away some part of the case . xviii . others are obtuse and large as the grinders , called mollares and molitores , which grind the meat like grindstones . the germans ( and the english too ) call them the cheek-teeth . the number of which is not in all people the same ; generally ten in each jaw ; five of a side ; to which if you add the wisdom-teeth , their number will be increased . the two foremost that stand next to the dog-teeth , are less than the rest , and prominent with two little excrescences , the three hindermost are bigger , and unequal with four extuberances being broad at the upper part and almost four square . they are fixed with two three or four roots ; for herein nature sports her self . the two that stand next the dog-teeth are also furnished for the most part with two , behind with three or four , and above with more then below . xix . concerning the use of the teeth we have already spoken . but their use in pronunciation is chiefly performed by the fore-teeth , which they that want have a defect in their speech , and pronounce but badly some letters , as c. d. l. t. x. z. hence it is that pliny rightly observes that the two fore-teeth govern the voice and speech , by a certain concert receiving the strook of the tongue ; and according to their structure and bigness , maim , sosten and dull the pronunciation , so that being lost , men lose their pronunciation . galen , ascribes them a third use , to distinguish savours and assist the relish of the tongue ; but the bony substance of the teeth alone is altogether insensible , only by means of the periosteum and little membrane that invests the inner cavity ; but whether the teeth relish savours by that means is much to be questioned ; because there is a great difference between the sense of feeling and tasting . vid. lib. . cap. . and so the teeth seem to be sensible of heat , cold , austerity , and other tangible qualities , but not to distinguish savors . chap. xi . of the spine and its vertebres in general . in the second part of the skeleton are to be considered , the vertebres or the spine , the bones sacrum and of the coccyx , the ribs , the sternon , the clavicles , the scapularies , and the nameless bones . this latter structure of the trunk , like a pillar sustains the bulk of the body , and extending it self from the head to the huckle bone , compos'd of vertebres or spondils , the os sacrum and huckle-bone , fixed one upon another , and firmly fastned by ligaments , is vulgarly called the spine , as being in the hinder part furnished with thorny or prickly extuberances . the greeks call it the sacred pipe , because it is hollow'd like a pipe , and contains and defends the principle part. it is also called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 from 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 to break , because it seems to be a bone pillar broken into many parts . now it behov'd this support not to consist of one but of many bones , to the end the body might bend every way . however in old men it happens , that the moisture of the gristles being dry'd up , and the intervening ligaments being hardned , that many vertebres unite into one bone. of which i have an example at home in the skeleton of a certain hunch-back'd person in which seven vertebres are grown together in one . which coalition pavius and other anatomists have observed . ii. each vertebre in grown people consists of one bone , and their substance is thicker and more spungy , and where they are joynted , invested with a gristle , for easiness of motion : in their processes their substance is harder and more solid . in children every vertebre consists of several bones . which fallopius has accurately observed . in these vertebres , says he , i have observed one thing , that they consist of three bony parts ; of which one is the body it self , the other two from the sides of the hole of the marrow . these are fastened with a gristle to the sides of the body on the right and left side , and where the spine is , one to another , which afterwards becoming bony , expunges the ioyntures , this is true in all except the second , and the two hinder parts which consist of four parts , the body , which constitute the sides , and a fourth tooth , which though called a process by all anatomists , is really an appendix resembling a nut , which is so fastned at length , all the gristles being turned into a bone , that it seems to be a part of the vertebre , and rather a process than an appendix . beside the first , the second is also to be expected , as being compos'd not of three but two lateral bones , wherein are certain hollownesses that comprehend the head , which is bound together before with a gristle , near the tooth of the second vertebre , and behind extended from the one to the other bone. for that the first vertebre in the new born birth is destitute of that middle bony body , granted to the rest of the vertebres , and in the stead of it has the said gristle which afterwards in ripe age become bony . however that substance which divides the several vertebres into diverse little bones , rather seems to be a true gristle then that it is so ; but a bony part which has not yet acquired a bony hardness . iii. the vertebres above and below are flat , within convex , behind unequal with many processes . iv. in the middle they are hollow'd with a great hole provided for the safe descent of the spinal marrow . at the sides of this on each side lye two cavities ; of which the upper are less and the lowermost bigger ; which concurring between the two vertebres set one upon another , form those holes on both sides , through which the nerves proceed from the marrow , which are so broad as the thickness of the nerve passing through requires . to the forming of these holes in the neck both these vertebres equally contribute . but in the back and chiefly in the loyns , all the holes are bor'd in the lower part of every vertebre . besides innumerable little holes conveighing the small arteries carrying the nutritive blood to the inner substance of the bone. v. it has seven processes . two upper ascending and as many lower descending ; two transverse , and one postic , which is the biggest of all , and which all the vertebres have , except the uppermost which is next to the neck . in new born infants , the ascending and descending processes have not yet attained a bony hardness , but are small , soft , and almost altogether wanting at that time . and hence a certain division or cleft appears between every two vertebres , fill'd with a gristle that conglutinates the two gristles . the vertebres are knit together behind by gynglism ; before , by harmony , and without side by the hard membrane ; withinside by a hard and strong membranous ligament , extending it self from the upper vertebre of the neck to the os sacrum ; which many think to arise from the gristles of the vertebres . moreover they are conglutinated together with an interceding gristle . the spine being fram'd by the structure of these vertebres , has a figure commodious for the internal parts and their functions , and therefore it has a streightness , that somtimes bends somewhat backward , sometimes bows forward . from the first vertebre of the neck to the seventh it bows forward ; for the more commodious support of the gullet and asperia arteria . from the first of the back to the twel●…th it protuberates backward to render the domicils of the heart and lungs more capacious . the loyns bend inward , the better to support the trunk of the descending aorta and hollow vein . the os sacrum protuberates outward to make the hypogastrion more roomy , which is necessary for the distention of the bladder , but more especially of the womb. chap. xii . of the vertebres in specie , of the os sacrum and the cuckowbell or huckle bone. the vertebres , by the greeks are called spondyls , by reason of their continual motion in bending the body . the vertebres of the whole spine are numbred twenty four , seven of the neck , twelve of the back , and five of the loyns , which are plac'd upon the os sacrum as a basis , with its appendix the coccyx-bone . the vertebres of the neck differ one from another , and the rest of the spine vertebres , and their transverse processes are perforated , for the more commodious passage of the arteries and cervical veins and they are seated in the extremities , at the exit of the soft nerve . but the hinder spines are bipartited for the more firm connexion of the muscles and ligaments . their substance is harder , thinner and less porous then that of the rest of the vertebres ; within side also they are less gibbous and less in bulk then the rest . the two uppermost are fasten'd to the head with strong ligaments . iii. the first is call'd atlas , bearing up the head like a little world , and strongly fasten'd to it . it is thinner and tougher then the rest , and wants the hinder spine , instead of which there appears a protuberant semicircular inequality . it has two apophyses ascending upwards , with two lateral somewhat descending and perforated . on the fore-side it shews a protuberancy very solid and hard , from the sides of which two upper and as many oblique eminencies bunch forth . more inward at the fore-side of the great hole , there is a semicircular cavity covered with a gristle , wherein it receives the tooth of the following vertebre . iv. the second , call'd 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 from turning , sends upward from the middle of it a hard and round process , long like a tooth , about which the head is turned with the first vertebre . whence by hyppocrates the whole vertebre is called dens , by others the toothed vertebre , by us the axle . this toothed process is tyed with a particular ligament , and fastened to the hinder part of the head. note that this tooth in new born infants is not firmly united , but seems ▪ to be separated from the rest of the bone , and placed upon it . but is afterwards so united to it , as if it had never been parted from it ; so that in grown people it seems rather to resemble a process than an appendix . on both sides the tooth there is a small , smooth , flat place , under which lyes the lateral apophysis perforated . in the fore part a broad descending apophysis is received by the cavity of the inferior vertebre . at the hinder part on both sides descends an apophysis , which the third vertebre receives . the hindermost spine descending is bipartited . the third is by the greeks erroneously called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , being a name more proper for the second vertebre , whose tooth resembles an axle both for its use and form . this on each side from the sides backward sends a hollow apophysis upward , where it receives the descending apophysis of the second vertebre , under this descends another , and to that another small one ascending upward adheres , thrusting it self into the cavity of the second vertebre . below it has a cavity , whereinto it admits the following vertebre ; and the spine growing forked is divided into two extremities . the fourth is like the third , but wants a peculiar name . the fifth differs little from the two former . the sixth somewhat bigger in bulk , differs very little from the former , only that it has two upper apophy more ascending , and a larger spine . the seventh which is the biggest of all , and its spine longer and thicker , but not divided , is obtuse with a round head. the lateral apophysis of this wants the eminency extended inward , with which the fourth , fifth and sixth are provided . besides these seven , spigelius avouches , that there is sometimes , though seldom an eight allowed , especially in those that have long necks ; but then they have one vertebre wanting in the breast , which for that reason is shorter . v. the vertebres of the back are reckon'd to be twelve ; rarely one over or one under . these surpass the vertebres of the neck in bigness and thickness , but are less solid , and perforated with many holes for the passage of the muscles ; they are like one to another , and provided with solid and continuous apophyses . the bodies of these are orbicular , slightly hollow'd within side and behind , to the end the ligaments may be more strongly knit , least the vertebres should slip out of their places . the nine uppermost are almost equal in bigness , which decreases by degrees in the four lowermost . in like manner the spines of the nine uppermost are large , pointed at the upper part ; below somewhat broad ; and the upper obliquely descend above the lower . but in the three lowermost the spines are streight , and carry'd outward , and become more obtuse : the lowermost being hollow'd at the end with a slight superficial furrow . these vertebres of the back at this day are distinguished by no peculiar names ; though antiquity had several apellations for them . they are distinguished from the vertebres of the neck , for that the dorsal spines are almost thick , long , solid and single , nor divided at the ends , as are most of the vertebres of the neck : as also for that they have a cavity on each side , into which the head of the ribs is joynted ; which the vertebres of the neck want , though they have their tranverse perforated processes which the dorsals have not . the vertebres of the loyns also are destitute of those hollownesses . besides those cavities in the vertebres of the back , there are two other cavities in the transverse processes , not deep but superficial , appointed to strengthen the articulations of the ribs , which nevertheless are hardly conspicuous in the eleventh and twelth vertebre . viii . the dorsal vertebres are provided with seven processes ; four oblique , two lateral or transverse , and one pointed , which is called the spine . of the oblique , two ascend and as many descend . they thrust themselves into the descending processes of the upper vertebres . these jet not forth very much , and are receiv'd by the small heads of the ascending processes of the inferiour vertebres . the transverse processes of the three inferiour vertebres , the tenth , eleventh and twelfth grow lesser by degrees , and the processes of the eleventh and twelfth are somewhat forked . riolanus writes , that the eleventh and twelfth vertebres differ from the rest in the joynting , & are knit to the first vertebres by arthrody , whereas the rest are articulated by gynglism , which is a manifest error ; seeing that these are no less connexed by gynglismus then the rest , though the articulation of these be broader then that of the others , because that the motion of the spine in bending extention and obliquation is first to be performed in that place . in these vertebres of the back , we are to take notice of certain cavities invested with a gristle which are wanting in the rest ; two in the transverse processes , which the eleventh and twelfth however want ; and two in the body it self , to receive the processes of the ribbs . ix . the vertebres of the loyns are five ; seldom more or less . fallopius writes , that he has many times observed that the number of the vertebres of the loyns varies according to the number of the vertebres of the back . so that if there be eleven vertebres of the back , there are six of the loyns ; if thirteen in the back , then only four in the loyns ; if twelve , which is usual , then no more then these five . but that this is no constant rule appears by a skeleton in the custody of dr. pelt in utrecht , wherein there are twelve vertebres of the back , and six of the loyns of a considerable bigness . these vertebres surpass in thickness and bigness all the rest ; and are provided with many little holes for the ingress and exit of small arteries and veins , and they are joynted together with an intervening glutinous gristle , yet so that the conjunction of these is looser then of those of the breast , for the more easie bending the body . they have hinder processes shorter and less pointed but broader and thicker then those of the breast , and ascending somewhat upwards ; but the lateral processes are somewhat longer . in the mean time they differ somewhat in joynting from the vertebres of the breast ; for that these are carried upwards with ascending processes into the cavities of the upper vertebres ; those are joynted with lower processes at the side somewhat lower into the processes of the next vertebre . but the twelfth vertebre is not joynted into the upper processes , as the other vertebres of the breast ; but into the lower , as the vertebres of the loyns . x. certain hebrew writers have feign'd a certain bone between the last vertebre of the loyns and the os sacrum , which they call lus , of which they scribble wonders ; which bauhinus has epitomiz'd in these words . the hebrew writers , saith he , assert , that there is in the body of man below the eight rib a certain bone , which cannot be corrupted or annihilated either by water , fire , or any other element , nor can it be broken by any external force ; which bone god will at the last iudgment water with celestial dew , and then the rest of the members shall unite together into one body , which being inspired with the breath of . god , shall be again enlivened . this bone they call lus , not luz ; which they say is seated in the spine of the back , behind the eight vertebre at the bone of the thigh . the author of this fable is rabi uskaija , who liv'd in the year of our lord . who wrote a book entitled be reschite rabba , being a comment upon the pentateuch . but these are all fictions and fables , though agrippa seems to favour them in his occult philosophy . xi . the os sacrum , remarkable for its thickness and strength , stands immoveable under the vertebres , and like a basis supports the structure of the vertebres impos'd upon it . within-side it is smooth and hollow , without-side convex and hollow , of a triangular figure . upon each side , at the upper part , it has a plany place rough and unequal , where it is fastened to the illion bones by means of a gristle . it consists of five or six bones , resembling the vertebres , which being broad at the beginning , grow narrow by degrees ; and though in infants and children they may be easily separated , in men grown they unite into one bone. fallopius observes in children new born , that the parts of this bone consists of three particles , like the rest of the vertebres , which are afterwards so united , that there is no more division to be seen . it is perforated with holes , not lateral , as the vertebres , but transverse , seated at the exit of the nerves forward and backward on both sides , to the conjunctions of the parts , of which this bone consists , which within are much larger and bigger then without . it has small processes , and spines for the most part looking upwards , so that the lowermost hardly appears . xii . the bone of the coccyx , so called , because it resembles the cuckows-bill , consists of three or four little bones , from a larger base tending donward in a point by degrees , and bending within for the conveniency of sitting . fallopius observes that this consists of three bones , whereas the os sacrum consists of six ; but when the sacrum consists but of five , then the coccyx consists but of four . in children it is altogether gristly , till the seventh year : afterwards it begins to be consolidated into a spungy substance , and of four particles to be united into one bone. this coccyx adheres to the os sacrum like an appendix , and is joyned to it with a loose connexion by means of a glutinous gristle ; that it may be able to give way in the delivery and the exoneration of thick and hard excrements , and to prevent its being injur'd by any violent concussion . spigelius and riolanus believe , that if the said knot happen to be over loose , it causes a falling of the fundament in children ; of which nevertheless there may be a more usual and manifest reason given . the use of it is to support the streight gut , and the sheath of the womb in women , which is fastened to that intestine . a pendulous gristle grows to the joynt of it . this coccyx bone , it being bent outward in length it grows dry , becomes a tayl , as we saw it in the year . in an infant new born half an ell long , like the tayl of an ape ; which was occasioned by the mothers being frighted by an ape with a tayl , after she had gone but three months . thus pliny tells us of some men that have woolly tayls in some parts of india . and paulus venetus , that in the kingdom of lambri , there are a sort of savage people , with tayls like dogs above a handful long . these testimonies harvey very much confirms by the following story . a chyrurgion says he , a very honest man my friend , returning from the east-indies , told me that in the island of bornea in the mountanous parts remote from the sea , there are a sort of men with tayls , of which number he saw a virgin that was taken with great difficulty , with a fleshy thick tayl about a span long , which she clapt between her buttocks , and covered therewith her podex and privities . chap. xiii . of the ribs . to the spine above , adhere the ribs , the os sternon , the clavicles and scapula's ; below the nameless bones . i. the ribs , that fortifie the breast , are by the greeks call'd pleura . ii. these are reckoned to be twelve on each side , seldom more or less . galen writes , that a thirteenth is very rarely to be found , and more unusually eleven ; which number , columbus once observed . also in the year . we observed eleven in a certain french souldier that was slain with a sword. riolanus avouches that he has seen sometimes eleven , sometimes thirteen of a side . bartholine , eleven on the one side , and twelve on the other . fallopius has seen thirteen of a side , which picolhomini saw twice ; once bauhinus , and once frederic de ruysch . i have a skeleton by me , which wants the twelfth rib almost , on both sides , i say almost , for that it is so small , that it hardly exceeds a thumbs breadth . iii. for their greater strength , the ribs for the most part , where they are carried along the back and sides , are bony , and within spungy ; which is the reason that broken , they are more easily consolidated by means of a callus , then any other bones . but in the foremost and least part , where they proceed toward the sternon , they are gristly , for the more easie motion of the breast . these foremost gristly productions in women , sometimes are harder , and as it were grow into bones , perhaps the better to sustain the weight of the breasts , for in men there is no such thing . in new born infants , the extremities , by means of which , they are joyned with the vertebres , are gristly , but in a short time harden into solidities and bony firmness . iv. they are bent like a bow , to give the breast more room ; which arching of the ribs is more in these above than below . their outward superficies is somewhat unequal , especially about the vertebres , where the ligaments are fasten'd but the inner superficies where the membranes adhere to the pelura is more smooth . v. as to their length and breadth , there is great variety . the middlemost are longer and broader , except the first , which is broadest of all . moreover they are sometimes broader in one man of the same age than in another , though both of an equal tallness . i my self have two skeletons , the one of a man that was very tall , because he had narrow and streight ribs . the other of a person of low stature , whose ribs are broad , thick and very firm . at their first rise they are all narrow , and somewhat round , and the nearer they approach to the breast , the broader they are . they are thicker above than below , but in the lower part flat . in the lower inner part there is something of a cavity , wherein they receive a nerve , an artery , and an intercostal vein . vi. this cavity is considerable in the incision of empyics , for special care must be taken , least the said intercostal vessels be injured , which as bartholin directs , may be avoided if the incision , which is usually perform'd between the fifth and sixth , or between the sixth and seventh rib , be made from the top to the bottom . thus also otto heurnius taught us , who for that incision requir'd a knife with a keen edge , but a flat back ; which he would have so held in operation , that the back should be toward the lower part of the upper rib , that is , the foresaid cavity , but the edge-work downward toward the top of the lower rib. but experience tells us , that all this is one imaginary theory . for the ribs in a living man , are not so sar distant , that a knife can well be thrust in from the lower part of the upper , to the top of the lower rib. and therefore to avoid injuring those vessels , i order the chyrurgions to make the incision in the upper part of the sixth or seventh rib , at the full length of it , not ascending to the rib next above it . some will say that this is the way to cut the fibres of the intercostal muscles athwart , as if they could scape by the first incision . the fibres of those muscles are all oblique , and the inner thwart the outermost like a st. andrews cross. so that which way soever the incision be made , there 's no way to avoid the hurting of the fibres ; neither is it much to be fear'd , for that the wound in this case is not great , and as experience teaches us , easily consolidated again . vii . the ribs are joyned behind into the vertebres , by the means of some intervening gristle , and are fastned to them with strong ligaments , of which , some proceed to the sternon bone , others not . viii . the former are call'd true ribs , of which , the gristly productions are immediately fastned to the sternon , and are seven superior , of which , the two first are call'd retorted , the two next solid , and three lower call'd pectorals . ix . the hinder and lowermost are call'd the spurious ribs , of which , the first four , with their cartilages winding backward , and mutually cohering together , are fastned below to the seventh gristle of the true ribs . but the last , which is the least , sometimes grows to the diaphragma , sometimes to the right muscle of the abdomen ; in which connexion , it sometimes associates with it the last rib , save one . x. the use of the ribs are , . to keep the breast dilated , and the upper part of the lower belly ; least in the one , the heart , together with the lungs ; in the other , liver , spleen and ventricle should be oppressed by the weight of the incumbent parts . . to defend both them and other parts therein contained from external injuries . . to support the respiratory muscles , and assist their motions ; for which reason , the breast ought not to consist of one bone , as which would then have been immoveable ; nor could the act of respiration have been conveniently perform'd , which is the reason that the ribs very rarely grow together , which pausanias reports of protophanes the magnesian , in whose carcass all the true ribs were found connexed . this protophanes was a famous wrestler in the olympic games . now because a good wind is necessary in wrestling , which could not be by reason of that connexion of the ribs ; 't is very probable , that when he grew old , his ribs stuck together , after he had left off wrestling . as many times some vertebres of the back , bones of the skull , and other bones become continuous when men grow aged . chap. xiv . of the bone of the breast and sternon . the bone of the breast , in greek 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , in latin sternum , is placed before the fore-part of the breast , like a bulwark , to which the gristly productions of the true ribs are fastned . i. the substance of it is spungy and less white than the rest of the bones , which in infants seems to be altogether gristly , except the upper part , which is sometimes more bony . perhaps because the articulation of the clavicle is there to be fastned . ii. in new born infants , it seems to be compacted of seven or eight bones , joyned together with a gristle ; to the lowest of which , the sword resembling-gristle , the single pairs of the true ribs are knit . but these after the age of eight or ten years , unite together into fewer bones by synchondrosis . so that in people grown up , only three are to be found , rarely four , distinguished with transverse lines ; and these also when men grow into years , become one solid bone. riolanus saw at rome this bone in a girl of seven years old , consisting of eleven bones ; and the sternon was divided into six bones ; but the five lower bones appear'd every one divided into two bones , from the bottom to the top , all the length of the bone. this scissure in the middle of all the bones , except the uppermost and lowermost , is frequently to be observed , as eustachius , bauhinus , and bartholine avouch . the upper bone , surpassing the rest in largeness and thickness , resembles the pummel of the handle of a sword , having in the upper and middle part , a furrow like a half-moon , call'd the little fork or iugulum . at the side of which , on each side , stands another little hollowness , to receive the extremities of the clavicles , and to be fastned by a gristle . in the inner part there is another cavity , giving free passage to the descending trachea . the second , or middle bone , annex'd to the first by means of a gristle , is narrower , but very long , and has five or six cavities on both sides , at unequal distances one from another , and receiving the gristles of the ribs . iii. the third bone , which is lowest and least , ends in a gristle , which resembling the point of a sword , is call'd cartilago mucronata , by the greeks , the sword-resembling , and vulgarly the bucklar-like . this gristle is oblong and triangular , equal in the breadth of the thumb in length , and is seldom found double , but most commonly single ; sometimes forked , for the convenience of the vessels passing through ; sometimes round and thin , being perforated , it affords a free passage to an artery and a vein . but if both the biforcation and the hole be wanting , then the sternon is perforated in the middle , which is chiefly observed in women , according to riolalanus , who found in a hole in a certain woman , so broad in the inner part of the sternon , as to admit his little finger . but the breast of that woman was fortified with thirteen ribs of a side . thus eustachius and sylvius observe , that the sternon is sometimes pervious in the middle , with a broad hole for the passage of the vessels . massa ascribes to himself the discovery of this hole . frequently this gristle is bowed back , sometimes outward , sometimes inward , not without great prejudice to the stomach and neighbouring parts , which causes the hickopping , and an acrophy , the source of several diseases . sometimes in old men it turns to a bone , which pavius observed in one that had been long troubled with a shortness of breath . but it most rarely happens what veslingius observes , that this muscle in a certain person extended it self a whole fingers length to the navel , and became stiff , to the great inconvenience of the body in bending , and prejudice to the concoction of the stomach , and distribution of the chylus . folius takes notice of two small muscles placed at the side , and moving this gristle outward and inward ; which i could never as yet find out . iv. without side , in the region of this gristle , here is a cavity to be seen , which the greeks call 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , the latins the little scrobicle , or hole of the heart , because that the heart adjoyns to it within side , with its bone included in the pericardium , and annexed to the nervous center of the diaphragma . riolanus sometimes found in fat women with great breasts , the bone of the sternon acuminated by the weight of the breasts ; which has streightned the breast , and caused a difficulty of breathing in the persons themselves . chap. xv. of the clavicles and scapulas . the clavicles and scapula's some refer to the shoulder and hand , because the arm is joynted to them ; for which articulation they seem to have been chiefly fram'd ; whereas they afford no remarkable use to the breast . but others , by reason of their situation , with more reason , number them among the bones of the breast , which method we shall follow . i. the clavicles , so called , because that like a lock , they fasten the scapula to the sternon , by the greeks are call'd 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , because they lock up the breast . celsus calls them iugula , or little yoaks , as resembling the yoaks of oxen ; and others call them ligulae , or little tongues . ii. these are two bones , of which , one of each side hangs athwart over the upper part of the breast , between the ioynt of the shoulder , and the top of the sternon bone. iii. their substance is thick and spungy , easily broken by the violent shogs of external bodies ; but by reason of its laxity , the callus soon unites it together again . iv. the shape of it is long , and something like a great s ; but more wreath'd in men than in women , for the stronger motion of the arm. v. with one of their extremities which is round , they adhere to the top of the sternon bone ; with the other which is flatter , they are knit to the process of the scapula , where they produce the top of the shoulder . each extremity is covered with a muscle , and by means of that unctuous gristle , they are both joyned after a loose manner with strong ligaments by diarthrosis . they have both a protuberancy , and two superficial cavities , from whence the subclavial muscle , and part of the pectoral muscle derive their original . and on both sides near the ends they grow rough , that the ligaments thence proceeding may more firmly take hold of them . the moveable gristle , called clausura , there conspicuous , does not grow to them , but is held fast with ligaments embracing the joynt , the more easily to yield to the motions of the scapula and arm. vi. the clavicles seem to be found to render certain motions of the arm more strong and easie ; which is the reason that most brute beasts are destiture of them . but they are to be found in apes , squerrels , &c. that make use of their fore-feet as of hands . vii . the scapula , by the greeks homoplate , of each side one , lies upon the dorsal ribs like a target , and is a broad thin bone , in some measure triangular , somewhat hollow within , gibbous without , design'd not so much for the safety of the hinder part of the breast , as for the secure articulation of the shoulder with the clavicle , and the insertion of the muscles . it is seated between the first and fifth vertebre of the breast , seldom reaches to the sixth . part of it being extended all the length of the back , is called the basis ; of which , there are two extremities called the angles , one above , the other below . the basis is called the sides of the ribs , of which , the uppermost is the shorter and thinner , the lowermost the longer and thicker . the whole breadth of the scapula is called the table ; of which , the external part is gibbous , the internal concave , to receive the muscle that dives into it . viii . three processes belonging to the scapula . the first , extended through the middle of its body , and reaching the top of the shoulder , by reason it something resembles a thorn , called the spine of the scapula , and the crest ; the extremity of which being connexed with the scapula , by the modern anatomists is call'd acromion , or the point of the shoulder . i say , the moderns , for that the ancients seem to differ something in the description of the acromion . for rufus ephesius says , that the acromion is the coupling it self of the iugular and scapula-bone . eudemus says , that it is a small little bone , which in children is altogether gristly , and though this gristle hardens in time into a bone , yet till the eighteenth year , contrary to the custom of other bones , it retains much of its gristly substance , and sometimes grows so slightly together with the spine of the scapula , that in the middle age it may be easily separated , as galen reports , happened to himself , and that he was a witness of in another person . hippocrates also takes notice of this bone , and of its luxation , in which place he adds , that in the acromion there is something in man which is different from other creatures . from both parts of the said spine , a little furrow extends it self , by riolanus called the interscapuli●…m , the one above , the other below . the second is lower , less and sharp , not unlike a crows-bill , and hence called coracoides ; by others from its form sigmoides ; keeps the bone of the shoulder in its place , and prevents it from sliping toward the fore-parts . for the actions of the hand tending all toward the fore-parts , the shoulder would soon be dislocated , unless the bone were retain'd by the coracoides ; which contributes so much security to this joynt , that there rarely happens any dislocation in the fore-part of the shoulder ; which hippocrates observed once , and galen testifies , that he saw four times at rome , and which i saw some years in an old man , that put his shoulder out of joint by a fall , which i set again . the third is the shortest of all , called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 or the neck within its own cavity , strengthened with a muscle , receives the extremity of the shulderbone , being enlarged with a thick gristly brim , encompassing the lips. this in new born infants consists of a more obtuse and shorter , but gristly bone , which grows longer , as the child grows in years . to these there are some proper additions , as well as some peculiar ligaments , with which the scapula is fastned to the clavicle and shoulder-bone . according to the large or lesser bulk of the scapulas , the shoulders are either broader or narrower . broad-shouldered men are thought to beget more lusty children . the narrowshouldered , more weakly . the uncertainty of which opinion , dayly experience teaches us . therefore , says peter forestus , this is an observation among the women , that broad-shoulder'd men beget a great many children . and therefore my sister-in-law , who had twenty children by her husband , would never marry her daughters to broad-shoulder'd men. riolanus reports , that the french virgins have generally the right omoplate higher than the left ; for which he says it is a hard thing to give a reason . in our low-countries , i observe , that they who in their childhood and youth most violently exercise their right-arm , their right-scapula stands more out from the ribs than the left. chap. xvi . of the nameless bones . to the spine , at the lower part , adhere the anonymous or nameless bone ; of which , one of each side is knit to the sides of the os sacrum by the means of a gristle with a strong ligament . they are called nameless , because they alone want a name , whereas all the rest have names given them . i. each of these are constituted of three bones ; the ilion , the hip-bone and share-bone , firmly knit together with gristles ; which in infants may be parted with a thin knife , and the bounds of those divisions remain conspicuous till seven years of age ; afterwards the gristle drying up , they unite into one bone ; which being joyn'd on both sides with the os sacrum , makes the bason , or that cavity , wherein the womb , bladder and part of the intestines is contain'd . ii. the ileon-bone , so called from the intestine next to it , is the upper and broadest part of the nameless bone. it has a remarkable spaciousness , and somewhat concave , taking its name from the rib. it is semicircular , but uneven , whose extream parts , before and behind , are by some called spines , brows and lips ; but the outermost part of the bone is called the back . this bone , besides the foregoing gristle , is fastned with a strong ligament , membranous and common to the os sacrum . iii. the hip-bone , or ischium , is the lower and outer part of the nameless-bone , thick and firm . in this there is a large , profound and smooth cavity cover'd with a gristle , call'd the acetabulum and pyxis , into which the globous extremity of the thigh-bone is fixed , out of which if it happen to slip , it causes a dislocation ; which nature willing to avoid , has sasten'd these bones with a double ligament proceeding from the os sacrum . the gristly process of this cavity , enlarging the acetabulum , is called the eye-brow , which is bigger behind than before ; to the end that when we sit , the thigh may be the more commodiously bent into an acute angle . but it fails where the cavity looks toward the share-bone , by reason of a blood-bearing vessel passing that way , which brings nourishment to the joynt . but in the inner cavity , there is a hollowness somewhat rough and unequal , to which that ligament obstinately adheres , which binds the head of the thigh-bone to the inner part of the acetabulum . also two protuberances are to be observed ; one , internal , from whence the second or right muscle extending the leg derives its beginning : the other external , which is sharp , and into which the ligament is inserted , which rises from the fifth process of the os sacrum . iv. the share-bone , called os pubis and pectinis , is the foremost and thinner part of the nameless bone , which is pervious with a large hole seated between the hollowness of the hip , and its own fore-parts ; and by means of a gristle , is firmly knit with its own pare , and hollow'd above for the descent of the crural vessels . this hole affords a seat to two muscles of the thigh ; withoutside to the external , withinside to the internal obturator , or to the second and third circumvolving muscles , which are distinguished one from another by a strong ligament , that stretches under the hole ; which connexion aforesaid of the share-bones between themselves , with a membranous ligament , veslingius affirms , and riolanus denies . now as to these inferior bones , there is a difference to be observed between them in men and women . . the os sacrum , in women is hollowed much more outward , to give more room for the birth in time of delivery , for which reason the huckle bone adheres to it with a looser connexion then in men. . the lower parts of the hip-bones and share bones in women are produced farther outward , and make the bason larger . . the ilium bones are much larger and more hollowed , and their spine more advanced to the sides in women than in men. . the gristle that fastens the share-bones , to the end it may be the better distended , in women is twice as thick and twice as loose as it is in men , especially if they have brought forth children ; moreover the line by which the share-bones are joyned , is shorter in women than in men. here two questions arise : the first , whether the share-bones are moved ? the second , how it is possible a mature and large birth should come forth in delivery through the narrow passages of the bason , every way beset and stuft with muscles and other parts ? v. as to the first question , spigelius , cajus and riolanus maintain the affirmative , who avouch these bones to be moved upwards and downwards by the help of the muscles , which they say is apparent in venereal congress and leaping . but they should have said that these bones are moved either of themselves , by the help of the muscles inserted into them , or by accident , as in some measure they follow the motion of the adjoyning parts . the first is false ; seeing these bones are immoveably joyned together by symphysis , except only at the time of delivery , at what time the gristles being moistned and loosned , they become somewhat moveable , and give way a little one from the other . the latter is true , for upon the motion of the thigh , back and loyns , it is certain that these bones move with the whole nameless bone , but not separately by themselves . vi. as to the second question , if the birth be but small , it may pass through those narrow passages without any great trouble , as daily experience evinces . for at the time of delivery , the general parts through the plentiful afflux of humors , become so loose , soft and slippery , that they will admit the whole hand of the midwife or chyrurgion . but if the birth be large , and that the womans parts are naturally streight of themselves , then the delivery proves tedious and painful , and the share-bones , the ligaments and gristles being moistned will open somewhat wider ; nay , the gristly connexion of the os sacrum , with the bones of the ilium , will be so loosned , that they manifestly give way one to another ; which dehiscency of the said bones , the first that observed among the ancients , were hippocrates , avicen and aetius ; among the moderns , pineus , and several other eminent physitians . alexander benedictus writes , that if the birth be large , those bones open of themselves , and the pecten and the os sacrum consent to the expulsion ; also that those bones after delivery , return by degrees to their natural place , and that the resistance of one or more of these is the cause of difficult labour , though the rest answer the whole . fernelius , among the causes of difficult labour , reckons the firm compaction of the share-bones . gortheus asserts , that the very hips of women in travel are divided , which causes violent pains in the loyns and hips . however , though these bones are divided and gape , yet they are not dislocated , for they would never recover their pristine estate . but this confirmed opinion of the ancients and moderns , columbus , rodricus a castro , volcher , fuchsius , c. stephanus , cordeus , but chiefly laurentius endeavours to refel , contrary to all the documents of experience , the most certain mistress and instructress in all things . pareus professes , he thought the bones of the ilion and share-bones could not possibly be divided in delivery ; but he was convinc'd by the dissection of a woman hang'd fourteen days after she was brought to bed , in whom he found the ilion divided from the os sacrum , and the share-bones distant half a fingers breadth from one another . bauhinus produces two remarkable observations concerning this matter . and riolanus reports , that he has thirty times observed in women that have dy'd in child-bed , that the gristle which binds the share-bone , has been divided the breadth of the little-finger , and that you might by handling feel the gaping of the share-bones , and that before dissection , he has perceiv'd the share-bones moveable by lifting up one thigh ; and observed that one advanced it self above the other . says harvey , upon my own experience i assert , that the share-bones are oft loosened in labour , their gristly connexion being softned , and the whole region of the hypogastrion enlarged , to a miracle ; not from the effusion of any watry substance , but of their own accord , as the baggs open to shed the ripe seeds in plants . spigelius asserts the same , upon the experience of several dissections . and upon the dissection of a woman that dy'd in child-bed , i my self publickly shew'd the share-bones so far divided one from the other , that you might put your little finger between them . which is the reason that women in labour frequently complain of sharp pains about their share-bone and the os sacrum , and that the said gristles are thicker then ordinary in women that have often lain in ; and that old virgins in whom these gristles are dry'd if they happen to marry and bear children , have hard labours : lastly , because that although the rest of the gristles of the body grow dry , and in many parts become bony , yet in women they never grow dry nor harden into bones . riolanus writes , that this deduction of the ilion , os sacrum and share-bone not only happens in difficult but also in the most easie labours ; which however i believe is much to be question'd . for that i have observ'd more then once , women that have been suddainly brought to bed of little children yet mature births with little or no pain , either in their beds or sitting in their usual chairs , and that without the help of a mid-wife , in whom i could not perceive the least divulsion of the said bones ; which otherwise by the distension of the adjoyning membranes , must have caus'd great pains , nor is it probable , that these bones can be parted asunder but by some strong and violent effect of a large birth striving for passage . for that same gristly connexion is too strongly knit to be easily distended . chap. xvii . of the bones of the arm , that is to say , of the shoulder and elbow . the bones of the hand belong either to the shoulder , the elbow , or the external part of the hand . i. the shoulder-bone is one bone great , strong , round and uneven , in the hinder part toward the elbow somewhat depress'd , and flat . the upper part of the bone has a great and globous head , fortified with a muscle , by means of which it is joynted with the scapula by that sort of diarthrosis , which is call arthrodie ; but because the cavity is not conveniently proportionated to receive the head ; hence the lips of it are enlarg'd with a surrounding gristle . a little lower round about the head are several manifest holes , through which the blood-bearing vessels penetrate inwardly for the nourishment of the marrow . riolanus writes , that there is a wide hole in the shoulder-bone in all men about the middle and inner part , penetrating the substance of the bone for the passage of the vessels . but i do not find this hole in any of my skeletons ; and therefore i do not believe it to be in all , but only in some few . the foresaid head of the soulderbone is an epiphysis or an appendix , which in men grown b●…omes a part of the bone , or else a process of it . this shoulder-bone is fastened to the scapula by the means of a thick and nervous ligament , which embraces the whole joynt . moreover there are three muscles , the spine above , the spine below , and the subscapulary , which with their broad tendons surround the articulation : and under the deltoides there is a broad and remarkable ligament which is extended from the deltoides to the acromium , to prevent the brain above from being dislocated into the upper part. at the head of the shoulder-bone in the hinder part stand two protuberances rough and unequal , to which very strong ligaments are fastened : also two cavities , one internal and orbiculated , the other at the side of the head being the original of the ligament : the other external and oblong , distinguishing the said protuberances , and being the seat of the beginning of the two-headed muscle . more below it is articulated with the elbow by ginglymus ; which articulation , because it ought to be made with the harder bones the ulna and radius ; hence in its extremity which is covered with a gristle , it has three processes , the upper indifferent , the second less , and the lowest , the largest of all ; between which there are two cavities , so that together they resemble a little wheel for the twisting of ropes ; and about this extremity of the elbow the bones are rouled . at the lowerside of the bigger process , there is another large process , distinguished from it by an intervening cavity , which in living people is easily apprehended by external feeling , from whence the muscles are produc'd . next to that wheel-resembling extremity , in the hinder seat , there is one large and deep , in the foremost seat two larger cavities appear , which receive and curb the bones of the elbow , while they are moved forward and backward . it has two little holes about the heads , especially about the upper head , to give passage to the vessels for the nourishment of the bone. ii. the elbow is compos'd of two bones mutually resting one upon another , so that they are joyned at the extremities , but in the middle are separated one from another , though coupled with a membranous ligament . partly for the more expeditious motion of the member , partly for a place of security for the manifold muscles of the hand . iii. the first of these bones , which is the lower and longest is called ulna ; by the greek pechys ; by the antients cubitus and os cubiti . in the upper part it is more large and thick ; and toward the hand by degrees it is attenuated into an edge ; and to the end of it there grows a round protuberance , with a lesser process somewhat sharp-pointed , which is called styloides , where it is knit by arthrody with ligaments , to the little bones of the wrist , having a gristle going between . above it is joynted to the bone of the shoulder by glynglymus , and to that end it has two processes ; of which the foremost , which is the less enters the inner cavity of the shoulder bone ; the hindermost which is the bigger , longer and obtuse , enters the hinder cavity of the shoulder bone , and is stopped therein , so that the arm cannot be extended beyond streightness , nor moved backward . both these processes in new born infants are gristly , however the foremost soonest becomes bony , the hindermost not till seven years old . to these approach two cavities covered with a gristle of which the lateral and lesser , receives the head of the radius , the other which is the hindermost and larger , is roul'd about the wheel of the shoulder like a semicircle . iv. the other bone of the elbow called the radius . the upper extremity of this is less , and being provided with a round head , is admitted by the ulna at the side . but at the top it has a round cavity , which admits the head of the shoulder , and is articulated with it by diarthrosis . the lower extremity which is the thicker , receives the ulna , at the side with a small cavity fortified with a gristle ; and more below , with a double cavity covered likewise with a gristle it admits the two first , and uppermost little bones of the wrist . v. these several bones have all their several uses . the elbow , by the help of the muscles causes bending and extention ; bending in an acute angle , and extention only in streight line , which it does not exceed . the radius turns the hollow of the hand either upward or downward . vi. these bones are knit one among another with a different articulation ; for the elbow at the upper part where it is broadest receives the radius ; and so they are bound together with a long ligament which separates the external from the internal muscles , and rises from two acute lines that mutually look one toward the other ; the one being in the inner side of the elbow , the other in the inner part of the radius . chap. xviii . of the bones of the lower part of the hand . the hand is all that which depends upon the elbow and the radius , and is distinguished into three parts , the carpus , meta-carpus , and fingers . i. the carpus , which is the upper part of the hand consists of eight little bones differing somewhat in bigness and figure , dispos'd in a double order ; which in new born infants not having yet acquired a bony hardness , seem to be gristles ; but afterwards harden into bones somewhat spungy , fastened together with a strong ligament as well spungy as gristly ; as also with another common ligament , appointed for the binding of these bones , and for the preservation and stretching of the tendons of the muscles to the fingers . ii. of these little bones the three uppermost are fastned to the elbow and radius by arthrody ▪ the fourth out of its order , stands outward next the third ; the other four placed more below , are joyned with so many bones of the meta-carpium by synarthrosis . they have two surfaces covered with a slippery gristle . one outward which is gibbous ; whereunto they are admitted by the cavities of the neighbouring bones . the other inward and hollow , into which they receive the protuberances of the adjoyning bones . sometimes near the connexion of the eight bone of the wrist , with the bone of the metacarpium , sustaining the little-finger , there is found a little bone , which fills up the empty space in that part. which vesalius seems to number among the sesamoides . iii. the metacarpium consists of four long bones , slender , hollow within , full of marrow , parted in the middle region for the more secure aboad of the inter-bony muscles . the first of these is annexed to the fore-finger , being the longest and thickest , the rest by degrees become thin and shorter . they have pretty broad upper appendixes , the cavities of which receive the little bones of the wrist , and the lower which tack them to the cavities of the fingers . iv. the phalanx of the fingers , the thumb being numbred in , consists of fifteen bones ; for that three compleat every finger , different in bigness of which the first and largest is covered with the second , the second with the third , and the third with the nail . it is gibbous without , plain within , and somewhat hollowed , for the more commodious comprehending the solid bones . they have processes above and below . the uppermost are round , and have one round hollowness , in each of the first four bones , receiving the bone of the meta-carpium . the rest are provided as it were with a double cavity distinguished with a small protuberance . the lower processes put forth as it were a double head , distinguished by a cavity , with which they enter the double cavity of the imposed bone ; except the third and last bone , which is only fenced with the nail . all these cavities and processes to facilitate motion are covered with a gristle . chap. xix . of the bone of the thigh and leg. there are three parts of the foot , the thigh , leg and extream part of the foot. i. the thigh called femur , in greek 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , consists of one strong bone , in length and bigness exceeding all the rest of the bones of the body , round and somewhat gibbous before ; behind somewhat depressed and hollow , marked with a rough line obliquely descending toward the knee . ii. the upper part has a thick process prominent toward the hip bone , with a round and large epiphysis imposed upon it , and so composes the gibbous head of the thigh , underpropt with a strong neck , which being overcast with a gristle is hid up in the acetabulum of the hip , and there fastened with two strong ligaments ; one broad , thick and membranous which encompasses the whole joynt ; the other round , which being produc'd from the cavity it self of the acetabulum is inserted into the received head of the thigh , and fastens it most firmly to the acetabulum ; and thus this articulation is perfected by enarthosis . iii. concerning this epiphysis , rolfinch observes , that it adheres with a very loose connexion to the bone of the thigh ; so that being boyl'd in water it suddainly becomes soft , and is easily separated from the bone , especially in young animals ; for which reason it is in infants and children easily separated from the bone , upon any slight occasion ; as when children are set to go too soon by their nurses and then it is taken for a dislocation , and that error prevents the cure. this brings to my memory that once or twice i saw this recess of this epiphysis from the thigh bone , which the chyrurgions took for a luxation , though the head could by no means be perceived to be slipt out of the acetabulum . only the thigh-bone was turn'd back toward the hinder parts , and the upper part was perceived to ascend without a head , and so one thigh became shorter than the other . but no body then thought of the recess of the epiphysis , which now i find was the cause . below the neck , where the bone begins to grow broader , two processes are produced , provided with their epiphysis's , which are manifestly conspicuous in children , but afterwards become bony , and are united inseparably to the leg , without any seeming diversity of the substance . one of these processes , the upper and bigger , bend upward towards the exterior parts : the other lower and far less , having the figure of an obtuse tubercle , looks backward toward the inward parts ; which riolanus believes to be rather an apophysis , then an epiphysis . that is called the bigger trochanter ; this the lesser trochanter : to this lesser for the most part there joyns toward the outer parts , another lesser tubercle in a place somewhat lower . these processes afford insertion and rise to several strong muscles . below where the thigh-bone grows thicker , by degrees with its appendix , it forms two large heads , of which the outermost is thicker then the innermost : these being overcast with a muscle it enters the double cavities under the leg , which are fortify'd likewise with a muscle . between those heads it has another cavity , small before , large behind , through which remarkable vessels are carry'd to the legs together with the fourth nerve of the vast pair . between these cavities the protuberancy of the leg is admitted , and so that articulation is compleated by gynglymus , while they also receive these two heads of the leg. moreover there are two other little cavities at the side of each head , into which the tendons of several muscles are inserted . iv. more behind in the ham , the two sesamoides bones are plac'd to the lower appendixes of the thigh , which grow to the heads of the two first muscles moving the foot ; whereas otherwise the rest of the sesamines stick to the tendons of the muscles . v. but because the articulation of the knee was not yet strong enough , but that through the motion of the leg or by any external violence the bones might slip out of their place , therefore there is a round and broad bone placed upon the joynt , like a circular platter , by the latines call'd molae , patella , and by others rotulae , of a gristly substance in children , which afterwards becomes bony , and to facilitate its motions is overcast within-side with a gristle . this bone adheres to the tendons of the muscles , with a looser connexion , it being requisite that it should not be two streight ty'd , to prevent an easie luxation , and yet not hinder the motion of the muscles . the necessity of this office galen observed in a certain young wrestler , whose little platter being dislocated , ascended toward his thigh ; whence happened a dangerous bending in the knee , so that he could not walk down a hill without the help of a staff. the same thing i have also observed in my practice upon the like accident . and though paraeus asserts that he never saw any man halt , who had broken that bone ; yet i knew a young german nobleman , whose platter was shot away with a musket bullet , so that he could not so much as go . yet a bone-setter here in utrecht fitted a certain iron instrument to his knee , which bending the thigh-bone in conjunction with the leg , in some measure supply'd the loss of the knee-pan , so that with the help of that instrument he could walk indifferently , but when that was off he could not move his foot , nor stand a moment . vi. to the thigh is annexed the crus ; being that part which extends it self from the knee to the heel . this is compos'd of two bones very much differing in thickness and bigness , cohering together above and below ; but parted in the middle , by reason of the muscles of the feet , yet connexed with a strong interceding ligament . vii . the first of these is by the greeks called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , by the latines tibia ; vulgarly focile majus ; and is a large and strong bone , in some measure triangular , in the fore-part at its full length forming an acute spine with the point of its foremost angle ; in which part it is also void of flesh , only is covered with a periosteum , a fleshy membrane , with a little fat scarce visible , and the skin . and this is the reason that contusions of the inside of the skin , are painful in the cure , because of the wound in the fleshy pannicle and periosteum , cover'd neither with flesh nor fat to any considerable measure . at each end it has a thick and remarkable appendix . the upper remarkable for its bigness , is divided behind with two heads ; and at the top being hollow'd with two long cavities , fortified with a slippery gristle , receives the lower heads of the thigh ; which said cavities are surrounded with a gristle , thick , moveable and almost semicircular limbus for the strengthning of the articulation . between these cavities rises a little hillock , as 't were a fence which is received by the cavity of the thigh-bone , from the rough and hollow top of which hillock proceeds a strong ligament , which is fasten'd to the hollowness of the thigh , and strengthens the joynt above all the other ligaments viii . the lower appendix is less then the other , protuberating with a remarkable process to the inner side of the foot , which is covered with no flesh , and called the internal malleolus . this is provided with two cavities : one lateral and lesser , to which the butto joyns ; the other lower , but large distinguished with a slight protuberancy into two cavities ; and overcast with a gristle , which receives the heel-bone or talus that lyes under , which receives the shin-bone into its cavity , and thus articulation is compleated by gynglimus . ix . the other bone of the leg is called fibula , the button , and is fastened outward to the shin-bone , not inferior to it in length , but much slenderer and weaker ; hollowed all the length of it with various cavities for the insertion of the muscles , and rough with many prominent acute lines . it has two heads , one above , the other beneath , to which the appendix grows , and they terminate in a process acute and somewhat rough . with the upper part it does not rise so high as the knee but stops below the appendix of the shin-bone , and receives it into a slight hollowness . more below the button is received by the hollowness of the shin-bone , and sends forth a tuberous head with a process to the side of the talus , conspicuous without , where it is called the external malleolus ; and is lower then the internal . chap. xx. of the bones of the extream foot. there are three classes of the bones of the extream foot ; the bones of the tarsus , or pedion , of the meta-tarsus , or meta-pedion , and of the toes . i. the tarsus consists of seven bones differing in shape and bigness . ii. first , the astragalus or talus , which enters the lower hollowness of the leg , with a head somewhat convex by the process of which constituting the inner malleolus , it is comprehended within , as by the button without , and consists of six sides . it looses its prominency before , where it joyns to the bone of the heel . moreover it has a large cavity in the lower middle hollowness , to which a like cavity of the heel is oppositely placed . in these little cells an unctuous slime is preserv'd , to moisten the ligaments and gristles . iii. the second bone is called calx or calcaneus , the biggest bone of the tarsus , oblong toward the hinder parts for the more firm fixing the foot , and to keep a man from falling backward . to the hinder part is fastened to a most strong chord , made of the tendons of the three muscles that extend the feet . more upward it enters with a large and flat head into the hollowness of the talus ; and more forward admits the protuberances of the talus into its own hollowness . at the inner side it has a large hollowness through which the tendons and large vessels descend securely to the lower parts of the foot. at the outer side it is uneven with little swellings here and there , for the firmer collection of the ligaments and tendons . iv. this is the navicular bone or boat-resembling bone , called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 . this behind receives the talus into a large hollowness ; before with the flat heads of three little bones , it enters the hollowness of the talus , a thin gristle going between these conjunctions . v. the fourth is called the cuboides bone , also os tessera , by the greeks polymorphus . this being bigger then the rest of the lateral bones , is placed before the heel , and is joyned to it with an uneven superficies : on the other side it is joyned to the third wedg-like bone ; but toward the toes , it is fastened to the fourth and fifth bone of the matatarsus . the other three had no names given them by the antients . however fallopius gives them the names of sphenoides , calcoides , and cuniform . the first of these is bigger then the third ; and the middlemost is the least . many times at the external side of the articulation of the wedg-form'd bone with the fifth bone of the meta-pedion supporting the little toe , a little bone is observed at the insertion of the tendon of the eighth muscle of the foot : as also sometimes a bony particle , joyned to the cube-fashioned bone , somewhat before , and filling up its cavity , and adhereing to the tendon of the seventh muscle of the foot ; which being both present at a time seem to strengthen the foot exceedingly . but bauhinus reckons this among the sesamoides bones . all those bones of the tarsus in new born infants , are rather gristly than bony : but in time require a solid substance like a pumice-stone , full of little holes ; which hardness some acquire sooner some later ; and are joyned together and to the neigbouring bones , with strong ligaments , and strengthened with gristles for their connexions . vi. the metatarsus , called by the greeks pedion , by celsus and others planta and pecten , consists of five strong fistulous bones , differing in length and thickness , separated from each other in the middle , to make room for the interbone muscles . above and below they protuberate forth with their heads : of which those that are thicker and next the pedium receive the four lower bones of the tarsus into their hollownesses : the other , which are provided with round protuberances , are admitted into the hollownesses of the toes . vii . the bones of the toes are numbered to be fourteen , among which the two bones of the great toe excell the rest in bigness . the rest of the toes consist each of them of three bones , whose form and conexion agree with the bones of the hand , only that they are less . all these bones of the metatarsus and toes , for the facilitating of their motion are overspread with a gristle , about the extremities where they are joynted . chap. xxi . of the sesamoides bones and the number of all the bones . the sesamoides bones , resembling the grains of indian wheat , are certain very round small bones , somewhat flat and spungy within . they adhere at the joynts to the tendons of the muscles that move the fingers and toes , and with them in the boyling of dead carkasses , and the purgation and denudation of the bones are utterly lost , unless great care be taken to preserve them . in infants they are gristly , afterwards by increase of years they grow bony , and being overspread with a gristle reaches to the seat of another bone. i. their bigness varies , according to the difference of the bones to which they stick . in the hands they are bigger then in the feet ; except in the great toe , to which the biggest is fastened at the head of the metapedion bone , which lyes under the tendon of the muscle moving the first bone of the great toe , having another much less joyned to it . but this biggest of all , which resembles the half part of a pea , both for shape and bigness , is by the arabians called albadaran . of which the iews fain many fables , as they do of the bone lus. iii. the number of these bones is not always the same ; for sometimes twelve are found in each hand and foot ; sometimes fewer , sometimes more . neither is it probable that their number is alike in all people ; but rather that they are not all to be found , being so very small , in all carkases . to these are to be added the sesamoides lying hid in the ham ; of which this is peculiarly to be observed , that they do not grow to the tendons of the muscles as the other sesamoides do , but to the heads of the two first muscles moving the feet . iv. now for the satisfaction of the curious , as to the number of all the bones as they are found in people of ripe years , they are reckon'd to be two hundred fifty six . seven of the skull ; two sieve-like bones ; eight of the ears ; eleven of the upper jaw ; thirty two teeth ; in the whole spine , twenty eight ; twenty four ribs ; three of the sternon ; two clavicles ; two omoplates ; three hyoides bones ; two nameless bones ; six of the shoulder and elbow ; twenty four of the hands ; eight of the thigh and leg ; four little bones in each ham ; fifty two of the feet , and four great sesamoides in each great toe . to which if you add the prefixed number of the lesser sesamoides twenty four in the hands and as many in the feet ; as also the little bone in each hand , which is found at the connexion of the bone of the wrist , with the bone of the metacarp ; and the little bone in each foot , at the side of the cube-form'd bone ; as also the two spungy bones of the nostrils , the number of all the bones will amount to three hundred and ten. for i omit the subdivisions of the bones , which are rarely to be found in people of ripe years . chap. xxii . of the difference of the bones of men and vvomen . the bones of both sexes agree in most particulars ; in some few things they differ . i. generally the bones of women are less then those of men , as well in their weight and thickness , as in their length , breadth , solidity and hardness . ii. in the head the sagittal suture more frequently extends to the top of the nose in women then in men. the larynx is lesser in them , and the thyroides gristle protuberares less . iii. the fore-part of the thorax in women is somewhat flat , not raised as in men ; for the more convenient seat of the breasts . in women that have large breasts , the thorax is often more narrow , and for the most part accuminated by reason of the weight and bulk of the breasts . womens ribs are less broad , less hard , and less strong then in men. the clavicles in women are less arched then in men for the beauty o●… the neck and breast . the sternon bone at the lower part is also broader then in men , and the lower bone which is somewhat split , together with the sword resembling gristle fastened to it , forms a large hole for the egress of the outer mammary veins vi. the os sacrum in women is more bow'd to the exterior parts , and shorter , but broader then in men. the huckle-bone is more moveable , and more loosly connexed , and sometimes bowed more backwards . the ileon bones are for the most part larger , and more hollowed without-side , for the womb big with the birth to rest upon ; and this largness of these bones is the reason of the largness of the womans buttocks . both oval holes in the share-bone are narrower , and a part of the share-bone near the simphysis is broader . the spine of the share-bone near the simphysis with the other of the same kind is more produc'd in women , and bends outward . the tuberosities of the ischion stand at a farther distance one from another . the commissure of the share-bone in women , is filled with a gristle three times thicker and softer ; and it is also made with a shorter line , to the end that the delivery approaching , the intervening gristle being softened and loosened , the share-bones may the more easily open . in the joynts the structure of the bones is alike in both sexes . nevertheless these differences are not always to be found , nor in all people . for sometimes effeminate or ill-shap'd men have many bones like those in women ; and the bones of a strong virago differ very little from those of men. however this rarely happening does not overturn the general rule . chap. xxiii . of the constitution of the bones in infants . i. in infants all the bones of the skull are very thin and soft , so that a slight compressure will make them give way , nor are the two tables with the middlemost diplois , to be discerned in them till after the first year . the saw-toothed sutures are not seen in them , but appear like loose harmonies . in the top of the head at the meeting of the sagittal and coronel suture , there is a gaping , which instead of bones is closed with a thick and tough membrane , which is afterwards dry'd up to a bony hardness . in this part , the pusation of the brain is both seen and felt . vid. cap. . the bones of the fore-head are thicker then the rest ; and are two , provided with no cavities . the bone of the hinder part of the head is extreamly thin , contrary to what it is in persons grown up , and may be separated into many parts ; vid. cap. . and . in the temple-bone , a lineal harmony discriminates the scaly from the rocky part , being drawn beyond the hole of the ear , between the mastoides apophysis . the auditory passage , is gristly till the sixth month ; afterwards grows bony ; however it 's fore-circle cannot be divided from the rest of the bone , till the seventh year . but at the basis it is found gaping , and as it were , like a window , till thirteen years of age and more . the cavity of the ears are very narrow , and the wonderful structure of the labyrinth hardly appears . the inner circle of the tympanum , to which the membrane is affixed is easily divided from the rest of the bone. the sphoenoides is manifestly distinguished into three or four bones ; vid. cap. . the ethmoides is very slender , and almost gristly ; and hardly any perforated holes are to be discerned therein . the cocks-comb in infants is not conspicuous . the upper fence of the nostrils is very soft , and hardens long after the rest of the parts . a certain suture runs through the orbit of the eye , and remains discernable therein to the tenth year . in the beginning of the palate a transverse line appears , which is extended from one dog-tooth to the other , and comprehends the four cutting teeth . no teeth appear in the mouth , vid. cap. . the lower jaw consists of two bones , joyned together in the chin by harmony . the hyoides bones are gristly . all the vertebres of the spine , except the first and second of the neck , consist of three parts . vid. cap. . and their transverse processes , together with the postic , are gristly , and so little that they can hardly be seen ; the ascending and descending very small and gristly , but more conspicuous . the os sacrum consists of five bones , as cap. . and each of those divisible into three parts , as are all the spines of the vertebres . these five bones are separated one from the other by an intervening gristle , and the postic spiny sharpness is altogether gristly . the ribs at the articulations of the vertebres are gristly and quickly harden'd . the sternon-bone , except the uppermost particle , is altogether gristly and continuous , and seems undivided ; first , the upper parts become bony , then the rest by degrees , and then it consists of eight parts , which in a short time are reduced to seven , the last two uniting into one bone. afterwards they become fewer , and six only appear till the seventh year , after which age , they unite by degrees , till only three or four remain . in the omoplate , the epiphyses and apophyses are gristly . the neck also with the glenoides gristle is of the same nature . the coracoides eminency is an epiphysis . the acromium is first an epiphysis , consisting of much gristle , which after three or four years , degenerates into an apophysis . ii. the upper and lower appendixes of the shoulder are gristly , and afterwards grow bony . the upper part of the elbow is an epiphysis , which after one year hardens , and is united to the bone. the bones of the wrist seem to consist of an undivided gristle . these at first being spungy , and divided one from another , then harden by degrees , and grow firm . the extremities of the bones of the metacarp and fingers are gristly , and within a year grow bony . iii. all the nameless bones , till the seventh year , consist of three bones , v. c. . the little pan of the hip-bone is gristly , and so remains for several months , but then hardens into bone. the upper and lower processes of the thigh-bone for some time remain gristly . the knee-pan continues a long time gristly . the upper and lower appendixes of the shin-bone and button are gristly , and when they are hardned , cannot be parted till the tenth year . the bones of the tarsus remain gristly for some months , except the bone of the heel , which is bony within and gristly without . the sesamoids remain gristly till years of maturity . whence it appears , that the bones of infants differ very much in number from the bones of grown people . but what has been said is chiefly to be understood of infants newly born : for as for the condition of the bones in the womb , their generation , and the progress of their formation month by month , &c. see theodore keckringius , lib. de osteogenia faetuum , accurately describ'd with cuts . chap. xxiv . of the nails . though the bones are not nails , yet by reason of their remarkable hardness , and consequently similitude to the softer bones or harder gristles , we shall add them to this discourse of the bones . i. the nails are horny parts fix'd at the extremities of the fingers and toes . ii. by the greeks they are called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 ; the root of the nail 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 ; the upper white part , or little whitish half-moon 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 ; the pellicle growing over the root 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 iii. iulius pollux divides the nails into the parts under the nail , the upper parts , the parts on both sides , the parts next to them , the white next the roots of the nails ; the clouds in the nails , and the ends within the fingers . iv. their substance is indifferent hard , and without any sense of feeling ; in the middle between a bone and a gristle , which is the reason they are flexible . v. their colour is transparent , or else , according to the disposition of the flesh that lies underneath , sometimes ruddy , sometimes pale , sometimes livid , or of any other colour . from hippocrates and several other physitians they take their indications of sickness and health . vi. they grow very fast to the flesh that lies underneath and about the roots , are bound with a strong ligament , to the end they may stick the firmer , and the skin embraces them in their full compass , in the same manner as the gums environ the teeth . vii . there is one at the extremity of each finger and toe , for the security of the sensible parts that lye under them ; for that nerves and tendons are carried to their very utmost extremities , and are dilated under the nails , and contribute a most acute sense to those places ; so that unless those extream parts were guarded by the nails , the general uses to which they are put , would cause a continual extremity of pain , and render the ends of the fingers altogether useless , and this is their primary office , their secondary use is for scratching , and several other employments . viii . vulgarly they are said to be produced from the thicker and more viscous excrements of the third concoction , and are numbred among the parts of the body : which opinion galen seems to favour , who says that no vessels are bequeath'd to the nails , but that they take their encrease from the roots like the hair ; though in another place he asserts , that there is a vein , an artery and a nerve extended to the roots of the nails , from whence they receive life and nourishment . but to resolve this doubt in short ▪ three things are to be considered . first , that the spots in the nails are never obliterated , until the part in which they appear growing beyond the flesh , come to be par'd off with the rest of the nail . secondly , that though the colour of the nails seems to be changed in several distempers of the body , yet that is no real change of the colour in their substance , but only of the humors that lye under ; for that the nails are transparent , so that the colour of the blood or any other humors underneath appears through them . and therefore in a syncope , or the beginning of a quartan ague , by reason of the little blood that comes to those parts , they look pale . in plethories , by reason of the great quantity of blood , they look red ; and in cacochymies they look of an ill colour . thirdly , the nails live and grow after death ; which as aristotle asserts , so is it not to be questioned upon common experience . which considerations being premised , it will sufficiently appear . . that they do not live a life common with the animate parts of the same body ; but a peculiar vigitable life . . that they are not nourished by the blood alone , but by other nourishments , which remain after the decease of the body , after the blood has been long wasted and putrified , therefore it is not probable that any arteries or veins enter their substance , though perhaps they may extend to their roots , to be distributed to the parts underneath . . thirdly , that they do not grow in their whole substance but only by apposition of parts to the root , which the parts before by degrees thrust forward to the root . from whence we must conclude , that they are to be call'd parts of the body , as they make toward the perfection of the whole , for no man can be perfect without his nails , but not as they enjoy a common life with the rest of the parts , for that we find they live a peculiar life after the death of all the rest of the parts , vid. l. . c. . ix . but then there is another question , whether they grow in length , breadth and depth ; which spigelius denies . but bauhinus and hoffman will have them to grow rather in length , than in breadth and depth . lindan admits them all the dimensions of growth , and confirms it by that of a woman at enchysen , so careless of her self , that she let her nails grow to that prodigious length , that she could not go . a chyrurgion was sent for to pair them , and my father , says he , carried away the parings along with him . the paring of the thumb was two thumbs long , a fingers breadth thick , solid about the roots , and thence compacted of several slates . the pairing of the middle finger was as long as the first , but not so thick , yet very thick . none shorter than a thumbs length ; that of the little toe , thicker than usually the thickest nail of the great toe . what grew in breadth , was seen to be crooked within . plat●…rus tells a story not unlike this , of a girl whose finger nails were a fingers breadth in thickness , and jetted forth extreamly , so that they rather look'd like hoofs than nails . so i knew a man , the nail of whose second toe of his right foot was grown to the thickness of a finger , solid about the root , but toward the fore-part consisting of so many slates , like so many hoofs , which very much hindred his going , though the same deformity were not in the rest of his nails . the tenth book of anatomy . concerning the gristles and ligaments . chap. i. of the gristles . i. a gristle is a similar cold part , moderately dry and void of sense , generated out of the glutinous and earthy part of the seed , for the strengthening of many soft parts , and frustrate the violent attacks of outward accidents . ii. to this end their substance is smooth , polite and flexible , harder than a ligament , softer than a bone ; which when the earthy particles exceed the glutinous , acquire a greater hardness , and easily become bony . but when the glutinous exceed the earthy particles , sometimes become bony , as in the joynts of the arms and thighs , &c. but the particles are equally mixed , if any remarkable dryness happen by age or dyet , sometimes they become bony , beyond the common custom , and as in the buckler-like gristle , and that of the rough artery . and therefore cardan cites an example of a thief that could not be hang'd at millan , because his rough artery was become bony . the gristles have three remarkable cavities like the bones ; neither are they nourished with marrow , but their nourishment easily penetrates their softer substance , and broader pores . they differ in bigness , shape situation , connexion , use and hardness of substance , some make the heads of the bones slippery ; others constitute the parts , as in the ear and nose ; others are spread over the principal parts , as in the gristles of the ribs and sternon-bone . iii. the use of the gristles is various and singular . . to render the motion of the joynted parts easie , for that in living creatures they abound with plenty of slippery humors . . to joyn several bones by synchondrosis . . to withstand the violent pushes of solid bodies . . to defend the various parts from external injuries ; such are the gristles of the ribs annexed to the sternon . . to make several parts either prominent or hollow , as the ears , the nose and rough artery . . to enlarge the cavities of the bigger joynts . to these we may add the peculiar use of the epiglottis , which serves instead of a cover , and the gristles of the eye-lids , to which they serve as props . all bones that are joynted are overspread in the joynts with a gristle , and they are more slippery which perform nimble and violent motions ; those more viscous that perform slow and easie motions . chap. ii. of the ligaments in general . i. a ligament , in greek 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , in latin , vinculum , is a cold similar part , dry and firm , but loose and flexible , appointed for the fastning together of several parts . ii. they are said to be generated out of the clammy and tenacious sort of the seed , which is the reason their substance is both solid and white , between a membrane and a gristle , least they should easily burst ; softer than a gristle , to be more pliant to the motion of the muscles . and as they approach nearer to the nature of one than the other , , hence a ligament is said to be either gristly or membranous . besides these differences taken from the substance , many more are taken from their rise , their insertion , their strength , their shape and hardness . those that bind the bones are void of sense , that they should not make the life of man uneasie by continual pains through the motion of the parts ; yet some that rise from the periosteums , and are therefore somewhat membranous , are thought to be something sensible , as are also some other membranous ligaments , that fasten the liver , womb and bladder to the adjoyning parts . iii. the ligaments are nourished with blood , not marrow , as columbus believes , which passes to them through the undiscernable capillary arteries . iv. their figure is broader and narrower , round , flat , shorter or longer , according to the variety of the parts that are to be bound , their situation outward or inward , and the conveniency of their use. v. they rise from a bone , a gristle , or a membrane , and are inserted into the same . vi. the ligaments fasten the parts after a twofold manner ; either for conveniency of motion , and to prevent their slipping out of their places ; or else to keep the parts fix'd in their stations , without any violent motion . their first connexion is common to all joynts , according to the swifter or slower motion of which , some are fastned with slenderer and looser , some with thicker and stronger ligaments , and those environ the whole joynt , and grow either to the bones that constitute the joynt , or to the bones of the cavities and circumferences of the heads , or to the gristles running between the joynt . if more joynts meet together , then they are overspread with more gristles outward . besides that , they environ the whole joynts , there are also peculiar ligaments that belong to some parts which require a stronger connexion , thick , thin , round and broad , of which , some proceed transverse from one bone to another , others run between the joynts , as between the vertebres , and between the interstitium of the thigh-bone and acetable of the hip ; and these are called gristly muscles . the hinder connexion , which only keeps the parts fixed in their places , without any remarkable motion , is conspicuous in the ligaments of the liver , bladder and womb , and the annulary ligaments which environ orbicularly , the tendons of the muscles of the hands and feet ; as also in those that fasten the radius to the elbow , and the button to the shin-bone , &c. chap. iii. of the ligaments of the head , iaws , hyoides-bone and tongue . the head being fixed upon the first vertebre , in regard it moves over that and the second vertebre , requires to be fastned with very strong bonds , and here three very strong ligaments fasten these parts . i. the first , which is the biggest and broader , orbicularly environs the whole external ioynt , and extends it self to the internal membranous portion of the vertebre . this fastens to the head the first vertebre in the hinder part of the head , from whose basis it arises , and to the end it may take the better hold , the hinder part of the head is rough in that place ▪ and in children sunder'd into many divisions . the second , which fastens the second vertebre to the head , is round and very strong , and growing partly from the external seat of the tooth , partly from the top of it , is fastned to the bone of the hinder part of the head , at the great hole , and so , together with the tooth , forms an axle , about which the head is turned . the third , which is of a gristly nature , is spread over the tooth itself , transverse , and environs the cavity which receives the tooth . it proceeds from the side of the first vertebre , and is fastned to the other side of the same vertebre , thereby preventing the tooth from slipping out of its cavity , which would cause a luxation and compression of the spinal marrow . ii. the ligaments of the iaw , between sutures and harmonies , are thin and membranous , provided for the insertion of the muscles . the whole joynt of the lower jaw , with the bone of the temples , is wrapt about with a common membranous ligament . various ligaments belong to the hyoides-bone and the tongue . two from the larger processes of the hyoides , to which the lowest part of the tongue is fastned . two adhere to the horns of the said bones , and are fastned to the apophyses of the styloides , which keep the whole bone with its muscles mixed , for the tongue to rest more securely upon it . one strong ligament under the tongue , and proper to it , extends it self to the fore-teeth ; which if it bind the tongue too hard in the lower part toward the teeth , is a hindrance to the sucking of infants , and the speech ; and therefore is usually clipt with a pair of scissars . chap. iv. of the ligaments of the whole trunk . by reason of the various motions 〈◊〉 the spine , it was necessary that the vertebres should be fastned with strong ligaments , which are of three sorts . i. the bodies of the vertebres themselves , chiefly before and at the sides , are fastned with ligaments resembling a half-moon , thick , fibrous and strong ; which environ the vertebres , and knit them strongly together all the whole length of the back , so that they may the more easily endure violent motions . ii. the bodies of the vertebres , where they are joyned , strongly cohere by a gristly , fibrous and slimy ligament , thick without side , and thin toward the middle , answerable to the largeness of the vertebres , and resembling them in shape , and detaining a gristle in the middle between the vertebres , from whence a ligament is thought to arise . iii. the processes of the vertebres , as well transverse as acute , are fastned by common membranous ligaments ; which in pointed processes arising from a certain middle channel of the upper spine , and inserted in a certain kind of line of the spine , underneath , and uniting with the following spines , in order from one ligament , drawn all the length of the species , and so continue the vertebres together , as if they were but one bone. ii. the ribs are coupled to the vertebres by strong and almost gristly ligaments , which rise from the transverse ligaments of the vertebres ; but are joyned to the sternon by slender ligaments , the gristles going between . iii. the bones of the sternon are very tough , by means of a gristle going between , and being enveloped with a double periosteum , are most firmly bound together . iv. the ilion-bone , besides that , it adheres most obstinately to the os sacrum , by means of a tenacious gristle interposed , is also fastned by a common , broad and strong ligament . v. the os sacrum is fastned to the ilion-bone with a thick gristle , and by a double and round ligament , which springing from one part of the os sacrum with one end , is inserted into the pointed process of the hip , with the other into its hinder appendix , and so not only firmly binds these bones , but also sustains the right intestine , with its muscles . vi. the share-bones are fastned together , partly by an intervening gristle , partly by a double ligament , of which , the first circularly environs them ; the other , which is membranous , possesses the hole it self , and sustains the muscles of that place . the other ligaments , see in their proper places . chap. v. of the ligaments of the scapular arm and hand . the scapula is jo●…ned to the shoulder-bone and the clavicle with five ligaments , which chiefly seem to consist of the tendons of the muscles of the omoplate , environing the head and neck of the shoulder-bone , and so united , that they constitute one strong orbicular ligament . of which , the first , which is broad and membranous , rising from the brows of the neck of the scapula , environs the whole joynt , and is inserted into the foremost and inner region of the head of the shoulder . the second , which is round like a nerve , but thicker and bigger than the preceding , rising from the top of the inner process of the scapula , is fixed into the interior parts of the head of the shoulder . the third , which is round and thicker and bigger than the preceding , rising from the coracoides process , terminates in the head of the shoulder on the outer part. the fourth , which proceeds with a large beginning from the same place with the former , is implanted into the hinder and outer seat of the head of the shoulder . the fifth , which rises from the inner seat of the scapula , and proceeds obliquely upward to the top of the shoulder . i. the ligaments of the elbow are double , of which , the one is strong and membranous , the other is encompassed with all the muscles , all the length of the shoulder , and keeps them fixed in their seat , to which , the proper membranes of the muscles stick very close . the rest of the ligaments bind the bones together . for the ulna and the radius are fastned to the shoulder by common and strong membranous ligaments ; to the wrist , not only by common , but also by two peculiar and round ligaments . of which , the first , which is more gristly , proceeds from the styloides process , to the fourth bone of the wrist , and joyns the lower arm-bone , called the ulna to the wrist ; the other growing from the top of the radius , receives the wrist , and joyns the radius to the wrist , which is yet more strengthened by the nervous ligament environing the whole joynt . the ulna-bone is fastned to the radius above and below by a common ligament ; as also by another peculiar and strong membranous ligament , seated between the intervals of the bones all their full length ; which rising from the sharp line of the ulna , is implanted into the line of the radius . ii. in the wrist there are two ligaments ; of which , one only joyns the bones together ; and both together strengthen the two tendons that are to be transmitted farther . the first rising from the lower process of the radius and elbow , enfolds the bones of the wrist , and binds them ●…tely together , terminating in the appendix of the bone of the metacarp . the two others are carried from the bone of the wrist , looking toward the thumb , reaching to the little-finger transversly , the one outward , the other inward like a ring ; and therefore by those that take these two for one ligament , called the annular ligament , and contain the tendons of the muscles extending and bending the fingers . laurentius and bauhinus believes the exterior may be conveniently divided into six ligaments . iii. the bones of the metacarp are joyned to one another , and to the bones of the wrist by common ligaments . the internodes or knuckles of the fingers are fastned by common ligaments . but in the hollow of the hand the phalanxes of the fingers are fastned to the bones of the metacarp with a transverse ligament . moreover , every single finger has a ligament running out at the full length of the fingers , and rising from the internal part of the bones , which resembles a channel , and keeps the tendons bending the fingers firm in their places . to these may be added a slimy membrane , which is overcast with tendons , transmitted to the hand and fingers instead of a ligament . chap. vi. of the ligaments of the leg and foot. the thigh is fastned to the isehion with two ligaments . one which is the exterior , environs the whole joynt , and is broad , hard , thick and strong . the other , which is more inward , and cannot be seen , unless the other be cut away , proceeding from the bottom of the acetable , is inserted soon after into the middle head of the thigh , and is oblong , round and hard , and hence by some called the gristly nerve . ii. these ligaments , if they be overmuch loosned by the defluxions of phlegmatic humors , cause a luxation of this ioynt , which upon returning the bone into its place , is cured by drying and corroborating medicaments , and commodious swathings . but if they happen to be corroded by any sharp defluxion , the cure is not to be hoped for . or if the luxation happen by any outward violence , then the inner round ligament is for the most part burst , for that the hardness of it will not suffer extension , which is the reason that such a luxation is incurable . for though the bone may be reduced into the acetable , yet it will slip out again for want of the burst ligament . and therefore chyrurgeons are to be careful how they attempt the reducing such a dislocation , which will cost the patient a vast deal of torment to no purpose . iii. six ligaments fasten to the shin-bone and button to the thigh ; of which , the first , is membranous and common , which environs the whole joynt , except the region of the knee-pan . the second strong and nervous seated in the inner part of the knee , rising from the process of the leg , is inserted with two heads into the head of the thigh . the third , which is gristly and strong rising out of the higher part of the shin-bone , among its cavities , enters the middle cavity , which is behind within the heads of the thigh . the fourth which is thick and almost round , adheres to the outer side of the knee , and binds the bones of the thigh , shin-bone and button . the fifth , somewhat more slender and softer then the former , growing to the inner-side , is carry'd obliquely into the fore-parts of the thigh . the sixth , which is slender and soft , is found in the middle of the joynt of the knee , and carry'd from the shin-bone into the thigh . however this is not always to be found with the two preceding ; and therefore some acknowledg only three ligaments in this place one common , and two interpos'd , and those bloody . the shin-bone is fastened to the button with three ligaments . the first and second are common membranous ligaments ; one which at the upper and outer part enfolds the connexion of the bones : the other which proceeding at the lower part from the shin-bone , approaches the button . the third is the peculiar membranous ligament , which growing all its length to the shin-bone , is carry'd to the button , and expanded through the interval between the two bones , and so conjoyns the bones , and also distinguishes the muscles of that place , and to some of them gives their original . vi. the ligaments of the foot are twofold ; some that fasten the tendons from slipping out of their places : others which bind the bones together . those are three ; of which , the first is seated before at the joynting of the shin-bone with the foot . the second proceeds from the inner melleolus to the bone of the heel , and constitutes as it were three little rings for the tendons to pass through ; because there are three cavities there . the third , springing from the outer mallelous , is implanted into the bone of the heel , and is spread over two holnesses . besides these already mentioned in the inner region of the toes , you meet with transverse ligaments , as in the hand , which fasten the tendons binding the first and second internode of the toes . vi. those that fasten the bones , are either of the talus , or pedon , or metapedon or of the toes . three ligaments fasten the talus of which , the first , which wraps about the bone of the shin and the talus , is membranous , whereas the rest are gristly . the second , springing from the inner part of the talus , is implanted into the bone of the shin looking toward the talus . the third , fastens the exterior of the talus to the button . five ligaments fasten the talus to the pedion . the first is common , which wraps about the joynt of the heel and talus ; this is membranous whereas the rest are gristly . the second , proceeds from the lower seat of the talus to the heel . the third rising from the neck of the talus , is implanted in the navicular bone. the fourth , joyns the bone of the tessara , with the neck of the talus . the fifth couples the bone of the heel with the tessara bone , and environs the joynt . vii . the bones of the pedion are fastened one to another , and to the neighbouring bones , with very hard and gristly ligaments ; to which at the lower part for the more strenuous coroboration , is added a strong peculiar ligament , which binds the middle parts of the bones together . the ligaments of the metapedion and toes differ little or nothing , either in structure , insertion , and form from the ligaments of the hand . under the sole of the foot , the skin and fat being taken away , occurs a broad and strong ligament , which fastens the the bones of the first phalanx , and comprehends its sesamoide bones . the end . an index of the chief matters in the ten books of anatomy . a. abortion , the causes of it , the alantoides or pudding membrane , &c. . whether in women . ibid. the amnios , . it 's original , . in twins how dispos'd , . a mikie liquor within it , analogon to the rational soul , what it is , . whether the same with the rational soul , ibid. anatomy defined , the subject of it , ibid. animal spirits how separated from the brain , . where generated , , &c. of the animal spirits , , &c. difference between them and vital , . twofold use , . what they contribute to nourishment . annate tunicle , the anthelix , the anvil of the ear , aorta artery , apoplexy , the cause of it , appetite decay'd , the causes , apple of the eye , architectory vertue what , , &c. the vegetative soul , the arm , , arm-pits , arteries , whether they enter the substance of the brain , . of the arteries in general , . arteries proceeding from the aorta , artenoides muscle , ascites , dropsi●… the cause of it , the aspera arteria , , the auditory passage , the axillary veins b. bartholines error , the bee-hive , birth , whether it may be form'd on t of the womb , . how form'd , . how nourish'd in the womb , , &c. birth natural , unnatural , . expulsion of the birth , the cause of it . ibid. blood defin'd , it 's substance , juices , &c. how the parts are nourished by the blood , . whether it lives , . what blood nourishes , . differences of it . bodies human , their differences , ibid. bones in general , . their conjuction , . bones of the cranium , . of the whole head , . of the skull , common to the skull and upper iaw , of the upper iaw , . of the lower iaw , . of the arm , shoulder , elbow , . of the lower part of the hand , . of the thigh and leg , of the extream foot , a bone in the heart . bones , four small 〈◊〉 in the eur , 〈◊〉 by whom discovered , bottom of the womb , brain , whether a bowel , . it 's formation , shape , substance , fibres , &c. , . it 's arteries , . vein●… , it's motion , . the breast in general , . in particular , the bridle of the 〈◊〉 , the bronchial artery , bubble christaline , . observations concerning it , , &c. it proceeds from the man and womans seed , bu●…s of the eye , c. the carotides , catarrh , rolfinch's mistake concerning the cause of it , cavities of the brain , . their use cavities of the ear , the caul , , &c. the cerebel , . it 's vermicular processes , the chaps , charlton's opinion of the blood , refuted , cheescake , see utrine liver . children , how born after the death of the mother , . whether they can procreate , . in the womb , whether they sleep or wake , . born the sixth and fifth months , choler , whether generated in the stomach , choler defined , choler , whether two sorts , . what it is , . color and taste , . it 's motion , , . the choler vessels , . it 's use , the chorion , . it 's original , in twins how , the christiline humor of the eye , . it 's use , ibid. chylification , the chylus , . whether it enter the gastric veins , . whether any parts nourished by it , . it 's recepticle , . the chyle-bearing channel of the creas , . how to discover it , . whether all the chylus ascend to the subclavial , . whether through the mesariac veins to the liver , . whether carry'd through the arteries to the breasts , . how changed into milk , . what forces it to the breasts , . whether it circulate , . whether the whole chylus be changed into blood , . circulation of the blood , . the cause , . the manner , . the ●…se the 〈◊〉 of the cerebel , , the c●…vicles , cleft of the female pudendum , clitoris , . it 's substance , muscles , vessels , ibid , it s bigness , . irregularities , . whether the seed pass through it , the cobweb 〈◊〉 , commissures of the craninum , conception and the progress of it , , &c. the concha of the fare , copulation , whence the pleasure of it , coroides tunicle , c●…tytedons ; what , coverings external of the head , . internal , crico-thyrodes muscle , crico-artenoides muscle , the crural arteries crying in the womb , all in an error that have wrote concerning it , curveus's mistake , , d. the different vessels belonging to generation . , whether they communicate with the seminary vessels , . their progress , . their substance , &c. . experiment of reyner de graef , . rejected by swammerdam , . in women called tubes , of delivery , . reason of the variety of the time , . what happens near the time of it , . some things admirable to be observed in delivery . deusingius mist●…ken , the diaphragma , its substance , membranes , vessels , motion , &c. , , &c. difference of scen●…s , . difference between the bones of men and women , dorsal roots of the birth the drum of the ear , dura mater , vid. meninx . dwarfs , e. little ears of the heart , eggs in women for conception , their matter , . their membranes , ibid. three things to be considered in them , emulgent arteries emulgent veins emunctories of the serum , dr. ent his opinion refuted epididymes's , vid. parastates , the epiglottis , . no conspicuous muscles in it , epomos , vid. neck error in womans reckonings , eyes in general , . whether contagious if diseased , . their holes , their vessels , muscles , , the eye-brows , f. the face , fat , fat folke less fit for venery , . why less active , the feet and the parts of them , females , whether begot by the left stone , fermentation , the fibres in general , flowers in women , the cause of them , the tendril fold , . the net-resembling fold in the womb , . the choroides fold , . it s progress and use , ibid. the forehead , the fornix , , the frog-distemper , frontal muscles , function of the brain , function of the parts , g. gel●… animals grow fat , genitals of men and women how they differ , glandules of the kidneys , . of the mesentery , . how passed by the milky vessels , . of the breasts , . of the larynx , . of the gullet , ibid , of the tongue , glissons experiment , gonorrhea , the cause of it , . gonorhea simplex , the cause of it , the gristles in general , gristle scutiform of the larynx , angular and guttal of the same , the gristle of the ear , growth , the gullet , its connexion , vessels , substance , , &c. its motion , gums , the guts , h. hare of the eye-lids , hair , its generation , . the roots of it , a heterogeneous body ; its form , efficient cause , . first original , . variety of colours , whence , . whether part of the body , . whether it contributes to the strength of the body , hang'd people how kill'd , the hand , . and the parts of it , dr. harvey's opinion touching conception , , , . concerning the uterine liver , . his opinion and two questions concerning the birth , the head in general , heart in general , . &c. its motion , , &c. the true cause , . unnatural things bred therein , . the office of the heart , . glissons new opinion , ibid. the helix , heat of the blood , hermophradites , hernia varicosa & carnosa , herophiius's wine-press , or the for●…ular histories of conception , , &c. the hollow vein , and veins united to it above the diaphragma , . below the diaphragma , ●… the horny tuincle , ●… the huckle-bone , humors , whether parts of the body , . the four humors always in the blood , humors of the eye , . whether sensible , hunger , what and whence it proceeds , the hymen , whether or no ? . whether a sign of virginity , the hyoides-bone , hypothyroides muscle , i. ideas , how imprinted in the seed by imagination , jejunum gut why empty imagination of the face of it , indications of the ancients taken from the ear , infants bones , how constituted , the infundibulum or funnel . jugular kernels , k. the kidneys , . their vessels , their substance , . malpigius's discoveries , ibid. their use , . observations three , . whether they concoct blood , . whether wounds in the kidneys be mortal , . deputy kidneys what , kicking of the infant in the womb , the cause of it , , l. the labyrinth , the lachrymal kernel , the lachrymal points , larynx , its figure , vessels , bulk , substance , gristles , laurentius bellinus's fleshy crust , learned men deceived by old womens tales , ligament ciliar , ligaments in general , . of the head , of the iaws , hyoides bone and tongue , . of the whole trunk , ibid. of the scapula's , arm and hand , . of the leg and foot , likeness of features whence , liquor in the amnion , what it is , , &c. the liver , . whether a bowel , . worms and stones in it , . the functions of it , , , . the office of the liver , . sometimes joyned with the lungs , . glisson's experiment , the long marrow , . it s difference from the spinal marrow , ibid. the lucid enclosure lungs their bigness , substance , &c. . preternatural things in them , . the colour in a child before it is born , division , lobes , . several observations concerning them , . their motion , , &c. lympha , what , , . difference between it and the serum , . whether nutritive , lymphatic vessels , . of the liver , . lymphatic iuice , the use of it , ibid. lymphatic vessels in the testicles , of the lungs , m. males , whether begot by the right stone , malpigius's observations of blood , materials of the hair , maxillary kernels , . processes , the mediastinum , melancholly , membranes in general , membrane of the muscles , . of the drum , meninxes of the brain , dura mater , its holes , vessels , &c. , . pia mater , , the mesentery , the mesenteric milkie vessels , milk what , , &c. whether animal spirits , the matter of it , ▪ mesue's story concerning milk , ibid. observation concerning it , . why dry'd up upon weaning , milkie vessels to the bladder of the womb , . to the vice-kidneys , . milkie utrine vessels , a question concerning them , . milkie vessels of the breasts , monstrous births , the reason , mother fits , the cause of them , whether from the sweetbread juice , the mount of venus , muscles , . &c. of the eur , , . of the cheeks , lips and lower iaw , . muscles in general , . of the head , . of the arms and shoulders , . of the scapula , . assisting respiration , . of the back and loins , . of the abdomen , . of the radius , . of the wrist and hollow of the hand , ibid. of the fingers and thumb , . of the thigh , . of the leg , . of the foot , . of the toes , the mirtle-form'd caruncles in womens privities , n. the nails , the nameless bones , the nameless tunicle , navel string what ? it s situation , . it s use , the neck , . strength of the body judged by it , the nerves in general , , &c. of the neck , . of the breast and b●…ok , . of the loins , . proceeding from the os sacrum , . of the arm and hand , . of the thighs and feet , nerves within the cranium , . second , third , fourth , fifth pair , , . turn-again nerves , ibid. of the nostrils . net. the wonderful net. nose . it s figure , bigness , bones and spongy bones . nostrils . the nut of the yard , . of the clitoris , the netform'd tunicle . the nymphe . their substance , vessels , use , and observation concerning them . o. oesophagus , vid. gullet . old men , whether they grow shorter ? the orbicular bone in the ear. order ▪ to be observed in dissecting the brain . organs of hearing . organs of smelling . original of the principles of the blood. the os sacrum . oval hole in the heart ▪ the oval window in the ear. ovaries in women first discovered , . how the eggs descend from them to the womb , . womens stones to be rather called ovaries . p. the palate . the perastates . pannicle fleshy . . parenchyma of the liver . part of the body , what . net organs . principal , which . ibid. subservient , which . noble , which , ibid. ignoble , which . ibid. parts containing . parts contained . parts of the face in general . parts serving for generation in men. parts adjoyning to the yard . parts secret of women . parts of the body , in what order form'd . parts of the birth in the womb , how they differ from a man grown ? parotides kernels . . particles salt of the arterial blood , how separated from the white particles in the stones . passage from the tympanum to the jaws . the pericardium . pericranium . periostium . the periwincle or cochlea of the ear. pia mater , vid. meninx . the pincal kernel . the pipe of the navel-string . the pituitary kernel . the pleura . the porta vein , . and veins united to it . the preputium . pre-eminency of the brain . the prostates , . their liquor , and how to be discerned , . their use. psalloides , or the brawny body . the pudendum of women ; the lips of it . pulmonary artery and vein . ▪ pulses , . their use. q. quality of the blood. qualities of spittle . quantity of the blood. r. the rainbow of the eye . refrigeration of the lungs ; mauro cordatus , malpigius and thraston's opinion concerning it . , respiration in the womb , all deceived that have wrote of it , . what it is , . charltons error concerning it , . whether a man might live without it . . stories relating to the question . the ribs . riolanus mistaken . , s. the salival channels , . other salival vessels . of savours . , &c. sclerotic tunicle . scapula bones . the scyth or falx . the scrotum , . signs of health taken from it . ibid. the seed , . whether threefold , . how it passes the invisible pores , , . the matter of it , , &c. when well made , . two parts of it , , &c. seed-bearing vessels . seed of women , various errors concerning it . the serum , what . seminal vessels , . their substance , &c. serous humors between the chorion and urinary membrane . sesamoides bones . sheath of the womb , . it s use ▪ shoulders . sight defined . skin defined . its substance , difference , temper , figure , motion , nourishment , vessels , pores , hair , colour , use , ibid. whether the instrument of feeling . smelling defined , . the cause , ibid. where it lies . snakes taken out of the brain . soul , whether in the womans seed , or in the mans only , , &c. not ex traduce , . not present at the first delineation of the parts , . a vegitable soul in men as well as in beasts , . the seat of it , . what it is , . whether the soul be nourished , . we are all at a loss concerning the soul. sound , the generation of it . spermatic vessels , . their progress , . error of anatomists concerning them , spermatic vessels in women . spirits , whether parts of the body . double spirits raised out of the blood. , &c. spittle defined , . it s strange composition , . it s use. ibid. spleen , . its vessels , . why not quick of feeling , . it s substance , ibid. unusual things found in it , . whether it separate melancholy from the chylus , . malpigius's experiment , . the true action of it , . the functions of it . the sternon bone. sternothyroides muscle . the stirrup of the ear. the stomach . stones in the stomach . the string of the drum. subclavial arteries . subclavial veins . the sweet-bread , . three observations , . it s office. sweet-bread iuice , the use of it , . the generation of it , . it s effervescency , t. taste defined , . the primary organ of it , ibid. where taste lies . tears discoursed of . , &c. teats in women , their exquisite sence . the teeth . temper of the blood. temperaments of the body , whence they proceed . temper of the body judged by the hair. the testicles in men , . their vessels , . their use , . their tunicles , . their action . testicles in women , . their figure , tunicles , difference from mens , their substance , . preternatural things therein . ibid. the thymus . thyro-artenoides muscle . the tongue , , &c. its motion , . its vessels , nerves , muscles . , the tonsils . . the torcular . tubes in women , what ? . their membranes , figure , vessels , valves , . births conceived and formed in them , . the same demonstrated ▪ by observations . v. valves treble pointed , . valves sigmoides , . half-moon valves . ibid. varolius's bridge . the veins in general , . veins of the head , . of the arms , . opening into the iliacs , . of the thigh and foot. venters three . venter lowermost . ventricles of the brain . ventricle , vid. stomach . ventricles of the heart , . their vessels , . right ventricle of the heart . ibid. the use of it , . left ventricle of the heart . the vertebres in specie . vessels of the ear , . for sundry uses of hearing . vital spirit . the vitrious humor of the eyes . the vitrious timicle . ibid. vivific spirits , whether in the blood. umbilical arteries , their use. umbilical vein , its use. union of the vessels in the heart of the birth . the urachus , . observation concerning it , . the urine flows from the birth through it . the ureters . the urethra , . it s nervous bodies . urinary membrane in women . urinary passage in women . the urine bladder . urine ferment , what it is . the uterine liver or cheeskake , . it s substance , colour , shape , vessels , &c. , &c. use , the uveous tunicle . the uvula , . it s use. ibid. w. the watry humor of the eyes , . the use of it . wharton's error concerning the tonsils of the larynx . the white line . willis's opinion of the soul , , &c. his absurdity . wind-eggs in women , a question concerning them , . the opinion of wind-eggs confirmed . the wirtzungian channel . the womb and its motion , . situation , substance , membranes , ibid. bigness , weight , shape , hollowness , horns , . connexion , ligaments , whether it can fall , . whether inverted in the fall , . its vessels , ibid. its office , . it s motion . , women that have conceived without immission of the yard , . whether they may be turned into men ? . observations upon this question , ibid. and . whether they have seed , . whether they cause formation , . whether necessary for generation . , &c. women , whether they may be castrated . the writing-pen within the skull . y. the yard , . whether a living creature , ibid. its vessels . finis . a treatise of the small-pox and measles . a treatise of the small-pox and measles . chap. i. of the small pox and measles in general . formerly the arabians and most famous physitians annexed to their discourses of the pestilence and other contagious and epidemic diseases their treatises of the small pox and measles ; we therefore led by their authority are of opinion that the small pox and measles are contagious diseases . but in this first chapter before we speak in particular of these diseases , it will be necessary by way of preface to say something in general of the names , original , nature , subjects and differences of both diseases . as to the names , we meet with some variety among the writers of physic. among the greeks , the words 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 and 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 were most in use ( both which the latins comprehend under the single name of papulae ; and alzaravius in his own language calls algigram , and alasmom , and mercurialis , efflorescencies ) by which they did not always understand two distinct diseases , but frequently one and the same . others make two sorts of 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 ; the one when the wheals break through the skin and rise up in powks ; the other , when the colour of the skin is only chang'd . the first of these some call more particularly 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , and the latins have called variolae , as it were little warts ; to which some have added the other name of papulae , small teats or pushes . the latter are by the greeks called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , and by the latins exanthemata and morbilli . we are to take notice however by the way , that exanthemata are properly those little purple spots , called the tokens , which appear upon the skin of the persons infected with the plague ( of which we have spoken in our treatise of the plague ) but afterwards this word was by many physitians given to the morbilli measles . however it were , at this day there is no question to be made of the signification or ambiguity of the words , seeing that by 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 and variolae , all physitians generally understand those wheals or powks that break forth through the skin and suppurate , being conspicuous over all the the body : and by exanthemata or morbilli , those little red spots which do somewhat corr●…de the skin , and are sometimes full of small pimples like millet seed . as to the original of these diseases there is great variety of opinions among the physitians . for some will have them to have been as ancient as the original of the world ; and that they were well known to hippocrates , galen and others of the antient greeks . but mercurialis , liddelius and others affirm , that they were altogether unknown to the greeks in former times , and were first discovered in the age of the arabians , and that therefore their first description was set forth by them ; whereas the greeks have left behind them nothing in particular written about those distempers . but the latter opinion seems to be less probable , seeing that the descriptions of the greek ecthyma●…a , and exanthemata differ very little from our variolae or pox , as appears out of hippocrates , lib. . epid. in his cure of silenus . and because the arabians also do not describe those diseases , as new ones , which they would have done , had they either known or thought to be unknown to the greeks . add to this that though the greeks in their writings do not treat particularly of these diseases , as the arabians do , but intermix them in the description of those epidemic diseases , which are understood by the manner of their crisis , yet it cannot thence be concluded , that they were to them unknown ; in regard the contrary to that appears from hence , that they write many things common among us , as well in reference the n●…ture , as to the cure of those diseases . these diseases are not one and the same , but of a distinct nature : for they are the diseases of an ill temper , which is known by a preternatural heat and fever ; as also diseases of a deprav'd conformation , as being accompanied with tumors , and a dividing of the continuum . they are referred to acute malignant , contagious , epidemic and pestilent fevers ( though not so deadly as the pestilence ) because they are determined for the most part within fourteen days , or at least never surpass the fortieth . they participate of malignity , are propagated by contagion , like the pestilence , and are frequently rise and epidemical . they only wage war with mankind , in regard it has not been observed by any physician , that ever any other creatures are afflicted with these distempers . moreover they are not only common to men , but to all mankind ; insomuch , that there are very few men or women living , that hath them not at one time or other . hence it was the saying of avenzoar , that it was a miracle , if any living mortal escaped these diseases , and that it was rather to be ascribed to the goodness of god , then to any other cause . which thomas willis also seems to intimate , lib. de feb. cap. . where he says , it is no more then what every man is to expect once to be afflicted with the small pox or measles : if by chance any one live free from them all his life , or if another have them more then once ▪ they are rare and unusual events of nature , that no way contradict common observation . for it is certain that all mankind and only mankind is subject to the small pocks and measles , and if they scape them once , they never have them again . the parts which are affected in these distempers , is either the whole body in respect of the fever , or the external parts in respect of the wheals and spots conspicuous in it : or sometimes the internal parts , as the stomac , guts , lungs , liver and kidneys ; for that those parts are many times full of the pox , is frequently seen by the dissections of bodies cary'd of by that distemper . but these diseases though they share of the same malignity yet they differ in these things . . that in regard there is a double excrement of the blood infected with that malignity , of which the one is thick , the other thin ; the pocks proceeds from the thicker excrement , and from the thinner the measles . . that in these by reason of the diversity of the matter , there rises up wheals which are full of matter ; in the other only spots appear , with a small elevation of the skin , but without any mattery substance . . that the first after the patient is cured , leaves pits and scars behind them ; the other cause no deformity . but because that spots also break forth in a pestilential fever , by which a physitian may be lead into an error ▪ we are to observe the difference between those spots , and the other which break for at the beginning of the small pox and measles . . that the spots which first appear at the beginning of the small pox and measles , are of a florid red color , and very small , but afterwards dilate , and chiefly appear in the face and hands . but the spots in pestilent fevers are of a more dark red , oft-times inclining to a purple , and at the beginning somewhat broader , but exactly round , and never appear upon the face and hands , but upon the breast and back . . that the spots in the small pox and measles , appear by way of crisis much about the third or fourth day after the seizing of the fever , and with ease to the patient ; whereas the spots in pestilential fevers , that appear about the seventh day , are symtomatical for the most part , and render the patient worse . . that the fever-spots , appear first like the bitings of fleas , but the spots of the small poxs and measles have not the least resemblance to flea-bites . chap. ii. of the small pox in specie . the small pox are little wheals full of matter , breaking forth in the upper part of the skin , and conspicuous ( seldom seizing the inner parts ) accompany'd with a continual fever , and proceeding from a peculiar malignant , fermentaceous effervescency of humors . they are most common to children ; young men have them not so often ; and old men are seldom troubled with them . they subsist for the most part in the skin only ; and break forth upon the jaws and nostrils , nature thrusting forth the malignant humor from the center to the periphery . in which operation , if she be hindered or hesitate either by reason of her own weakness , either through the abundance of the morbific matter , or the insufficient or two slow progress of the specific fermentation ; then not only the gullet , stomac , liver , lungs , spleen , womb , and other internal ●…wels are beset with filthy little ulcers like the skin , as we have seen in several dead bodies after dissection , and appears by the writings and testimonies of paraeus , fernelius , and many others . in the mean time , as to the skin , we are to take notice by the way , that although the wheals are dispeirs'd up and down in several parts of it , yet they do not break forth in all places equal in quantity : for that many times they are more abounding and bigger in the face , hands and feet then in other parts . the reason of which effect lazarus riverius ascribes very plausibly to the liver , by whose more fiery temper occasioned by this malignant ebullition , he believes the corrupted and putrid humors are driven with greater violence to these parts , which he calls the emunctories of the liver , than to any other parts . in the same manner as they who have a hot liver , are us'd to be troubled with red and pimpled faces ; and feel a glowing heat in the soles of their feet , and the palms of their hands . mercurialis brings other reasons for this effect , but much farther fetch'd . lib. de morb. puer . but the foresaid reason of riverius seems to be very probable . nevertheless we are to understand , that sometimes it may happen , that the pox may be thought to come out in greater abundance in those parts then in others by mistake , as not being really so , but because in those parts they are continually in view , and more troublesome then in other parts . no age can be assured to scape them , but children are more frequently troubled with them then people of riper years . because her weaker constitutions are less able to resist the specific malignant matter , and seems more apt to that peculiar ebullition which happens in that disease . old age challenges a greater immunity from them , then other ages . moreover those bodies are more easily infected which have any analogy with the bodies which are infected : and therefore kindred more easily infect one another , which we have already observed in our book de peste . they are very rife all seasons of the year , but more especially in spring and autumn , chiefly if the preceding winter was warm and moist , or the summer rainy , and the wind southerly , attended with plenty of early fruit. sometimes the disease dispeirses it self , sometimes it is epidemic , and sometimes it ceases for a time : but when it is epidemical , then it happens to be accompanied with other distempers , in such as never had the small pox before . they arise from the thicker or more viscous matter , to which that malignity adheres , with the blood fermenting after a specif●…c manner , and hence they rise up into large , mattery pusles . thomas willis believes that in this fermentation , some portions of the blood , are coagulated with the poyson , and so expelled forth together with it . but this does not seem so very probable , for though they are corrupted , yet they are not coagulated ; seeing that portions so coagulated , would not so easily be expelled forth , by reason of their extraordinary thickness . but this ebullition is performed after the same manner as in beer that works ; wherein there is no coagulation of the humor ; but many spirituous particles being strongly agitated in the ale by the fermentaceous effervescency , and involv'd and intermix'd with more viscous particles tend upward and swim upon the top of the ale , or else burst forth in froth out of the vessel , but are not coagulated ; for they are very subtle and spirituous ; as appears not only by their strong savor , but also by this , that out of that same strong flower of ale being distilled , are drawn spirits almost as strong as the spirits of wine . a fever alwaies accompanies the small pox , sometimes gentle , sometimes higher , sometimes more remiss , and that putrid also , as appears by the critical evacuation by wheals , which could never be done without a putrid ebullition . for where corrupt and putrid humors are separated from the good , there of necessity must be either some putrefaction , or putrid effervescency : some there are who write that the small pox may come without a fever , but it is not true . and their mistake proceeds from hence , because in infants and little children , that fever is so gentle before the pox come out , that it hardly does them any observable prejudice . for if they appear a little more froward then ordinary , or sleepy , or refuse their meat , or are less chearful then they use to be , the nurses readily ascribe that to their breeding their teeth , or to the worms ; so that when the small pox comes out , they are apt to say , they came out without any fever attending them : whereas that small fever was not sufficiently taken notice of by themselves . which sort of fever can be referred to no sort of fever more truly then to that purtrid continual fever , called synoche . for during that sort of fever there is a putrid ebullition of the blood in the vessels with an equal heat through the whole course of the disease , and at length a critical expulsion of the vitious humors . there are different sorts of the small pox , of which few physitians have taken notice . for some are bigger and more full of matter , and come out thick , which the dutch call 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , de pocken . others less , which the sam●… dutch call de steen pocken . and these are certain small wheals without much matter , that come out in the skin scatteringly , and in no extraordinary quantity , without any grievous or violent symptoms . the others are clear and large , transparent like water or chrystal , and containing a certain watry kind of liquor , which the dutch call wint-pocken , and some water-pocken . besides these there are other differences of the pox , as they are either great or small , thick or few , deep or superficial , contiguous or disjoyn'd , white or ruddy , livid , violet or other colored , soft or hard , high or low , quick or slowly coming forth , external or internal . chap. iii. of the causes of the small pox. the causes of the small pox are external or internal . concerning which there are various and great contentions among the most eminent physitians , so much the more vainly eager , because of little or no use ; in regard that whatsoever be the cause of the distempers , the cure is still the same . avicen and most of the arabians , the first most accurate describers of these diseases , refer the material cause to the impurity of the mothers blood , slagnant in the woman with child , and with which the birth was nourished in the womb. which corruption , they write , lyes dormant so long in the body , till by vertue of some specific efficient cause , it be provoked to a fermentaceous effervescency , and being powred forth into the mass of the blood , it sets it all in a boiling condition , and by that means separates that defilment , adhering from the birth to some minute particles of the body , and being so separated , pushes it forward , together with the particles of the blood so defiled by it , to the extream parts of the body , and there raises up those wheals , as in new wine the heterogeneal parts are separated from the homogeneal parts of the wine by fermentaceous ebullition . avenzoar seems to differ somewhat from avicen ; for observing that the birth in the womb ; without hazard of life , can hardly be nourished by the impure menstruous blood restagnant therein ; but with some other blood good of it self , only by reason of its fellowship with the menstruous blood , defiled by its superior corruption ; and farther , that men in the womb must be nourished either with some such menstruous blood , or some other impure blood , and for that reason contracted that impurity from the first nutrition of the parts . hence it was that the arabians believed , that all men were subject to the small-pox , in regard that impurity was again to be separated from the parts . so that if that specific fermentaceous effervescency be strongly and efficiently performed at the first coming of the small-pox , then that impurity becomes totally evacuated ; and then the person to whom that disease happens , lives free from that distemper all the rest of his life ( as when butter is once by a strong churming separated from milk , turning sowr , no churming , how violent soever , can separate any more butter from it . ) but if that effervescency be not violent enough , that impurity happens not to be totally expelled , and so the same person , when the reliques of that defilement ferment again , upon some other cause , may happen to have the same distemper a second and third time , but rarely a fourth . duncanus liddelius stoutly defends the opinion of the arabians ; which is also followed by fracastorius , amatus , forestus and several other physitians , and among the rest , by thomas willis , lib. de . feb. c. . where , among other reasons , for greater confirmation , he adds these words . in the womb of woman , says he , as in most other creatures , there is generated a certain ferment , which being communicated to the mass of blood , gives it vigor and spirit , and causes it to swell at certain periods of time , and procures an expulsion of the superst●…ous blood. but at the time of conception , when the flowers cease to ●…low , the chiefest part of this ferment is expended upon the birth , and the particles of it heterogeneous from some of the rest , as it were somewhat of foreign substance , are confused with the mass of the blood and humors , where they lye dormant a long time . afterwards , being stirred and provoked by some evident cause , they ferment with the blood , and make it first boyl , and then congeal , from whence various symptoms of this disease arise . gentilis rejects this opinion of the arabians , not believing the birth to be nourished in the womb with any impure blood ; nor that so much impurity could abide for so many years in men grown up , and old people , when they are seized with the small-pox , after so many purgations by sweat , fevers , itches , and other intervening diseases , besides the cure of the great pox ; nor can he think but that women must be cleared of those impurities in so long a time by their monthly evacuations . mercurialis complies with gentilis , who also asserts , that the small pox is a hereditary disease , and consequently , that there is hardly any man who can escape them , because all men are born of parents vitiated by this distemper ; and he endeavours to confirm this opinion of his by several sinewy reasons , which however daniel sennnertus overthrows by others much the stronger . fernelius observing something occult in the productions of the small pox , besides the various reasons propounded by gentilis and others , affirms , that they are produced by s●…me celestial and hidden causes , which when infants and children , are less able to withstand than people grown up : hence he says it happens that the one are much more subject to this disease than the other . but this opinion of fernelius , is notably refuted by mercurialis , lib. de morb. puer . sennertus grants the small pox to rise and be thrust forth by some certain and determined putrid ebullition of the humors , but he will have this ebullition to arise from three causes ; from the malignant air , from the mothers blood , and vitious nourishment ; and labours in a large explanation of his , this his own , and the opinion , of the arabians , and fernelius . but to speak the truth , none of these opinions please me . not that of the arabians , because besides the reasons alledged by gentilis , there is this one more . for that seeing that defilement contracted from the mothers blood , is asserted to be common to all men , there would be no man excused from this disease ; which is contrary to experience , when several that have liv'd to an extream old age , never had the small-pox in their lives , as we have known several in our own family . besides , if the impurity of the menstruous blood communicated to the birth , were the cause of the small-pox , why are not those women themselves subject to it , whose flowers stop beyond the course of nature ; especially they who never had their courses in all their lives , yet for all that were fruitful and had several children ; of which women , there are several examples to be found in trincavellius , guainerius , bertinus , marcellus , donatus , ioubert , fabricius , and several others . besides , that private defilement of every woman could very hardly infect others by contagion , or excite a latent contamination in the bodies of others to a like ebullition . if you say it may , then give me a reason , why all they that fit by and attend upon people when the pox is come forth , and endure their stenches , are not infected with the small pox , though they never had them before ? why has not that contagion infected me , that am near seventy years of age , who have visited thousands in the height of that distemper , endured their stenches , and handled their ulcers ? why some , upon the sight at a distance of a person that has newly had the small-pox , are presently seized by the distemper ? it being a thing almost incredible , that the contagion or infecting contamination flowing from the sick patient , should fly at such a distance from the sick to the sound and healthy , and so infect him , and leave those untouch'd that are always conversant in the room . nor do i understand that which thomas willis adds for the confirmation of his opinion , that that same private contamination being provoked by some cause , serments with the blood , and makes it first boyl , and then coagulate . for since ebullition always causes a greater attenuation , i do not comprehend how that can cause coagulation . moreover , if such a spontaneous coagulation were necessary after ebullition , physitians at the beginning of the distemper would ill apply attenuating diaphoretics , as being a hindrance to that coagulation , and afterwards they would as erroneously prescribe thickning things , as lentils , tragacanth , figgs , &c. which would cause too great a coagulation . both which are repugnant to experience , when both the one and the other are successfully made use of in the cure of this distemper . nor does the opinion of fernelius please me ; for he , according to his custom , deduces occult celestial causes in occult diseases from the influences of the stars . but how uncertain and how frivolous all those things are which are deduced from those influxes , either by astrologers or physitians is apparent from what we have wrote in our treatise de peste , lib. . cap. . neither can i approve the opinion of sennertus . for he proposes three causes of vitious fermentation , yet by means of that specific malignancy which remains in the small-pox cannot be explained ; and why , by vertue of that vitious fermentation , procured by those three causes , the small-pox should be occasioned , rather than other malignant , putrid and pestilent fevers , or the itch , st. anthonies-fire , cancers , or such like diseases . as to the external and primary causes of the small-pox , by which the internal humors are moved , physitians agree the chief of them to be . . a peculiar disposition and depraved quality of the air , to which belong the more remarkable mutations of the seasons , as the hot and moist constitution of the spring and autumn , the southern winds , and warm constitution of the winter . . the perturbation of the blood and humors ; to which belong immoderate exercise , frequent bathings , anger , fear , and over-eating , &c. . contagion ; for experience tells us , that this disease is caught by contagion : for out of an infected body continual steams flow forth , which being received by other bodies , presently like poyson ferment with the blood , and excite the latent and homogeneal seeds of the same distemper , and dispose them into the idea of this disease , and thus those contaminations flowing forth , are not only communicated by immediate touch , but at a distance . but by all these causes , whether good or bad disposition or quality of the air , perturbation of the humors or contagion , that malignant specific which we observe in the small-pox , is not sufficiently made out , nor wherefore it operates more in these , than upon those subjects , and in these , than at those seasons . for many times we have observed hot or moist , and hot with moist seasons and constitutions of the air ; many times bad diet , as in famines and sieges , which has occasioned a●… vast corruption of humors in the body ; many we find continually indulging their appetites ; which willis numbers among the primary causes of this distemper , and yet no small-pox ensued . on the other side , in temperate seasons , and in cold winters , they have raged epidemically among those who have used moderate diet , and fed upon the best of every thing , and have seized upon bodies replenished with good humors , and that many times first of all , before any other body has been ill to communicate the contagion , merely upon some fright , and by the force of imagination . seeing then that notwithstanding all the causes propounded by physitians , the true and specific essence of the malignity which is in the small-pox , nor the peculiar and determinate corruption of the blood , nor the cause and manner of specific fermentation can be explained , i think we are rather to conclude , that the next causes of the small-pox , as well the internal as the external , which move the internal , are occult ( as are also the causes of the pestilence it self ) and cannot be unfolded by us. and therefore it is better to acknowledge the weakness of our knowledge , then to betray our ignorance by so many disputes and various conjectures , that are grounded upon no foundation . for who can pretend to give a true and perceptible reason of so great a matter ? for these are in the number of those mysteries , which the chief creator is not pleased to let us know exactly . chap. iv. of the didgnostic signs . the small-pox are not easily discerned before the wheals themselves betray the distemper . but they appearing never so little , then the sight is easily judge of the disease . seeing therefore it is of great moment in reference to the cure , to know before the breaking out of the wheals , whether it be the small-pox or no , the signs of their coming out are first to be inquired into and observed . the signs foretelling the small-pox to be at hand , are various . a fever sometimes more intense , sometimes more remise , with a low pulse , quick , unequal , and a heat for the most part not very violent . an oppression of the heart , with melancholy ; and a palpitation often returning , and sometimes a fainting fit , head-ach , deleriums or ravings ; sometimes epileptic convulsions , frequent sneezing , sleep more heavy than usual and unquiet , dreams of thunder , fire and flames , waking with a fright , difficult respiration , with frequent sighs ; continual gaping , pain in the back and loyns , and pulsation in the spine , heaviness and weariness of the whole body , a pricking , and as it were itching in the skin and in the nostrils ; a red face , dimness of sight , yet brightness and itching of the eyes , tears without any force , sometimes bleeding at the nose , swelling of the face , driness of the mouth , hoarsness , with a little dry cough ; trembling of the extream parts , small red spots in the skin . but these signs are the more certain , the more rife the small-pox are , or if there be any suspition of having caught them ; as if the person has been to visit any one that was sick of that disease , or had been frighted with the sight of any one newly recovered : but there is no certain sign of the small-pox at hand to be taken from the urine . for that in this distemper , the urine for the most part resembles that of sound people . if the small-pox , besides the outward skin , have seized the inner parts , then you must judge which parts they are , by the disturbance of those parts . for if the stomach be infected , it will appear by vomit and pain in the heart . if the guts , by their being griped , and a purulent loosness withal : if the lungs , by difficulty of breathing ; if the kidneys , then the urine will be bloody , and so of the rest . chap. v. of the prognostic signs . the small-pox , because they are reckon'd in the number of acute diseases , have their four times like other more acute diseases . for if the course of the disease proceed conveniently , they are determined within fourteen days ; which if they exceed , it is a sign either of the weakness of nature , or of a great quantity of morbific matter ; or both . of these days , the first is the beginning , the second the augmentation , the third the state or condition , and the fourth , the beginning of the declination , at what time the fever and symptoms are wont to remit . the same fourth day , which is the declination of the ebullition , uses to be the beginning of the coming out of the small-pox . the augmentation continues till the seventh day ; the state and vigor of the distemper appears upon the eleventh day ; from which till the fourteenth , is the declination , and at that time the pox are dryed up , which exsiccation of the matter sometimes continues till the twentieth day . if the disease proceed without interruption , according to this order , we may hope for a good issue , but if it do not observe this order , there is no reason to expect other than the worst . but the event of the disease , whether death or recovery is conjectured , by comparing the strength of the patient , with the greatness of the distemper . the strength of the patient is collected by his bearing the oppression of the disease , and by the actions of his body . the greatness of the distemper is gathered from the greatness of the fever and the symptoms , and the pustles themselves . if the strength of the patient be such as to weather all the four times of the disease , he is happy : but if his strength be vanquished by the force of the fever and the symptoms , that it will hardly suffice to grapple with the state and vigor of the disease , the event will prove very dubious . therefore we are to judge of the event by those things which accompany and follow the small-pox . such as are the quality , bigness , number , figure and colour of the pustles , the time of their coming forth and place , the violence of the fever , the various symptoms , and the easiness or difficulty of the patience to undergo the disease . the good prognostic signs are these . at the beginning , before the coming forth of any spots , bleeding at the nose , a speedy coming forth , and soon after , a remission of the fever and other symptoms . the pox themselves at first red , then whitish , soft , high rais'd , round , moderately full of matter , distinct and not contiguous ; a free speech , and easie respiration . from these two latter , eustachius rudius promises much toward recovery . that we may be able , says he , to conjecture life or death , it behoves us to consider well the voice and respiration . for while those two things are in a good condition , all is safe . for they demonstrate the matter to be expell'd far from the noble parts , especially from the vitals . the bad prognostics are these . a fever , with grievous symptoms remaining after the breaking forth of the small-pox . the pox slowly coming forth and slowly ripening . small and few , hard , depressed , and vanishing or sinking again after coming forth : livid . violet colour , purple , blackish , double in the middle , marked with a black spot , and seated within the flesh. and these presages of great evil , are much augmented and ascertained , by a great failing of the strength , pain in the heart , vomiting , hickoping , extream drought , great sadness and disturbance of mind , with frequent faintings , raving , dead sleeps , or too much watching , epileptic convu●…sions ; a streightning of the breast and chaps , difficulty of breathing , hoarsness , a loathing of food , inability to swallow , loosness and pains in the belly , a flux of the courses out of order , bloody urine , the extream parts cold . to which we may add two things more . . if many have dy'd of the small-pox out of the same family . . if they were old when they caught the distemper . now they that dye of the small-pox , for the most part are suffocated , the passage of the spirits being shut up by the pustles , or else go away in a fainting fit , or else are carried off with a loosness of the belly , either bloody or without blood. if the small-pox have seized the inner bowels , they cause a peripneumonie , consumption , pernicious exulcerations of the liver and kidneys , and other deadly mischiefs . if they have seized the eyes , they frequently cause a lasting ophthalmy , a lachrymal fistula , corrosion of the corner caruncles , dimness and mist , a white film , and many times blindness . if after the breaking of the pox in the ears or nostrils , there happens a hyposarcosis , the patient frequently looses his hearing and smelling . in the face , if they cause an entire crust like a vizor , 't is a sign , that when they fall off , they will leave behind them spots of an ill colour , and deformed pits withal . chap. vi. of prophylactic or preservative physic. in this disease , as well as in the plague , there is required a double cure ; prophylactic , and therapeutic . of the prophylactic cure , but few physitians have wrote , either because perhaps they thought it not so necessary , or because so very few consult the physitian when they are in health . nevertheless , since that famous physitian avenzoar , not without good reason , adjudged it no less necessary than in the plague , and for that there are several who are so terribly afraid of this distemper , as well for that it hazards their lives , as for the pits and deformed scars it leaves behind , we shall here say something briefly of the prophylactic cure , before we proceed to the therapeutic , in ingard it is more safe and more noble to keep off a disease , than to expel it out of possession ; and therefore preservation is very necessary , more especially since contagion and corruption of the air are two of the chiefest spreaders of this disease . in the method of preservation , the constitution of the air is chiefly to be observed , the corruption of which , extreamly conduces to the propagation of this distemper , as being many times the medium to conveigh contagious contamination to others . this air , if it be vitious , is not to be corrected by great fires , as is usual in the plague , ( for fear of overheating the body , ) but by fumigations of juniper-berries , frankincense , mastick , benjamin , amber , rosemary , citron and orange-peels , juniper-wood , laurel , and the like . but nothing is more conducible than to sprinkle the chambers with vinegar , or oximel , and to receive the fume of them into the head , by powring them upon a red hot prick ; or often to smell to a spunge dipp'd in vinegar , and carried about in a perforated ivory box. for as all sweet smells that are very fragrant , so neither are all stinking smells to be here admitted , only vinegar is to be preferred before all suffumigations , because it not only corrects the corruptions of the air , and extinguishes the contaminations that adhere to it . moreover , to the end the contagious contaminations flying about in the air may be the better avoided , children and others that never had the small-pox ; are to be warned from visiting , not only people that lye sick of the small-pox or measles , but also those that attend them in their sickness , or converse with them upon any occasion whatever , nor will it be safe to come near the houses where they lye sick . the next thing requisite is a good diet , and meats of wholsome juices and easie of digestion : to which are most agreeable for sallets and sauses , sorrel , vinegar , juices of limons and oranges , green grapes pickled , red goosberries , sowr cherries , and the like . but on the otherside , abstain from meats of hard digestion , and bad nourishment , from tart meats and much seasoned with spice , salt , and dry'd in the smoak , garlic , onyons , early fruit ; also use moderation in eating , overfulness being no less prejudicial than too much fasting . for drink , use ptisans , or small ale , and for them that drink wine , they must be allowed to drink small wines moderately . to the more delicate , it will not be amiss now and then to give juleps of decoctions of barly , juice of citron , sirrup of sowr cherries , violets , limons , and such like things , that have a pleasing and acceptable taste . on the other side , abstain from strong wine , brandy , strong hull and margaret-ales , and from all other strong and spirituous drinks . let the exercises of the body be moderate , avoiding those that are too laborious and overheat the body , and such as are too easie . sleep moderately likewise . the next thing to be considered , is going to stool , in which respect , besides the usual goings to stool , care should be taken to purge the body gently from superfluous humors , at least once a week , and that with pillulae russi , or pills of aloes rosatum , leaves of senna , rhubarb , tamarinds , and such like medicaments , for grown people ; but let children take syrup of cychory cum rheo , or laxative syrrup of corrents , and the like ; but avoid strong purges , which disturb the humors and the whole body . care also must be taken that the monthly evacuations of virgins and women that are not with child , observe their exact periods ; and that there be no stoppage of the blood , as to those who are troubled with hemorrhoids at certain intervals , take care that such blood have its due evacuation . as to plethorics , and such who have an abundance of blood , blood-letting will be very requisite , if the age of the person will bear it , and there be no other reason to forbid it . tranquility of mind and courage are also in this case of great importance . more especially , let a man take care to avoid violent commotions of mind , as anger , fear , frights , and fixing the thoughts upon the small-pox and it's deformity . chap. vii . of therapeutic cure , and first of dyet . in the cure of those that are sick of the small-pox , the physitian must aim chiefly at two things . the first is to assist nature in the expulsion of the morbific matter , and to remove all impediments that hinder her operations in that particular . the other is to remove accidents , and to take care , least by that expulsion , the internal or external parts receive no prejudice ; and for the obtaining of these ends , we must have recourse to the three instruments of physic , dyet , chyrurgery , and pharmacy . there is a most exact dyet to be observed in this disease , in regard that many times by that alone the cure is effected , and errors committed in that , are often punished with death . here also the air is greatly to be considered ; let the patient lye in a little chamber close shut , and free from any wind , to the end he may the more easily breath , and that the stinking vapors being the more easily discussed , may the less offend him . let the air be tepid , and as little of cold come in as may be ; if it be winter or a cold season , the air is to be corrected with lusty fires . more especially , take care that no cold get into the patients bed. for should the least cold come to him while he is in a sweat or a moist breathing , or if the patient himself , by tossing and tumbling should throw of the cloaths and check his sweat , it frequently happens that the pox fall in again and vanish , or sink into the skin , to the great hazard of life . for which reason , the patient must not be shifted till after the fourteenth day , for fear of striking in the pox again , to the irrecoverable ruine of the patient . far better it is to suffer the shifts of the patient , moist with sweat , to dry of themselves with the heat of the bed , and for the patient for some days to bear with the stench of the sweat , and the pustles coming forth , than to change his linnen and be the cause of his own death . but if there be an urgent necessity for the patient to change his linnen , then let him have the same fowl linnen that he put off just before he fell sick , or that have been worn before by some other sound body . for i have often observed clean and newly washed linnen to have been very prejudicial to sick people , which i am apt to believe proceeds from the smell of the soap , which the linnen in some measure retains . moreover great care is to be taken that the shift be well warmed by the fire , and that no cold comes to the patient while he puts it on . however , this is certain , 't is better not to change linnen at all ; but to change before the fourteenth day is a thing not to be done without extream hazard . nor is there any reason for any man to be afraid of any bad smell which the linnen contracts from the sweat and broken pustles , for that we never found it to be prejudicial to any that were ever sick of the distemper . lastly , we thought fit to observe here that the heads of those that are sick of the small-pox are not to be bound and wraped up in linnen caps , either too hard or too warm ; for from thence arise two inconveniences . . because the heat of the head being thus increased , the pox break out thicker in the face and head , than if it be more slightly covered . . because that under caps bound hard to the head , the pox rise larger , flatter , and very broad , nay , many times under those streight caps , they are so ulcerated , that after a troublesome cure they leave very ill-favoured scars behind . for which reason , i always order the head to be slightly covered , with just linnen enough to keep it from the cold , and by no means to bind it on hard . convenient administration of dyet avails also very much to the cure of the distemper . at first a very slender dyet , more especially from the beginning of the disease to the seventh or fourteenth day , chiefly of a little barly-broth , or an emulsion of sweet almonds , and the four cold seeds boyled in barly-water , or slender chicken or mutton-broths , endued with a cooling quality , by the addition of lettice , endive or purslain , &c. but let him abstain from all manner of flesh , as also from eggs and fish , and all other meats of ill juice or hard concoction ; also from all acid , salt , sharp things ; from all spices , garlic , onions , and all such things as are very hot . if the patient be a sucking infant , then the same dyet is to be prescribed to the nurse . but after the pox are come out , that the fever ceases , and that the pustles are ripe , and the scabs begin to fall , then more solid dyet is to be allowed ; as chickens , lamb , veal , potch'd eggs , &c. for drink , the patient must make use of ptisans , or else a decoction of rasp'd hearts-horn ; let him abstain from wine , unless in case of fainting fits , and from all other strong , hot , and heady drinks . now how prejudicial it is for such a patient to drink wine , forestus observes , some idle and unskilful women and nurses , says he , there are , who will give claret to children lying ill of the small-pox and measles , though at the same time having a violent fever , vainly perswading themselves that such drink will bring out the pox with more ease . whence it comes to pass , that many after they have drank that astringent wine dye of a sudden , the motion of nature being check'd , and she thereby disabled to ex●…el the distemper forth . others , the fever being heightned , have been tormented with head-ach , and fallen into raving fits , and soon after dye mad ; very few , and they not without great hazard , escape . here by the way , let us take notice what mercurialis observes , concerning sweet things in dyet . but , says he , more especially take care to abstain from all sweet things in meat and drink . to which he adds , what avenzoar writes , that they who use sweet things at that time , are hardly to be recovered . but this opinion does not agree with common practise , by which we are taught , that licorice , figs , jujubs , raisons , sugar , common syrrup , and such like sweet things , do the soonest concoct and expel the morbific matter to the outward parts , and therefore sweet things cannot be hurtful in this distemper . only sweet wines are to be excepted , which being strong , offend the head , augment the heat , and encrease the fever . besides that , mercurialis at another time confesses , that he was wont to prescribe dry figs for one sort of dyet in this distemper . moderate sleep will suffice , and let the patient lye quiet in his bed. if he void his excrements freely and naturally , 't is very well . but if his belly be hard bound , and full of excrement , it will not be proper to move his belly before the seventh day , and not then neither , unless upon some extraordinary and urgent necessity . for the belly being bound , does not hinder the coming forth of the small-pox ; but if it be provok'd , there may easily ensue a pernicious loosness . avoid all careful and anxious thoughts , and all vehement perturbations of the mind , as fear , a fright , sadness and anger . though as for anger , mercurialis seems to be of another opinion , and believes it may be profitable , for , says he , nor is it a thing to be regarded , if patients in this distemper are sometimes angry , for anger many times is useful to expel noxious humors to the superficies of the body . but i wish it may not contribute to increase the heat and the fever . chap. viii . of chyrurgical helps . the primary assistance of chyrurgery is blood-letting : concerning which there arises a notable question among the most eminent physitians ; whether it be convenient in the cure of this distemper or no ? avicen perswades blood-letting before the pustles come forth , as also after they are come forth if they be very full . rases allows it only before they are come forth ; before they break forth , the physitian may let blood , if there be no other reason to the contrary , either by opening a vein , or by means of a cupping-glass with scarification . for the quantity is of necessity to be diminished . forestus writes , that this remedy is of wounderful use , especially in a plethory , so it be made use of at the beginning and before the pustles begin to rise ; and farther he writes , that such as are let blood in season , are soonest cured . amatus the portugueze produces several examples of children that scap'd by seasonable blood-letting and cupping , when others dy'd , that would not admit that way of cure. nicholas fontanus writes , that he has alwaies let blood with success in the small pox. sennertus believes that blood-letting is not to be used in children ; for that their strength will not bear it . but where the persons are of maturity , so that they be very plethoric , he deems it proper to be used , at the beginning and before the fourth day , or at least before the pustles come out ; while the party is yet in full strength ; to the end that nature being eased of some part of her bur ▪ then she may with more ease overcome the rest . but after the fourth day , or when the spots begin to appear , then he believes it ought to be altogether let alone . with this opinion of sennertus the learned willis agrees . nevertheless there are some eminent modern practitioners , who judge blood-letting proper not only before but after the coming of the pox , especially in plethorics ; and this , in some measure to check the ebullition of the blood. to decide this controversie , in the first place , there are two times of this disease to be observed , the first before , the second after the coming forth of the pox. in the second place we are to consider with what success nature operates of her self at both those times by spontaneous evacuation of the blood , to the end that the physitian who is but natures minister in the artificial evacuation by phlebotomy , may be able to follow her in her successful actions , and avoid her improsperous efforts . now this is most evident to all physitians by long experience , that if there happens a free and spontaneous bleeding at the nose before the pox come forth , it proves fortunate , and to the great ease of the patient ; for that then the fever remits , and the pox come forth with more ease and in lesser number . but if such a spontaneous bleeding happen after the coming forth of the pox , it generally proves unfortunate and pernicious to the patient . the reason is because that before their coming forth , nature being eased of part of her burthen , more easily expels what remains . and thus by this operation of nature the physitian is taught what to do in artificial evacuation , that is to say , that blood-letting may be advantageous before the coming forth , but of ill consequence after the coming forth of the distemper : and thus i have observed for the most part that by a seasonable opening a vein in plethoric persons , the pox come forth not only more easily and with less trouble , but are also more suddenly ripened , which forestus has also observ'd long before us . but if phlebotomy be made use of after the pox come forth , nature being then employed in concocting and expelling the morbific matter , is very much debilitated and called off from that employment , with so much prejudice to the patient , that i have observed that most people have dy'd who have been thus let blood . for which reason 't is always my custom to inculcate into my schollars , that if they be called in time to any patient , before any signs of the coming forth of the distemper , that if it be necessary they may open a vein : but after the least signs thereof appear , and that the red spots begin in the least to shew themselves , that they forbear to let blood , and endeavour to help nature in her expulsion begun , by antidotes , diaphoretics and other proper medicines . this blood-letting also i am willing to admit if there be a necessity in persons of grown years , and that are able to bear it ; but in children , before the seventeenth or eighteenth year , i do not approve blood-letting notwithstanding that avenzoar , and averroes boast their successes in that sort of practice , and and that many italian , french , spaniards , and among the rest amatus the portugueise are of the same opinion . for though in those hot countries of italy , france and portugal such practice may have proved successful , i do not think it so safe to let children blood in our cold countries . in like manner neither does trincavellus approve of this letting children blood , in regard the event proves often fatal ; or if it succeed , it is rather to be attributed to fortune then reason . eustachius rudius , duncan liddelius and bauderon order that if the small pox do not suddainly break out in children , to lay house swallows to the back , buttocs and hips of such children , or else to apply cupping-glasses with a slight scarification to the same parts , the first or second day . but this advice i do not like for two reasons . first , because 't is very prejudicial to lay the body open the first days ( which must of necessity be done in the application of swallows and cupping-glasses ) and so give admittance to the cold air , which checks the coming forth of the small pox. secondly , because it is very dangerous to wast the strength of children , which is apt enough to decay of it self , by drawing away the blood. chap. ix . of pharmaceutic remedies , and first of purgations . pharmaceutic remedies are twofold , either purgative or expulsive . as to purgatives , there is not a little dispute among practitioners , whether they ought not to be first prescribed in the cure , and whether at the beginning , part of the matter ought not to be evacuated , that nature being eased of part , may more readily expel the rest . these purgations many approve , and many reject . they that approve them , unanimously consent in this ; that all strong purgatives are to be forborn . but milder purgatives they hold may be safely made use of , as pill . ruffi . sena-leaves , aloes pills , manna , cassia , tamarinds , and such other things as gently move the belly , more especially such as are somewhat cooling . others with averroes will allow no lenitives to be taken at the mouth ; but only that the body may be gently mov'd upon urgent necessity with glysters and suppositories . these therefore differ but little from the opinion of the other , who are absolutely against purging the belly ; of which number is nicolaus the florentine , who by the appearance of the pox , denys the use of glysters . on the other side , willis , i know not upon what grounds , is not contented with purgatives only , but adventures to proceed to emetics . to decide this controversie , we say , that a physitian in this particular ought to be guided by reason and experience . reason teaches us , that nature when she has once begun her work well , ought not to be disturbed , nor to be hindred by any other contrary motion , or to be called away from the business , which would be done , if that motion which nature endeavours from the center to the periphery , should be inverted by purgatives from the periphery to the center . experience tells us , that always in this distemper , the morbific matter moves with success from the center to the periphery , ( but where nature tends , thither we ought to lead by the common ways agreeable to the law of nature ) and that a motion contrary to this is very unfortunate , whether voluntary or artificial , and that all perturbations of the belly whatever , and vomitings are greatly prejudicial , nay for the most part pernicious ; for that they presently check the expulsion of the pox , and strike those in again that were expelled ; so that the patients overwhelmed with pains and miseries , upon the failing of their strength , are brought to the period of their lives in a short time . it teaches us also , that all lenitive medicaments whatever though never so gentle , in this disease procure a pernicious loosness ( as we have observed in the plague ) and that the small pox is sooner expelled , if there is little or no motion to stool for the first day , then if there should be a loosness either spontaneous or artificial , and a frequent dejection . therefore avicen orders that in the progress and end of the distemper , the belly should be stopt with moderate astringents . of the same opinion also are rases and avenzoar , and among the moderns fracastorius , mercurialis , holler and lazarus riverius , who thus writes upon this subject . when the small pox begin to appear , says he , ensuing purgation is pernicious ; especially if the malignity be in its full vigor , and at an epidemic conjuncture , when most children dye of the distemper . and therefore it is better to forbear all manner of purgation ; for that in malignant and pestilential diseases , purgation at the beginning is extreamly prejudicial . and therefore i would advise physitians , that for the first few days they would think no more of loosening the belly . or if they judge it necessary for some extraordinary cause , that they give no purgatives or lenitives at the mouth , but for grown people make use of emollient glysters , and for children and infants of suppositories only made of honey . for long practice has taught me that this is the safest way of cure ; and that others , who pretended another way of cure , have unfortunately killed several , nay the most of their patients . chap. x. of medicines diaphoretic , and expellers of the small pox. omitting therefore purgation for a time , and using phlebotomy with great caution upon urgent necessity , the next thing for a physitian to consider , is whether nature do her duty in expulsion sufficiently or no ? in the first case there is no necessity to assist her with much physic , especially if there be no grievous symptoms , for slight ones will easily vanish of themselves , and the small pox will come forth sufficiently , if there be care taken against the external cold , and keep the patient in a gentle sweat for the first three or four days . but if the patient happen to be of the number of the great personages , or one of their children , who will not be satisfy'd with such plain and ordinary words of the physitian , then you may prescribe a small quantity of bezoar stone , with magistry of pearls , or crabs eyes , or essence of corral , adding thereto some few grains of saffron , or some such thing that will not disturb nature in her work and satisfie the importunity of friends or parents . but if nature seem insufficient in the performance of her duty , so that she requires assistance , we must have recourse to other remedys , that may succour nature in her endeavors . now among those expulsives , that are to be prescribed upon the first coming of the physician , are most of those diaphoretics and antidotes , which we have said are to be prescrib'd at the beginning of the pestilence . lib. . cap. . out of which the physician may choose those that he thinks most proper for his patient . for some are most proper for infants and children , others for grown people , others for the robust , some for the feeble , others for such as have but slight fevers , and others for those whose fevers are more violent . for the robust , the most generous medicins are treacle and diascordium , with salts of wormwood , carduus benedictus and the like . for children and nice persons make choice of such things as have a grateful taste , compos'd of the species of hearts-horn , coral , pearls , saffron , alkermes , hyacinth and such like . but above all the rest i never found any thing more effectual then our treacle-water , which we have describ'd in our treatise of the pestilence . lib. . cap. . which has no ungrateful taste , and therefore may be given alone , or with some pleasing syrup to children and infants . if the small pox do not come forth freely , in the first place let the patient take some sudorific , prescrib'd after the following manners . ℞ . treacle of andromachus ʒj . salt of carduus benedict . ℈ j. s. water of carduus . benedict . ℥ ij . mix them for a draught . ℞ . diascordium of fracastorius , treacle , of each ʒ s. extract of carduus ben. salt of wormwood , of each ℈ j. decoction of carduus ben. q. s. mix them for a draught . ℞ . diascordium ʒj . hearts-horn burn●… , red coral prepared of each ℈ j. of our treacle-water ℥ j. s. syrup of dry roses ℥ s. mix them for a draught , if there be any fear of a looseness . ℞ . of our treacle water ℥ j. or ℥ j. s. double refined sugar ʒj . mix them for a draught for very nice children . ℞ . confect . hyacinth , diascordium , harts-horn burnt of each ℈ j. mix them for a bolus . ℞ . pulv. liberants ℈ ij . saffron gr . iiij . harts-horn burnt ℈ j. mix them for a powder . ℞ . pearls , red coral prepared , harts-horn burnt of each ʒj . man●…s christi ℈ j. mix them for a powder to be taken in some cordial liquor . ℞ . seed of columbines and turnip-seed an . ℈ j. s. of nosesmart seed ℈ j. make a powder for ordinary people . ℞ . new sheeps dung ʒ vj. or ℥ j. small vvhite-wine , decoction of barley an . ℥ j. s. mingle them together , and let them stand two or three hours , then strain them gently , and give the liquor strained for one draught , which powerfully expels the small pox. after these and such like other forms , sudorifics may be conveniently prescribed and exhibited . there is it requisite in this case to prescribe many laborious compositions as the same physitians ( especially the scholars of paracelsus ) with great ostentation will be studying to do : in regard that a few are sufficient for this indication . when the patient has taken his sudorific , he is to be well cover'd with blankets and other coverings , and so be provoked to sweat. nevertheless care is to be taken , least being covered too hot , or lying in a hot stove , he do not fall into a swoon , for as in all other things , so there is a moderation to be observed in this sort of swoonding . here by the way we are to take notice , that fracastorius , io paschalis , forestus , riverius , and many others recommend for the better provoking of sweat , that the patient should be covered with red coverlets ; whether they believe that there is something of a singular property in red , which contributes very much to the expulsion of the small pox ; or that a sweat provoked by such red coverlets , is more efficacious to bring out the small pox ; or that the looking upon red provokes the colours outward , as velescus de taranta and duncan liddelius write . but they all seem to be under a great mistake , who expect any thing particular from the red colour of the coverlets . for it is not the colour , but the heat provoked by the coverlets which causes the expulsion of the small pox. but this same errour seems to have derived its original from hence , that formerly in the time of our great grand-fathers , the best and thickest coverlets were dy'd of a red colour , the thinner and courser sort were dy'd of other colours ; and hence it was that when the physitians of those times , saw it necessary for their patients to be well covered , they ordered them to be covered with the best and thickest blankets , which the succeeding physitians not really observing , thought the preceding physitians had ordered their patients to be covered with red coverlets , as if they had experienced something more notable and singular in a red , that in any other colour to provoke the small pox. after the patient has sweat well , according to the proportion of his strength , the cloaths may be somewhat lighten'd , to relieve him in his great sweat. however he is to be kept still in a moisture , or gentle breathing sweat for a day or two , till the pox are well come forward ; taking great care nevertheless that his strength be not wasted with two much heat . thus forestus orders the patient to be kept in an air moderately warm , and to keep him so covered with cloaths and coverlets , that he may still lye in a kind of breathing sweat , taking care above all things that the heat of the body be not too much augmented by heaps of coverings , or heat of stones , and so the fever getting strength , the patient come to be stifled with a syncope . this duncan liddelius also rightly admonishes . now to the end that during this same breathing-sweat the expulsion of the pox may have the more swift and better success , our country folks are wont to boyl sliced figgs in small ale , and give the decoction lukewarm to the patient with good success . and forestus highly extolls this simple decoction of figs , and gives it all children . however leonellus does not boil the figs in small ale but in whey , and very properly u●…es that decoction . some will give the more sprightly sort of children figs to eat : nor do they do amiss , so that their stomacs will bear them . for figs , which way soever they are used , are very wholsom in this distemper . and this is the reason , why being boiled and mixed in cataplasms , and laid upon tumors to ripen them , as they concoct crude humors and hasten suppuration , so being taken in decoctions or eaten , they drive out the small pox , and cause a swift maturation of them , as daily experience tells us . only when you use them , this one thing is to be observed , that neither they , nor their decoctions must be given to them , whose bellies are laxative or over-loose , or where a loosness is feared ; for they may excite a pernicious flux , where the patient is subject already to loosness . frequently therefore physitians will not prescribe the simple decoction of figs , but a composition for the same purpose , somewhat of this nature . ℞ . french barley cleansed ℥ j. licorice sliced ʒij . red vetches ℥ j. s. turnep-seed , fennel-seed an . ʒ ij . figs no. xvij . water q. s. make a decoction according to art to two pints . to this decoction some add carduus , and water germander , others lentils and raisins of the sun , parsley-seed , culumbine-seed , turnep , and others other ingredients these two decoctions are taken from avicen and rases , much used and approved by succeeding physitians . ℞ . lacca washed ʒ v. lentils peel ʒvj . gum tragacanth ʒ iij. water q. s. make a decoction to a pint and half . ℞ . figs ʒ vij . lentils peel'd ʒiij . lacca . ʒij s. tragacanth , fennel-seed an . ʒ ij . water lb s. boil this to the remainder of the third part. such a decoction also may be somewhat otherwise prescribed . ℞ . raisins of the sun stoned ℥ ij . dry figs no. x. ●…entils peel'd ℥ iiij . lacca ʒ j. s. fennel-seed ʒiij . parsley-seed ʒ j. s. saffron ℈ j. vvater lb iij. boil them to two pints . garcias lopez prescribes a decoction of the same nature after this manner ℞ . dry figs no. x. iujubes without kernels no. xv . lentils peel'd ℥ ij . seeds of fennel , dill , parsley , quinces an . ʒij . lacca , tragacanth , roses , saunders an . ʒ ij . vvater q. s. boil them according to art ; and to the strained liquor add saffron powdered ʒ s. but cardan , io. baptist. sylvaticus , amatus of portugal , septalius , and some others disallow lentils and tragacanth . sennertus approves those compounded decoctions only upon the score of experience , because many physitians have been successful in the use of them , not that he gives any reason for it . but i will give my reason which is this , because they somewhat thicken the boiling blood , and dispose it to a quicker maturation of the blood : and therefore i think them fit to be made use of , not only at the beginning of the distemper , to drive out the pox , but a little after the beginning to hasten their expulsion and maturation as we said , but now concerning figs. there are some who distill these decoctions , and give the distilled water to the patients . but these are fools in chymistry , not knowing that lac , figs , lentils , tragacanth , and such other primary viscous and sweet ingredients , do not pass through the lembec in distillation , whence of a good and effectual decoction they make a water altogether ineffectual . if the heat be not very intense , you may to very good purpose add to the decoction of figs the roots of elecampane , which prosperously promote expulsion . others add the flowers of marigolds . instead of these decoctions , when the strength of the disease , and great necessity does not urge them , these pleasing emulsions may be aptly prescrib'd for nice and curious palates . ℞ . sweet almonds peel'd ℥ j. of the four cold seeds peel'd an . ʒj . s. seed of navews , columbines , carduus benedict . an . ʒj . barley water q. s. make an emusion to a pint ; to which add refin'd sugar , or for the richer sort manus christi very clear ℥ s. or q. s. to render it gratefully sweet . mingle all together and make an emulsion . ℞ . seed of carduus benedictus peel'd , of columbines , of navews an . ʒij . melons ℥ iij. fennel and carduus vvaters an ℥ iij. adding of manus christi q. s. for sweetness , mingle all together for infants and children . all the germans make these emulsions with the distill'd waters of sorrel , borage , carduus , and scabious , &c. but we ascribe little strength to them , and value more the decoction of barley , which may in some manner promote maturation . if there be any who with more discretion think fit to use sweet-meats , they may be prescrib'd after this manner . ℞ . root of elecampane condited , conserve of borage and violets an . ℥ j. syrup of elecampane q. s. mix them and make an electuary . ℞ . the pulp of large raisins of the sun , and figs , preserv'd orange-peel , conserve of roses an . ʒvj . syrup of orangs q. s. mix them for an electuary . ℞ . pulvis liberans ʒj . harts-horn burnt ʒ s. citron rind condited , wallnuts preserv'd , conserve of marigold slowers an . ʒvj . syrup of wallnuts q. s. mix them for an electuary . the chymists applaud their dissolutions , magistery's and essences of pearls , coral , harts-horn , and the like , rather to be magnified for their hard names then the benefit of their operation : as by which great effects are promis'd to be done , but very little perform'd , and which seem rather to aim at the gain of the seller's , then the recovery of the patient . to all the foresaid medicines , if there be any intense heat of a fever , some cooling things may be added ; as if you should add to the decoctions borage , succory , lettice , violet leaves , endive , bugloss , roses , the four cold seeds , &c. or to the electuaries , conserve of violets , roses , water lillies powder of diatragacanth , or cold diamargarit , trochises of spodium or ivory calcin'd , and the like . besides internal medicaments , bauderon prescribes for the quick driving out the pox and provoking of sweats , epithemes which are a sort of decoctions , fomentations , emplasters , oyls to anoint the pulses , and the like to be outwardly applyed . but these do all more harm then good , and by means of the ventilation of the air , rather hinder then promote the provocation of sweat. however in the use of all these things a common error of many physitians is here to be taken notice of , who intermix with their medicaments sorrel , green grapes , barberies , ribes , apples , juice and syrup of limons , tamarinds and such kind of sowr things , and this as they say to mitigate the heat , and stop the ebullition . certainly these gentlemen are altogether out of the way . let them if they please , by means of acids mitigate the heat in inflamations , burning and tertian fevers , and such like vitious fermentations of the blood ; but not in this distemper , which is to be brought to a crisis and expulsion and ripening of the morbific matter by some excess of heat and ebullition , and so to throw off the disease . for acids , because they quell the heat and sulphureous ebullition which attends this disease and hinder the necessary concoction as also the expulsion and maturation of the morbific matter , and are hurtful to the breast , are so prejudicial , that hardly any thing can be prescrib'd more dangerous . chap. xi . of the cure of the parts of the body more afflicted then others , and first of the internal . after general curation which regards in the first place the preservation and life of the whole body , some few things are to be said concerning the special cure of some parts , which in this disease are more afflicted then others . because that the morbific matter either is more especially troublesom to them , or falls upon them with greater force and in greater abundance . now the parts more then others afflicted are either internal or external . the principal internal parts are the lungs , the stomach , the guts , the liver and the reins : and that they are affected and greivously prejudic'd is discern'd by the bad performance of their functions . but although when these parts , whether one or more be particularly afflicted , the danger of the patients is so great , that very few so seiz'd , recover from the disease and escape , nevertheless because all do not dye but some are sav'd , it behoves the physitian to devise what cure may be done in these desperate cases , and as much as may be to lessen the cause of the disease , and asswage the symptoms , that so he may either restore the patient to health , or procure him a more easie death . in general the decoctions of lentils , lack , and tragacanth relieve all these parts and bowels so afflicted . for lack preserves the liver , spleen and kidneys ; lentils corroborate the intestines , and tragacanth defends the spiritual parts . particularly sweet things are proper for the lungs , labouring under sickness , as being those things which promote maturation , asswage coughing , and facilitate spitting . such are syrup of colts-foot , licorice , jujubes , wild poppies , violets , roses , cold diatragacanth , diapendium , powder and juice of licorice , conserves of roses , borage , violets , and the like , of which as occasion requires , sometimes loches , sometimes trochischs , sometimes electuaries are made . or else pectoral decoctions of barley cleans'd , colts-foot , althea , violet leaves , figs , raisins , jujubes , &c. are sweeten'd by their mixture . treacle at the beginning powerfully asswages vomiting of the stomach and pains of the heart . afterwards some such kind of emulsion is to be administer'd . ℞ . sweet almonds cleans'd ℥ j. four greater cold seeds an . ʒj . s. lettice and columbine seed an . ʒj . s. white poppy seed ʒij . s. barley water q. s. make an emulsion for one pint . to which add syrup of poppies ʒij . syrup of borage ℥ s. mix them . outwardly a fomentation may be applyed to the region of the stomach , of a decoction of mallows , althea , mint , sage , thyme , marjoram , flowers of roses , camomil and melilot , seeds of anise and cumin . after fomentation for the greater corroboration of the part , anoint with this liniments . ℞ . oyl of mint and anise . an . ℥ j. expression of nutmegs ʒj . s. oyl of spike and bricks an . ʒj . mix them for a liniment . after unction , let this little bag be lay'd on , sprinkled with hot wine , or else boyl'd a little in wine , and gently squeez'd . ℞ . ledves of majoram , rosemary , sage , flowers of melilot and roses an . half ●… handful , seeds of dill , lovage , cumin , nutmegs an . ʒj . clove gilliflowers ℈ ij . make a gross powder ▪ and sow it in a little linnen bag according to art. treacle , mithridate , diascordium , hart's-horn burnt crabes , eyes powdred , terra sigellata or sealed earth , red coral , conserve of red roses , or else the first decoction of avicen in the foregoing chapter asswage the gripings of the guts , and stop the flux of the belly . or else some such kind of almond composition . ℞ . white poppy seed ʒiij . sweet almonds cleansed ℥ ij . decoction of barley , q. s. make an emulsion to a pint , to which add , syrup of poppies and dry roses an . ʒiij . mix them together for an almond composition . when the liver is affected the same amygdalate will be very proper , adding the four cold seeds . or else a decoction of barley with red roses and red saunders sweetned with syrup of wild poppies , roses and violets . or else an electuary of citron rinds condited , conserve of roses , borage , violets , and powder of the three saunders , with an addition of syrup of wild poppies . for the kindneys , if the patient makes bloody water , the following emulsion is to be prescribed . ℞ . sweet almonds cleansed ℥ j. s. the four cold seeds an . ʒj . white poppy seed ʒiij . decoction of barley q. s. make an emulsion to a pint. in which dissolve tragacanth powdered ℈ ij . syrups of wild poppy , dryed roses and cumphry an . ℥ s. mix them together for an almond composition . liddelius in this case commends powder of amber trochischs of yellow amber , or alkakengy , with an emulsion of the four greater cold seeds . these are the primary and cheif things which can be prescribed and administred in these most dangerous cases when the inner bowels are greivously affected , according to which method physiclans may and ought to devise many others of the same nature . for a patient is not presently to be abandond as uttterly lost in the pangs of extremity and danger of death ( which would be an uncharitable act in christanity ) but it behoves a physitian to try his utmost and leave the rest to god , who has many times restored to health such as have lain in a desperate condition . chap. xii . of the cure of the external parts . the external parts which are usually most afflicted by this distemper are the hands and feet , the mouth and chaps , the nose , the ears , the eyes and face . at the coming forth of the small-pox , or when they begin to ripen , many times an extraordinary pain and itching afflicts the persons diseased , in the hollow of their hands , and the soles of their feet , because the thickness of the skin in those parts prevents their coming forth . you shall cure this symptom by somenting those parts in warm water , or in warm water mixt with sweet milk , or in a mollifying decoction . if the small pox are come out very thick about the mouth and chaps , they cause a difficulty of respiration and swallowing . in this case the mouth is frequently to be washed , and the throat also frequently gargl'd with the simple decoction of figgs , or if there be any inflammation or violent heat , the same decoction may be thus prescribed . ℞ . barley cleansed ℥ j. s. sliced figs no. xvij . raisins of the sun stoned ℥ j. s. leaves of althea , violets , endive , lettice , an . one handful and a half , flowers of pale roses one handful , of elder one handful , water q. s. make a decoction of two pints to wash the mouth . when the pox are ripe , to render the act of swallowing more easie , and cause a swifter breaking of the pox , let the patient frequently swallow a pill about the biggness of a filbeard , of new butter without any salt , wrapt up in sugar , for this wonderfully dissolves the swelling pox of the jaws . but if this happen to fail , and that the pox remain whol●… , and that the difficulty of breathing and swallowing still increases , then take a small spunge fastened to a little stick , and having dipped it in syrup of violets , squeeze it strongly against the jaws , to the end thereby the pox may be forcibly broken , and the narrowness of the passage open'd . so soon as the pox are broken , gargle with a decoction of barley , plantain , and red roses , sweetened with honey of roses and syrup of cumfrey . to defend the nostrils from the pox , let the patient very often smell to venegar . thus also forestus writes , that benedict . faventinus , before breaking of the pox , ordered their patients to smell to vinegar , wherein they had boil'd a quantity of roses . liddelius , also and riverius approve the smelling to vinegar . but if the pox happen to be very thick in the nostrils , annoint them often with a feather dipped in oyl of sweet almonds . but if they are grown into hard scabs , and obstruct the nostrils , and so procure a difficulty of breathing , then stuff into the nostrils new butter without salt , by which means the scabs being softned , fall off , and the obstruction ceases the advice of others is , that the patients should snuff up into their nostrils these and the other decoctions ; but that children cannot do ; nor can grown people do it by reason of the obstruction . only butter thrust up often into the nostrils does the business , so that there is no need of other troublesom remedies . but if there be any exulceration in the nostrils , that is to be cured with a liniment made of the oyl of the yolks of eggs and juice of plantain well mixt together in a mortar . to which , if there be an occasion of drying up the matter more than ordinary , you may add a little tutia oyntment . if the ears ake and itch ; let not the patient handle them with his hands : or if they run , let the matter go , and take care that they continue open . but if the pain be very much , dip a spunge in the decoction of the leaves of althea , flowers of ●…amomil , melilot , and roses , seeds of fengreek , dill and cumin , and drop it lukewarm into the ear. the medicinal part that concerns the eyes , consists partly in preservation , partly in the cure. to preserve the eyes from being over-run with the pox , some wash the eye-lids with plantain and rose water , wherein a little prepared tutia has been infused , or mixed with a little white self and camphire . bauderon prescribes to this purpose the following collyrium . ℞ . leaves of black-thron-bush , plantain , red roses an half a handful , boyl them in smiths water to ℥ iij. in the straining dissolve saffron ℈ j. camphire gr . v. the white of one egg , and mix them together . of this drop some few drops into the eyes every hour , and lay little rags dipped in the same upon the eye-lids , and keep the patient dark . liddle prescribes this , ℞ . rose-water ℥ ij . plantain-water ℥ j. powder of the seed of sumach ʒij . warm them over a gentle fire , and strain them with a good force . add to the straining camphir ℈ j. saffron gr . v. mix them for a collyrium , and let the eyes be often moistened with a linnen cloth dipped therein . mercurialis administers this , ℞ . rose-water , plantain-water an . ℥ j sumac ℥ s. let them steep a whole night , and make a mixture with as much white of an egg as suffices . or else he takes ●…halybeat , milk mixt with rose-water ; with which sometimes he mingles a little mirrh , to assawge the pain and itching . for my part i find nothing better then saffron powdered and mixt with cream of sweet milk. with which mixture let the eyes be anointed with a feather , touching with the same now and then the caruncles in the larger corner , which i use with success ; when the eyes are damnified , only adding thereto a little white sief . if the eye-lids cannot be preserved from the small pox , then it frequently happens , that they swell very much ; so that the eyes are closed by reason of the swelling . in this case observe , that the eye-lids , notwithstanding that swelling , are to be opened with the fingers once or twice every day , to the end the humour abiding therein may be let out , which otherwise thickning within the eye-brows begits a whitshot . but if by reason of the largeness of the swelling the eye-lids cannot be conveniently opened , they are first to be fomented with a soft spung dipt in mutton broth ; or a lukewarm dec●…ction of leaves of althea , flowers of pale roses , and melilot , and seed of fengreek , and after the use of this fomentation for some time , then try again to sunder the eye-lids with your fingers . if after the swelling is abated , and consequently the eye-lids freely open , any white clouds like the white of an egg , appear in the eyes , dimming the sight , blow a little white sugar candy finely powdered , through a quill into the eye ; with which and nothing else i have successfully removed those little clouds . but if they chance to grow harder , and absolutely blind the sight , then add to the said sugar candy a fourth or sixth part of lapis calaminaris finely powdred together with the sugar candy . that powder wonderfully takes away those clouds and restores the sight . but if the eyes are ulcerated by the pox , they must be cured with this collyrium . ℞ . ceruse washed ʒiij sarcocol . ʒj . gum tragacanth ℈ j. opium gr . ij . make trochischs of this with muscilage of tragacanth extracted in plantain-water , which when use requires , are to be dissolved in womans milk , or rose-water . the care of the face , like that of the eyes , consists partly in preservation partly in cure. preservation is not intended , to prevent the breaking forth of the pox in the face ( for if that should be hindred , the distemper would seize the inner parts , as the brain , meninx's , eyes , and other parts which would be a greater prejudice ) but that the small pox being dried and falling off , may leave as few scars and pits as may be . to which purpose several topics have been invented . some , while the pox are coming forth , frequently foment the face with a decoction wherein pease have been boyl'd to an extraordinary softness , as we say to mash . others anoint the face twice a day with a feather dipp'd in oyl of navews with great success . forestus recommends oyl of sweet almonds , riverius oyl of nuts . others bacon tosted at a hot fire , and the dripping receiv'd into rose-water , and so made into a soft oyntment , which does well ; and was generally used by that great practitioner timannus gesselius . others roast the caul of a boar-pig at the fire upon a spit , letting the fat drop into a receptacle fill'd with rose-water , and smear the face all over with that mixture , and then cover all the face with the fat of the same hog cut into thin slices . this they do twice a day , taking off the old , and laying on fresh , till perfect maturation of the pox which happens sooner by that means , till they fall off : and this is a great secret among the court lady's . certainly none of these ways are to be contemn'd , but excellent in their kind ; and i believe they are many times to be made use of . especially among the richer sort and great people , that think the physitians care do them more good by some notable exploit , then nature , by her own endeavours . however i generally give this advice to my patients , that at the beginning they anoint the face with a spunge dipped in mutton broth after the mutton is boiled from the bones , having first taken away the fat which discolours the face , and to use this several times in a day , till the maturation of the wheals ; but after that to leave the rest to nature . nay i perswade many not to tamper at all but to leave the whole to nature , especially if the pox do not come out very thick . moreover i chiefly recommend this to their care , that the patient do not scratch and dig off the wheals with his nails . for experience teaches us , that where the pustles dry and fall off of themselves , without opening , they escape with sewest pits or scars : which gracias lopez and forestus also observe . but here the custom of the courtiers may not improperly be examined , who more solicitous to preserve their beauty then others , use to open the wheals with a golden bodkin to let out the matter , before it corrode , as they pretend , more deep into the skin , and so make deeper scars and pits ; which the arabians and many modern physitians also prescribe . but we must tell them that we have alwaies found this opening very prejudicial , and that the pits and scars have been the deeper for that operation ; and riverius is of the same opinion . and this experience is supported by two reasons . first , that perforation ought not to be attempted , but when the wheals are ripe and white : but in regard that when the matter is white and concocted , it is a sign that all that sharp servour , and power of corroding the flesh or skin is quite gone , especially the wheals drying up of themselves , that operation of the golden needle is altogether superfluous , seeing there is no fear of any farther corrosion . secondly , the matter being drawn forth by that same opening operation , the cavities are presently dried up by the ambient air and grow hard ; whence it comes to pass that the flesh that lyes underneath , cannot grow up to fill the vacances . on the other side , if the wheals are not opened , but the matter be permitted to dry up of its self , then the flesh underneath is preserved soft , and so much grows up again , that before the matter is fully dried up , the place of the wheals are filled up again , so that when the scabs fall off , there are hardly any pits to be seen . this latter reason therefore teaches us , that great care is to be taken to prevent the patients from scratching off the itching scabs with their fingers , or pulling them off before they are dry'd . for certain experience tells us , that nothing causes deeper pits or scars than that unruliness . and therefore as to infants and children i alwaies advise that their hands be so ty'd and swath'd up , that they may not be able to lift them to their faces , and scratch off the wheals that are upon it . and this is the advice of the author of the book entituled ; of the property of things , for , saith he , let the nurse or physitian take care , whether they be children or grown people , that the little bladders of the pustles be not broken , either because they itch , or for any other reason ; nor opened , specially those about the face : for if the wheals are once perforated and pricked , the scars will be deep and lasting . and this is confirmed by the experience of forestus also . the arabians were wont to wash the opened wheals with salt-water , which paschal , rudius and others approve . and many , with a decoction of saunders , red roses , plantain , myrtils and sanicle . but such lotions are to be rejected ; because they dry up too quickly the pits of the pox , and so hinder the flesh from growing up , so that the pits remain as deep as they were before . sometimes it happens that the small pox leave behind filthy exulcerations which corrode the skin ; but these amatus washes first with this decoction . ℞ . flowers of red roses and myrtils , leaves of lentisc , oaken tops , and tamirish an ▪ equal parts . water q. s. make a decoction to wash the ulcers , and after you have wiped them with a cloth strow on this powder . ℞ . frankincense , mastick , red roses , sarcocoll . an . equal parts , make them into a very fine powder . forestus in the same case , besides the camphire oyntment , uses also the following oyntment of lead , which duncan liddelius highly commends . ℞ . burnt lead ℥ ij . litharge ℥ j. ceruse washed , vinegar an . ℥ s. oyl of roses ℥ iij. honey of roses ℥ j. yolks of eggs no. iij. mirrh ℥ . s. wax q. s. make an oyntment according to art. after the small pox is cured , sometimes red spots remain ; for the more speedy taking away of which , some there are that wash them twice or thrice a day with a decoction of lupines and beans , wherein some also boyl the roots of bull-rushes , and southernwood leaves . others use the distilled water of flowers of beans and solomons seal , mixing therein a little juice of limons . others wash the spots with water of cows-dung io. paschal commends the lotion of water of rosemary . mercurialis extolls the the distilled water of two calves-feet , as many limons , and a small quantity of dragons . others anoint them with the oyl of roses or pomatum mixt with tartar. but i have observ'd by long practise that they wear away sooner , if nothing at all be done to them , for the external air , after the exulcerations of the small pox is over , drys and hardens by degrees the new skin , by which means the colour of those spots wears off , and at length wholly vanishes , when the new skin has acquir'd an equal hardness with the former . and therefore i never prescribe any lotions or oyntments to that purpose , in regard they do but retard the hardning of the skin , and removal of the spots ; and for that i find the external air to be the only remedy against those spots . but if i meet with any court ladys that will not be satisfy'd without a topic remedy , i recommend to them a lotion of bean water , mixed with a little water of tartar and juice of limons , or else a lotion of virgins milk. to take away the pits and other foot steeps of the disease many use man's grease , or mutton suet ; and many prescribe several other oyntments and linements . bauderon in his prescriptions , to this purpose says he , very much conduces water of honey distill'd with turpentine . also asses fat melted with oyl of lillies : as also oyl of eggs and bricks . the blood of a hair or bull apply'd hot fills up the pits . also that which they call the sword or rind of pork or bacon if the pits be rub'd therewith , smooth the skin and fill up the pits . goose , ducks , and hens grease work the same effect , as also the ashes of a rams or goats hoof , if it may be so call'd , or of egg-shells serve to the same purpose ; and to smooth the little risings in the skin he prescribes . ℞ . oyl of lillys , goose grease , and asses grease an . ℥ j. citrine oyntment ℥ s. mix them and anoint the tubercles going to bed for several nights together . the next day wash the face with their decoction . ℞ . roots of white lillyes ℥ ij . cuckow pint or dragons ℥ i. one citron , thin bran one handful , water q. s. boyl them for a lukewarm lotion every day . forestus among other things excels the following oyntment . ℞ . oyl of sweet almonds , white lillyes an . ℥ j. capons grease ℥ iij. powder of pyony , and florence , o●…ice root , lithurge of gold an . ℈ . s. sugar candy ℈ j. all these being well mixed in a hot mortar , and press'd through a linnen cloth , anoint the places morning and evening , afterwards wash with distill'd water of calves-feet , or water of cow-dung . but all these things signifies little , for when once the pits of the small pox are dry'd , and that the scars are either too hollow or too high raised , the skin is fixed , then all topics are in vain . but if the colour of them be too red and unseemly , the colour perhaps may be taken off by virgins milk , or else some of those other prescriptions for taking away the spots ; but as to the filling up of the pits , there is nothing to be done . add to this that grease of men , sheep , asses , geese and the like do so darken and smut the skin , that they cause a greater deformity , then the pits and scars themselves . chap. xiii . of the measles . the measles are spots or small red tubercles , breaking forth in the skin , but never suppurating , arising from a peculiar fermentation of the blood. they differ accidentally , or according to the more or the less from small pox ; because the small pox rise up high and suppurate ; but the rising of the measles is hardly conspicuous , and never suppurate : and therefore they sooner go off and with less danger then the small pox ; and most frequently seize children , very rarely people of ripe years or old men , or such as have had the small pox before : for they that have had the small pox , are generally if not always , exempted from the measles , though 't is true they can challenge no , absolute immunity . they generally seize the skin and the epidermis , where they come forth and are seen . but whether like the small pox , they seize the internal parts or no , is much to be questioned , nor do i indeed believe it , in regard i do not find that hitherto any physitian has ever found it to be so . they rise from the more subtil , hotter , and dryer sanguineous humour , inclining to choler , fermenting after a specific manner , which is the reason that they quickly come forth , and never rise into wheals , like the small pox , nor into any other considerable swellings , but coming forth small at the beginning , they become red , broad spots , with a slight roughness of the skin . after the seventh day , and many times sooner , they vanish without any exulceration , not the least foot-steps remaining nor any deformity left behind . the cause of them is the same as the cause of the small pox ; but the difference of the two diseases consists in this , that the matter out of which they are generated , in the small pox is thick , sanguineous and moist , which is the reason why they rise into whealks : but in the measles thin , dryer and somewhat choleric . for the most part they seldom seize the same person above once ; nor do they so frequently as the small pox return twice or thrice , because the matter of these being much thinner , upon the first seizure is generally dissipated and consumed . they are accompany'd with a fever , like the small pox ; nay , they arise from a fever , of which they are a kind of critical evacuation . the diagnostic signs that shew the measles to be at hand , are the same which portend the approach of the small pox , and when they are come forth , the sight is the judge . the prognostics are , if they quickly appear , with a diminution of the fever , anxiety and other symptoms , and persisting in their height for three or four days , afterwards vanish by degrees . the evil prognostics , if they come forth slowly , are accompany'd with bad symptoms and disappear again the first day . moreover they have many other prognostics common with the small pox which are described . cap. . before . the cure at the beginning differs nothing from the small pox , for that the patients are to be put into a sweat by the sudorifics prescribed cap. . before , and kept in a gentle breathing sweat till they are wholly come forth : no cold must come to them ; but the decoction of barley , licorice , vetches and figs is frequently to be given them ; for that expels the measles as successfully as the small pox ; and their method is to be observ'd till they disappear again of their own accord , and with all the signs of health . there is no need of topics here . however sometimes it falls out , that there will be a vehement , most troublesom and intollerable itching and prickings in the soles of the feet , and palms of the hands ; for the mitigation of which symptom , then to hold the hands and feet for some time in cold water ; for by that means that pricking is asswag'd , and the measles in the soles of the feet and the palms of the hands break out more easily . this experiment was formerly a secret of nicolas the florentine , from whom basius astarius of pavia borrow'd it . concerning this matter forestus has a singular observation . lib . observ. . next akin to the measles is that distemper , which arising from the same cause , and requiring the same cure , is call'd the purples . of which haly abbas thus speaks , there is , says he , a sort of distemper called rubeola , which arises from a hot , subtil , and not very much bad blood ; and this sort when it comes to its height , is like the grains of millet , or somewhat bigger , and the color of it red ; nor are the pustles to be opened , but insensibly dissipate and vanish . in this distemper red , and as it were fiery spots , intermixed with small tubercles like millet seed , with a swelling hardly worth speaking of , break forth over all the body at the beginning of the disease , as it were a kind of st. anthonies fire , that is the first , second , third , or fourth day . in the height of the distemper the whole body seems to be red , as if it were under a general st. anothonies fire . but in the declination the redness is diminished , and the broad spots , as at the beginning again appear , which at length upon the fifth , sixth , seventh , eighth or ninth day vanish , the upper skin peeling off like little scales . this disease for the most part infests infants and children , very rarely people of ripe years , and like the measles for the most part seize upon the skin and epidermis , and is easily cured , if you take care of keeping the patient warm . nevertheless it happens that sometimes the internal parts are seiz'd by this distemper , to the great hazard of the patients life . thence an intense fever , violent heat and extraordinary thirst ; many times inflamations of the chaps , lungs and other bowels , with diff●…culty of breathing , extream heaviness , deliriums , tension of the hypochondriums , and other evil symptoms . in reference to which subject sennertus tells a remarkable story of such a patient , l. . de feb. c. . a trea ▪ tise of the small-pox and measles . for the greater perfection and more solid confirmation of what has been said before , we will add the histories of some patients , which we have met within our practise , not common , but such wherein there may be something singular observed . history i. in the year . after a moist and warm winter , followed a hot and moderately dry summer , wherein fevers tertian , quotidian and intermitting seized abundance of people . about the middle of iuly the small pox and measles began to be very rife . in august they greatly increased , especially the small pox : and so continuing to the end of that year carry'd off a great many to their graves . more then that , they who in those two months fell sick of other diseases , were also in a short time after seized by the measles , but chiefly by the small pox. at that time we saw several , who having had the small pox very thick , have afterwards had them a second time ; and that second time they break forth in greater quantity than the first . nay , it has been known , that some have had the small pox , and been very full too , three times within the space of six months . though it be a thing that rarely uses to happen , especially in so short a time . these diseases took their rise from a continual fever , which in some is more intense , in others more remiss , with a pulse for the most part oppressed , weak , thick and unequal . for the most part the symptoms were very bad ; an extream heaviness , oppression of the heart , dryness of the mouth , tremblings of the extream parts , deliriums , &c. in many the small pox come forth after the first or second , but in most not before the third fourth or fifth days ; where they appeared later the patients were in great danger , and many dy'd ; for oft-times the strength of the patient was so wasted by the violence of th●…●…istemper , that at length , when the red spots , the harbingers o●…●…e small pox appeared , nature was so feeble that she could not expel them with that vigour as she ought to have done . they that vomited or coughed up blood , or piss'd bloody , they generally dy'd , not one in six hundred escaping . for their internal bowels being seized with the small pox , were so corrupted that they could never be restored to health . such as had the small pox very thick in their mouths , tongues , palate , chaps , asperia arteria , and gullet were very much troubled to fetch their breaths , and to swallow before the maturation and breaking of the wheals ; which was the reason that many were stiffled . they who were purged by unskilful physitians at the beginning for the most part died ; in regard the small pox come forth more naturally , when the belly is bound then when it is loose . our treacle water was much more prevalent to provoke sweat in children , then any other diaphoretic . after breaking , the decoction of figs drank very much assisted to expel the pox , especially if sycory , carduus benedict . scabious , red vetches , and other such things were added . however it was not to be administred if the belly were loose . the common people and country folk , steeped sheeps dung and horse dung in wine or ale , and then straining it through a linnen cloath , gave it lukewarm with good success to their patients . but the greatest part of the cure consisted in keeping all manner of cold from the patients . annotations . . of the use and vertue of figs , and their benefit in the cure of these diseases , and the decoctions usually made of them , we have discoursed at large cap. . before . avicen also thus speaks of their vertues . the water of figs , says he , is good ; for figs are vehement expellers to the outward parts , and that is one way to escape the disaster of the small pox. . this very advice concerning cold has avicen also taken notice of , when says he the small pox begin to appear , then the catching cold will be the occasion of a great mistake , for that it detains the superfluity within , and carrys it to the principal members , and for that it is impossible for the small pox to come out and appear ; thence proceeds restlesness , narrowness of the throat , and sometimes swoonding therefore the superfluities are to be assisted with such things as make them boyl , and open oppellations , as fennel and parsley with sugar and their juices , or some decoction of their roots and seeds . history . ii. the daughter of iohn crasselt eight years of age , fell sick of the small pox ; which for the first three days came out very thick over the skin of the whole body . the fourth day she had a hoarsness with a little cough and pain in her belly . the fever also from the beginning till this time continued in the same degree . the sixth day a purulent diarrhea , with griping of the ●…estines followed , and she coughed up much purulent bloody matter . no remedies availing , and her strength being wasted , she dy'd the eighth day . annotations . in this patient , there is no question to be made but that the small pox had seized the internal bowels , the guts and lungs , and perhaps the liver , and other bowels , the affections of which in this distemper are mortal . now that the internal bowels may be seized by the small pox , our own eyes will convince us , as fernelius tells us . it is often found saies he , tha several who have been dissected after their deaths have had their liver , spleen , lungs , and all their inner bowels all over covered with mattry pustles like the skin . paraeus also observes the same thing . this says he , richard hubert the chyrurgion and i saw in two girles the one four the other seventeen years of age ; who both dying of the small pox were both dissected , at what time their internal bowels appear'd covered over with scabby pustles like those upon the skin . history iii. the wife of iames de clear , a woman of thirty years of age , was taken with a fever not very violent , together with a kind of drowsiness , pain at the heart , a heaviness of the head , and a ●…light intermitting delyrium . now because the small pox were then very rife , i suspected the small pox would follow these symptoms , because she had never had them before . for the cure therefore having first loosened her belly with a glister , i gave her this sudorific . ℞ . treacle , diascordium of fracastorius an . ʒ s. salt of wormwood ℈ j. treacle water ℥ ij . mix them for a potion . this taken she fell into a good sweat ; but the disease continuing in the same state , the same was given her again the next day , with like success , for all that sweating would not move the disease . then i prescribed her to drink this decoction ; and ordered her to be kept three days in a gentle breathing sweat , which she easily endured ; as being a woman of good discretion , and very obedient to her physitian . ℞ . barly cleansed , fennel roots an . ℥ j. elecampane roots ℥ s. sliced licorice ʒij . red vetches ℥ j. s. scabious half a handful , fennel seed ʒ j. s. figs nō . xvij . water q. s. make a decoction to two pints . when still no signs of the small pox appeared , again i loosened her belly with a glyster , and the next day ordered a vein to be opened in her arm , the third , taking the decoction she sweat moderately , and so continued for ten days using the said decoction ; afterwards because the fever and heaviness seemed again to increase , and for that she waxed more drowsy and restless , i again gave her the diaphoretic above mentioned , adding , extract of carduus benedict . ℥ s. which when she had taken and sweat violently , the forerunners of the small pox began to appear up and down upon her skin , that is to say , the red spots : then she continued in a gentle breathing sweat for two days , still drinking the decoction before mentioned , and in that time the small pox were very much risen , and the fever with other symptoms vanished by degrees . all the time of the disease she took no other food then thin broths ; and every other day she had once a day a stool voluntarily . annotations . in this patient i almost despair'd of any coming forth of the small pox , and thought i had been deceived in my judgment , for i could not believe they would have come forth so late , that is to say upon the twentieth day ; neither did i ever see them break forth so late in any other person ▪ hence it appeared that hippocrates was in the right , where he says , that remedies when they are truly administer'd are not to be changed , so long as there is no other urgent indication that requires an alteration . history . iv. the son of edward wilmer ten years of age , so soon as the fever had seized him , and that the small pox began to appear in several parts of his body , one edmund an english chyrurgeon was sent for , who to free the patient from the heaviness that oppressed him , gave him some purging medicine ; this in a short time encreased his drowsiness ; a terrible loosness followed , together with an extraordinary wast of the natural strength . presently the pox fell , and the child died the next night . annotations . hippocrates says thus , where nature leads , there we ought to follow , if she lead by ways agreeable to the law of nature . but in the small pox nature leads from the center to the periphery , and that this is the most convenient way for the evacuation of the malignant matter fermenting and boyling , the experience of many ages has taught us ; therefore in the cure of this disease , a physitian ought in the first place to observe nature , either to let her do her own work of her own accord , or if she be feeble , to assist her in her action : but he must not disturb her true motion , with a motion contrary to it , and when the malignant matter is wholsomly and regularly driving to the exterior parts recal it back to the innermost and more noble bowels . for , says hippocrates , such things are to be fetch'd out of the body , which coming forth of themselves are conducible to health ; but those things that come forth violently are to be restrain'd , stopp'd and retain'd . but such things as we ought to fetch out are not brought forth by evacuation through the guts , neither do they come forth according to the regular motion of nature , nor by ways agreeable to the laws of nature ; therefore in this disease evacuation by glysters is not to be provoked through the intestins by glysters , or if it come forth of its own accord it is to be stop'd as soon as may be . hence , says rhases , great care is to be taken , after the coming forth of the pustles whether high or broad , least the belly be loosened with medicaments ; for they presently cause a disentery , especially where the pustles are very high ; thus also avenzoar never prescribes any purging medicaments to those that are sick of the small pox , and forbids the belly to be loosened , unless by the help of a suppository , if the patient be to hard bound . this egmund the chyrugeon never understood ; and so by his ignorance kill'd the patient ; as it happens to several others , who slighting the learned physitians , had rather purchase death with gold from ignorant mountebanks and homicides then buy health with copper from prudent and knowing physitians . history . v. two sisters , young gentlewomen both , the one of twenty four , the other of twenty six years , at a season when the small pox were very rife , were extreamly afraid of the disease . it fell out by accident , as they were going to church , a young lad , newly cured of the small pox was got abroad , and coming along in the street , at least thirty paces distant from them , having his face all spotted with red spots , the remainders of the footsteps of the disease ; with which sight they were so scared that they thought themselves infected already : thereupon i being sent for to visit the young ladies , endeavour'd by many arguments to dispel these idle fears ; and for the better satisfaction of both , prescribed them a gentle purge , which after they had taken ▪ the next day but one , i ordered a vein to be opened in the arm , and desired them to pluck up a good heart ; and to the end they might believe themselves to be the more certainly secured from the distemper , i forbid them the eating of all such dyet as might contribute the procuring of this disease , prescribed them certain apozems of succory and other cooling things to drink ; and ordered them to walk abroad , visit their friends , and by pleasant discourse and conversation , and all other ways imaginable to drive those vain conceits out of their minds . but all that i could do signified nothing , so deeply had this conceit rooted it self in their imagination ; for after fourteen days of health , wherein they continually walked abroad and were merry with their friends and acquaintance , yet all the while the small pox ran in their minds ; at length , without any occasion of infection , they were both together seized with a fever , and the next day the small red spots appeared in their face and hands , which after i had given them the decoction of figs , in a short time after coming farther out , terminated in the small pox , which came forth very thick as well upon the body as the face , and so the fever , the heaviness , and other symptoms ceased by degrees , and they themselves , forbearing to shift their foul linnen in fourteen days , and committing no error in their diet , but observing my prescriptions exactly , without scratching off the pox with their nails , were both cured with very little or no prejudice to their beauty . annotations . how wonderful the strength of imagination is , we have experience in many persons , for that by the motions of the mind it frequently works miracles . and thus in these two gentlewomen through a continual and constant cogitation caused by the preceding fear , that idea of the small pox so strongly imprinted in their minds , and thence in the spirits and humours , begat therein a disposition and aptitude to receive the small pox. i remember the same year , i went to visit a noble german , who dream●… that he was drawn against his will to visit one that was sick of the small pox , and was very much disfigur'd ; which dream made such an impression in his mind , that he could by no means drive it out of his thoughts . he lived free for three weeks , but then falling into a fever was pepper'd with the small pox. history vi. a certain apothecary that was a strong man about thirty years of age , going into a citizens house , when he found and saw of a suddain his patient all over covered with the small pox upon his face , he trembled a little at the sight of so much deformity , and so departed . a little after to drive the whimsey out of his head he drank very hard ; nevertheless all he could do could not put that fancy out of his thoughts , which the sight of such an object had imprinted in his mind ; though he were otherwise , a man of an undaunted courage : so that the sixth day a fever seized him with an extream heaviness , a restless sleep , and a kind of slight delirium ; which after twice taking of a sudorific decoction , was attended with the red spots that usually fore-run the small pox , which within the space of twenty four hours came forth very thick , upon which eruption the fever and all the symptoms vanished , and the patient being restor'd to his health , went abroad again in three weeks . annotations . i would not advise any persons that are timorous to come near those that are sick of the pestilence or small pox ; for if the sight of one that lay ill of the small pox , could move a man of that courage as this apothecary was , how much more would it have affected a timorous person , now it may be questioned whether this apothecary might not be touched with any infection , or whether he might not contract the distemper from some other cause ? now that there could not be any thing of contagion appears from hence , that the same person was of such an undaunted spirit that he visited at other times , several persons that had lay sick of the same distemper , without any prejudice ; and therefore the cause seems rather to be that suddain conturbation of his mind and spirits , with which he was stricken upon the unexpected sight of this same sick person , and which continually ran in his thoughts ; from which idea such a disposition arose in his body , which at length produced the small pox. now if any man can more clearly unfold how such an accident should happen , he shall be my great apollo . history . vii . a young maid of two and twenty years of age , full body'd , fresh colour'd , and somewhat fat , being seized with a mild fever , besides extream heaviness and some sleight interveneing deliriums , suffered under frequent and strong epileptic convulsions , and very terrible swooning fits , so that the standers ▪ by thought she had been troubled with the mother , and that she would presently dye . i being sent for , when i understood that she had had her monthly evacuations eight days before , loosened her belly with a glyster , and the same day order'd her to be let blood in the arm ; about the evening i gave her this sudorific ℞ . theriac . androm . ʒ j. harts-horn burnt , extract of carduus benedictus , salt of the same an . ℈ j. treacle-water and carduus-water an . ℥ j. oyl of amber three drops . mix them for one draught . having taken this , she sweat soundly that night with great relief , neither did her swooning fits , nor her convulsions return : the next day the red spots , fore-runners of the small pox began to appear up and down all over her body . thereupon we gave her this decoction to drink . ℞ . elecampane root , licorice sliced an . ʒ iij. barley cleansed ℥ j. red vetches ℥ j. s. fennel seed ʒij . figs no. xvj . raisins stoned ℥ j. s. water q. s. make a decoction to two pints . upon this the small pox broke out very thick ; and all the symptoms presently ceasing with the fever , she was restored to her health in four weeks , and as it were rescu'd from the jaws of death , went abroad again about her business . annotations . in this disease such epileptic convulsions and swoonings are very band presages ; and unless the small pox appears very quickly , the greatest danger is to be feared ; for that they may be easily the death of the patient before the pox break forth . nor is it any wonder , in regard this malignant mischeif grievously effects the heart , as appears by the fever , the swoonings , and the heaviness of the mind , and therefore greater danger is to be expected , if the brain the primary bowel of life , be equally afflicted . history viii . rutger schorer a lad of fourteen years of age , and eldest son of isaac schorer a lodger of mine , was taken in september with a fever and small pox , and had them very thick , when he began to grow well about the fourteenth day , his brother isaac schorer was taken in the same manner . when he had lain sixteen days , his sister mary schorer about ten years of age , fell sick of the same distemper ; and when she was pretty well at the fourteenth day , the other and youngest daughter maud schorer , had the small pox come out very thick upon her . in the mean time , the two sons that were first seiz'd , were recovered and went abroad . but when the youngest sister maud schorer had kept her bed about twenty days , rutger schorer was taken again with a fever and the small pox , and he being recovered , isaac schorer took his bed again upon the same account ; and being almost cured , mary schorer was taken a second time , and the third week after maud schorer was again seized as the rest had been . and as the first time the disease had descended in order from the eldest to the youngest , so likewise in so short a space of time , it observed the same order a second time ; and yet two at once were never seiz'd with the disease . and which is to be wondered at , all these four were so little prejudiced by the distemper , that not one of them happened to be disfigured in the face either with pits or scars , which is in great part to be attributed to the great care which we took in the cure , in regard we were all of one family ; so that we had the opportunity to see them every hour . annotations . the small pox seldom seize the same person twice or thrice ; for that generally upon the first seizure all that specific malignant contamination , inherent in the blood and several parts , being seperated by the fermentaceous ebullition , is quite expelled ; which effervescency , if it be not strong enough , then it happens that the blood is not sufficiently purify'd from that defilement , and hence that after some years , the small pox comes again by reason that the old remainders are by some new occasion provoked to action . but that the small pox should seize in such an order four children of the same man , and that in so short a distance of time , and every time come out so thick , is that which never before we knew in all our practise . if perchance some few had only come forth the first time , it might have been probable , that some of the relics of the contamination not sufficiently seperated through weak fermentation , might break forth again ; but in regard that conjecture vanishes by reason of the great quantity coming out over the whole body , both the first and second time , i would fain know to what other cause we can attribute such an accident as this , then to some occult and unexpressible cause , that lies no less latent in the small pox then in the pestilence : and how it should come to pass , that i my self , who am now about seventy years of age , and was not only conversant with these but a thousand others , yet never should have the small pox , since that contagion does so easily infect others . history ix . a virgin of three and twenty years of age , plethoric and strong , being taken of a suddain with a fever , accompanied with an extraordinary heaviness , of her own head took a dram of treacle in a little wine , which causing her to sweat soundly , presently the small pox came out very thick over all the body ; but her fever and heaviness were so far from slackning , that they grew more violent . then my advice , but too late , was asked ; for the strength of the maid was so far spent , that there was hardly any thing to be given her . however i gave her twice a dram of crabs-eyes , prepared with a little decoction of barley , and prescribed her a pleasing julep . but the sixth day , her monthly evacuations came from her , out of the order of time , and the same day the pox that continued high raised till then , suck down again ; so that the fever and heaviness increasing , the maid , all her strength failing her , dy'd the next night . annotations . at the same time , two other young maids , their evacuations bursting out unexpectedly , and unseasonably , in a short time dy'd . and this has been observed by us several times in this disease , when there is a violent ebullition of the blood , and that the small pox come out thick , without any diminution of the fever and symptoms , then it is a very bad if not a mortal sign ; if the monthly evacuations break forth out of season . for such patients seldom or never escape , though that eruption happens upon the seventh or any other critical day . moreover we have observed this , that if during the ebullition of the blood in the small pox , the monthly evacuations also break forth , at the usual period of time , such patients are then also in great danger , and many of them dye , though some ease might be expected from such an evacuation . history x. ann of durenburch , a young maid of twenty years of age , was taken with a fever and heaviness , accompanied with a dosiness of the head , and an inclination to sleep , and oft-times a slight interveneing delirium , affrightment in her sleep , and a moderate thirst. having taken a diaphoretic , and sweat soundly , soon after the small pox appeared . afterwards she drank of this decoction four , five , or six times a day . ℞ . barley cleansed ℥ s. root of elacampane ʒ v. sliced licorice ʒij . orange-peels ʒiij . scabious a handful and a half , fennel seed ʒj . four greater cold seeds an . ℈ iiij . fat figs no. xv ▪ raisins stoned ℥ j. s. vvater q. s. for an apozem of two pints . when the small pox were now sufficiently expelled by the use of this decoction , i ordered that her face should be often fomented with a soft spunge dipped in lukewarm mutton broth : but because it fell out that the broth could not be had , and she was importunate for some topic to preserve her face , i ordered her face to be anointed twice a day , with old oyl of turneps , which done the pox in her face were not so big as those over the rest of her body , they ripened also sooner , and the scabs at length falling off , no pits at all remained in her face : only the oyntment was continued till she was perfectly cured . annotations . if the small pox are not large and contiguous , for the most part we administer nothing to prevent piting , but leave nature to do her own business , in regard she does it better of her own accord then the physitians can do by art , so that the patients themselves do not dig off the scabs with their nails , but suffer them to dry and fall off of their own accord . this daily experience tells us : for that thousands are better cured without pits or marks left behind , to whom no topics are administer'd : and many to whom topics have been administer'd without judgment , have had deeper pits , then if they had left the work to nature without topics . but if the pox are very large and contiguous in the face , or if they be such patients that will not be satisfy'd , unless the physitian ascribe them topics , which is frequent among young ladys that are afraid of their beauty ; then such things are to be prescrib'd , as mollifie the scabs of the pustles , and bring the matter therein contain'd to quickest maturation . to that purpose i have frequently prescribed the oyl of turneps with good success ; by which means very few or no footsteps of the small pox have been seen ; which was once imparted to me as a great secret by on harscamp , a famous practitioner . forestus anoints the scabs with oyl of sweet almonds till they are dryed up , which prevents , as he says , all piting and scars , and so highly approves that remedy , that he cannot think of any better , as being that which has no smell , and is no way noisom either to children or grown people . however great care is to be taken of making use of dryers at the beginning ; for these prevent the farther maturation of the matter , and by drying up the scabs and pits , hinder the generation of new flesh ; of which errour committed , forestus gives us a terrible example . for , says he , when a young gentleman of thirty years of age , having had the small pox , by the advice of his nurse made use of butter fryed to blackness in a frying-pan , and besmeared all his face over with it , the scab became so very nasty , exulcerating all his face , that he lost one of his eyes , and but for the application of timely remedies , had lost the other too . and therefore it is that we so often inculcate , that many people scape better that use no applications at all ; so that whatever authors write that maturing medicines are to be applyed , i say , it is to be done with great caution . history xi . a noble lady of eighteeen years of age , finding her self not well , ordered me to be sent for : she had a slight fever and complained of melancholly at her heart ( which caused her frequently to sigh ) and heaviness of her head , with an inclination to sleep . now in regard the small pox was then very rife , i had presently a suspition of her distemper . thereupon when she told me that she had been at stool that day , and that it was a good while before her monthly period would be up , presently i let her blood in the arm , and took away eight ounces of blood ; for she was plethoric : after which she found her self as she said somewhat better . ten hours after blood-letting , certain red spots began to appear upon her breasts and hands , but few and small : thereupon about the evening i prescribed her this diaphoretic ℞ . treacle of andromachus , diascordium of fracastorius an . ʒ s. salt of wormwood , confection of hyaci●…th an . ℈ j. treacle-water , and vvater of carduus benedict . an . ℥ j. mix them for a draught . when this had caused her to sweat moderately all night , the next day the pustles came forth higher , and the fever together with the anxiety vanished altogether : thereupon we gave her a decoction of figs in ale to drink ; and thus in a few days she reovered with these few remedies , not having had above three or four in her face , and very few upon the rest of her body . annotations . what is to be thought of blood-letting in this disease and when it is to be made use of , we have sufficiently explained . cap. . and i have particularly observed , that if in plethorics it be timely made use of , before any eruption of the small pox , then it comes forth more easily and not so thick , and the patient recovers sooner . and therefore when you meet with young girls that are nice of their beauty , i think it very beneficial to let blood in time , seeing that then fewer and lesser pox come out in the face : but because the physitian is seldom sent for till the pox begin to come forth , hence it is that blood-letting cannot be made use of . history xii . a little son of nicholas ab harvelt , began to grow ill in august ; but in regard that i was sent for at the beginning , and had presently a suspicion of the small pox ; i gave him a little treacle-water , with a little bezoar-stone and saffron ( for the child was not above three years old , and other ungrateful tastes would not have gone down : ) and to preserve his eyes , i ordered his eye-lids to be anointed with saffron mixed with womans milk. the aunt who had the care of the child , in my absence mixes a greater quantity then is usual with the milk , and not only anointed his eyes but all his face twice a day . which caus'd a strange disfigurement of the child , whose face was all over yellow with the saffron : in the mean while the child sweat very well , and still took now and then three spoonfuls of treacle-water , which preserved him in a moderate heat , and drank for his drink the simple decoction of figs. the next day some very small spots began to appear here and there upon his skin ; but the third day the small pox came out very thick over all his body , except his face ; where none at all , nor the least sign of any were to be seen ; yet the child was never the worse in regard they came out so thick over all the rest of his body . the fever then went off , and so the child was perfectly recovered , without having his face so much as touched . annotations . the saffron gently astringent repels and drys , but whether being outwardly applied it hinders the coming out of the pox ; or whether through any other specific and occult quality it has that effect , i am uncertain , and much question . but we saw the effect of it not only in this child , but also in three or four more : for the childs aunt , when she had told what had happened up and down to other women , there were several that would needs try the experiment with the same good success . and whether it will have the same success always at other times , when occasion offers we shall try our selves ? history xiii . the most noble the lady lucas , an english woman , bred up in her house a young lady , her brothers daughter , about six or seven years of age : so soon as she began to be fevourish , anxious and drosie , by my advice she had given her a little powder liberans , harts-horn burnt , bezoar-stone and saffron , with an ounce of treacle-water , which caused her to sweat well with some ease . for her drink , she drank the decoction of raw harts-horn , as it is prepared for gellies , and frequently the simple decoction of figs : in the mean time the lady lucas , every day twice or thrice washed the face of our patient with that same sort of cinnamon-water which our apothecaries generally sell , which is made of cinnamon distilled in borrage-water , and diligently kept the young lady in a continual breathing heat . the second day toward evening the red spots began to appear , the third day the small pox came out very thick , every where except upon her face , where there was not one to be seen : so that the lady continued the lotion of the childs face for some days . in the mean while the fever going off , our patient was perfectly cured , without the least sign of the small pox upon her face . annotations . the same lady gave the same advice also to the lady couper , who having washed the faces of three of her children that lay sick of the small pox with cinnamon-water , not one of them had any sign of them in their faces . whether the same success will always attend upon others , will be manifest by the frequent tryal upon others . in the mean time it is to be considered , whether upon hindering the small pox from breaking out in the face , there may not be some danger least the menixe's and brain should receive some prejudice . history xiv . the lady ruchabor , about twenty four years of age , so beautiful , that she was the admiration of many , in the month of august was taken with a fever and the small pox , so that her head was wonderfully swell'd ; when she had made use of several remedies by my advice , and the small pox came out very thick over all her body , and had pepper'd her face , at length after the fever went off , and that the swelling of her head was quite fallen , i ordered her face to be frequently fomented with mutton broth. but she not contented with that , to preserve her beauty , by the advice of some ignorant women , caused the ripe pustles to be opened with a golden needle , and the matter to be squeezed out ; but mark the event , she that perswaded her self , she should have no pits , when she recovered , had her face so disfigured with scars and pits , that of one that was most beautiful she became very deformed , and a thousand times bewayl'd that foolish act of pricking the wheals . annotations . tho many physitians to preserve the face from scars and pits , order the ripe wheals to be prick't with a golden needle , yet we have found a thousand times by experience , that it occasions the leaving of several pits , and that it is fat more conducing to the cure not to touch them either with needle or hand . hence senertus , the safest way , says he , when the matter appears white and consequently concocted , is to commit the whole management to nature , since experience teaches us , that where the pox dry up and open of themselves , those people scape with less disfigurement , and less footsteps of the disease . but how dangerous it is to make use of the hands , and topics , forestus tells us , by the example of a young maid . when the distemper says he , was going off , and i was desired to prescribe drying liniments to the face , i advised the patient to forbear them and commit the whole cure to nature , when a white concocted matter ran out of the broken pox , and i ordered her not to touch the scabs with her fingers , though they itched never so much . but because she could forbear scratching the wheals , some of which were not yet ripe , and by the advice of idle women made use of fat and cream to dry them up , her face was overcast with a deformed scab , and the scars remained ; besides a redness arose in her eyes , that could never be cured , but continued as long as she lived . history xv. a noble young lady about twenty years of age , having sat a while with her dear companions that lay sick of the small pox seemed to have received some infection from it : that very evening her head grew heavy , and she lost her stomach which was accompanied with a slothful weariness of the whole body . the next day she grew feverish : upon which i foretold her , she must expect the small pox : thereupon i gave her a sudorific draught , and ordered her to be kept in a gentle breathing sweat all the next night . the third day in the morning i found her well covered over all the rest of her body , only her legs out of the bed , and her feet up to the ankles in a vessel of warm milk. this she had by the advice of the silly women , who had perswaded her that if she bathed her feet in warm milk she would have no pox in her face : so that she continued in that milky bath all the day till the evening . in the mean time the small pox came out that very day , but no where so thick as in the face ; and so the invention of bathing the feet in milk was found to be useless : however in other things the patient followed my advice , and being well cured , without many pits in her face , laught many times afterwards at the silly milky counsel that was given her . annotations . this patient had good luck that her bathing did her no more harm , for though she were well cover'd , yet by that ventillation some cold might easily have got to her , and have done her much injury ; i remember afterward i saw the same bath made use of in the court of the baron of brederode to a young lady that then lay sick of the small pox ; but still with the same success : so that this bathing in milk lost all its reputation in that court , though it never had any with me , notwithstanding that i have heard it commended by several women . history xvi . in october two sons of n. romburch a vintner , were taken with a fever . the next day the parents gave to each half a dram of treacle , which caused a moderate sweat ; and for drink they gave them the simple decoction of figs in small ale. the third day some red spots appeared ; and afterwards the small pox came out very thick over the whole body and many also seized the eye-lids . then my advice was desired . now because the children were indifferent well , proportionably to the time of the disease , i did not think it necessary to prescribe any physic , only i ordered the parents , to wash the eye-lids three or four times a day with a soft spunge dipt in a decoction of althea , flowers of melilot , roses and fenigreek , and to open the eye-lids with their fingers once or twice a day , to let out the humour gathered underneath : but the parents neglected that advice , foolishly tender , and fearing to hurt their children by handling their eylids . upon the fourteenth day the pox being ripe , the swelling of the eye-lids fell , and the eyes open'd ; but it was observed that both the boys were perfectly blind , and that there was a skin grown over the sight and the iris , which skin was generated out of the humour , so many days detained within the eye , and became viscous , and now covered the whole eye like a veil . this unexpected accident greived the parents ; thereupon i prescribed the following powder . ℞ . the whitest sugar-candy ʒij . lapis calaminaris ℈ j. make a very fine powder . this i caused to be blown into their eyes through a hollow quill : and the slight pain which it caused , quickning the motion of the eye-lids , those little films were in a short time rubbed off , and washed away , by the tears that dropt from the eye ; by which means the boys were cured of that impediment . annotations . this we have often happen'd to see in practice , that by reason of the eye-lids being swell'd and shut up by the small pox , littles films have grown in the eyes , but we have easily rubb'd them off with this powder , because they only stick to the outside of the sight of the eye ; if it be presently us'd at the beginning , when the swelling falls , and the eyes begin to open ; but if you stay till they are dry'd and hardned by the external air , then they will not easily give way to so slight a remedy , but sharp medicines must be us'd ; and the mischief is to be remov'd with more trouble and pain . two things are therefore to observ'd . . that the swell'd eye-lids , let the patient be never so unwilling , must be parted one from the other with the fingers ; and free egress given to the liquor contained in the eye . . that if those films are grown ▪ that their cure be not delayed , but that care be immediately taken to remove them before they are harden'd by the external air. history xvii . being sent for together with a chyrurgeon to the village of bemmel to see a country man that was wounded in the breast , by accident we found a boy in the same house that was taken with a fever and under great anxiety ; and therefore because we had no other remedies at hand , we perswaded the man to get an ounce of new sheep's dung , and steep it three hours in small ale , and then straining it give it blood warm to the boy and cover him up close . the next day i went again , and found that the boy had sweat very well after his draught ; and when i look'd nearer upon him i perceived that the measles were come out very thick upon him , upon which the fever was almost gone off with a great part of his heaviness . i ordered them to keep him in a breathing sweat for three or four days , and to be sure not to let him take cold. annotations . i expected this body should have had the small pox , but the measles came forth , of which the first cure is the same with the small pox. new sheeps-dung with equal efficacy expels both the one and the other , and therefore in both cases is very advantageously administer'd , especially in those places where other things are not to be had , some there are who prefer horse-dung administer'd after the same manner , before it . but that sheeps-dung is much more prevalent , the savour tells , in which we find there is much more salt of niter or some more specific diaphoretic salt. history xviii . a young man of twenty four years of age , strong and plethoric after his violent exercises of tennis , and fencing , and hard drinking of wine between while , fell into a violent fever , accompany'd with great thirst , dryness of the mouth , and extream anxiety and restlessness , with other very bad symptoms . this young man we order'd first to be let blood and then prescribed him a glister , together with julips , cooling apozems and electuarys to quench his thirst . the third day he was purged with an infusion of senna-leaves and rhubarb mixt with electuary diaprunum ; which gave him six stools , but the heat remaining together with the fever , he was let blood again the fourth day . the fifth day he continued the use of his julips , apozems and cooling electuary . the night succeeding the sixth day he was so very heavy and drowsie , that there was little hopes of his life , and we thought he would have dyed . the seventh day the measles came out all over his body by way of crisis . then the fever and all the pressing symptoms somewhat remitted , so that the patient slept a little the next night : but by the two next days both fever and symptoms were quite gone off by degrees . the tenth day the measles began to lessen , and upon the twelsth quite vanished . and thus the patient who seemed to be at deaths dore , contrary to the expectation of many was restored to his former health . annotations . the beginning of the disease was such , that no man could well have any suspition of the measles ; and therefore the patient was dealt with by us , as labouring under a burning fever ▪ which fever at length you see , ended nevertheless in a critical evacuation of the measles . history . xix . a strong young man was seized by a violent fever accompany'd with a thick , weak and unequal pulse , an extream anxiety , heavy pain his head , drowsiness , restless sleep , and a slight kind of delirium . i would willingly have let him blood , but because he would not permit me , i gave him the following sudorific toward the evening . ℞ . treacle ℈ ij . diascordium of fracastorius ℈ i. s. confectio alkermes , extract of carduus benedictus , salt of vvormwood an . ℈ j. of our treacle water , carduus vvater an . ℥ j. mix them for a draught . though upon this he sweat very well , yet finding the disease to continue in the same state : the next day he took the same sudorific again , and sweat very well ; but then the red spots that fore-run the small pox began to appear up and down in the skin . nevertheless the fever and other symptoms seemed to be somewhat abated , yet did not go off : therefore i ordered the patient to be kept in a gentle breathing heat , and that he should take a draught of the following decoction luke-warm several times a day . ℞ . red vetches ℥ j. s. barley cleansed ℥ j. scabious one handful s. fat figgs no. xvi . raisins stoned , ℥ ij . vvater . q. s. make a decoction to two pints . by this means the small pox came forth every where very thick , and rose very high , the fever and anxiety still continuing ; so that the patient seemed to be in great danger of his life : for which reason i thought it necessary to give him the former sudorific again ; puting him into somewhat a greater sweat , and the decoction of figgs being continued over and above for two days , the seventh day , contrary to all expectation , the measles came out over the whole body between the small pox , and then the fever and other symptoms abated very much ; and by degrees went off , all together , and the patient being happily recovered the fourth week from the beginning of the disease , went abroad again . annotations . i do not remember that ever i saw this accident above twice or thrice in all my practice ; that is to say that the small pox and measles should come both together . however by this observation it appears , that although both these diseases in respect of infection have somewhat in common , yet in respect of the subject to which that infection adheres , there is something of difference and distinction between them . otherwise what should be the reason that in this patient , the whole infection should not be evacuated with the expulsion of the small pox ? then again it is to be admir'd that why the measles , adhering to the more suttle and thinner matter , did not break out first , seeing that the thinner matter is quicker in coming forth than the thicker . history . xx. a noble batavian , was seized by a fever , accompany'd with a strong pulse but very unequal , an extream anxiety , thirst , restlessness , a slight delirium , and some little convulsive motions of the extream parts . having loosned his belly with a glister , i ordered him to be let blood. toward evening having taken a sudorific he sweat very much , but the disease remaining in the same state , the next day the sudorific was repeated , he sweat very well . all this while the symptoms nothing abated , but the patient began to complain of a pricking in his skin quite all over his body . soon after it was observed that great red spots appeared in his skin , some as broad as a dollar , some half a hands breath , some more , some less , which seemed to be all fiery , sown all over with little risings like millet seeds . these spots in a days time closed all together , and spread themselves all over the body . so that it was all over of a red florid colour . in the mean time the fever and symptoms abated . three days after , that general redness abated also , and the spots returned to be as they were when they first appeared , and so within three days vanished quite away , and so the patient , after the skin of his body was all peeled off , was restored to perfect health . annotations . this distemper , which forestus calls purpurae , or the purples is very near akin to the measles ; and the cure of both is almost the same ; only the subject to which this infection adheres is hotter then that of the measles ; but it is as easily dissipated ; nor are those little pustles suppurated , but dissipated by heat . medicinal observations and cures of isbrand de diemerbroeck . observation . i. an inflammation of the lungs . monsieur la fontaine , a noble french man , about thirty years of age plethoric , no great drinker , yet a lover of unmixed wine , upon the tenth of november , going to bed , began to complain of difficulty of breathing , yet without any pain in his breast : soon after a redness seized his face , especially his cheeks , and his eyes also appeared swelled and inflamed . this difficulty of breathing , within two hours was so encreased , that he could hardly draw his breath ; insomuch that he was afraid of a suffocation . wherefore about midnight he sent for me , bidding the messenger tell me withal that he should dye , unless i could help him with some present remedy . by the redness of his face , and his little frothy and flowry spitting , as also by his difficulty of breathing , which was without any pain , yet with a kind of heaviness in his breast , i judged this distemper to be an inflammation in his lungs , so much the rather because i found by his pulse , that he was in a strong fever . thereupon i ordered a pint of blood to be taken from the basilic vein of his right arm : by which he felt very much ease . to drink ( for he was very thirsty ) i gave him a ptisan of barly cleansed , and licorice boyl'd in water . in the mean time the following glister was prepared , and given by six a clock the next morning . ℞ . em●…llient decoction ℥ x. elect. diacatholici diaphoenici an . ℥ j. common salt ʒj . oyl of violets ℥ ij . for a glister . this gave him two sufficient stools : but because the difficulty of breathing still continued very oppressive , about ten o clock we took away a pint of blood out of his left arm. the blood appeared indifferent good , only that it had a great deal of yellowish froth at the top . then besides the ptisan , he drank of the following apozem now and then every day . ℞ . barley cleansed ʒij . 〈◊〉 - licori●…e ʒj . ●… . endive sorrel , an : one handful , violet leaves two handfuls , flowers of poppy rheas two little handfuls , the four greater cold-seeds , and lettice-seeds an . ʒij . currants ʒij . common-water q. s. boyl this according to art to two pints . in the straining dissolve syrup of poppy rheas , violets and limons an . ℥ j. mix them for an apozem . for his nourishment i prescribed him broths with chervil , endive , clensed barley and the like boiled therein . the next day because the patient would admit no more glisters , i gave him a laxative medicin , which gave him four stools with great ease . in the mean time he breathed much more freely , and his fever very much abated . the following days , the foresaid apozem was five times repeated , the seventh day of the disease , he fell into a very great sweat of his own 〈◊〉 and so the force of the disease being broken by a crisis ; the ●…ever , with the difficulty of breathing went off , and the patient was restored to his former health . annotations . says gallen , when an acute fever happens with difficulty of breathing , accompanied with streightness and heaviness , that distemper is an inslammation of the lungs . now this inflammation sometimes happens of it self , sometimes it succeeds a squinancy , or 〈◊〉 , when a humor is carry'd from the chaps or side into the lungs by way of mutation . whence hippocrates , an inflammation in the lungs from a distemter in the sides , is bad . for it is a dangerous thing for one acute disease to accompany or follow another . but an inflammation of the lungs that does not proceed from any other distemper , but grows of it self , proceeds from a thin and choleric blood flowing in a greater quantity then can be circulated into the substance of the lungs , and there inflamed . this inflammation of the lungs fernelius asserts to be the less frequent of the two . and it is much less frequent then the pleurisie , from which it differs , because the one seizes with a most acute pain , the other with a little pain , but an oppressing heaviness ; for that the one inflames and distends the pleura membrane , which is endued with an exquisite sence ; the other inflames and dilates the lungs , which are nothing so sensitive . in other things , as acuteness of the fever , difficulty of breathing and other signs , as also in the cause and cure of the disease they both agree . but besides the foresaid inflmamation of the lungs , there is another sort more frequent which differs very much from the other in the excess of the symptoms and the cause , as arising either from flegm collected and putrified in the lungs ; or from a thin , sharp , and copious distillation falling down upon the lungs from the brain , and there preternaturally glowing and causing a fever , and by degrees wasting the patient with a cough , difficulty of breathing and a slow fever , without any spitting of blood. an inflammation of the lungs therefore is an acute distemper , which , as celsus testifies , is more dangerous than painful . now this distemper does not always seize the whole lungs , but sometimes one particular lobe , which iacotius testifies he has seen in the opening of a peripneumonic body . so says iouber●… also . in a peripneumony , there is no necessity that the whole lungs should be always enflamed , but many times some one of the lobes only suffers , as we have found by the dissection of an infinite number of bodies . this hippocrates , plainly declares where he teaches us how to know the differences of this distemper in these words . in an inflammation of the lungs , if the whole tongue be white and rough , both parts of the lungs ; are vext with an inflammation ; but where but half the tongue is so effected , on that side where it is discoloured and rough , there the inflammation lyes . a pain under one clavicle , denotes an inflammation of one of the upper vvings of the lungs ; but the pain extending under both clavicles denotes that both the upper wings of the lungs are inflamed ; if the pain lye in the middle of the ribs , the middle part of the lungs suffers ; but if the pain comes to that part to which the lungs extends it self , the lower wing of the lungs is effected . where one whole part is affected , there all that answer to that part must of necessity suffer . the most certain and proper sign , besides others , of a true peripneum●…ny , is a redness of the ●…aws ( according to the testimony of galen , paulus aegineta and avice●… ) with an acute fever , and extream difficulty of breathing , if accompanied with none or very little oppressive pain . all which , when they appeared so manifestly in our patient , there was no question to be made of the distemper ; which disease went off the seventh day upon an extraordidinary spontaneous sweat : which forestus observes to be customary in a true peripneumony . though sometimes as aetius tistifies , in young people it uses to go off with a violent bleeding at the nose or flux of the monthly evacuaations ; which nevertheless i find that riolanus denies . gregory horstius has observed , that a peripneumony has gone off the seventh day with a critical flux . which however seems to be contrary to reason , when a flux of the belly , according to hippocrates , is very prejudicial to this disease , as being that by which the morbific matter contained in the breast cannot be evacuated , there being no passage from the bowels included in the breast to the intestines . it may be said that nature seeks occult ways for her self unknown to us , by which she evacuates that filth which is noxious and troublesom to her , as when in an empyema , the matter in the breast is voided by urine ; which she may also do in a peripneumony , and so the matter in the lungs may be conveighed to the guts , but this rarely falls out . the cure of this disease is very like the pleu●…isie ; for in this cure blood-letting has always the greatest share , many times repeated according to the strength of the patient , and prevalency of the distemper , using at the same time 〈◊〉 remedies or glysters , and other medicaments , as well to expectorate , as extinguish the heat of the feve●… . but there is no delay to be made in the cure ; for unless this disease be opposed with all speed , in a short time it either suffocates the patient , or turns into an empyema or consumption , for it corrups the substance of the lungs . thus iacotius reports , that upon opening the body of a peripneumony he found the upper part of the lungs gangreen'd ; and the medrastinum full of a bloody serum . obsrvation . ii. the tooth-ach . the daughter of n. complained of an intollerable pain in her teeth , which had lasted for some months together , nor could be asswaged by any topics or other medicaments taken . i advised her for some nights together , when she went to bed , to swallow two pills of transparent aloes , about the bigness of a pea , and not to drink any thing afterwards ; which when she had done three or four times , the pain ceased and never returned . annotations . it so happens that sometimes the upper orifice of the stomac being stuft with viscous , cold or choloric humors is the cause of the tooth-ach ; partly , because of the great consent there is between it and the brain , by the nerve of the sixth conjugation ; partly , because that then being loosened with over much moisture , it sends up many crude and cold , or choleric and sharp vapours to the brain . in such a case , those cold and viscous choloric humors are best expelled by strong vomits or bitter detersive medicaments , that will adhere long to the place affected . and therefore i ordered her toward the evening to swallow two dry pills of aloes ; sometime after she had supped , and to drink nothing after them , to the end that staying in the oesophagus , and being there melted , they might stick the longer to the orifice of the stomac , and have more time to cleanse it . for medicaments that are taken upon a fasting stomac , presently ●…ink down to the bottom of the stomac , and signifie nothing in the distempers of the upper orifice . thus avicen orders all pills that purge the head to be taken at night an hour after supper . observation . iii. a pestilential fever . a french merchant came to an inn ; and not finding himself very well , presently went to bed , believing it to be nothing else but the weariness of his journey ; the next day the disease augmenting , the woman of the house desired me to see him , and try whether he were not infected with the sickness which was very rise in many places . he was very weak with a little pulse thick and unequal . yet the fever did not offend so much by it's heat as by it's malignity . i understood also by the sick person , that he found himself ill the day before he came , and that this was the third day of the disease . but when i found neither carbuncles , nor bubos , nor any other signs of the pestilence ; i judged his disease to be rather a pestilential fever , then the pestilence it self ; thereupon i began with blood-letting , after i had first given him a glister , and took away fifteen or sixteen ounces of blood out of the median vein of the right arm , which blood ( a thing to be wondered at ) was for the most part whitish ; so that it hardly seemed to be blood : when it was cold , that which first came out , first like milk , was all coagulated like a muscilage , and was of a greenish colour , only some very few red clods were to be seen at the bottom : that which flowed out last , was for the most part between green and white , but at the bottom there was a setling of blood of a dark red colour , that was scarcely curdl'd . this blood-letting gave him great ease . in the mean while for his drink i gave him a ptisan , wherein citron rinds and the fruit of tamarinds were boyl'd . then , because of the extraordinary corruption of his blood i ordered him to be let blood again , which the patient hearing , impatient of the anxiety that oppressed him , he earnestly desired me it might be done that day . thereupon toward the evening we took out of his other arm about a pint of blood , that which came out first was very white , that which came out last very red : and to repair his strength we gave him chicken broth with sorrel and a pome citron boil'd in it . all the next night he was very pensive , weak and restless , so that it was thought he would have dyed . but nature , being now discharged of her burthen , the next day which was the fourth day of the disease , strongly and successfully expelled the remainder of the malignity , by a critical and spontaneous sweat , which about noon breathed out in great abundance from the patients body : at the same time also small red pustles , like millet seeds , came forth very thick , so that the skin of his whole body was cover'd with them from head to foot. after this lucky crisis the fever went off , and then the patient falling again to his broths , and drinking his ptisan , recovered his former health and lost strength . but all the cuticle of his body became new ; the former peeling off not without an extraordinary itching . annotations . certainly it was a very great malignity that had caus'd such a corruption of humors , by which the blood was so strangely changed in so short a time , as to loose its natural colour and grow white . 't is true i once saw at beauvais blood which came out at first white like milk , and afterwards somwhat red from the arm of one that was sick of a malignant fever ; which blood was then shew'd to several that lookt upon it with admiration . these malignant fevers too , were at that time very rise in most parts of france , and were caus'd by the common and great infection of the air. the nature and cure of which see obs. . where we shall describe the story of a fever like to this that seiz'd one of our country men. observation iv. john de laurier , a merchant of poitou , about threescore years of age , ask'd my advice concerning a gonorrhea , which he had for some months , accompanied with a heavy pain in the loyns . upon examination of the case , i found by many signs that there was no virulency , but only a mischeif contracted by the more violent use of venery , which had weakened the seminary vessels . wherefore i prescribed him a diet moderately heating and drying , meats of good juice and quick nourishment , to drink unmixed wine moderately and to take some other corroborating and nourishing things . then after i had purged his body twice with a gentle purge , that the viscous humours might be first expelled the seminary vessels , before the use of other medicaments , every morning and about five a clock in the afternoon , i gave him ●…ij . s. of salt prunella in a draught of red wine ; which when he had taken for eight days together , he was perfectly cured , without having need of any more remedies , which i had ordered him to use . all this while i ordered his loyns to be anointed with the following oyntment . ℞ . martiat oyntment ʒij . oyl of foxes ℥ s. oyl of turpentine ʒij . oyl of squeezed nut-meg●… ʒj . make an oyntment . annotations . a gonorrhea according to galen , aetius and others , is an unvoluntary excretion of the seed ; of which some make two , others three , we four differences . first , by reason of the heat of the reins , and plenty of seed , and this is called pollution . it happens with some pleasure and erection wherein it differs from other gonorrheas , because they are accompanied with neither . it is cur'd by blood-letting , slender dyet , refrigerating medicaments and nourishments , as also drying and gentle astringents . the second is caus'd by the falling down of evil and corrupt humors and phlegm from the brain and liver , and other bowels to the spermatic vessels , the retentive faculty of which is thereby endamaged , and so those putrid humors flow forth with the seed . this as it seldom happens to men , so is it very frequent among women , and hard to be cured ; nor is it to be cured , until you can first remove the vitious distemper of the bowels , which sends those humours thither . the third proceeds from the excessive use of venery , by which the spermatic parts being weary'd and extinguish'd are refrigerated & grow languid , and gather together crude and cold humours , by which their concoctive and retentive faculty being loosened , they can neither concoct nor retain the seminal matter . this is easily got by elderly people , less used to venery , who not meeting so often with opportunities to delight themselves , force all their nerves so strenuously when they come to it , that they weaken the strength of the whole body , and having wasted the strength of the seminal parts , such a gonorrhea ensues , accompany'd with a weakness of the loins . this is cured by corroborating medicaments and nourishment , hot and gentle as●…ringents , having made use before of purgatives and diuretics , to free the urinary and seminary passages , from the crude and viscous humours collected therein ; which done the cure easily proceeds . the fourth which they call virulent , is contracted by coition with those that have the pox : of which infection , it is often a fore-runner , and as often a most faithful companion , as being deriv'd from the same cause , and which cannot be safely cured before the perfect cure of the pox. in this there is a stinking poyson of a white and greenish colour , that distills insensibly from the seminary vessels , and frequently corrods the pipe of the yard , which causes sharp pains upon erection and making water , and thence also ulcers and caruncles grow in the urinary passage . and besides if this virulent running be stopped unskilfully for the most part it occasions aposthumes either about the testicles , which then begin to swell very much , or else about the seminary vessels , and thence veneral buboes . many times also the venom ascending inward , and infecting the liver and other bowels , communicates the contamination to the whole body . observation . v. a scald . wiggerd simonis was melting a good quantity of rosin upon a quick fire ; which being too hot , the flame got hold of the kettle ; now as he was going to put out the flame and cover the kettle with a pillow , unwarily he thrust both his hands into the scalding and boyling rosin ; and the same thing happened to him , that went about to help him to put out the same flame : so that both most greviously complained of the pain that their hands were in . a present remedy was requisite , but having none at hand , i bethought my self of a whole bottle of ink that i had in my study : this i powred forth into a pot , and bid them both plunge their hands into it , and for some time to wash and foment with it ; which when they had done for half an hour the heat and pain ceased ; nor did any blisters rise , nor did they receive any damage by so terrible a scald . observation . vi. the closing of the eye-lid by reason of a wound . a young country girl had fallen from a high place , and with the fall had received a great wound in the right eye-brow , that is to say , in the inner part next the eye ; by which wound the bone of the cranium was laid half bare , and the eye-brow being cut cross-ways , the upper eye-lid hung over the lower . a certain chyrurgeon had quickly cured the wound ; but after the cure of the wound the upper eye-lid would never rise of it 's own accord ; nor could the maid open her eye , but by the assistance of her fingers ; many topics were apply'd by several chyrugeons to remedy this defect ; but none of them availing , after some months my assistance was desired . when i had viewed the place affected , i perceived the mischeif was incurable , and therefore advised them to forbear any further applications . however the maid , by the advice of others , who put her in great hopes , for a whole year together , applied sometimes one thing sometimes another , till at length receiving no benefits he quite gave over . annotations . here the streight muscle of the eye-lid was cut . moreover the unskilful chyrurgeon at the beginning had not sufficiently clos'd the lips of the wound ; so that afterwards a thick scar being grown over it , the muscle could no longer preform it's duty ; so that there was no man that understood anatomy but might perceive the wound to be incurable . observation vii . a dysury or difficulty of making water . a young son of n. a domestic servant of the lord dolre , a boy of five years of age , made water for some months with great difficulty , and in extream pain and misery ; and which also many times stopped at the time it should have evacuated . the parents had taken the advices sometimes of chyrurgeons , sometimes of old women , and sometimes of strowling mountebanks : but at length in december , my advice was desired . thereupon after i had gently purged his body with powder of diacarthamum , and syrup of succory with rhubarb , ordered him to take a draught several times a day of the following apozem , which the boy impatient of the pain greedily suckt up . ℞ . roots of rest harrow or cammock , sea holly , sliced licorice an . ℥ . s. flowers of cammomil two handfuls , seeds of lettice , parsley , dill , an . ʒij . fat figs. nō . vij . new milk and water an . 〈◊〉 . ij . boyl them to the consumption of the third part , then strain them . after he had used this apozem two days , he voided every day much viscous and tough matter together with his urin ; and after he had made use of two of these decoctions , he was quite freed from his troublesome distemper . annotations . there are various causes of the difficulty of making water , inflammation , imposthume , stone in the bladder , the flesh grown over , a cold distemper of the bladder and sphincter , thick and viscous humors either mixed with urine , or sticking close to the bladder and it's sphincter , with several others of the same nature ; of which the two latter are the most frequent . but all in particular do not only cause a difficulty of urine , but sometimes absolutely stop the urine , as it happened to the boy before mentioned which they who cut off the stone had viewed , and thought he had the stone , and judged him to be cut . but i believing his distemper arose not from the stone , but from a thick and tenacious flegm that stopped up the bladder and the passage of it , as i had observed had frequently happened to younger children , rather chose to begin the cure with attenuating , lenifying , and diuretic medicaments , seeing that many times such medicaments expel little stones also . but in this case , when children cannot swallow ungrateful medicines , i have known flowers o●… camomil boyl'd in new milk with figs●… do a great deal of good , especially , i●… after the boiling and the straining , the said flowers be lay'd to hot to the region of the hair , and the decoction at the same time given to drink . forestus in the same case commends pellitory and chervil boiled , and applied hot to the region of the hair , with butter , and oyl of scorpions . mercurialis applauds garlick bruised and applied to the bladder . amatus of portugal , extols a turnep hollow'd , and fill'd with oyl of dill , and then roasted in the embers , afterwards bruised and laid on . observation viii . suppression of the courses . joan elberty , a strong maid of about twenty four years of age , complained that her purgations had stopped for four months , so that she was in a very bad condition , tortured with pains in her left side and head , sometimes troubled with suffocations , and her stomach quite gone . after i had ordered her an attenuating and heating diet , and forbid her all things that generate tough and viscous humours , the sixth of ianuary i purged her with electuary of hiera picra , then i prescribed her this apozem to drink three times a day . ℞ . roots of lovage , master-wort , fennel , stone parsley , valerian an . ℥ . s. sassafrass-wood ʒiij . nep , mag-wort , peny-royal , white-mint , fever-few an . one handful . flowers of camomil half a handful , seeds of lovage , wild carrots , gith , an ʒij . laurel berry ʒj . s. tartar of rhenish-wine ʒvj . stoned raisins ℥ ij . common water q. s. boyl these for an apozem of two pints . the th . of ianuary i purged her again with an infusion of the flowers of senna and agaric , with a mixture of hiera picra . the next day i prescribed her another apozem to drink like the former . ℞ . root of master-wort ℥ j. of elecampane , valerian , parsley an . ℥ . s. dittany , round birth-wort an . ʒiij mug-wort , nep , savio , foverifew , rue , peny-royal , an one handful . southernwood , flowers of camomil an . one handful , seeds of parsley , gith , lovage , wild carrots an . ʒj . s. red vetches ℥ j. s. common salt and white-wine , an . equal parts ; make an apozem for two pints . fourteenth of ianuary i prescribed her this electuary , of which she was to take the quantity of a filberd , before she drank of her apozem . ℞ . specier . diacurcume , cremor tartar , trochists of myrrh , hoglice prepared , steel prepared an ʒj . seeds of parsley , nep , venetian borax an . ʒ . s. salt prunella , eastern saffron an . ℈ j. reduce all these into a very fine powder , to which add , oyl of iuniper , amber an ℈ j. of dill drops vij . electuary of hiera picra ℥ . s. syrup of preserved elecampane roots q. s. make an electuary . moreover because she felt a hardness at the bottom of her belly about her navel , i prescribed this sere-cloth . ℞ . gum opoponax , galbanum dissolved in vinegar , emplaster de cumino , of melilot an . ʒij . of castor pulverized ʒj . mix them and make them into a roll to be spread q. s. upon red leather . the nineteenth of ianuary she was let blood in the saphena vein of the left foot , and bled indifferent well . the last apozem was repeated again , which she took together with her electuary till the twenty eight of ianuary , at what time her courses came down very copious , after that she was very well in health . annotations . a long suppression of the courses is oft-times the cause of very great distempers . for from hence arise suffocations of the matrix , and the pale colours of virgins ; hence palpitations of the heart , vertigo's , terrible pains in the head , joynts , back and loyns , fevers , swooning fits , coughs , difficult breathing , cholic and nepheretic pains , and lastly , the evil continuing long , melancholy passions , swelling of the bowels and dropsies . therefore the cure is not to be delay'd ; for the longer the courses stop , with so much the more difficulty are they provoked to come down . the cause of this distemper is the narrowness of the vessels of the womb ; which again are accompanied with several other causes , as obstruction , constipation , coalescence , or growing together , compression and settlement . but the most frequent cause is an obstruction occasioned by thick and viscous humors : which thickness and viscousness is either in the blood it self , when it is too cold or viscous ; or else when excrementitious , flegmatic and melancholy humors are mixd with the good blood ; and with that good blood carried to the veins of the womb where they cause the oppelation . but this obstruction and viscousness of the humors , as it is more or less , or has been of longer or shorter continuance , so the cure is performed by gentler or more violent medicaments , with more ease or more difficulty . but in the cure of our patient , we were forced to use the stronger medicaments , as well in regard of the cold season of the year , as the greatness of the obstruction . for she was wont to eat green fruit and course meats , that beget a viscous and cold nourishment , which had gathered together a great quantity of the thick and crude humors . observation ix . an incurable hoarsness . a holland boor in a quarrel between carters , had received a wound with a knife in the right side of his neck near his throat . the wound was soon cured by a chyrurgeon . after some months he came to me to prescribe him something for an extraordinary hoarsness , with which he began to be troubled so soon as he had received the wound , and which the physitian , who had had him in cure , together with the chyrugeon , could no way remove with all the looches , lozenges and decoctions which they could give him . his voice was so small and hoarse that you could hardly understand what he said ; but i observed that there was a nerve which run back athwart from the wound which was cut , through which the vertue of forming the voice is conveighed ; whence it came to pass that half the vocality was defective , which when it could not be restored by any remedies , i refused to meddle with him as one that was not to be cured . annotations . the vocal nerves , which conveigh the vertue of forming the voice , by galen call'd the recurrent nerves , rise from the sixth conjugation , and creep through the throat to the larynx . galen extols their admirable vertue in forming the voice with a large encomium . and laurentius , columbus and bauhinus give us a curious demonstration of these nerves in their anatomical treatises . both these nerves being cut , the creature becomes mute ; but if only one , but half his voice remains . this boor had but one nerve cut , and so kept half his voice ; for had he been cut in the same manner on the other side , he would have been quite dumb. columbus , in the dissection of a living dog , has elegantly demonstrated the wonderful efficacy of this nerve toward the forming of the voice . but galen was the first that made known the use of these nerves , and confirms the same with this history . a certain chyrurgeon , says he , having cut out the kings-evil out of the neck , that lay deep in the flesh ; as he drew the scroffles out with his nails , out of ignorance , he also tore out the recurrent nerves along with them ; by which means , he freed the boy from the scroffles , yet he took away his voice and left him quite mute . another chyrurgeon having made an incision in another boy , took away half his voice , by cutting one of the nerves , which made all the people stand amazed , how it should come to pass , that neither aspera arteria , nor the throat being touched , the voice should be prejudiced ; but so soon as i shewed them the vocal nerves , they ceas'd admiring . avicen also has a story like this , of the scroffles ill cut , a certain person , says he , mistook , when going about to perforate certain scroffles , he met with a branch of the turn-again nerves , by which means , he cut away half the voice of his patient . in like manner , amatus of portugal , tells us a story of a woman that had the kings-evil in her neck , to eat out the roots of which , the chyrurgeon put in sublimate , by the acrimony of which , one of the recurrent nerves was corroded , and the woman almost lost her voice . nor is it only the incision of this nerve , but the refrigeration of it , that uses to spoil this nerve , which galen confirms by this story . i remember , says he , a voice so prejudiced , that it was almost lost , and the recurrent nerves being refrigerated to excess , by an incision made in the winter time ; which when i understood , by the application of hot remedies , restoring the nerves to their natural temper , i restored also the patient his voice . in like manner says avicen , there was a person whose turn-again nerve was over-cool'd , there being a necessity of long applying cold iron to his neck , and so he lost his voice . gentilis affirms , that there was some apostume in that part which was to be cut . so that the apostume being cut , and the nerve laid bare , in regard it was winter , and the air was very sharp , the cold got into the nerve and spoiled the patients voice . observation x. a palsie . we saw a strange and wonderful cure of a palsie in susan smacht , a most noted woman , the sister once of the sexton of the church of montfort . this woman , when she was a girl of about six years of age , being terribly frighted by an accident , presently fell into a palsie of her whole body , except her head. she was under the hands of several physitians and chyrurgions , eminent at that time , who , by the application of several medicaments , reduced the distemper to that pass , that all the rest of the parts being recovered , only both her thighs and legs remain'd paralytic , from the loyns to the feet , so that she could neither stand nor go ; in this condition she lived a miserable life , till the forty forth year of her age , at what time she was miraculously cur'd of her distemper , after the following manner . in the month of iune , about midnight , arose a most terrible tempest , with thunder and lightning , with which she was so dreadfully and unusually frighted , that at the same time she was delivered from her deplorable disease . the next morning , to the admiration of all that beheld her , she was seen walking before her own door , giving thanks to god for her unexpected cure. thousands of people , not only in the town and places adjoyning , but also from cities remote , crouded to see her , and all admired her miraculous recovery . by others , being asked how this cure was performed , she answered , that she was extreamly terrified by the thunder and lightning , and pray'd to god continually , but that during the terrible tempest , her brother the sexton knock'd at her chamber door , and while she was thinking to creep , as she used to do , and to that end was feeling for her crutches , that always stood by her bed-side , but could not find them where she thought she had set them , a vast flash of lightning discovered them to her at the other side of the bed. whereupon the prepared her self to creep along upon her arms to reach her crutches : but when she was about to put her legs out of the bed , ( at what time , she said she heard and saw something , but what that was , she never would discover to any body ) she found that she could stand , and so , without any help , went to the door and open'd it . and this very relation she gave to us more than once . her brother the sexton , who had known his sister to be paralytic for forty years together , when he saw her open the door and walk briskly about the chamber , was so astonished , that for fear he fell into a swoon . the next day , and the days following , the said susan exposed her self to be publicly seen . i my self also knew her for many years , and have seen her a thousand times in that miserable paralytic condition , and afterwards saw her alive for fifteen years or more , a sound woman , and free from so dreadful a misfortune . annotations . there may be given a manifest natural reason for so miraculous a cure ; that is to say , that the humor which fastened upon the nerves , upon her first fright , was again loosned from them by this more vehement terror . as for the patients saying she saw and heard something , i know not what , i leave that to the judgment of the reader ; perhaps she imagined something in her fear that was not really so . in the mean time , that there have been other unexpected cures of the palsie , is certain , by the testimony of several authors . thus valleriola tells us a story of a citizen of arles , affected with a dissolution of both sides , and destitute of all humane assistance , as one whom neither the industry of the physitians , nor seasonable and proper applications , nor observance of diet could relieve , who at length , upon a vehement dread of death , and being burnt in his bed , the house wherein he lived being on fire , was of a sudden delivered from that deplorable disease ; sense and motion being restored to the languid parts . the same author relates another story of a cousin german of his , who had been paralytic six years of both his thighs , who nevertheless , being provoked by one of his servants into a vehement and sudden passion , recovered his limbs , and lived a found man to his dying day . and thus sudden and exorbitant commotions of the mind have cur'd not only the palsie , but other diseases incurable by art. thus herodotus testifies , that the son of croesus born dumb , when he saw a persian running upon his father to kill him , became vocal , and cry'd out , friend , do not kill croesus , and ever after that spoke like other men. the same valleriola reports , that he saw a person cured of a quartan ague , through the vehemency of a sudden passion , when no manner of physical remedies could cure the distemper before . observation xi . bleeding at the nose . charles n. an ale-brewer , in the month of october , drinking and dancing to excess at his sister's wedding , of a sudden , in the midst of a dance , fell flat to the ground upon his face , and by the vehemency of the fall , broke a vein in his nostrils , which caused such an abounding flux of blood , as if the median vein in his arm had been cut . presently cloaths dipp'd in water and vinegar were clap'd about his neck and applied to his nostrils , ligatures fastned about his extream parts , but nothing would prevail . insomuch that the patient , as well because he was heated with drink , as by reason of the pain of the fall , swooned away . thereupon , seeing nothing would do , and because there was no chyrurgeon at hand to open a vein , i ordered a towel four times double to be soaked in cold water , and apply'd to his testicles , which being twice repeated , contrary to the opinion of the standers by , not only stopp'd the blood , but recovered him to his first sobriety . observation xii . the itch. cornelius iohannis was troubled with a dry scab , or running itch , with dry crusts , and little scales upon his skin , that itch'd intollerably , especially in the night , when he grew warm in his bed. the crusts being scratched off , by reason of the itching , with his nails , under them the skin being a little raised , appear'd very dry , red , and rough , and then came crusts and scales like the former , so that the common people thought him to be infected with the leprosie . this distemper seized the lower part of his belly , his thighs and legs , in such a manner , that by reason of the dry crusts or scales , the bare skin was not to be seen in any of those parts . his arms also and breast were infected in some places , two years before , upon the crisis of a quartan ague ( for the cure of which , for fifteen months together , by the advice of that famous physitian , d. gallius and others , who judged his distemper to proceed from a vitiated spleen , several medicines , both inward and outward , had been in vain made use of , ) the disease not only abating , but rather encreasing ; at length i was sent for to a consultation , and seeing the person of a strong constitution , and in good health , excepting only the aforesaid distemper , and observing there was no sign , either of spleen , liver , or any other bowel affected , i judged by that same crisis of the quartan ague , that all the noxious , sharp , and vitious humors were expell'd out of the spleen to the skin , and so his spleen recovered its former soundness , but that the skin was deeply infected with that dry scab , and that the cause of the distemper lay no longer in the spleen , but only remain'd deeply fixed in the skin ; and that the skin so infected , contaminated also the juices and humors flowing thither every day for its nourishment ; as a vessel that has contracted any filth , infects the best wine that is poured into it . and indeed the event of the cure prov'd the truth of my judgment . for then i resolved to tame this obstinate distemper , not so much by internal , as by topical medicaments , and those not gentle ones , but strong remedies answerable to the greatness of the evil , and the pertinacy of the matter , since many other things , which others had try'd , would do no good . to this purpose , his body being well purged before hand , in march i prescribed a fomentation , with which , being luke-warm , to foment the parts infected twice a day , for five or six days together . ℞ . roots of briony ℥ iij. worm-wood , white hore-hound , pimpernel , plantain , centaury the less , an . handfuls iij. oak-leaves handfuls iiij . elder ▪ flowers handfuls ij . boil them in common water q. s. to ten pints , adding at the end roman vitriol ℥ j. al●…m ℥ j. s. for a fomentation . after fomentation , the parts being dry'd with a linnen cloth , i ordered them to be anointed with our oyntment against the shingles . after six days fomentation was discontinu'd , and only the oyntment used , which in a few weeks carried off a great part of the distemper . this oyntment the patient used all the summer , till september , by which time he was almost cured , excepting only three or four places about the breadth of a dollar , which would not submit to this oyntment , but still produced new crusty scales . wherefore , the sixteenth of september , i prepared him the following oyntment . ℞ . quick-silver ʒj . s. turpentine ʒiij . to these well mix'd add the yolk of one egg , unguent . papuleum ʒvj . of our oyntment against the shingles ℥ j. s. mix them for an oyntment . these remainders were very hard to be extirpated , and therefore i was forced to continue the use of this oyntment a little longer , augmenting afterwards the quantity of quick-silver ; also i again apply'd the foresaid fomentation ; and thus at length this nasty troublesome deformity of the skin , which others despaired of ever curing , was at length abated and vanquish'd , so that about the second of november it vanish'd quite and the patient continued free from the same all the rest of his life . annotations . the itch , by the greeks called lichen , by others serpigo , from serpo to creep , is a hard asperity of the skin , with dry pustles , and a violent itching , creeping and extending it self to the adjoyning parts . galen asserts two kinds of this distemper . there are two sorts , says he , of the itch , that molest the skin . the one tolerable and more gentle , the other wild , and diffi cult to be removed . in these the scales fall off from the skin , under which , the skin appears red and almost exulcerated . celsus , who by the word impetigo , seems to have understood some other distemper , describes this itch of galen under the name of papula , and makes also two sorts of it . the one , says he , is that the skin is exasperated by the smallest pustles , and is red , and slightly corrodes , in the middle somewhat lighter , and creeps slowly ; it begins round , and dilates in a circle . the other , which the greeks call 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , or the wild itch , is that by which the skin bec●…mes more rough , is exculcerated , and vehemently corroded , looks red , and sometimes fetches the hair off , which is less round , and more difficultly cured . as for the cause of the disease , galen aetius , aegmeta affirm it to be generated out of certain mix'd humors , that is to say , serous , thin and sharp , mix'd with thick humors . but in my judgment , galen writes better , and more perspicuously , that this distemper is generated out of a salt flegm and yellow choler , which is the reason , that as in earthen vessels corroded by pickles , the scales fall off the skin . now these humors being transmitted to the skin , putrifie it , as avicen says . to which i add , that this corruption afterwards is intermixed with the good humors , carried to the skin for its nourishment , and so the mischief becomes diuternal . thus also mercurialis writes , that the skin only having acquir'd a deprav'd habit , corrupts all its nourishment , and converts it into increase of impurities . and in the same manner , discoursing of such a kind of scabby patient . in the whole circuit of the body , there is a vitious and itchy humor implanted , by vertue of which , whatever good nourishment is carried to it , is presently converted into a nasty salt corroding humor , which occasions that continual itching , together with those little ulcers , and the roughness of the skin . now these humors corrupting the skin , must of necessity be hot and salt , from which proceeds that heat and itching of those scales . this distemper however is not so dangerous as it is troblesome , which if it continue long , gets that deep footing , that it is a very difficult thing to extirpate it ; and sometimes it hardens into a dry mange and leprosie . the gentler sort is cur'd at the beginning with gentler medicaments , as fasting-spitle , tosted butter , oyl of eggs , of tartar , or juniper , boyled honey , liquid pitch , or juice of citron . but that which is of longer continuance and wild , requires stronger remedies , as sulphur , minium , lytharge , ceruse , vitriol , pit-salt , rust of brass , limeallum , niter , white hellebore , &c. to which we may add quick-silver , sublimate , and precipitate , mercury having a peculiar occult , yet apparent quality , to kill the malignity that accompanies this distemper . thus peter pachetus , in his observations communicated to riverius , when no other remedies could tame a wild itch , cur'd it with this oyntment . ℞ . unguent . rosaceum ʒ iij. white precipitate ʒ iij. mix them for an oyntment . observation xiii . a mortification of the legs and thighs by cold. many times severe mischiefs attend the imprudence of persons given to drink ; which a certain lusty young man , sufficiently made known by his own woful example . for he in a most terrible winter , when it freez'd vehemently hard , coming home about midnight well cup-shot , without any body to help him to bed , went into his chamber , where falling all along upon the floor , he fell asleep , and neither remembring himself nor his bed , slept till morning . but when he awak'd , he could feel neither feet nor legs : presently a physitian was sent for . but there was no feeling either in his legs or feet , though scarified very deep . hot fomentations were apply'd , of hot herbs boil'd in wine , adding thereto spirit of wine ; but to little purpose . for half his feet , and half his legs below the calves were mortified , the innate heat being almost extinguished by the vehemency of the intense cold. the fomentations were continued for three days . upon the fourth day , the mortified parts began to look black , and stink like a dead carcass . therefore for the preservation of the patient , there was a necessity of having recourse to the last extremity , namely , amputation , and so upon the sixth day both his legs were cut off a little below the calves in the quick part ; by which means , the patient escaped without his feet , from imminent death , and afterwards learn'd a new way to walk upon his knees . annotations . an example of the same nature we saw at nimeghen , in the year . of a danish souldier , who having slept , drunk , as he was , upon a form , in a bitter frosty night , when he walk'd in the morning could not feel his feet . but by heating fomentations , the native heat , at most extinguished by the cold , after two days so menting , was restored to his feet , tho his toes could never be brought to their natural constitution ; but remaining mortified , and beginning to putrifie , were all cut off by the chyrurgeon . and therefore i would advise all hard drinkers not to take their naps too imprudently in the winter , unless they have first laid themselves in a warm place , and well fortified themselves against the injuries of the air , least their being buried in wine , bring them to be buried in earth . observation xiv . obstruction of the spleen . katharine n. a woman of forty four years of age , had been troubled a whole year with an obstruction of her spleen ; much wind rumbled in the region of her spleen ; she was tormented with terrible pains of the same side , by reason of the distention of the bowels and the neighbouring parts ; so that she went altogether bow'd toward the side affected , till at length , grown as lean as a skeleton , with continual torments , she could go no longer . you might also perceive by laying your hands upon the place , that the spleen was very much swell'd ; and more than all this , her stomach was quite gone . in march , being call'd to the cure of this distemper , i first purg'd her body with a gentle purge ; upon which , when she found but very little relief , i prescribed the following apozeme for two days , to open the obstructed passages , and prepare the morbific matter , and withal , to keep her body open . ℞ . roots of polypody of the oak , dandelyon an . ℥ j. roots of fennel , elecampane stone parsly , peeling of capery roots , tamarisc an . ℥ s. baum , fumary , water trefoil , tops of hops , an . handful j. centaury the less , half a handful . fennel seed ʒij . damask prunes ●… o xi . currants ℥ ij . boil th●…m in common water q. s. in the straining , macerate all night , of spoonwort , winter nasturtium an . handful j. leaves of senna cleansed ℥ ij . anise-seed ʒvi . make an apozeme for two pints . after she had drank two mornings a draught of this decoction , she went to stool twice or thrice a day , but the ease which was expected did not follow . wherefore , after she had drank up her apozeme , i gave her a purging medicine somewhat stronger , which i thus prescribed . ℞ . leaves of senna cleansed ℥ s. white agaric ʒj . roots of black helle●…ore ʒs . rhenish tartar , anise-seed an . ʒj . fumary vvater q. s. make an infusion all night , and add to the straining elect. of hiera picra , diaphoenicon an . ʒij . for a draught . after she had taken this , at first she voided common excrements . soon after she felt an extraordinary pain in her left-side , which presently removed from thence to the guts ; which pain weakned her to that degree , that she went away sometimes in a swoon . not long after , she voided a certain black water , like ink , in so great quantity , that she fill'd three whole chamber-pots to the top . from hence she felt an extraordinary ease , and the pains of her left hypocondrium went almost quite off . four days after i gave her the same purge again ; upon which , she voided again a great quantity of black water , but not so black as before , neither was it so black as the former , as not being much unlike the lye in which our country-women boils their linnen spinnings . after this evacuation , she was terribly griped in her belly , wherefore , about evening , i prescribed her methridate democ . ʒj . with five drops of oyl of aniseseed , in a draught of heated wine . after the use of these medicines , the patient grew indifferent well , and in regard she began to loath physic to that degree , that she could not endure to hear the name of physic , we were forced to defer the rest of the cure till may , only ordering her to observe a proper diet. but in may she drank three apozemes again , was three or four times purged , and took her electuary , and so was restored to her pristin health . annotations . this woman , for two years before , had lost her monthly evacuations , and from that time the distemper of the spleen began to seize her more and more , till she became altogether melancholy . whence it is very probable , that the failing of her accustomed evacuations , that fling off many other excrements of the bowels , was the cause of the accumulation of this melancholy humor in the spleen and neighbouring parts , which now wanted the usual passage of evacuation through the womb. therefore says sennertus , the accustomed evacuations of the hemorrhoids and courses being suppressed , conduce very much to accumulate vitious humors in the spleen . thus we have seen in our practice , that women after their purgations have left them , have fallen into several diseases , because the noxious humors that were evacuated with the menstruous blood , were then retain'd in the body . and therefore when womens purgations fail through age , they ought to purge often , to the end the excrementitious humors that want to pass through the womb may be drawn to the guts . as to the black evacuations , it is indeed a wonder how these melancholy humors heap'd together in our patient , could be retain'd in the body without doing any more harm , and could be changed into a blackness like ink. besides , hippocrates tells us , that black stools are dangerous and mortal . tho petrus salius well advises the physitians not always to fear those black stools , wherein there is nothing many times of dangor ▪ for if the spleen be out of order , this matter gathers together about the bowels in great abundance , and in those veins which are common to them ; which if it be in great quantity , it gathers also about the mesentery and sweet-bred , which are , as it were , the sink of the whole body , and then when it grows burthensome to nature , is expell'd , to the great ease of the patient , by the expulsive faculty , excited either of its self , or by medicaments , the evacuations of which are black . however , that melancholy matter so collected , is not always expelled through the guts , but also to the great benefit of the patient , sometimes by urine , which mercurialis also testifies . nor are you to wonder , says he , that diuretics are by me preferred above other medicines , since reason tells , that melancholy and splenetic persons have black melancholy blood. with which agrees the authority of aristotle , in his problems , but chiefly of hippocrates , who gives us the story of byas the fisty-cuffer , who was cured of a swelling in his liver , by a flux of urine . for which reason , they that undertake the cure of the spleen , must make it their business to provoke urine : for which , we have a remarkable story which valetius relates in holler . i knew , says he , a religious person , whose liver swell'd three or four times a year , but chiefly at the beginning of spring and fall ; and while that bunchy tumor lasted , he was infested with hypochondriac pains , black and blew over his whole body , and growing worse and worse by degrees . but at length , coming to make black water , like to ink , for five or seven days , he recovered his former health , the tumor and pain of the hypochondrium vanishing . and now for these twelve or fifteen years , he has had these profluvium's of black urine , whereas before he had the hemorrhoid , which though they swell'd indeed , were n●…r so open . observation xv. a wound in the leg. andrew ioannis , a cook , hapening to be drunk , and finding his chamber-door shut , set his foot to the door with all his force ; so that after he had broke it , his leg past through the slit with the same swiftness , and rak'd the middle of his leg withinside toward the calf to that degree , that though the solution of the continuum were not very broad , yet it reach'd to the very periosteum , and by reason of the contusion in the part , swell'd very much . a certain ignorant chyrurgeon had had him in hand for some days , but his pains increasing , my advise was desired . by this time his whole leg was swell'd very much , and began to look of a greenish colour among the black and the blew , with most acute pains , and the colour sufficiently demonstrated that the fore-runner of mortification would soon contract a gangrene , which i found to have been occasioned by the ignorance or mistake of the chyrurgeon ; for he having thrust in a hard tent into the wound as far as the periosteum , had stop'd it so close , that no moisture could come forth . for he had laid a defensive plaister over it , as broad as my hand , composed of bole armoniac , and other astringent things , then had wrap'd his leg , from the knee to the foot , in a linnen roller dip'd in water and vinegar , and had swath'd all this extreamly hard , pretending , by this means , to prevent a tumor and inflammation . to say truth , the wound was plainly raw and ill colour'd , without any digestion ; so that upon drawing forth the tent , only a little watry corruption came forth . all these things i threw away , and to prevent a gangrene , took care to have the wound wash'd with spirit of wine , that no tent should be put in , but only that a linnen cloth four double , should be laid upon it , and that the whole leg should be fomented with the following fomentation . ℞ . betony , thyme , vvoorm-wood , sage , hissop , rosemary , flowers of camomil , elder , melilot , roses , an . handful j. seeds of cumin and lovage , an . ℥ j. s. laurel berries ʒij . vvhite-wine q. s. boil them to three pints , add to the straining spirit of vvine lb j. this fomentation being wrapt warm about his leg , the next night his pain was much abated , and much of the watry corruption run out of the wound . within two days after , the swelling of his leg palpably fell , and returned to its natural colour , and threw out the corruption well concocted , and so being dressed as it ought to be , the cure was easily compleated . annotations . things put into a wound that ought not to be , are utter enemies to nature , endeavouring consolidation , especially if they compress any nervous body , membrane or tendon , or the periosteum . hence terrible pains , tumors , inflammations , and other mischiefs proceed ; and therefore all such things as are foreign to nature , are to be taken away , as paraeus , pigius , and other chyrurgeons tell us . thus hard and thick tents , which inwardly offend and distend the wound , or else stop it quite up , or compress the nerves , membranes , or periostea , are not to be thrust into wounds , as being those things that hinder the operation of nature , suppuration , erection of the matter and consolidation , and beget pains , inflammations , and other mischiefs . thus we have seen , by the ignorance of chyrurgeons , some men tormented with pains , others thrown into fevers , syncope , convulsions , mortifications and gangrenes . as it had like to have befallen our patient ; who , beside other ill simptoms , was very near a gangrene ; and had it not been in time prevented , upon the approach of the mortification , he had hazarded the loss of his limbs , or his life . hence felix wirtius , in wounds of the hands and joynts , rejects the use of tents ; which opinion hildan refutes , who says , that tents are necessary in the nervous parts , to keep the upper lips of the wound open , and give passage for the corruption . by which doctrine it appears , that he praises those tents , which do not offend the inner part of the wound , but only keep the upper parts open . but the chyrurgeon , as to our patient , had committed a great error in this very particular , for he had distended the inner parts of the wound with a thick and hard tent , and had compress'd the periosteum , and prevented the concoction and efflux of the corruption . observation xvi . suppression of urine . the wife of gerrard anthony , a taylor , had layn in , in may , and in three days after ▪ she was brought to bed , had not made water , which was an extraordinary pain to her , and had brought her so low , that she could hardly speak . the mid-wife declared that she was very well laid , but that presently after her evacuations were stopp'd , that something hard was to be felt on the other side in the lower part of her belly . hence i guessed that there was some superfoetation or mole , which remain'd behind . for the cure of which , and to provoke her urine and purgations withal , i prescribed this apozeme . ℞ . the roots of stone parsly , masterwort , valerian , sea-holly , cammock an . ℥ s. round birthwort , sliced licorice an . ʒij . leaves of black ribs , m●…gwort , peny-royal , water-nasturtium , an . one handful . water-parsly with the whose , two handfuls . savine , flowers of camomil , an half a handful . white-wine q. s. boil them for an apozeme to a pint and a half . ℞ . of the said apozeme ʒiij . oyl of amber distilled by descent , drops xx . make a draught . this she took hot the first time . this she took after three hours again , upon which , several motions of child-bearing supervening , she brought forth a round mole , about the bigness of a childs head , which had the perfect eyes of a man. this being thus luckily expell'd , her urine and purgations followed , and she was presently delivered from the imminent danger she was in . annotations . moles are of different kinds , some within , others without the birth ; some very dangerous and troublesome to the woman , others less hazardous ; some without any form , others resembling some shape or other ; some having life , others without life . sometimes they presage something of good ; for though they do not hinder the birth , yet they are very prejudicial both to the birth and the mother which our patient confirmed by her own example , who had certainly dy'd , had not the mole , expell'd by medicaments , made way for her urine and purgations . observation xvii . a dysentery . gerard vossius , our neighbour , had been troubled with a dysentery for some days ; he was miserably tormented with cruel pains in the guts , and many times he voided excrements that were all bloody , and mix'd with a tenacious slime ; he slept not at all , his stomac was gone ; he was very thirsty , and he had a fever , which though not vehement , yet was continual . though the young an were not above thirty years of age , and very strong , yet he was brought so low by these mischiefs , that in a few days he was reduced to an extream imbecility . the sixth of february , i gave him the following purge , which brought away much choleric matter . ℞ . the best rhubarb somewhat burnt ʒij . mirobans indian , citrine an . ʒj . leaves of senna cleansed ʒiij . ani●…eseed ʒj . white poppy ʒij . plantain water . q. s. let them boil for half an hour . add to the straining elect. diaphanicon ʒj . s. mix them for a draught . in the evening , after his purging , i gave him this bolus . ℞ . terra sigillata , nicholas's rest an . ℈ j. mithridate damoc. ℈ ij . mix them for a bolus . the next day the following apozeme was prepared , of which , he took three times a day , and once at mid-night . ℞ . barley cleansed ℥ j. roots of snake-weed , tormentil , pomegranate rinds an . ℥ s. leaves of oak , plantane , sanicle , pimpernel , great sanicle , snake-weed an . one handful . seed of small roses ʒvj . heads of white poppies noiij . raisins with the stones ℥ v. common water 〈◊〉 iiij . boil them to the consumption of the half , for an apozeme . in the hours intervening , he took often in a day a small quantity of this electuary . ℞ . nutmegs , trochischs of terra sigillata , an . ʒs . harts-horn burnt , red coral prepar'd , lapis hematitis , mastich . an . ℈ j. to these being pulverized , add conserve of red roses ℥ j. s. miv. ci●…on . rob. acaciae an . ʒiij . nicholas's rest ʒj . s. syrrup of sower pomegranates q. s. mix them for a conditement . i ordered him to bear with his thirst as much as he could , which he the more ready yielded to ; in regard , that after drinking , especially of ale , he found himself most cruelly griped , and therefore instead of ale , i prescribed him this amygdalate for his usual drink . ℞ . barly cleansed ℥ j. s. seed of the smallest roses ℥ j. of white 〈◊〉 , plantain and lettice an . ℥ s. common water 〈◊〉 iij. boil them to the consumption of the half. ℞ . the straining aforesaid , sweet almonds blan●…h'd , ℥ v. white poppy seed ʒiij . the four greater colt-seeds ʒj . s. make an amygdalate according to art , to which add syrup of poppies ℥ j. of red roses ʒj . s. the ninth of february i gave him ℈ iiij . of rhubarb a little burnt and powdered , in a little ale ; the tenth and thirteenth i repeated the apozeme , and the twelfth the conditement . and thus by the use of these medicines , the flux ceasing , the patient regain'd his health by degrees , and by the help of convenient diet , recovered his lost strength : however , for a long time after his cure , he was ill , and coveted after any sort of drink , which ill habit , however afterward vanished , so soon as his guts , by the use of good diet , were again fortified with new slime , which had been corroded away by the acrimony of the former humors . this patient thus cured , the same distemper seiz'd three or four others in the same house , who were all cur'd in the same manner . annotations . at the same time , at montfort , dysenteries were very rise over the whole town among the common people , and kill'd several , which therefore many judg'd to be malignant and contagious ; but erroneously , for that it was not rife , as it was contagious ; but in regard of the season of the year , and the diet then in use , for the autumn of the year before was hot and moist , and had multiplied many humors in the bodies of people ; then followed a dry and intensly cold winter , which intense cold lasted a long time with a most terrible frost , and thickned those humors . but at the beginning of february , that rigid cold changed of a sudden into a mild warmth , by which means the humors condensed by the cold , were dissolved again and became fluid . now during the frost , because there was no bringing of fresh flesh or fish , or any other fresh diet , the common people fed upon old flesh and old fish , salted and hardned in the smoak , turneps , much spice , and the like food , that sharpen the humors ; which being again dissolved and rendred fluid by the sudden heat , occasioned that great number of dysenteries ; yet no where but among the vulgar people , that made use of such a sort of diet ; for the wealthy sort , that eat well , were not at all troubled with the distemper . hence also it came to pass , that because three or four in the same house fed alike , they had all the same disease ; not that the disease was common upon the score of contagion , for then it would have infected those that came to them , as well as themselves . observation xviii . a dysentery . pan●…ras collert , a stout young man , about two and twenty years of age , at the same time also was seized with a dysentery , and in regard he could not endure to take physic ; perhaps because he was very covetous , he refused to take the advice of any physitians , but would needs be his own physitian . he had observed that i was wont to purge dysenteries at the beginning , and therefore he resolved to follow my course in his own disease ; yet willing to spare cost , he prepared himself the following purge ; tabacco small cut ℥ s. this he steep'd in small ale all night ; the next morning he boil'd it a little , and strain'd it , and drank of the whole straining at a draught . after which , he was taken with an extraordinary faintness , even to swooning , so that the people of the house thought he would have died : presently followed a prodigious vomiting , and purging downwards , so that he voided an extraordinary quantity of various humors , especially yellow and green choler , upwards and downwards ; by which means , the cause of the disease being violently and altogether evacuated , he was cured of his dysentery by that one draught . annotations . says celsus , oft times those whom reason will not recover , rashness helps . this is apparent by the example of that young man , whose rashness , had any other weaker persons followed , they had perhaps cured their dysentery by the flux of their soul. for tobacco that way taken , is a most vehement disturbing medicament , against the violence of which , there is no resistance . and therefore i would not advise all people to use this experiment . if the rash taking of such a violent medicine succeed well with some young persons that are of a robust constitution , the same success is not to be expected in all people . nevertheless , that this tobacco thus taken by a very strong man , should heal his dysentery , is no way repugnant to reason ; for by its extraordinary violence , it evacuated altogether the whole cause of the distemper . i heard also , that two other country boors , being troubled with a dysentery , made tryal of the same experiment . observation xix . suppression of female purgations . antonia , a plethoric woman , very strong , about three and twenty years of age , lying in of her first child , rising the third day after her delivery , too venturously trusted herself to the cold air ; upon which , her purgations immediately stopp'd , yet she was well enough till the third week of her month , at what time a violent pain seized her right-side toward the region of the spleen , as also her loyns , and extended it self from the huckle-bone to the true ribs . the pain had brought her very low , and taken away her appetite ; yet by her pulse i found she had no fever , and therefore upon the twentieth of september , i ordered her to be purged with this following potion . ℞ . the best rhubarb ʒj . leaves of senna cleansed ʒiij . rhenish tartar , anis●…seeds an . ʒj . s. mugwort water q. s. make an infusion according to art. adding to the straining elect of hiera picra ʒj . s. for a potion . after this purge , she loathed physic to that degree , that we must have here given over , but that upon the twenty second of september , she was seized with a violent suffocation from her womb ; by which , the passage of her breath being stopp'd , she was almost stifled , and sometimes swooned away . then , tormented with her pains , and afraid to dye , she promised to take whatever we gave her , though never so ungrateful to the palate , so there were any hopes of ease . there to abate the uterine suffocation , i gave her this decoction , of which she was to take one , two or three ounces several times a day . ℞ . leaves of rue , one handful , seed of lovage ʒvj . down of nuts ℥ ●… . seed of caraways and bishops-weed ʒj . decoction of barly-water q. s. boil them to a pint and strain them . by the use of this , the suffocation was almost vanquished , only the pains of her side more and more increased , and extended themselves to her very shoulder , so that i began to be afraid of her life ; therefore the twenty fourth of september , this apozeme was made . ℞ . roots of fennel , valerian , stone-parsly , an . ℥ s. of briony ʒvi . of round birthwort , dittany an . ʒjj . of sassafras-wood ʒiij . herbs , mugwort , rue , peniroyal , feverfew , savine nipp , an . handful j. flowers of camomil , half a handful . seed of lovage ʒv . common water q. s. boil them to two pints . in the straining , steep for a whole night together , leaves of senna cleansed ℥ ij . white agaric ʒj . s. aniseseed ʒv . in the morning let them simper over the fire , and then strain them by expression for an apozeme . of this decoction she took twice a day , in the morning , and at four or five a clock in the afternoon , each time four or five ounces lukewarm , which brought away every day , three , four or five times , putrid , nasty , tough , black and very viscous excrements besides an extraordinary deal of wind. in the intervening hours , because of the suffocations frequently returning , she sometimes took her first decoction . by the use of these medicines , within four days the greatest part of her pains ceased . the twenty ninth of september , i ordered the saphena vein in her left-foot to be opened , and a good quantity of blood to be taken away , which gave her ease ; and the same day she took her last apozeme again , of which the following days she drank no more than once a day . and thus by the use of these remedies , she escaped a dangerous disease , and recovered her health . annotations . child-bearing women , in their lyings in , frequently commit very great errors , afterwards , the causes of great mischiefs . among which , this is not the least , that they are over confident of their own strength , and trust themselves in the air sooner than the time of their lying in will permit ; whence arise those dangerous diseases , suppression of the courses , fevers , suffocations , and many others ; of which , there are several examples to be found in authors , besides what we see every day . thus in our practice , we have seen through this error committed by child-bearing women , most terrible diseases brought upon them , some of whom have died , others ran most terrible hazards ; others have go●… those afflictions of some particular part , which they could never claw off as long as they liv'd . they do not all escape so luckily as our patient before mentioned , for sometimes extream weakness , or loathing of the taste , or a fever , or some other thing hinders the taking of the medicaments , or inverts or hinders the operation of the medicines , and then all the art and diligence of the physitian signifies nothing . thus , the same year that i had this woman in cure , the wife of a kinsman of mine at utrecht , a strong woman , fell into the same distemper , but not to be cured by all the prescriptions of the most learned and prudent physitians . in these cases i have observed this , that the courses , suppressed a little after delivery , unless they be stirred within three or four days by medicaments , can very hardly or not at all be moved by the help of the physitians , but are the causes of very desperate diseases , which diseases do not presently appear , sometimes not till after some days ; sometimes not till after the third or fourth week . and in the cure of these diseases , i have farther observed this , that the greatest relief is given at the beginning , before the strength of the patient is abated , partly by attenuating apozems , and loosning withal , to provoke and evacuate the matters peccant , both in quantity and quality , partly by blood-letting in the feet ; which way of cure , i have with success experienced more than once . observation xx. the nephritic passion . the young lady cals●…ager was so cruelly tormented for three days , with a pain a little below her loyns , that she knew not where to turn her self ; these pains were also accompanied with vomiting , and an extraordinary restlessness . it was the nephritic passion , and the gravel or stone descending through the ureters , caused this pain : wherefore , to expel the gravel with more speed and ease , i prescribed this decoction . ℞ . slic'd licorice ℥ s. herbs , stone-parsly , althea , chervil , mallows , water-parsly , leaves of black ribs an . one handful , flowers of camomil , one handful and a half , fat figs n o ix . new milk , common water , an . q. s. boil them to the consumption of the third part for an apozem . that day she drank almost all the decoction , and about evening , voided some small stones , with a good quantity of gravel , and was freed from her distemper . annotations . medicines that break the stone , sometimes crumble the little stones that stick in the kidneys , as experience tells us . but when they are expell'd out of the kidneys , and stick in the ureters , they are not to be crumbled by the force of any medicaments whatever , which reason , besides experience , teaches us , since no medicaments can reach thither with their vertue entire ; for that the great quantity of serum running thither , and there setling , hinders and abates the strength of the medicaments ; so that they are disabled in their operation . and therefore , to force the stones out of the ureter , lenifying and molifying medicaments must be mixed with the diuretics , to smooth and mollifie the ureters , and to prepare a more easie descent for the stone . such is that decoction which i , and such is that prescription of io. baptist thodosius , which he , boast never fail'd him in driving out the stone , though he had made use of it several and several times . ℞ . leaves of fresh gathered althea one handful and a half , new butter ℥ iij. honey lb j. boil them together in water q. s. to the consumption of the third part . take of the straining a warm draught morning and evening . such is also that celebrated secret of forestus , which most physitians highly approve , and which i have successfully made use of , only now and then with some alterations and additions ; of which , forestus himself thus writes . this , my secret , i will no longer conceal , for t●…e common benefit of the sick ; that it may not be laid to mine , which was laid to the charge of the wicked servant , who hid the talent , which god had given him , in the earth . and therefore i will no longer , to the prejudice of posterity , keep this secret by me , which is this . ℞ . seed of mallows , althea an . ʒiij . red vetches ℥ iij. the four greater seeds an . ʒij . barly cleaned ℥ ij . fat figs n o ix . sebeston n o vij . licorice slic'd ʒj . rain-water 〈◊〉 iiij . boil these to the consumption of half , and reserve the straining for use , which the patient continually using , always voided stones . observation xxi . the worms . a little boy , the son of antonius , about three years of age , had the lower part of his belly extreamly swell'd , and stretch'd like a drumb , so that he seem'd to be hydropic ; his stomach was gone , with a slight fever , accompanied with frights in his sleep , and he would be always rubbing his nose with his fingers . i guess'd them to be either worms or crude humors sticking in the first region of the belly , that caused all those evil symptoms . wherefore , because the child would take nothing , but would be always drinking , i ordered new ale to be given him for his drink , with which i only mixt a little oyl of vitriol , so much as suffic'd to give it a gentle sowrness . this drink being continued for a fortnight or three weeks , the swelling of his belly fell , but he voided no worms . annotations . oyl of vitriol given after that manner , does not only remove all putrefactions and corruptions , but kills and consumes the worms in the stomach and guts , and those that are infested with such like evils ; and we have seen it recover those that have been despaired of , contrary to expectation . thus my sister cornelia , when she came to be seven years of age , and was miserably tormented with the worms in her belly , and had taken several remedies to no effect , when she was despaired of , and nothing but death expected , at length , by taking oyl of vitriol given in ale , she was recovered in a short time . the same thing happened to margaret dobre , the daughter of the marshal of montfort , and several others . therefore it is not without reason that the chymists cry up this oyl so highly as they do . concerning which , and the oyl of sulphur , mindererus thus writes , there is no corruption , the strength of which they do not break ; no infection which they do not overcome , no depravation of humors , which is not vanquished by them . observation . xxii . a burning . peter abstee , going to shoot off a musquet , by chance the breech of the gun broke , and though the splinters of the iron did him no harm , yet his face was all over burnt with the flame of the powder , and several of the corns of powder stuck in his skin . the corns being presently pick'd out , we apply'd to his eyes , linnen rags doubled and dipp'd in very salt butter ; and over his face we lay'd raw turneps bruis'd in a mortar with salt butter , which we chang'd thrice the first day , and once the next night . this cataplasm drew out the fire remarkably , nor did any blister rise upon his eye-brows , which the butter had prevented ; so that after one or two anointings afterwards with oyntment of roses and pomatum , he was perfectly cured . annotations . in a burn , the greatest care to be taken , is to fetch out the fire , and to prevent the rising of pustles and blisters ; for the effecting of which , various remedies are commended . in a slight burn , the cure is perfected by holding the part which is hurt to the fire , or by putting it into hot water , or water as hot as you are able to endure it . but burns of more concernment , raw turneps beaten with salt , are a most certain remedy , by which , i have done strange things in very terrible burns . common people , says pareus , find by experience , that the heat of the part slightly burnt , vanishes , and the pain ceases , if they hold the part affected to the flame of a candle , or to quick burning coals ; for similitude causes attraction . therefore the outward fire draws out the inner , and so fire becomes the cure of the mischief which it caused . it is also a try'd remedy , and easie to be had , if presently after the burn , you clap raw turneps bruised with salt to the part aggrieved . nevertheless , hildan says , that turneps do not agree with burns in the face , because they prejudice the eyes , which would be true , if the turneps were put into the eyes ; or if the eyes , before the application were not guarded with other things , which we think is best done with linnen rags four doubled , and dipp'd in very salt butter ; for that the salt butter draws out the fire , by reason of the salt ; and by its fatness , lenifies and guards the eye-lids . but distill'd waters are far less convenient , as are also woman's milk , or whites of eggs , or any such like things , which are presently dry'd up , and stick so close to the part affected , that they can hardly be pull'd off without excoriation . in burns of the face , hildan rather uses this oyntment . ℞ . venetian soap ℥ j. oyl of sweet almonds and roses an . ℥ s. m●…scilage of the seeds of quinces extracted with rose-water , a small quantity . mix them for an oyntment . in other parts , he writes , the following oyntment powerfully draws out the fire . ℞ . raw turneps ℥ j. s. salt. venice soap , an . ℥ s. mix them in a mortar , and make an oyntment with oyl of roses and almonds . besides these , there are many other things which powerfully draw out the fire . among the rest , writing-ink , as we have already shewed , and pickle , linnen rags being dipped therein , as also lime-water do the same . concerning pickle or brine , lemnius thus writes , pickle or brine , by a present and peculiar force , draws the fire out of burns , and asswages the most intense pains , whether the burns be of gun-powder , or the scaldings of oyl , pitch , scalding-water , or fiery coals ; especially if the parts affected be but fomented with a rag dipped in the pickle ; this is confirmed by matthias pactzerus . butter also mixed with a great deal of powder'd salt , and laid upon the scald , does wonders . but these things are to be used at the beginning , before the wheals and blisters rise , and that there be any excoriation , else these things are not so proper , but the cure must be ordered another way . observation . xxiii . the tooth-ach . cornelia iacobi , a strong woman , was troubled with a terrible pain in the teeth , together with a pain in half her head ; whereupon i gave her this vomit . ℞ . glass of antimony powder'd gr . xii . white-wine ℥ v. let them sleep all night , in the morning filter the wine through a sheet of brown paper , and give it for one draught . this brought up choleric , flegmatic and tough matter in abundance ; and besides she had some stools ; the next night she slept well , the pain of her teeth ceased , and she never had it more . observation xxiv . the gallic fever , epidemic . in the year ▪ the summer was extream hot and dry ; at what time , the king of france's army being joyned with ours , besieg'd lovain , where the souldiers were in great want of all things , especially of bread and water , and for that reason they fed upon the fruits of the season , unripe and crude , flesh newly kill'd and never salted , without bread , and other food that bred ill nourishment ; so that at length , almost consumed with hunger and thirst , they raised their siege , and by reason that schenk-fort was at that time betray'd into the spaniards hands , they were forced to come into our country . hither when they came , besides our own , the greatest part of the french foot quartered for some time at nimeghen ( where i liv'd at that time , and began to practise ) and among those souldiers , a certain pestilent and malignant fever began to be very rife some few days before their coming to the town . here the souldiers overjoy'd , found plenty of all things , and were well refresh'd ; but within a few days this malignant fever swept away great numbers of the whole army , more especially of the french ; for not to reckon our own , within two or three months this dire contagion laid in their graves , at least three thousand of the french at nimeghen ; nor did it rage less in the camp before schenk sconce , and in other places it made the same destruction , both of our own and the french souldiers , and from them the infection spread it self among the citizens and inhabitants at nimeghen , where above a thousand were devoured by the earth in a few months . nor was the havock less among the inhabitants of the adjoyning cities ; nay , it penetrated even into the very heart of our country . now , because this fever first infected the french , and afterward the rest , it was generally called the french fever , and by many also the gallic disease . there is not a small contagion in this disease , which is chiefly communicated to others by contact and attraction of putrid and most nasty vapors , of sweat , of ordure , &c. and therefore they who attended the sick , or staid any while with them , were sure to be infected with the distemper ; but the contagion was first spread all over nimeghen , more especially for this reason ; because the whole city , by reason the army was so vast , was all full of souldiers , insomuch that all the streets and lanes were fill'd with souldiers , some in health , and some sick , lying every where at the sides of the streets : and hence the filth and excrements , as well of the sick as healthy , were thrown into the publick passages in great heaps ; nor was there any avoiding them , because of the extraordinary multitudes of people passing to and fro . and thus it came to pass that the malignant and corrupt vapors rising from those nasty dunghills , infected the whole city with contagion and disease . the cause of this disease did not lye so much in the malignant corruption of the spirits , as of the humors , and therefore it might be very properly call'd a pestilence in the humors ; but it differed from the pestilence in this , that in the pestilence , the vital spirits , in this fever , the humors , are corrupted after a malignant manner . moreover the contagion of the pestilence hangs in the air , and infects more at a distance ; but the contagion of this fever is communicated by the immediate contact and attraction of malignant vapors . lastly , the pestilence is a disease more acute and dangerous , and of which more die than escape ; but in this disease more escape than dye . this fever , at the beginning seiz'd some sharply , but most people gently ; some without , and others with a slight cold and shivering . a little after the beginning , in many followed a very great heat , accompanied with a vehement thirst ; which burning sometimes intermitting by slight intervals , continued for the most part till the seventh day or longer . in many also this intense heat was not perceived ; and in such persons the heart was more affected by the malignity of the humors than the heat , for in them the vital faculty was more endammag'd . at the beginning of the distemper , there appeared a very great debility and dissipation of the natural strength . deliriums in some , in most faintness , in many head-achs and want of sleep ; in all thirst , with a great driness of the tongue ; many also presently after the disease , were troubled with malignant dysenteries and diarr●…ea's , very difficult to be cured . the pulse was also very thick , but weak and unequal . upon the days of crises's , the patients were generally worse , nevertheless very few crises's that were good . nature seemed to endeavor and attempt crises's ; but in regard of the great quantity of malignant humors , and the wasted strength of the patient , she was not able to accomplish them . crises's , by sweat or bleeding at the nose , or coming down of the courses , sometimes alone vanquish'd the distemper , but very seldom ; for they were for the most part imperfect , b●…t by loosness of the belly they were dangerous , and to many mortal . in some , little red spots breaking out over all the body upon the skin , chang'd the disease sometimes for the worse , and sometimes for the better . some that lay long sick had critical abscesses in some sound part . but carbuncles never appeared . i never saw any that had either kernels in their groins , behind their ears , or under their arm-pits , or that nature ever voided any thing through those emunctories . some that had been cured of this fever , easily relapsed into as dangerous and mortal a distemper , especially if they exposed themselves abroad too soon , or committed the least error in diet. in the cure of this distemper , the primary and chief relief was given by blood-letting three or four times , and in some six or seven times repeated . i have seen french-men , whom their physicians have let blood in four days space , no less than twelve times , and have taken great quantities of blood from them ; for the patients found great ease after blood-letting ; and because so known a remedy , at length , that many , without the advice of a physician , would order themselves to be let blood , by which means , some cured themselves of their distemper . more than that , this seemed a greater wonder , that when blood-letting decays the strength so much , yet in this disease , after great quantities of blood taken away , nature gathered new strength , and was relieved from the burthen of malignant humors ; and all the patients , even they that were in the weakest condition , were able to endure blood-letting . these fevers submitted to no remedies so easily as to blood-letting . the blood which was drawn forth for the two or three first times , was very corrupt in all men. nor do i remember that among all those multitudes of sick people i ever saw one that had good blood taken from him at the beginning : but for the most part whitish , often between livid and greenish , wherein there was a little mixture of red blood. it was muscilaginous like the decoction of calves-feet . in most it was coagulated : in some also it would hardly coagulate , the fibres being for the most part consumed by the corruption ; and those were in most danger . after the third or fourth bleeding the blood prov'd tolerable . being call'd therefore to patients , after loosening the belly with a glyster , we order'd blood-letting as soon as possibly we could ; and if the patients strength would permit , we repeated it the next day ; taking away every time from half a pint to a pint of blood , and the same we did again after three or four days intermission , according to the strength of the patient and the excess of the fever . nevertheless in the mean time we administer'd purging medicines , and sometimes glysters to keep the body open , and because there was a malignity in the disease we made frequent use of diaphoretics and antidotes , juleps , and cooling and cordial electuaries were very beneficial , mix'd with diuretics , more especially if they were opposite to the malignity . when the patient could not sleep , we anointed his temples with some gentle opiate , and gave him sometimes narcotics to swallow . annotations . malignant and pestilent fevers how they may be allowed without a true pestilence , we have shown at large in our treatise of the pest. but these fevers are various , as not proceeding always from the same cause , nor seizing the same manner , nor admitting the same cure. sometimes the infection of the air alone , sometimes extraordinary corruptions of the air by bad dyet , or otherwise , sometimes hurtful exhalations of things corrupt and putrid : sometimes dispositions of the temperaments of the air and bodies ; either single of themselves , or some or all of them conjoyned together , create these epidemic fevers , and therefore as the causes are various , so is there great varieties in the cure. and therefore it is that these malignant fevers seldom appear twice altogether one like another . fracastorius describes a pestilential fever , which differed very much from ours , which came from a certain infection of the air , and chiefly prey'd upon the spirits , and not upon the humors , and was chiefly cured with antidotes ; whereas blood-letting did harm : on the other side , our fever more an enemy to the humors then the spirits , was cured by blood-letting . wierus makes mention of a malignant and pestilent fever , which was very rife about the countries lying upon the rhine , and very different from ours , which the cure informs us : for he writes , that he found blood-letting very dangerous . from our fever also differ very much those fevers which forestus describes , wherein there were neither the same symptoms , neither would the cure admit repeated blood-letting . lazarus riverius produces one example of a malignant fever , which in many patients agreed with ours , and was cured by five times blood-letting . to which there was one very like that we saw in france in the year already mentioned , observ. . but that it may be the better understood . how patients afflicted with this same malignant fever are to be ordered , i shall produce one or two examples of a thousand in the following observations . observation xxv . a malignant fever . herman thomas , a baker , was seized with the foresaid malignant fever the fifth of september , with a very great heat and consumption of his spirits ; at the beginning , his pulse beat thick , yet not very unequal ; this thirst was vehement , with a very great driness of the tongue . all the body seem'd to be equally affected , and therefore he never felt any pain , only complained of a great faintness and dejection of his heart , the first day coming to him about the evening i ordered him an emollient glister , which gave him three stools , and to quench his thirst , i prescribed him this julep . ℞ . carduus-water , borage and sorrel-water an lb j. 〈◊〉 of citron newly squeezed out of the fruit , syrrup of the ●…owre part of the citron , of violets , rob of red rib●…s an . ℥ . oyl of sulphur q. s. to make it gratefuly sharp mix them for a iulep . the sixth of september in the morning we took away a pint of blood out of the median vein of the right arm ; which gave him great ease . the blood was very bad , the upper half between livid and green , and like a muscilage , the lower half black and coagulated ; the serum also was green. the next day he felt a pain in his throat , which was without any tumour , for the asswaging of which , i ordered him a proper gargarism . in the morning he took a gentle purge which gave him five stools . to quench his thirst he took small ale , and sometimes his julep : the eight of september his fever continuing in the same state , we took away ten ounces out of his left arm , which was as bad as the first : the ninth this sudorific was given him . ℞ . diascordium of fracastorius ʒj . confection of hiacinth , extract of carduus , salt of rue an ℈ j. treacle and carduus water an . ℥ j. oyl of vitriol ix . drops , mix them for a draught . upon this he sweat well ; nevertheless the continual fever , his weakness , his pain in his throat , his thirst and driness of his mouth continued still ; besides that he could not sleep hardly at all . therefore in the afternoon he drank two draughts of the following apozem , and took it also the next day . ℞ . roots of succory , grass , asparagus an . ℥ j. of elecampane , sea holly , and stone parsley ; an . ℥ s. herbs , sorrel , carduus benedict . borage , centaury the less , scordium , scabious an . one handful . one whole pome citron cut in slices , the four greater cold-seeds an . ℥ j. s. fruit of tamarinds , rhenish tartar an . ʒvj . curants ℥ j. s. boyl them in common water q. s. to 〈◊〉 . ij . add to the straining syrup of limons ℥ iij. mix them for an apozem . the eleventh , after an emollient glister first given , we took away seven ounces more of blood out of his right arm , which very much abated the fever ; the twelfth , after he had taken his former antidote in the morning , he sweat very much : and in the afternoon he took his apozem . the next day because his belly did not answer our expectations i gave him this powder to take mixed with a little of his julep , which gave him three stools . ℞ . rhubarb the best ʒj . cremor tartar ʒ s. for a powder . this powder he took again the sixteenth in the intervening days , and the three days following he took the foresaid apozem and a small quantity of this conditement . ℞ . pulvis liberans ʒj . s. the three saunders ℈ ij . confection of hyacynth ℈ j. s. candy'd orange peels , rob of red ribs pulp of tamarinds an . ℥ s. syrrup of limons q. s. mix them for a conditement . upon the twelfth his fever abated every day more and more , neither was he molested any more with anguish or thirst ; but his stomach began to come to him ; but then through a slight errour in his diet , he fell into a relaps , and his fever returned with great violence : therefore after we had glistered him first , we took half a pint of blood out of his left arm , which gave him so much ease that the fever was almost totally quenched with that one blood-letting . the next morning taking his antidote again , he sweat soundly , and then taking his apozem and his conditement , both that day and the three or four next days , he was presently delivered from his fever . during the cure we kept him to a slender diet of broths , wherein were boil'd sorrel , borage , pome citrons , barley cleansed and unripe grapes . to drink we gave him small ale , and sometimes juleps , and sometimes he quenched his intollerable drought with pulp of tamarind , or by chawing a slice of pome citron dipped in sugar : or else by laying upon his tongue a leaf of the bigger sempervivum , steeped in water , and the outer skin pulled off . observation . xxvi . a malignant fever . gertrude coets , a young maid of about twenty four years of age , was seized with the same pestilential fever . upon the eight of september i being sent for ( which was the fourth day of the disease , ) i found her so weak that she could hardly speak ; she swoonded away every moment , by reason of the malignant vapours that oppressed her heart ; her pulse was very weak , thick and unequal : the heat not very intense , in regard the morbific matter infested her more by it's malignity then it's heat ; presently i gave her this sudorific . ℞ . oriental bezoar stone ℈ s. diascordium of fracastorius , mithridate damoc. confection of hyacinth an . ℈ j. carduus water ℥ j. mix them for a draught . though she did not sweat long , by reason of her weakness , yet she had very much ease ; to quench her thirst , i prescribed her this julep . ℞ . carduus , baum , sorrel and scabious waters an . lb. s. cinnamon ℥ j. citron juice newly squeezed ℥ j. s. syrrup of limons , violets an . ℥ j. s. oyl of sulphur q. s. mix them for a iulep . the ninth her belly was moved by a suppository : and two hours after we took from the median vein of her right arm half a pint of blood , which was very corrupt , muscilaginous , between pale and greenish , with a green serum containing a little good blood at the bottom , notwithstanding the great consumption of her strength she endured her blood-letting very well , which gave her great ease ; she also often took a small quantity of this conditement . ℞ . pulvis liberans . ʒj . salt prunella ℈ j. rob of red ribes , pulp of tamarinds , conserve of roses . an ℥ s. confection of hyacinth ʒj . s. syrrup of limons q. s. mix them for a conditement . the next day she continued the same medicins ; and for her ordinary drink she drank small ale with some few drops of oyl of vitriol . the eleventh of september she took again her last sudorific , and found some ease by it . the twelfth her anguish and weakness seemed again to increase ; wherefore we drew six ounces of blood out of her left arm ; which was as bad as the former . this blood-letting gave her very great ease , i would willingly have prescribed her apozems and some other things , but because she was nice , and had a very nauseous stomach by reason of her disease , she could take nothing . the thirteenth we mixed ʒj . of rhubarb powdered and ʒ s. of cremor tartar , in a little small ale and deceived her , which gave her three stools ; the next day she was much better , and taking the foresaid conditement , her fever became very remiss . the eighteenth she relapsed into an extraordinary weakness ; then i ordered her this mixture in a spoon , which somewhat releived her . ℞ . oriental bezoar stone ℈ s. confection of hyacinth . ℈ j. cinamon-water ʒj . carduus-water ʒij . mix them . the nineteenth we again drew out of her right arm five ounces of blood ; which very much abated her fever that day and the next day , she continued the use of her conditement and julep ; at this time d. gilbert coets cheif physitian of arnheim , was called to consultation who recommended for a try'd and most proper remedy his own treacle-water , which he called carbuncle-water , and concealed as a great secret ; by his advice one spoonful of this water was given twice or thrice a day to the patient ; but the twenty first her fever growing more upon her , i gave her this antidote . ℞ . salt of wormewood , confection of hyacinth an . ℈ j. oriental bezoar gr . xii . carbuncle-water , carduus water an . ℥ s. mix them . this was again repeated the twenty second and twenty third , the twenty fourth by the help of a suppository she had a stool ; in the evening she took this , ℞ . bezoar stone oriental gr . xii . pearls prepared ℈ j. carbuncle water ℥ s. mix them and give a spoonful at a time . the next day she swallowed xii . grains of pill . ruffi in two pills ; which toward the evening gave her two stools . the twenty eight of september she took them again as also upon the second of october , in the intervening time she continued the use of her conditement , julep and cordial-water , and fed upon broths , and thus she was restored to her former health . observation xxvii . a malignant fever . henry ter koelem , being taken with the same malignant fever , the fourth of september sent for me , i found him full of anguish and weak ; his pulse weak and unequal , yet without any intense beat ; we let him thrice blood , us'd proper glisters , loosening medicaments , sudorifics , and such as resisted corruption and malignity , together with other cordial remedies , and so recovered him . but going abroad too soon , and being careless of his diet upon the twenty eight of september he relapsed into a more dangerous fever then his first . after twice letting blood , and several other medicaments exhibited , red spots , and some purple ones came forth over all his body upon the skin , upon which the fever went off , and within eight days he recovered much of his strength ; but then ignorant of his weakness and trusting too much to his strength , upon the twenty eight of october going but once a little abroad , he fell into a second relapse more dangerous still : by reason of his strength debilitated by his former sickness . the fever harrass'd his body already much weakened , with great violence , nevertheless after blood-letting , we gave him several remedies with that success , that at length upon the tenth of november he fell into a very great spontaneous sweat ; but as he lay in his sweat ; a certain ruddy tumour began to appear in his left side , above the fifth , sixth , and seventh rib ; which the next day bunched out as big as a man's fist. thus the fever went off , and the crisis of the disease was performed by sweating and an impostume ; but the tumour was very hard , which because we could not bring to a head in five days with mollifying and ripening cataplasms ; and for that the party complained of the pain of the inner part affected , i was afraid , least some matter sticking between the ribs near the pleura membrane should have already ripened , which might occasion some greater mischeif , should the impostume break within , before the outward maturation , and so the matter fall down to the inner parts , to prevent this inconvenience though i could neither see nor feel any sign of outward maturation , i ordered a chyrugeon to open the tumour half a fingers breadth above the ribs , which done , it appeared that my judgment had not failed me for there came forth at the same time matter both white and mature ; and thus the patient escaped the danger threatened by the impostume , to that so soon as the tumor was cured he recovered his former health . observation xxviii . a malignant dysentery . at the same time that the foresaid malignant fever so cruelly raged , malignant dysenterys fatal to many , were very rife , after they had voided the slime of the guts , they presently voided blood , not alone and pure , but mixed with a certain white , viscous and tenacious humour ; which like pitch or bird-lime stook close to every thing it touched ; and might be drawn out into long strings . the patients were cruelly griped in their bellys ; and besides a continual fever , anguish of the heart , extream weakness , vehement thirst , loss of stomach , want of sleep , and something of heat in the urine were the concomitants of this distemper ; and as for them that voided that viscous and white slime , mixt with bloody dejections , if it were very tough , the most of those people dy'd ; and the less tenacious it was , the better they escaped . they who brake wind during exoneration , gave great hopes of recovery . they that were conversant with the sick or tended upon them , were infected with the contagious stench of the disease ; these fluxes were very difficultly cured , in regard that blood-letting avails nothing in the cure ; and many times neither purges nor astringents , nor sudorifics nor other remedies usually administered in this distemper were given with any success . annotations . this same contagion , at this very time carry'd off vast numbers of our men in the camp before schenk-fort . and when the physitians to the army had try'd all the remedies they could think of for the cure of this distemper , but very few did any good , at length there was a remedy found out by certain italian physitians , who came hither with the french army , by which afterwards great numbers were cured . first they purged the patients with rhubarb . then they took white wax ʒ j. s. or ʒ ij . and cut this very small into ℥ iiij . or v. of new milk , which they boil'd till the wax was perfectly melted , and then gave their patients that milk as hot as could be to drink ; for it must be taken very hot , because of the wax , that else would thicken , so that it could not be drank ; if the lask did not stop the first time , then they gave it a second and a third time . but in regard there were a great number of souldiers that lay sick of this distemper , there was such a vast quantity of white wax consumed in a short time , that the apothecaries of emeric were quite exhausted ; so that they were forced to send for it to other places . now though wax seldom is given to swallow , yet it is no new thing . for diascorides writes , that it is of great efficacy to fill up wounds , and is given in broths to those that are troubled with dysenteries . thus valleriola speaks of a dysenteric recovered by such a remedy . he cut an apple hollow , and filled it with citrin coloured wax , and then covering it laid it in the ashes to roast , till the wax was melted and mixed with the substance of the apple , and then gave it the patient fasting to eat for some days together ; though he believes it better to roast and melt the said wax in a quince , as being more astrictive and glutinous . quercetus prepares the same remedy by cutting an apple hollow , and filling it with white wax and gum arabic an . ʒ j. solenander stuft a turtle with an ounce of white wax , and boyl'd it in water , and then gave both the flesh and the broth to be eaten with bread. others prescribe a young pidgeon stuft and boiled after the same manner . observation xxix . a dysentery . marcellus bor , a strong man of about forty years of age , was taken with a dysentery of the same nature . the ninth of october i purged him with rhubarb , then i gave him juleps , conditements , powders cooling , thickning and astringent apozems , sudorifics and other proper medicaments in convenient manner and time ; so that the patient being reduced to extremity of weakness i began to give him over , not beleiving he could live two days in that condition , but in regard he was very thirsty and called for cold water , i ordered in a desperate condition that he might have as much cold water as he would drink , to the end that by drinking such a quantity of water , the morbific cause , if it were possible , might be washed off from the guts , and the acrimony of it blunted by the force of the cold . all that night the patient drank as much as he would of well-water ; which at first past swiftly through his guts and with wonderful griping flowed down to the lower parts ; afterwards not griping so much , toward morning the pains of the guts were almost ceased , and the stools less frequent ; about noon the patient falling a sleep , slept quietly for some hours , before the evening the flux stopt , and so the patient refreshed with proper diet , when every one thought he could not have lived , was unexpectedly recovered from a most desperate disease . annotations . concerning the drinking of cold water in a dysentery , there are hardly any of the modern physitians that speak a word . yet it is a remedy not improper in a choleric dysentery : for it washes the intestines with its moisture , and frees them from all the filth of sharp humors , and cleanses the inner ulcers . by its coldness also it abates and dulls the heat and acrimony of the choler ; and binds up the exulcerations of the intestines . nor was the drinking of cold water unknown to the ancients in this disease . therefore says aetius , at the beginning , for drink , use rain-water ; but if there be no good rain-water , take fountain-water . celsus also writes in these words , if after several days tryal , other remedies will not prevail , and the disease is come to be of some continuance , the drinking of cold water binds the ulcers . in like manner paulus and others of the antients make mention of the drinking of cold water in a terrible dysentery . among the moderns amatus of portugal , was one that by his own report , saw a choleric dysentery cured by the drinking of a great quantity of cold water . at other times it also happens , that when the best medicines avail nothing , a plain ordinary medicine has cured most desperate dysenterys . so by the relation of captains i have heard , that when breda was besieged by the spaniards , and that dysenteries were very rife in the city , nor any remedy could be invented for this distemper , when all the known remedies of the physitians fail'd ; at length a new invention was found out , by which many were cured . a piece of silk double dy'd of a deep crimson colour , comb'd into slender threads and steep'd in wine ; this taken in wine with a dram or half a dram of powder of the same silk for some times , infinite numbers have been cured by it . i know a certain dysenteric person who was given over , who upon eating a vast quantity of medlars , recovered beyond all expectation . another was freed by man's bones drank in red wine , of a flux which was thought incurable . oyl of olives taken alone , or eaten with a white-bread toast dipp'd in it , many times works wonders . holler affirms , that he was cured several times with the juice of ground-ivy . forestus writes , that he never found any thing more prevalent , then the dung of dogs that only fed upon bones given in chalvbeate milk. and with this medicine , fuchsius says , that he cured above a hundred dysenterics in one year . riverius tells us of a dysenteric that only used the decoction of pimpernel with water and butter , and so was cured in three days , bruyernius writes thus of himself being troubled with a dysentery . we says he , being terribly afflicted with a dysentery , lay given over by the physitians : for no remedies were able to asswage or cure the disease : at length by the advice of an old woman , upon eating a great quantity of raw services , the next day i felt all my pain almost abated . and by this means my belly being shut up , and i , as it were recalled from the dead , and restored to my former health ; experienced the saying of gelsus to be true , that rashness does more in diseases than prudence can do . observation xxx . a consumption . lewis gulielm , a sea-man , about thirty four years of age and indifferently robust , had sometimes before lain sick of a malignant fever ; of which by the assistance of god i had cured him . in the month of october , about a month after the cure of the said fever he was taken with an extraordinary catarrh , occasioned by a salt and sharp defluxion that fell upon his lungs ; a short while after , in coughing he spit a great quantity of blood ; and not long after this same spitting of blood he also spit corruption . more then this , there was mixt with his spittle , a white viscous and very tenacious white slime , which he spit forth every day with a great quantity of matter and blood. this disease was accompanied with a slight fever but not continuous , the patient was all over consumed away and so hoarse that he could hardly speak , he also complained of an inward oppressive pain in his right lung ; and said that he was sufficiently sensible that what he spit forth ascended from that side of his breast , sometimes he was almost suffocated with coughing , by reason of the tenacious matter sticking in his throat ; for the cure of this distemper , i gave him many and various remedies for a long time to stop the catarrh , abate and lenify the cough , promote expectoration , drying and vulnerary medicins , decoctions of guaiacum , china and sassaperilla , haly's powder against a consumption , looches , and other proper medicaments but all in vain , at length when these things nothing availed , but that the ulcer grew worse and worse , and the patient grew averse from taking any more physic , his body being become as lean as a skeleton , and his strength more and more failed him , we were constrained for some time to give over the use of physic ; in the mean time to repair his strength and support nature , i ordered him to drink a draught of goats milk , newly milked from the goat and blood-warm ; beginning with a less quantity till he came to a pint , after he had continued to take this milk for two or three months , his cough began to abate and his lungs to dry up ; he spit little and gathered strength every day . therefore still continuing the use of it , the ulcer in his lungs was perfectly consolidated , and he luckily escaped a most dangerous consumption , neither did he perceive any thing of evil in his breast for several years , till twelve years afterwards , he relapsed into the same distemper through a defluxion of sharp rhums , and in regard i then lived at nimeghen , and for that other physicians did not prescribe him proper medicins , he died altogether consumed and emaciated . annotations . a true phthisis or consumption is a very dangerous disease , which few escape . sometimes by long use of medicines the mischief may be asswaged for a time , and life may be somewhat prolonged , but the patients are very rarely perfectly cured ; and yet in the foresaid patient we prevailed so far , that he liv'd eleven years after the cure , in perfect health . now that milk contributes very much to the cure of a consumption , is confirm'd by the testimonies of galen , rhasis and several other ancient and modern physitians . therefore , says sennertus , speaking of a consumption , the most proper medicines here to be made use of , are such as answer all our ends ; such as consolidate the ulcer , restore the emaciated body , and mitigate the heat of the fever . of which the chiefest is milk ; then which , as galen affirms , there can be nothing more prevalent given to cure consumptions . and then again . among nourishments , milk obtains to be preferred above all others . it nourishes the body extreamly , affords good matter to the blood , tempers the acrimony of vitious humors , cleanses the ulcer with its serous part , with its cheesy part it contributes consolidation , and with its buttery part , it moistens and resists the dryness of the body . the same commendation riverius gives to milk in his treatise of physical practice . but in the use of milk several things are to be considered . . with whom it does not agree . . when , and how , it is to be given . . what quantity . . how it is to be corrected . . what milk is convenient . . grato tells for what persons milk is not convenient in these words . let practitioners in physic observe three conditions in the prescription of milk ; first that there be no weakness , nor pain in the head. for hippocrates tells us , it is not good for such . secondly , that the fever be not very violent ; for it is almost impossible , but that milk must corrupt in the stomac of a person troubled with a violent fever . thirdly , that the bowels be not distended with wind. and of this opinion also is sennertus . secondly , milk must be taken upon an empty and clean stomac , else it grows sowr and corrupts . also it is to be taken newly milked and warm , or suckt from the teat : for if it be cold it gathers filth ; if it be boyled , it becomes thick , viscous and ungrateful . after the patient has taken it , let him not sleep , nor take any other meat or drink , ( as wine , vinegar or stale-beer ) before the milk be sufficiently corrupted in the stomac . thirdly , let the quantity be small at first , about four or five ounces , that the stomac may accustom it self to it by degrees ; then increase it to half a pint , and so to a pint. for it is to be always given in such a quantity , that the stomac may be able to bear and concoct it : and therefore you must ascend from the less to the greater quantity ; first once , then twice , then three times a day . fourthly , to prevent the milk from curdling or growing sowr in the belly , a little sugar may be mixt with it ( riverius praises the mixture of sugar of roses ) which however is not necessary where there is no fear of coagulation . other physitians mix honey with it ; but we do not approve that mixture . fifthly , in the last place there is some choice to be made of the milk. that womans milk , says , mercurialis , is certainly the best , there is no body will question . for this without doubt is most agreeable to the nature of our bodies . and zacutus of portugal says , that he perfectly cured a consumptive person with the use of it . and such another cure valleriola relates . so plater tells us that he had seen several recovered by sucking womens milk from the teats . among which there was one that not only recovered , but gathered so much strength , that because he would not want milk ; for the future , he got his nurse with child again . next to womans milk , are asses , cows and goats milk. asses milk is thinner , more serous and 〈◊〉 to cleanse the ulcer . cows milk l●…ss serous , but more nourishing . goats milk differs not much from womans milk. it drys and consolidates very much . by the use of this our patient was cured . observation xxxi . vomiting . monsieur de guade a captain in the king of france's army , was taken with a vomiting which lasted for three days together , nor would any vomitories or any other remedies given him do him any good ; i found that what he vomited up was a frothy kind of flegm ( which the patient himself affirmed to be salt ) with which there was a little choler intermixed ; however he did not vomit up very much , but little often , and with violent straining . we gave him twice or thrice a good draught of the decoction of barley luke-warm , sweeten'd with a little honey ; which when he had vomited up again , with a great quantity of tough flegm ; at length we gave him cinnamon water distilled with wine ℥ s. with which we mixed three drops of oyl of cinnamon ; which when he had taken , he found himself better . half an hour after we gave him the same again . in the mean time we laid the following cataplasm to the region of his stomach . ℞ . flowers of mint , baum and red roses an . half a handful ; mace , ʒ s. clove-gillow-flowers , nu●…megs , mastic , olibanum , storax , benjamin , an . ℈ ij . make a powder , to which add sower leven , ℥ iij. vinegar of roses , q. s. make all into a sost past without boyling . with these few things the vehement vomiting ceased . the troublesom vomiting , which had lasted a whole day , i stop'd , by giving him twice the following draught . ℞ . vvhite-wine warmed before the fire , ʒij . oyl of clove-gillow-flowers one drop , of cinnamon two drops , mix them for a draught to be taken very vvarm . the region of his belly was also anointed with oyl of nutmegs warm . annotations . vomiting is caus'd by the consent of other parts , as when the meninxes of the brain are wounded , or that the kidneys are troubled with the stone or gravel &c. which vomiting ceases , when the disease is cured of which it is the symptom . or it is excited by the abundance and sharpness of humors that stimulate the fibers of the stomach ; which are either choleric and hot , or flegmatic salt and cold , or melancholic and salt , or sanguineous extravasated and corrupting into the stomach , or flowing in too great a quantity into it . at the beginning of the cure , the vomiting is still more to be provoked , that the stomach may be well wash'd , and freed from the cause of the distemper : for according to hippocrates a vomit cures vomitting . this done the stomach is to be fortified either with cold or warm medicaments , as the cause of the disease is either hot or cold. if the cause be hot , juleps made with juice of pomegranates , quinces , citrons , and oyl of vit●…iol are proper . the raw juice of quinces alone , taken one or two spoonfuls at a time miraculously stays this vomiting . outwardly fomentations with a spung dipp●…d in vinegar of roses or elder-vinegar warmed , or a quince roasted and applied warm in the form of a 〈◊〉 , or sowr leven mixed with vinegar and juice of mint , and applied , which very quickly stays vomiting , and is highly extolled by villanovanus . also smelling to vinegar , camphire and the like , may be very prevalent . if the cause be cold , the stomach is to be corroborated with hot things , as wine , matthiolus's aqua vitae , cinnamon-water , oyl of cinnamon , nutmegs , mace , clove gillowflowers , spirit of vitriol , and such like distillations . among simples all hot stomach-herbs and spices ; also outwardly applications of castor , storax , labdanum , benzoine , galbanum , tacamahacca , olibanum , oyl of nutmegs and mace , &c. to which add quinces , mas●…ic and other astringents . if these do no good , fallopius gives you this experiment . if the vomiting do not cease , let him bite a piece of a turnep twice or thrice , and champ it only with his fore-teeth , and you shall see the vomiting will absolutely ease , tho his stomach be very weak ; and this remedy is so extraordinary , that i could never find a better . if these things will not stay the vomiting , you must come to narcotics among which in a cold cause , roman philoniam is preferred above all the rest given to the quantity of one dram . but in a hot cause pills of storax or opiate laudanum . observation xxxii . a country man of groesbeck , who because of his extraordinary stature was called ironically little iohn about forty years old , and very strong , about two years since being very hasty in cleavingof wood , by chance receiv'd a hurt from a splinter in the fore tibiaeon muscle of his right thigh ; the wound not being very broad , but reaching to the periosteum . this wound though he slighted it at first , it could never afterwards be consolidated by any remedies , but remain'd like an issue , nature voiding continually several excrementious humors out of it ; which was the reason that the country man was troubled with frequent inflammations and other mischiefs . at length in september , having by accident sold a parcel of wood , to a certain chyrurgeon of nimeghem , after he had shew'd him his thigh , the chyrurgeon promised to consolidate the little wound , which had now been of two years standing . the other weary of his pain and trouble , gladly accepted the condition , presently the chyrurgeon , without ever purging his body , thrust in tents with i know not what oyntment into the wound , and laid on plaisters , the fatness of which the parts adjoyning to the periostea brook'd but very scurvily . hence within three days by reason of the stoppage of the deprav'd humors now remaining within , a terrible inflammation of the whole thigh ensued , with a vast swelling and intollerable pain , that threatned nothing less than a gangrene . then my advice was ask'd . presently after i had thrown away all the other applications and the oxycrate that was bound about his whole thigh , i ordered the wound to be well washed with spirit of wine , and then that they should pour in balsam of perue warmed , with some few grains of camphire mix'd with it , and that his whole thigh should be wrapt about with linnen cloths dipped in spirit of wine . i also purged his body , and the next day let him blood , and prescrib'd him a proper dyet . by these means not without some trouble , the i●…flamm'd swelling being fallen , his thigh within six days was restor'd to its first condition . but in regard that afterwards some new beginnings of an inflammation ( with which he was wont to be molested before ) began to appear , i clapt the grey plaister about his whole thigh , having mixed with every ounce of the plaister ℈ ij . of camphire , which i let lye for three weeks together , only putting in a fresh plaister three times , which prevented the return of those inflammations . in the mean time , to cure the wound also i ordered first an issue to be made with a potential cautery on the other side of the same thigh ; from whence before i could well pull off the blister , nature by this new passage evacuated all those evil excrementitious humors , which before were voided through the wound , and the wound closed within a few days with the only application of the balsam of peru , camphorated . but i perswaded him to keep the issue open as long as he liv'd . but his thigh being thus cur'd , the country-man complained to me of another malady no less ungrateful to his wife , that his inclinations to conjugal performance were utterly extinguish'd , and his venereal ability quite lost , which malady he said had befallen him but since the cure of his thigh . presently i suspected that this languidness proceeded from the use of the camphire , which i had mixed with the balsam and other plaisters ; so that i forbore the farther use of it , and gave the country-man electuary of dyasatyrion to take , and prescrib'd him a nourishing dyet of hot meats , with spices , leeks and onions , which restored him to that degree that he followed his wives agriculture as he was wont to do . annotations . let your chyrurgeons learn from hence not to trust too much to the certainty of their own knowledge ▪ and make slight of wounds of this nature . much more let them be careful how they go about to close them too soon , least by their ignorance causing gangrenes and mortifications , they prove the loss not only of their patients limbs but lives . first therefore let them carefully consider , whether nature have not been accustomed to evacuate excrementitious humors through that wound , and then let them not begin the cure , till they have caused a diversion some other way . next , let them examin the place affected very well , whether the periosteum , or any nerve , or such like thing that cannot endure fat plaisters , lye near the part , and then what topics are convenient . in the next place let them purge the body well before they begin the cure , by that and all other convenient means to prevent the afflux of corrupt humors to the part affected ; for the humors easily descend to the lower parts . as to the cure of the country mans frigidity , we have observed strange things in the use of this camphire . the very smell and fume of it drawn through the nose , being sufficient to extinguish venereal ardor , according to the verse , camphora per nares castrat odore mares . such is the smell that camphire yields ; that through the nose the o●…our gelds . but i could hardly have believed , that being laid upon the thighs it should have had this operation . but i remember my brother met with the same accident in the cure of mounsieur edward , who was troubled with old ulcers in his thigh ; and who having worn a camphorated plaister for two months upon his thigh , found his venereal faculty quite extinguished , and his wife full of sad complaints ; who nevertheless by the use of hot medicaments , a nourishing hot dyet , not without his wives consent , was restored to his pristine vigor . now because of these extraordinary vertues in camphire , certain monks in germany , who were more desirous , then usual , to live a chast life , hang it up in the barrel to steep in al●… , which they usually drink , on purpose to suppress their carnal desires , and to avoid the temptations of venus . this occasioned a very pretty story at nimeghen of a carpenter , who being hired to mend the floor in a certain monastry in the territory of cleves , in lent-time , when the monks chiefly camphire their ale , and being forced to stay there till he had finished , for three or four months , drank of their ale all the time . but when he came home to his wife , never was a guest more unwelcome in this world. for not having the least inclination to venery ▪ he was forced to leave his farm untilled ; which impediment was afterwards however removed in a short time by the use of hot things . nevertheless the carpenter hated that monastry ever after , and never would work there any more . some attribute this faculty of extinguishing venus , to the cold and driness of camphire , but erroneously ; for its savor and its aptness to take fire , declare that it is not cold but manifestly hot ; and therefore it must be ascrib'd to some occult quality , which is said to be in agnus castus , mint and rue , all which things are hot , and yet we find by experience that they extinguish venery . sennertus attributes this faculty to the dryness of camphire . but there are many other things which are endued with the same and a greater dryness , which have no such anti-venereal vertue ; for dryness alone will not make a man frigid ; scaliger endeavours by the example of a dog , to shew that camphire does not extinguish venery , but erroneously ; since the constitution of a man is different from that of a dog , and therefore because the operation is not in both the same , it does not follow that we should make conclusions against known experience . observation xxxiii . the head-ach . the wife of captain schayck , a strong woman of forty years of age , had a violent head-ach for three months together . all the remedies prescrib'd her in the camp would do her no good . at length in september she came to me . i prescribed her a proper dyet , and after i had well purged her body , i prescribed her this quilt . ℞ . leaves of marjoram , rosemary an . two little handfuls , of sage , red roses and melilot , an . one little handful ; mastic , olibanum ; nutmegs an . ℈ ij . cloves ℈ j. s. beat these into a gross powder , and sow them up in a red silken quilt . this being laid upon her head the intollerable pain began to abate , and in a few days vanished . she prized this quilt so highly , that she caus'd the apothecary to make her two more ; the one for her felf , the other for her kins-woman , who was troubled as much as she was with the same distemper . observation xxxiv . suppression of the courses . joan n. a young plethoric maid , about twenty four years of age , had her courses stopt for three months which was occasioned at first by her excessive drinking cold raw whey . hence paleness , loss of stomach , vomiting , head-ach , and the like . the first of october , i prescrib'd her a convenient dyet , and purged her body with the infusion of the leaves of senna and agaric , with which i mixed hiera pi●…ra . afterwards i prescrib'd her these things . ℞ . roots of round birth-wort ʒij . of dittany , master-wort , valerian an . ℥ j. s. leaves of nep , penny-royal , southern-wood , savine an . half a handful , worm-wood a little handful , seeds of gith , parsley an . ʒij . of lovage ʒj . s. of anise , nasturtium , bishops-weed , an . oriental saffron ℈ j. make these into a gross powder to be put in a bag , and so to be hung up to sleep in five pints of white-wine . ℞ . trochischs of myrrh . ℈ j. s. species of hiera , diacurcuma , oriental saffron an . ℈ j. cistor , venetian bora●… an . ℈ j. gum ammoniac dissolved in vinegar of squills ʒ●…j . for a mass to be made into pills about the bigness ofa pea. of these pills she swallowed five every morning and evening , drinking after them ℥ iiij or v. of the foresaid infusion . at length on the fifteenth of october her courses came down . but two days after her purgations began , she went too soon into the cold air , and the wind , and stopp'd the work of nature so luckily begun . hence immediately a suffocation of the womb ensued , so that she seemed to be almost choaked . i ordered castor , assa fetida and green rue to be tyed in a bag and held to her nose . and once a day ordered her to drink some of this decoction . ℞ . roots of valerian , master-wort an . ℥ s. leaves of green rue m. j. s. of fever-sew , m. j. down of nuts , ℥ s. seed of lovage , ʒ v. of wild carots , of bishops-weed an . ʒj . wine and common-water equal parts , boyl them to a pint. but in regard the women that stood by , desired that something might be laid to her feet to draw the matrix down , i prescribed this following paste which was laid to her feet : ℞ . leaves of green butter-burr , m. v. bruise them small , adding to them sowr leven , ℥ iij. salt ʒj . s. vvine , decoction of feverfew , q. s. make a paste . this abated the uterine suffocation . but in regard it was not altogether gone off the twentieth of october , she was purged again with hiera picra , the twenty first she took the decoction again . the next day she took a sudorifie ; after which when she had sweat well , she was freed from her suffocations . ℞ . crabs eyes prepared , salt of carduus an . ℈ j. treacle of andromach . ʒj . castor , saffron an . g●… . iiij . treacle-water ℥ j. s. oyl of amber , drops xii . mix them for a draught . the rest of the cure , there being no necessity , we deferred till the eight of november , at what time she returned to the use of her pills , and infusion prescribed october the second : november the fourteenth , she was let blood in the saphaena vein , of the left foot : the eighteenth her courses came down plentifully , and from that time she continued in health . annotations . at the same time that the courses flow , it behoves women to have a great care of themselves , otherwise they are easily stopped again by drinking cold water , or from cold air or wind getting into the parts , or catching cold in the feet , or upon frights or mistake in diet or otherwise , which afterwards prove the causes of grievous maladies ; as it befel this our patient . thus forestus tells a story of a maid , that when she had her courses , washed her rooms bare-foot , which putting a stop upon her courses , terrible symptoms ensued ; not could that flux be brought down again till a●…ter some months . the same person relates another story of a young girl , that at the time of her courses leapt into the water ; and of a country wench , that at such another season ordered her self to be let blood. for the provocation of the courses , we use many remedies and as variously composed , as we find the patients willing to take them , and for that reason , besides the historical infusion , we gave our patient pills , as more grateful , and no less effectual in that disease ; which pills many physitians prescribe after several forms , montagnana praises these . ℞ . trochischs of myrrh , ʒj . s. seed of parsley , cassia-wood , an . ℈ s. mosch , gr . xv . make them into pills with the juice of parsley . sennertus commends trochischs of of myrrh taken in pills , and these also ; ℞ . trochischs of myrrh , ℈ iiij . extract of gentian , savin , an . ℈ j. castor ℈ ▪ s. make these into pills ; the dose is ℈ ij . others believe these more effectual . ℞ . trochischs of myrrh , species hiera diambre , venetian , borax , prepared steel , castor , an . ℈ ij . saffrons , ℈ j ▪ gum ammoniac , dissolved in vinegar , of squills , ʒiij . make small pills , the dose from ℈ j. to two . zacutus of portugal tells of a noble matron , that reduced to the last extremity when no other remedies would do her good was cured at length by taking pills only of steel , and powder of calamint prepared with syrup of mug-wort , of which she took one dram in the morning , and exercised upon it for the space of twenty days . as for laying medicins to the feet , if they have no great force in uterin maladies , yet they do no harm , and therefore the designs of patients may be satisfied in that particular , especially those things having the approbation of great physitians , as being useful by their peculiar qualitys , as mug-wort , penyroyal , savin , fever-few , cheifly the leaves of the butter-bur , and burdock , which are thought by some to be of that force , that being laid upon the head they draw the matrix upward , being apply'd to the feet they draw it downward . the ancient also used to tye to the feet of menstruous women , and women newly deliver'd to provoke the courses , spunges dipt in vinegar and squeez'd again . observation xxxv . an immoderate and violent purging . a kinsman of that stout and valiant gentleman mr. lucas , captain of horse , about forty years of age , finding himself not very well , by my advice steeped all night in ℥ iij or iiij of small ale , leaves of senna ʒij . rhubarb ʒj . and anis●…d ℈ ij . ( for he said he was easily moved ) and drank the straining the next morning . this slight and gentle purge within the space of eight hours gave him about threescore stools , and perhaps there had been an end of his life , had i not stayed the flux with the following draught , and provoked him to sweat. ℞ ▪ terra sigillata ℈ j. s. red coral prepared , harts horn burnt an ℈ j. treacle of andromachus ℈ iiij . nicholas's rest ℈ j. treacle and carduus-water an ℥ j. mix them for a draught . i ordered also napkins scalding hot to be applyed to his belly one after another , and so the flux stayed . i perswaded him for the future not to take any purge by the advice of any physitian , though never so gentle , unless upon eminent necessity , but rather to ioosen his belly with a glyster , or some emollient broth. annotations . those physitians are unfortunate , who at the beginning of their practise meet with such a patient as this ; for they expose themselves not to a little hazard of their reputation . for it happens in physie , that the younger physitians are called the best tormentors ; and if by their medicaments they cure any patient of a dangerous disease , it is ascribed to chance , but if the patient miscary under the violence of the distemper , then they impute it to the physitian and his prescriptions . thus without doubt here had been some mistake laid to my charge , had the medicament by me prescribed been prepared in an apothecary's shop ; and people would have said there had been some poyson mixed with it ; but i was freed from that calumny , in regard that capt. lucas's wife made the infusion and prepared it her self . the same accident befel my brother also , who having prescribed only a dram of rhubarb for a gentleman to take , and to steep it first at his own house in small ale , by that single draught had above forty stools . there is a great difference in men as to purging ; some strong men , whom hardly any medicaments will stir , sometime , the most easie and gentle physic casts them into violent fluxes . others who are lookt upon to be most easily and soonest moved , many times the strongest purgations will not stir . thus i knew a man of a very short stature and lean , whom nothing could purge but tobacco steep'd in ale all night , and the straining given him next morning ; nor did that give him above three or four stools without any alteration ; which would have put another man in danger of his life . the wife of simon vvigger , a weak and lean woman could hardly be purged with any cathartic , only tobacco moved her ; and that without any trouble . cornelius steenacker , a schoolmaster , a very weak man , was so hard to be purged , that sometimes he could not be moved with compositions of antimony and other vehement cathartics . on the other side , there are some that the very looking upon physic will give them a stool . thus i knew a young lady , whom the very smell of the physic purged as well as if she had swallowed it ; for when she took the physic it seldom worked more . alexander benedictus , also and erastus , iohanes postius , and rondeletius , quote the like examples of such as have been purged by the smell of the physic only . observation xxxvi . a stinking breath . the son of iodocus n. a nobleman had a very stinking breath . his parents believed that the original of this malady proceeded from his stomach ; and for that reason many times gave him hiera picra ; which doing him no good , they came to me . i presently found that the cause did not lye in his stomach , but in his gums and teeth : for that the dregs of his meat detain'd long in the spaces between his teeth , and there corrupting , begot that evil smell . i ordered them there to cleanse his teeth twice or thrice a day very well with a tooth-pick , and then to wash them well with his water . ℞ . powdered allum ʒj . common water ℥ v. cinnnamon water ʒ s. oyl of vitriol ix . drops , mix them well together . after he had used this for a few days , the ill smell of his breath was no longer perceived . annotations . there are several causes of a stinking breath ; sometimes it proceeds from exulcerations of the lungs , as in phthisical people : sometimes from ill vapours corrupting the lungs , as in the scurvy ; sometimes ( according to bauhinus ) from the loosness of the valve at the beginning of the thick intestine , through which the continual stench of the ordure passing through the thin guts and the stomach , breaths through the mouth ; sometimes it proceeds from the fault of the teeth only , when they are not well cleansed every day , so that the remnants of chawed meat corrupt and putrify between the spaces ; in which last case , an alumm'd-water is mainly beneficial , for that it resists putrefaction , and preserves the teeth from all corruption . observation xxxvii . want of a stomach . christian ab ummersom , a wine merchant , in march . was troubled with a nauseousness , and loss of appetite for many days , so that for want of feeding he was become very weak . now because the pestilence was very rife at that time , he thought he had got the infection : but it was not the pestilence , but his own preservative , which he drank every day before dinner very plentifully , that was the cause of his malady , that is to say , wormwood-wine , wherefore i forbid him to drink that , prescrib'd him a proper diet , and after i had gently purg'd his body , gave him the following conditement : ℞ . roots of calamus aromatic . nutmegs , mace , flowers of sulphur an . ℈ j s. cremor . tartar ▪ ʒ j. choice cinnamon ℈ j. cloves ℈ s. powder them very fine . then add roots of candid elecampane ʒ vj. conserve of anthos ℥ s. ginger condited ʒ vj. oyl of vitriol drops xv . syrup of limons q. s. make a conditement . of this he eat a small quantity morning and evening , and sometimes before dinner , absta ining from wormwood-wine ; which after he had taken for some time , his nauseousness ceased , and his appetite returned . from that time he had so high an opinion of this conditement , that for some years he caused his apothecary to make it , as he said , for the preservation of his appetite and his health . annotations . galen ascribes to wormwood , a heating , cleansing , corroborating , and drying faculty , whence pliny writes that it corroborates the stomach , and that the savour of it is with great benefit translated into wine ; and as true it is that wormwood-wine ( so much now in use , but by most detestably abused ) is no new thing , but an antient invention , and very well known among the physitians of old ; which is apparent from hence , that diascorides sets down various compositions of it , where he says that it is profitable for the stomach , moves urine , accelerates slow concoction , and cures the maladies of the spleen and kidnies , and yellow jaundise , want of appetite , and distempers of the stomach ; that it prevails against inflations and distension of the hypochondrium , expells round worms , and brings down the courses . all which commendations of wormwood-wine , oribasius also confirms ; but though wormwood and wormwood-wine have many excellent qualities , yet there are bounds and limits set to all things ; which if we exceed , we render good things mischeivous , for that the best of medicaments and nourishments , if taken immoderately , prove hurtful , so i have many times observed , that the excessive and inordinate use of wormwood-wine causes inappetency , extraordinary weakness of the stomach , liver , and the whole body , vertigos in the head , loss of memory , epilepsies , dropsies , and several other maladies , to which the daily drinkers of wormwood-wine are exposed ; many times to the utter ruin of their healths , after which nothing but death ensues ; as it befel n. heymerick , who dy'd of a cachexy and dropsie ; and anthony n. who dy'd of an epilepsie , both daily drinkers of worm-wood-wine . therefore wormwood-wine is only to be drank upon occasion . i will here add one foolish story , in the year ▪ . when the french army quartered in nimeghen , the french , to preserve themselves from the pestilence , drank sack betimes in the morning . but some of the noble men asking what the dutch-men drank to preserve themselves from the infection , the vintner answered , wormwood-wine ; which being a sort of wine , which they had never tasted , they called for some ; but when they had tasted it they cry'd out , the devil take the vine that yeilded such wine as that ; for certainly said they , this is the very wine which the iews gave christ upon the cross ; for the french-men thought the grape it self had been so bitter , not knowing it to be a mixture . observation xxxviii . a wound in the lungs with a musket bullet . in the year . in may , during the seige of schenck sconce , a trooper of our army in a horse-charge was wounded with a musket-shot , in the right side of the breast , about the pap , three bullets passing through his breast and his right lung , and going out again about the scapula , at three several holes in his back . when he was brought to quarters at nimeghen , i went along with the chyrurgeon , and by the condition of the wounds gave him over for dead . however that he might not dye through any negligence of ours , we bound up his wounds , losen'd his belly with a glyster , and gave him proper medicines to stop the blood , flowing out of the lungs , we also thrust in a pipe of lead into the lower wound , through which the blood and matter might be evacuated ; but finding it could not be conveniently done in that wound , we opened a more convenient passage in his side by an intercostal incision . for diet , i forbid him all sharp , cold , salt , acid things , as also meats of hard disgestion and bad nourishment ; but prescribed him fresh meats , broth made of mutton , lamb and chicken , potched eggs , new milk and the like . and as to other things that concerned his diet , we prescribed as we saw occasion ; however we continued the use of vulnerary , pectoral apozems , no fever troubled him , and his appetite was none of the worst : after three or four weeks together with the blood , ( which in all that time had vented it's self upward through the leaden pipe , sometimes frothy , sometimes watery , sometimes curdl'd , ) he began to throw up a good quantity of matter with his cough ; which spitting of blood and matter continued till the sixth month ; so that there appeared no hope of recovery ; for the patient all wasted away , was reduced to utmost leanness and debility ; however the poor man willing to live , besought us not to give him over , so that we could not choose but go forward , though we thought it to no purpose ; in the first place , therefore , to repair his strength , we ordered him to drink a draught of goats milk , warm from the udder , three times every day , and sometimes we gave him corroborating amygdalates , and conditements ; after we had made use of the goats milk for sometime , his spiting of bloody matter began to abate , and at length about the beginning of the tenth month , after his being wounded , surceased altogether , as did also his cough ; from that time forward , continuing the use of his milk he gathered strength every day more and more , and got flesh upon his back ; toward the end of the tenth month he walked about the chamber ; and at the end of the eleventh month , being perfectly cured , he walked abroad , nor was there any thing that troubled him after so dangerous a wound : and i saw him seven years afterwards riding sound and well among the rest of the troops . annotations . wounds in the lungs are very dangerous , and for the most part mortal , according to the opinion of hippocrates , galen , avicen , celsus , and of all the most famous physitians , and chyrurgeons ; for that being a spungy bowel it will hardly admit of any cure ; but that they are not always mortal experience teaches us , in regard that very dangerous wounds of the lungs given by swords , have been known to have been perfectly cured ; and others when part of the lungs have been cut away . as rowland of parma , theodoric , gemma , valleriola , hildan , and others testifie ; but you shall rarely hear of any that have been shot into the lungs with musket bullets , who have escaped and been perfectly cured , because the violent contusion of the bullet seems to admit no cure in that spungy part , but rather threatens an inflammation , a gangrene , or a mortification , though peter futman , describes such a cure done , in an epistle to gregory horstius ; and such a cure it was that so luckily besel this trooper through the use of goats milk , and other medicaments ; and indeed it is to be look'd upon as a very wonderful cure ; for my part i never believed before , that ever three such vvounds in the lungs with a musket shot , could have been cured by any means whatever , and should have hardly believed it , had i not been an eye witness ; we have indeed seen vvounds in the lungs with swords and knives cured ; but that is not so wounderful , because there is no contusion there , nor does an inflammation so easily happen . besides the said cure this is also to be admired in reference to this trooper , that being so dangerously wounded he was not infected with the plague , which was then very rise , as many that were wounded and sick of other diseases were ; but he was a strong man , in the flower of his age , and of a good temper of body in captain conyers a english gentleman's troop . observation xxxix . burstenness of the guts . the wife of iohn vermulen an ale brewer , a woman about forty years of age , had a burstenness of her guts , protuberant in her right groin about the bigness of a goose egg , it was accompanied with a total obstruction of the belly , by reason the guts was fallen through the narrow hole of the rupture into the groin . the sixth day after the beginning of the malady i was sent for ; i ordered her to be glistered twice , and the gut to be gently put back by a woman that professed that operation ; but all to no purpose , the guts being so distended with wind , neither the gut nor the wind would go back , fomentations nor other proper topics availed nothing ; upon which i told her , there was nothing but death or a desperate remedy , that was , to dilate the peritonaeum by incision , that the gut might be put back through a large hole , my advise did not please : and therefore when i saw there was nothing else to be done , but what they were unwilling to permit , i took my leave and left the patient for gone . after that an ordinary fellow a stone-cutter that wandered about the country to get business , commonly called mr. gerrard was sent for , who boasted that he would return the gut in a small time ; but after he had several times attempted it in vain , he was dismissed with more shame then reward , four days after his departure , the groin putrifying and breaking , a great quantity of excrements came forth to the great ease of the patient , but her inevitable ruin ; for the gut was broken by the compression of the mountebank , which was the reason that the part was putrify'd so soon by the falling of the excrements into the void hollow of the groin , the last remedy then was to sow up the gut , and enlarge the peritonaeum ; but in regard i saw no hope of recovery in so weak a patient , i advised her to let it alone and prepare her self for a more easie death ; but such was her desire of life , that neither the sharpness of the pain , nor the apparency of the danger could deter her from the operation , so that presently sending for four eminent chyrurgeons she desired them to go to work . the skin therefore and the adjoyning parts being opened with great torment , we found the thin gut fallen out , and not only a little part of it broken , but almost torn asunder , quite a cross : for hardly the breadth of a straw held the two ends of the gut together ; this was a certain sign of death ; for had the solution been small it might have been cured , but of this there was no hope ; in the mean time the gut was sowed together with a silk thread four times twisted , and well wax'd , and put up into the belly , after a small dilatation of the peritonaeum ; and then glisters , proper diet , and all things requisite were prescribed , the patient complained of a great pain about her navel , which we could not asswage by any fomentations , bags or other topics ; otherwise she was indifferent well , eat with an appetite , neither were her excrements amiss . the fifth day after the operation , the pain about her navel encreased ; and the next night as the patient was talking very heartily to the company about her , pale death came and interrupted her discourse . annotations . this rupture was so narrow , that it was a wonder how the intestine could fall through it , it being almost impossible to put it back as it was of it self and empty , through so narrow a passage , much less distended with wind. such a narrow rupture i once saw before in one that was opened . wherefore they do very ill , who endeavour to force back the guts through such narrow passages , like your strolling hang-men of mountebanks ; for that by such a force the gut may be sooner broken then reduced , both reason and experience teach us . bursten guts therefore must be gently handled , and first we must endeavour with cataplasms , fomentations and other proper topics , to dispel the wind , and drive it back , and then without any violence to attempt the reducing of the gut : which if they will not do ; there is no way but dilatation of the peritonaeum . observation xl. difficulty of urine . gerard driessem , a merchant about fifty years of age was troubled with a difficulty of urine ; so that his urine did not only drizzle from him with great difficulty and pain , but also very often came not forth at all . the cause was a certain viscous and tenacious slime , which at times falling down , in great quantity to the bladder , did so besiege the sphincter , that it stopped both it's own and the passage of the urine . this slime descending through the passage of the yard , and coming forth , was tough , and many times might be drawn out in ropes with the fingers , many times it stuck so obstinately to the passage , that there was a necessity of loosening it and drawing it forth with a long silver-headed-bodkin ; this malady had been familiar to him for many years , and sometimes seized him three , four and five times a year , and between the intervals , he voided a great quantity of slimy flegm , many noted physitians had used several remedies for the cure of this malady ; but all in vain , which physitians vary'd in their opinions concerning the cause and generation of that same tough and slimy flegm ; as also about the place from whence it descended so periodically ; in the mean while the patient could neither be cured by others , nor by my self . the malady therefore increasing he found the greatest benefit and ease by the following potion , which he took very often , and by means of which his pains were mitigated and his urine provoked , and because it rendered the urinary passages slippery , he voided that thick and viscous flegm , more commodiously , with more ease , and less pain , and in greater quantity . ℞ oyl of sweet almonds , ℥ j. s. the best malmsey-wine , ℥ ij . iuice of pome-citron newly pressed ℥ s. mix them for a potion . annotations . sennertus , among other causes of a dysury , reckons up one not much different from that already rehearsed . many times , saith he , a white , and as it were , a milkie matter is copiously voided with the urine , and causes a heat in making water , which is sometimes voided in so great a quantity , that where it settles , it fills up half the chamber-pot ; and such a voiding of water many times continues very long . concerning its generation , i have known several varieties of opinions ▪ and that some have taken it for a mattery substance bred in the kidneys . but if the whole kidneys should be dissolved into matter , it could not amount to so great a quantity as is sometimes voided every day for several weeks together . my opinion is , that this matter proceeds from crudity and vitious concoction , first , of the stomach , then , because the error of the first concoction cannot be mended in the second , of the liver , where the chylus , and afterwards the blood is left raw , and uncleansed from the salt and tartarous parts , which ought to be separated in the first concoction , which being afterwards attracted by the kidneys , and transmitted to the bladder , cause pain in making water , especially toward the end , while something of the said matter sticks pertinaciously to the neck of the bladder , and the extremity of the urinary passage . for the cure of this malady there are many things very prevalent , which temper and dulcifie the acrimony , and render the urinary passages slippery , to afford a freer passage for the thicker matter ; as oyl of sweet almonds newly extracted , which is very useful in this case . malmsie-wine , the drinking of which alone , as sennertus writes ▪ cured a certain person that was troubled with a terrible dysury . the decoction of cammomil-flowers in cows milk ▪ with which , forestus writes , he knew an old man cured . or that decoction with which we cured a child , ob. . also the decoction of marsh-mallows , mallows , figs , licorice and the like . fernelius's syrup of althea , more especially turpentine mix'd with sugar , and swallowed in a bolus , which cuts the thick humors , attenuates , cleanses , expels , softens and mollifies the passages . observation xli . spitting of blood. monsieur ioannes , a priest of craneburgh , in the year . february the th . sent me this letter . doctor , the fame of your knowledg and experience ha●… over-rul'd me , to desire your advice in my distemper . for a long time a violent cough has troubled me , which will hardly permit me to rest ; moreover , about a month since , this cough was accompanied with a spitting of frothy blood , which ever since i have continually spit , sometimes in a less , sometimes greater quantity ; which spitting is very troublesome to me . i have lost my stomach , so that i can eat nothing , unless it be some small trifle mix'd with vinegar , or some other acid. if you have any proper remedy , i beg you to impart it to us , your most devoted ioannes sacerdos . the same day i sent him this answer . reverend sir , i received your letter , to which , according to the shortness of the time , i send you this short answer ; you have been long troubled with a sharp and salt defluction upon your lungs , from whence your vehement and continued cough has derived it self : at length some vein of the lungs being opened by the great quantity of distilling humors , or broken by the force of the cough , pours out that blood which you spit out frothy from your lungs . this malady cannot be cured , unless the descent of the catarhs be prevented , and the cough allay'd ; to which purpose , i have here sent you some remedies . first , seven pills to take to morrow morning , which will gently purge you . secondly , a conditement , of which you are to take , after you have purged , the quantity of a nutmeg , morning , noon , and night , for several days together . thirdly , a looch , to lick when your cough afflicts you . fourthly , lozenges to let melt in your mouth as often as you please , as well in the day as night-time . to these four i have added a little bag , what is in it you must put in a new earthen pipkin , and heat it over the fire without any moisture , then put it into the bag again , and lay it to your head as hot as you can endure it , letting it lye one or two hours , and this you must do twice or thrice a day . when you take this off , put on a woollen cap well fum'd with mastich and cloves , bind a warm napkin about it , to the end , that by this means , your head being over cold and weak , may be again heated , corroborated and dry'd , that so the catarh be stopped from further descent ; which done , the remaining cure will be easily accomplished . i am well assured , that by reason of the wars , and your continual quartering of souldiers , you cannot live with those conveniences about you as you ought to have , nevertheless you are to take the best care of your diet you can ; therefore you must keep your self in a warm place , and more especially to preserve your head from all manner of cold. as to your diet , abstain from all manner of salt and smoaked meats , and all others of hard digestion and nutriment , more especially from all acids , as vinegar , iuice of limons , sowre apples , sowre wine , and every thing else that has any acidity in it ; for all acids are hurtful to the lungs . broths made of mutton , lamb , veal , hens , cocks , and the flesh themselves boil ▪ d with rosemary , marjoram , barley cleansed , and stoned raisins , potch'd eggs , and goats milk , and in a word , all sweet things are proper . if the malady do not yield to these things , send me back word of the state of your disease , yours to command , i. de diemerbroeck . the medicaments which i prescribed him , were these . ℞ . of the mass of pill . cochiae ℈ j. s. diagredion gr . v. for seven pills . ℞ . red coral prepared , blood-stone , trochischs of seal'd earth , an . ℈ ij . flowers of sulphur ʒj . olibanum , tragacanth , spodium , harts-horn burnt ●…n . ℈ j. conserve of red roses ℥ ij . codigniach ℥ j. s. nicholas's rest ʒj . s. syrup of poppy , q. s. mix them for a conditement . ℞ . syrup of iujubes , of colts foot , of licorice an . ℥ j. of poppy , looch , sarum an . ℥ j. s. mix them for a looch . ℞ . heads of white poppy , n ● v. cut them small , and boil them half an hour in common water q. s. strain them very hard , with the straining boil white-sugar ℥ iiij . to the consistence of a lozenge , adding at the end powder of the root of althea , ℈ j. s. of licorice slic'd ʒj . flowers of sulphur ℈ ij . red coral prepared , true bolearmoniac an . ℈ j. make tablets according to art. ℞ . herbs , marjoram m. j. rosemary , bitony , flowers of red roses , melilot an . m. s. cloves ʒj . nutmegs , cummin-seed an ʒjj . beat them into a gross powder , and then add millet-seed m. iiij . salt m. iij. mix them together , and put them into a large linnen bag. when he had used these remedies for eight days , he wrote me word , that his coughing and spitting of blood were very much abated , but not quite cured : therefore to perfect the cure , i wrote him word to continue his pills , looch and conditement , and withal sent him the following prescription . ℞ roots of the greater cumfrey , snake-weed , tormentil , fennel , an . ℥ s licorice slic'd ʒvj . herbs , hyssop , colts-foot , scabious , herb fluellin , plantain , betony , rosemary an . m. j sage , flowers of red roses an . m. j. head of white poppies cut small n o iiij . raisins unstoned ʒiiij . dates n o ix . decoction of barley q. s. boil to an apozeme of lb iij. first let him purge with his pills , and make use of looch , let him take his conditement morning and evening , and drink a draught of his apozeme after it , about the end of march , he wrote me word that he was quite cured of his cough and spitting of blood , that he slept very well , and could eat , and gave me many thanks for my advice . annotations . all spitting of blood out of the veins of the lungs threatens great danger , and therefore ought to be cured with great speed and prudence . as benedict faventius observes , if a vein , says he , be broken with coughing , and blood spit out of the lungs , it will never be consolidated but with great difficulty and care of the physitian . this cure is more easily , or with more difficulty accomplished , according to the variety of causes , the vehemency and diuturnity of the distemper , and the natural strength of the lungs affected . but among other causes , this is one ; when nature endeavours to expel by the violent force of the cough , the humors stoping the spiritual passages ; for by that extraordinary violence there is a force put upon the organs of respiration , so that they become very much extended with their vessels , and sometimes broken , and then the blood comes away with the spittle . such was the blood-spitting that troubled our patient , which was very dangerous , but less then if it had been occasioned by some ill disposition of the lungs , or corrosion of the vessels , or any such like cause . however , had the distemper persisted any longer , the vessels , without doubt , would have been corroded by the acrimony of the distilling humors , and the strength of the bowel would have fail'd , and then suppuration , consumption , rottenness , a fever , and several other maladies of difficult cure , and for the most part mortal , would have ensued . but because it was not come to that , and because the disease had been of no long standing , and the patient was of sufficient strength , the cure was fortunately performed , and much sooner than was expected . observation . xlii . suppression of the secondines and courses . the wife of peter vleys-houwer , the sixth of march miscarried ; presently after her secondines , courses , urine and evacuations of excrement stopped , which exposed her to imminent danger ; especially when the medicaments given her by the midwife availed nothing . the ninth of march , which was the fourth day after she had miscarried , i was sent for , and presently prescribed her these things . ℞ . roots of round birthwort , dittany , valerian , briony , masterwort , fennel , an . ʒiij . herbs , mugwort , peniroyal , tansie , feverfew , savin , an . m. j. seed of parsley , lovage , wild carrots ʒij . red vetches ℥ j. s. white-wine q. s. boil them for an apozeme of lb j. s. ℞ . of this decoction ℥ v. leaves of senna cleansed ʒiij . best rhubarb ʒj . s. aniseseed ʒj . choice cinamon ℈ j. make an infusion for four hours , then strain them very hard , and add to the straining oyl of amber ix . drops for a draught . after she had took this she purged gently , and her urine and courses came down in great plenty , and her secondines came forth by piace ▪ meals ; and thus by this one medicament she escaped a very great danger . observation xliii . a wound in the brain with a pistol-shot . mr. vane , an english man , and ensign of a company , a strong young man , about twenty five years of age , at the siege of schenk sconce , in the year . was wounded in the ●…ead with a pistol shot , a little bullet entring through the inner corner of his right-eye , without hurting the eye , and passing through the substance of the brain in a streight line , to the upper bottom of the fore-part of the head , on that side , in that place stopp'd and stuck under the bone. the man , so soon as he was wounded , fell down in a deep sleep , void of sense and motion , and so was carried to nimeghen for dead . no man thought it possible for such a wound to be cured , in regard the brain was so much prejudiced . however the chyrurgeon prob'd to the place where the bullet was lodg'd , and felt it about the upper part of the lambdoidal bone. then he took a longer slender instrument , like a mold wherein they cast bullets , and thrusting it into the wound , got hold of the bullet , but as he was about to draw it out , i know not by what misfortune , the end of the instrument that clasp'd the bullet broke , and that part of it which had taken hold of the bullet , remain'd , together with the bullet , in the brain ; yet not so , but that the end of it might be seen about the entrance of the wound . however , for want of proper instruments , we were forc'd to leave it in the brain till the evening , at what time , with proper instruments , both the broken instrument and the bullet within it , were both drawn forth , and as much of the substance of the brain came out along with it as the quantity of a nutmeg . also some little bony fragments sticking to the orifice of the wound , were taken out . the chyrurgeon applied to the wound a magisterial balsam , and cephalic fomentations were clap'd round about the whole head , to strengthen the brain , and his belly moved with a glister . the next day some ounces of blood were taken out of his right-arm . the fourth day after the wound received , upon which we presently ordered him some broth for nourishment . about the fourteenth day , that deep sleep abated , and after that he only slept naturally . he was troubled with no fever , nor did he loose his appetite . for some weeks he took cephalic decoctions and conditements ; but as for the wound , nothing was put into it but the said balsam . afterwards , instead of a cephalic fomentation , we took a dry cephalic cap , made of certain cephalic and other herbs , and clapt it about his whole head. and thus this person , so desperately wounded as he was , after three months , being perfectly cured , walk'd abroad again , and at the fourth months end , returned again to the camp. six years after this cure , coming to nimeghen , he gave me a visit , affirming , that he retain'd no farther inconvenience of his wound , only that upon some suddain and tempestuous change of weather , his head would ake a little ; or if he drank wine too freely , he should presently be intoxicated , and then he was almost mad ; at other times he did whatever he had to do , as if he had never been wounded . annotations . h●…ppocrates affirms all wounds of the head to be mortal . the bladder , says he , being broken , or the brain , or the heart , or the midriff , or any of the small guts , or the stomach , or the liver , it is mortal . in which place , we are to understand by mortal , not of necessity mortal , but very dangerous , as galen observes in his comment upon that aphorism . for wounds of the brain , that do not penetrate the ventricles , do not of necessity cause death ; because we find they are many times heal'd , as massa , carpus , iacotius , and many others testifie . and avicen thus writes , concerning arrows to be drawn out of the wounds of those parts . if an arrow , says he , be fixed in any principal member , as the brain , heart , lungs , belly , small guts , liver , matrix or bladder , and there appear signs of death , then we must abstain from drawing out the arrow , because it will occasion us to be look'd upon as fools , when we know we can do the patient no good : but if no ill sign appear , then we go to work ; for many times in such cases , several escape to a wonder . we therefore , following this doctrine of avicen , though the case seemed desperate , yet because all our hope lay in drawing out the bullet , drew it out from this patient , whom no rational physitian would have judged could have ever escaped ; especially since the wound was made with so much violence of the pistol , accompanied with a perforation of the meninxes , and some loss of the substance of the brain . certainly , if ever there were a miraculous cure , this was one . i could hardly give credit before to the testimonies of authors in this matter ; and had i not seen such wounds as these , with loss of the brain , twice healed , i should hardly yet have believ'd it . observation xliv . an asthma . andrew à sal ingen , in the month of may , was troubled with a vehement asthma , which afflicted him so terribly , that he could hardly speak ; he had no cough , and spit but very little or nothing , and besides , he had quite lost his stomach . he had taken several remedies , by the advice of others , for above half a year together . and for my part , because the patient was threescore years of age ; i did not believe my self , that ever the distemper could be eradicated ; however , i told him it might be much abated and asswaged , and therefore bid him pluck up a good heart , and take of the following electuary morning and evening the quantity of a nutmeg , and to abstain from all acid and cold , flatulent , viscous and smoak'd meats , and in a word , from all meats of hard concoction and bad nutriment . ℞ . choice myrrh , lucid aloes , flower of sulphur , elecampane , licorice slic'd an . ℈ ●…j . saffron , benzoin an . ℈ j. make these in ▪ to a very fine powder , then add the best honey ʒ xi●… . oyl of anise , drops ix . mix these for an electuary . by taking this , his belly was gently loosned , and his apetite restored ; the asthma ceased to a miracle ; insomuch that within a few days he was quite freed from it , and when the malady afterwards return'd , he presently cured himself by taking the same electuary . annotations . an asthma is of those diseases , which are not curable in old people , but accompany them generally to their graves , because it is caused either by crude and cold defluxions powring down from the brain upon the lungs , or by more crude and thicker humors flowing from the liver into the lungs , through the arterious vein . which crude , cold and flegmatic humors in old men , do not admit of concoction , by reason of the debility of the concoctive faculty ; which in them is feeble , because of their cold constitution , age , and abundance of cold superfluities . and therefore when they are troubled with this malady , we are only to try how to abate it . in which case , the use of our electuary prov'd very advantageous to our patient . mercurialis , for the cure of an asthma , highly commends a cautery in the arm , and long kept open . for , saith he , we find it by daily experience , that they who are vexed with difficulty of breathing , are mainly succoured by the help of these remedies . as for specific remedies proper for an asthma , there are several to be found in various authors . avicen prescribes to asthmatics , that are grievously troubled with difficulty of breathing , cumin-seed mix'd with vinegar , or white mustard-seed mingled with equal proportion of honey , to the consistence of an electuary . hippocrates , to prevent suffocation , prescribes quicksilver , the quantity of a bean , with ethiopic , cumin-seed ; as also sulphur beaten and dissolved with salt of niter . in like manner , among the neoterics , lelius à fonte , victor favent , salomon albert , quercetan , beguin and others , prescribe sulphur as the chiefest remedy in the cure of an asthma . some , in case of a violent asthma , prescribe sulphur with venice turpentine . miraldus writes , that viscous humors may be easily expectorated by swallowing nettle seed powdered ℈ j. with any pectoral syrup . leonellus commends ammoniac , with a little oxymel of squills . which ammoniac is commended by several physicians , but especially by mercurialis , in these words : but in regard asthmatics are wont to have certain fits , with which they are more vehemently troubled , i find by experience , that oxymel ℥ ij mix'd in a mortar with ℥ s. of salt ammoniac is a thing which gives great ease , a spoonful being taken at a time . paulus aegineta commends hog-lice patch'd in an earthen pipkin , and then boil'd with honey ; but i use them without parching . the same commendation valerius also gives to hog-lice , in his notes upon holler . your hog-lice , saith he , that lye under water-tubs , ty'd up in a linnen rag , and steep'd in white-wine , and the straining given to drink , rid the lungs of tough humors in a short time to a wonder . soon after , says he , to asswage a violent asthma , one tablet of diatragacanth sprinkled with some drops of oyl of sage , anise , or rosemary , chymically extracted , conduces very much , and gives present ease . cardan writes , that saffron is the soul of the lungs , and affirms that he has cured many asthmatics with it . i have known my self the decoction of red colewarts given for several days with a little sugar , give great ease . augenius highly applauds syrip of tobacco ; of which also monardes , quercetan and others make mention ; by the use of which , zacutus of portugal writes , that he has cured several . some there are who give turpentine ʒij . or iij. with oyl of sweet almonds , by that means purging both the breast and the belly at the same time . for this distemper are no less approved elecampane-wine , balsam of sulphur , looch of squills , foxes lungs , and the like . observation xlv . pain in the kidneys . nicholas of rostock , in iune , was cruelly afflicted with sharp nephritic pains , which lasted for eight days , without intermission . at length , by the advice of an old woman , he swallowed twice or thrice a day , the quantity of an acorn of new butter , without any salt in it ; which when he had continued for three days together , at length , without any pain , he voided a stone , about the bigness , and very like an almond , and several others lesser , with much gravel , and by that means was freed from his distemper . afterwards , the same pain returning , taking the same remedy , he voided more stones . annotations . vvhen the stone is already fallen out of the bladder , it is soonest and best expelled by such remedies as smoothen the urinary vessels , and render the passages slippery . such is new churm'd butter , by the use of which , iohn de scherpenhuysen many times lyable to nephritic pains , frequently voided little stones out of his yard . such is also oyl of sweet almonds , either alone , or with malmsey-wine . vve have also seen some , who have frequently voided stones by the much eating of figs. the decoction also of forestus , by us mentioned ob. . and . is also very useful in this case . observation xlvi . a wound in the leg. the wife of christian ab ummersum , having slightly bruised her leg , and laying on a plaister of her own head , this slight contusion grew to an ulcer , for the cure of which , when she sent for a chyrurgeon , after many oyntments , plaisters and other topics , for three or four weeks applied , he could do no good . but at length she was cured by an old woman , who advised her to powder-chalk , and mix it with old butter roasted , by which her ulcer was cured in a short time . observation xlvii . a pain from an odd and unexpected kind of wound . the author would have it from witchcraft . john peter nirot , a child , of about five years of age , for almost a whole year together , had complained of pain in the lower part of his belly , and was often so miserably griped , that his parents knew not what in the world to do . he had no fever , nor was his stomach very bad , and he went well enough to stool ; yet his belly was swell'd , and his whole body all worn to skin and bones ; he would rub his nose very much , but he slept very little , only slumber'd , and that with troublesome and frequent wakings . in iune , my advice was sent for , i believing the child was troubled with worms in his guts , gave him several medicaments to expel the worms , the crudities and impurities of the lower region ; but all to no purpose , the torments of his belly more and more increasing , so that by reason of his continual crying , i was afraid the child would become bursten . at length , after so many medicines try'd in vain , i felt with my hand a hardness in the lower part of his belly , in the middle , between the navel and the region of the hair , somewhat toward the left-side . this hardness was also oblong , yet caused no swelling , so that i could not conjecture what it should be . wherefore i sent the mother with the child to a chyrurgeon , to know his judgment concerning the hardness . he for some time felt the place with his hands , yet not able to make any right conjecture . but perceiving the child to be more in pain by his handling him , the better to find out the cause of the malady , he squeez'd the part affected on both sides with his hands somewhat hard , at what time , he presently felt on the one side something hard and sharp , that piers'd the skin and prick'd his fingers . therefore believing it to be some little bone , or some such thing , he took hold of it with a pair of pincers , and drew forth , not a little bone , but , to the admiration of all that stood by , a large shoo-makers awl ; after which , the child grew very well . this awl was about half the length of a man's middle finger , such as the shoomakers use when they sow on their polony heels , without any handle , only to the end next the handle , there stuck a piece of shoo-makers wax'd-thread , with which it had been formerly fastned to the handle . annotations . there was no person that could judg this to be a preternatural malady . for it is not probable the child could swallow so long and large an awl , without any harm , and without any bodies knowing of it . but grant it had been so , there is no reason can be given , how the awl should be carried through the membranes of the stomach or intestines , the peritonaeum and muscles of the abdomen , and so athwart to the skin , the bowels untouched , and without any exulceration ; insomuch that the patient was cured , as it were , in a moment , after the drawing out the awl , and was living seven years after to our knowledg . and therefore it is very probable that it was put into the body of the boy by diabolical incartation ; like to that same story which longius tells of a country man , who had an iron nail which appeared under his skin without any prejudice , which was cut out by the chyrurgeon ; and when he was dead , four knives , two iron files , hair and other things were found . and several other remarkable stories of the same nature are related by others , as forestus , codronchius , gemma , zacutus , &c. 't is true , it has been a controversie for several ages among divines , lawyers , physicians and philosopers , whether there be any inchanters or witches , and whether they have so much power by their charms , to hurt the creatures , to cause sickness and death , clear up rain , and cause thunder , &c. for a brief solution of this question , in short , we must conclude , that there are inchanters , who by the permission of god , can do very strange things ; seeing that the scripture testifies , that pharaoh's magicians in moses's time were such a sort of inchanters , who turned rods into serpents , rivers into blood , &c. thus st. luke makes mention of simon magus , who made the people mad with his magic arts. whence we must of necessity conclude , that there are witches and sorcerers , who by their demoniac arts , cannot only work various miracles , but also blast herbs and fruits , and do mischief to beasts and men ; which mischiefs however they cannot do when they please , nor to all that they please , but only when , and in what manner god pleases , and to such whose faith god has a will to try , as he permitted the devil to exercise his sorceries upon iob. or to such , whose incredulity or impiety he has a mind to punish , not only in the proper person of the transgressor , but also by giving the witches power over their innocent children , their flocks , herds , fruit , &c. and thus , by the incantation of witches , many times infanrs , oxen , sheep , horses , fruit , &c. are mischiefed , as we saw at a certain country-mans at montfort . yet , though there are such inchanters and witches , their power of doing harm is not at their own , but at the disposal of god. nor can satan inflict diseases , but by the permission of god , and then his witches are but his instruments , not the primary cause . observation xlviii . of the gout in the knee . a little son of thomas peters , an english merchant , about six years of age , being troubled with the gout in his knee for three or four weeks , at length his pain was so great that he could not go . there was no tumor , no inflammation , nor dislocation , and therefore , after i had purged his body , i only laid on a cere-cloth of oxicroceum , which lay on for three days without any benefit . afterwards his knee swell'd very much , and the pain likewise encreased ; wherefore , leaving off the cere-cloth , the following cataplasme was laid on for four or five days together , shifting it twice a day . the use of which , cleared the child both of his swelling and pain , nor did they afterwards return . ℞ . new goats-dung lb. j. boil it in strong french wine q. s. to the consistence of a cataplasm ; and when you take it off from the fire , add spirt of wine ℥ iij. mix them for a soft cataplasm . annotations . this cataplasm has a very great discussing and corroborating faculty , which is look'd upon by some as a great secret in these sorts of tumors of the joynts ; the signal effects whereof , we have try'd in many other cases of the same nature . this dung boiled in oximel aetius highly commends , as a medicament which he has often succesfully used in long continued tumors of the knee . observation xlix . a swelling in the fore-head , by reason of a fall. a young son of dimmer de raet , consellor to the court of boxmer , had fallen down a pair of stairs upon his fore-head , whence ensued a swelling in his fore-head to the bigness of a hens egg. to this i only applied green grass fresh gathered and bruised in a mortar , cold as it was ; which done , the swelling vanished the next day to that degree , that there was not the least sign of it remaining . annotations . these swellings , though some make nothing of them , yet if they be neglected at the beginning , they are many times the causes of great mischiefs , which we saw happen'd to the child of monsieur armstrong , who having such a tumor in his fore-head , when it could not be dissipated by no topics , the place affected , continued swell'd for some weeks after , till at length the humor therein beginning to putrifie , and from thence bad simptoms appearing , there was a necessity not only of a tormenting incision , to open the tumor and let out the putrid humor , but also of scraping off the putrid humor , corrupted with the same putrefaction from the bone that lay underneath , by which means , that imminent danger was to be removed from the patient , to which also the wound was consolidated without any conspicuous scar. wherefore it is far better to dissipate the humors at the beginning , at what time it may be easily done , and which we luckily did with grass only bruis'd . many times we have likewise applied brown paper moistned in spirit of wine , with as good success , or oyl of wax or anise , anointed upon the place . observation l. the chollic passion . monsieur starkenburgh , collonel of the regiment of groening , about forty years of age , of a cold and flegmatic constitution , in september was taken with a violent cholic passion . his belly was very much swell'd with wind , which he could neither void upward nor downward , and terrible gripings seemed to dilacerate the guts . he complained also of an extraordinary anxiety of his heart , with which he was so much oppressed , that he was all over of a cold sweat ; but because he seemed to be almost ready to burst with wind , and had need of present relief , i prescribed the following glister , which was given him about eleven a clock at night . ℞ . emollient decoction lbj. . elect. diaphoenicon , hiera picra ℥ j. s. oyl of dill and camomil , an . ℥ j. common salt ʒj . mix them for a glister . this glister he voided within a quarter of an hour , without any ease , neither wind nor excrement following ; for which reason , soon after we gave him another of the same , which did him as little good . at the same time the patient growing stomach-sick , threw up some choler with tough flegm . therefore about six a clock in the morning , i prescribed him another glister after this manner . ℞ . emollient herbs , lesser centaury , wormwood , rue , flowers of cammomil , dill , an . m. s. seeds of anise and lovage an . ʒij . cummin , laurel-berries , an . ʒj . s. boil them in common water q. s. to lbj. . in the straining , gently boil flowers of senna , ℥ j. then press them , and add elect. hiera picra , diacatholicon , an . ℥ j. s. oyl of cammomil and dill , an . ℥ j. common salt ʒij . for a glyster . after he had taken this , there came away with it much excrement , and much wind. afterwards , being sick at his stomach , he threw up a great quantity of choler and tough flegm , which gave him much ease . twice the same day he took chicken broth boil'd with barley cleansed , citron and orange peels , and for his drink , sometimes he drank ptisan , sometimes small ale. in the evening this bolus was given him , which caused him to sleep a little the night following , and gave him very great ease , and the next day he had three stools . ℞ . of our anticholic electuary ʒj . transparent aloes ℈ j. mix them for a bolus . this bolus , afterwards he took thrice a day , every other day . the seventh of october , not having gone to stool in three days , upon forbearing his bolus , his cholic pains increased again . but then , because the gentleman would not admit of any more glisters , i gave him a gentle purging draught , which caused him to void much choler and flegm upward and downward . the twelfth of october , his belly being bound , he took a glister . the thirteenth , dr. harscamp , an eminent physitian , was called to counsel , and then , by common consent , to stop his vomiting , we gave him at two times , one spoonful of cinnamon-water , with two drops of oyl of cinnamon , and ordered the following ligament to be applied to the region of his stomach . ℞ . oyl of nut-megs squeez'd , of laurel , an . ʒj . of dill , of distilled fennel , an . ℈ j. of anise drops iij. mix them for a ligament . in the evening he took the forementioned bolus . the sixteenth of october , he took another glister , which gave him three stools with great ease . the twentieth , to loosen his belly , we prescribed him pills made of transparent aloes only , of which , he swallowed two or three every other day , or every other three days ; which pills wrought so well , that afterwards we had no need of any other purges . the twenty eighth , i gave him ℥ j. s. of our anticholic electuary , wherein i had mingled ʒj . s. of transparent aloes , of which he took morning and evening ʒs . or ℈ ij . to his great advantage . for it strengthned his stomach , dispell'd the wind , and cleansed away the flegm and choler . this electuary he afterwards used as a preservative , taking his aloes-pills in the intervening days . and by this means he recovered his former health . annotations . the cause of this cholic passion was a great quantity of salt flegm sticking to the guts , and an over-abounding quantity of sharp excrementitious choler ; for the choler being voided out of its bladder into the guts , and being there mixed with that flegm , and causing that salt and tough flegm to boil , ( like quick lime thrown upon water , or oyl of vitriol powred upon powdered crabs eyes ) begat an extraordinary flatulency , violent pains , and extream anxieties . that this was the true cause , appeared by his vomiting , which brought up yellow and greenish choler , with tough and frothy flegm , as i have often observed in my practice . wherefore in this case , there is need of a hotter medicament , in regard of the cold flegm and the wind ; at the same time , to cleanse away the choler , and asswage the gripes . to which three purposes , the foresaid electuary , mixed with aloes , was of great use ; other general and necessary medicaments being given as occasion served . to asswage the pains of the cholic , many notable remedies are prescribed by various authors , which are to be varied according to the variety of the causes . in a cold cause i make use of my own anticholic electuary with good success , the composition of which , is this . ℞ . specier . diagalangae , rosatum aromaticum an . ʒiij . s. diambra ʒiij . mass of storax pills ʒiij . s. treacle of andromachus ℥ iij. s. mithridate of damoc. ℥ iiij . ʒv . oyl of anise ʒij . ℈ ij . of cloves ʒj . of nutmegs distill'd ʒj . s. syrup of stocchas q. s. for an electuary . this electuary sometimes i use alone , sometimes with every ounce i mix ʒj . or ij . of aloes , and so given , have found it much more prevalent against the chollic . holler boils in odoriferous wine , one small handful of common wormwood with ʒij . of cummin-seed . he also commends orange-peels boil'd in wine , and the decoction drank fasting in a morning . we have also given the same peel powder'd and mix'd with wine , and found it no less beneficial . wormwood-wine is commended by aetius , because it corroborates the belly , purges away the choler , and prevents the growth of it , and discusses and expels the wind. others boil ʒj . of cummin-seed in vvormwood-wine , and give the straining . rases approves confection of laurel berries . avicen prescribes an effectual medicament of equal parts of castor , pepper and aniseseed . against the same distemper are no less prevalent the powder of zedoary root , from ℈ j. to ʒj . also the distilled oyls of anise , fennel , caroes , dill and zedoary given in hot wine . the decoction of flowers of cammomil , with a little cummin-seed added , given in ale or small white-wine ℥ iiij . or v. at a time , is a most present remedy to asswage the pains and expel the wind. others applaud this carminative water of schroderus . ℞ . flowers of roman cammomil m. xxx . ●…ut , bruise and infuse them twenty four hours in cammomil-water lb x. ( others say xv . ) stout wine lb vj. squeeze these very strongly , and in the straining , infuse for twenty four hours more , flowers of common cammomil m. xxiiij . press them and strain them . in the straining steep flowers of cammomil m. xij the yellow of orange peels ℥ j. s. pontic wormwood m. ij . lesser centaury , penyroyal , basil an . m. ij . s. seed of dill ℥ iij. of anise and fennel an . ℥ j. s. of caroways , cummin , carduus benedictus , maries carduus an . ℥ j. s. iuniper berries ℥ j. laurel-berries ℥ s. let them stand twenty four hours , then distil them with a gentle fire , in baln●…o mariae . rodoric fonseca recommends , as a singular remedy , and a very great secret , arising from the propriety of the whole substance , the testicles of horses , which he says he has several times try'd in the cure of cholical distempers . these testicles he washes in generous wine , and cuts into thin slices and then dries them in an oven with a gentle heat , and keeps them for his use upon occasion , after general remedies , he gives of these powdered ʒj . in wine , three hours before any other meat . zacutus prefers the pizzle of a bull , as having a wonderful specific vertue , one scruple of the powder being taken in malmsey wine , affirming , that he had cured several who were most cruelly tormented with that grief , with that only medicament . he also commends for almost as effectual the sole drinking of urine . in vehement cholic pains , riverius prescribes these pills , which he has often given with great success . ℞ . the best aloes ʒj . laudanum opiate gr . iiij . diagridion gr . vj. make six pills . let the patient take these at a convenient time , and within an hour after they asswage the pains and carry away noxious humors . paraeus tells us of one , who when all other remedies would not prevail , was at length cured with drinking ℥ iiij . of the oyl of sweet almonds mix'd with white-wine and pellitory-wall-water , and then swallowing a leaden bullet smear'd over with quick-silver . this we also saw our selves of a trooper , who being troubled frequently with the cholic , swallowed three or four pistol bullets , which coming out again , he was presently rid of his distemper . observation li. a wound in the head. thomas gravener , about sixty years old , but a good strong man of his age , a trooper under captain conyers , an english officer , upon the fourteenth of november , playing with some others in the lieutenants quarters , by what misfortune i know not , fell backward , and broke the hinder part of his head against the pavement , which made a slight wound in the skin , which the chyrurgeon slighted , and only laid some sort of plaister to it . but immediately after the fall , the trooper grew sick at his stomach , and had an inclination to vomit ; besides , he had a slight giddy pain in his head , yet not so , but that he walked the streets for the three or four first days ; but upon the sixth day , his face and all his head began to swell very much . the twenty fourth day of november , and the eleventh after his fall , about evening , i was sent for ; i found the patient very weak , with his face so swell'd , that he could not open his eyes for the swelling , and under his eyes were black and blew spots . thereupon , having examined the whole case more diligently , from the beginning of the fall , i concluded he would dye , in regard , that by the signs , his head seemed to me to be cleft , and that the blood being extravasated between the meninxes and the cranium , was there putrified ; and that therefore this blood which the chyrurgeon should have drawn out at first , by a perforation of the cranium , would be the cause of his death . the chyrurgeons therefore that had him in cure , mr. edmunds and his son observing their mistake , as also the troopers wife and friends earnestly desired that the operation might yet be try'd , and notwithstanding all my perswasions to the contrary , i stood by while it was done . thereupon that evening the hair being taken off , and a cross-like incision made in the place affected , the cranium was laid bare to a good breadth . the next day , the tents being taken , and the wound more narrowly look'd into , we found a long fissure in the skull , which cranium was immediately trepan'd . but then we found the blood , which the wound had bled , sticking to the thick meninx , not coagulated or putrified , but altogether dry'd up , so that it stuck like a clammy powder , the more close to the meninx and cranium , which was a most certain sign of death , by reason that the blood so dry'd , could in no manner flow forth . so that upon the twenty sixth of november , he fell into a deep sleep , and the next day he dy'd . annotations . contusions and wounds in the head are never to be made slight of . for sometimes they deceive the quickest eyes ; so that such as seem to be nothing dangerous , bring a man into the greatest hazard of his life . we have observ'd some , who after the tenth , nay fourteenth and twentieth day after a slight wound in the head , have felt little or no pain , yet of a suddain have been taken with an apoplexy , convulsions , or some terrible distemper ; which contrary to expectation has ended their days . thus a servant of the sieur morignan , a french gentleman , falling from his horse upon his head had no outward wound to be seen : the first day his head aked , and he was so very giddy that he could not stand ▪ from the second to the twelfth he felt no harm , but went about his business . the twelfth day he complain'd of a giddiness of his head , the fourteenth about noon he fell down with an apoplexy and within a few hours expir'd . in the same manner a servant of captain lucas , a captain of horse , in a scuffle among certain souldiers received a slight blow upon the head with a cudgel , whence ensued a very great swelling , without any wound ; for the first few days he was giddy , after that he complained of a heaviness of his head : the thirty second day an epilepsy took him ; and the forty sixth after the blow he dyed convulsive . valeriola also tells a story of a woman that having received a very slight wound with a pot in her forehead , for two days seemed to aile little or nothing . the third day a terrible fever seiz'd her ; her face swelled all over , with a redness and inflammation ; soon after a delirium , and convulsion , afflicted her , to all which evils upon the fifth day , death put a final end . her head being open'd there appear'd a chink in her skull which was hardly conspicuous , a very great inflammation within the skull , the hard meninx swelled , black and blew , and covered with a great quantity of putrefaction . in such cases therefore it is better to lay bare the skull at first , and if need be to perforate , then by lingring to expose the patient to mortal danger . observation lii . a fissure of the skull . peter ab ewjick , a trooper under captain conyers , about thirty four years of age , being talking to the lieutenant with his hat off in the yard belonging to his quarters , a servant of the house threw down out of an upper window a peice of wood of ten or twelve pound weight , which fell accidentally upon the troopers head ; immediately the trooper fell down speechless , and was carry'd into the next room for dead ; where , for an hours space he appeared so apoplectic , that every body thought he would have dy'd , at length he came to himself , but rav'd all that day and the next night ; the chyrurgeon that was sent for perceiving nothing but a slight superficial wound thought there was no danger , and promised to cure him in three or four days . however mr. cooper , not confiding in that chyrurgeon , upon the third day desired me to see him , i found him without pain , sound in his judgment , with a slight wound in the fore-part of his head ; yet hardly penetrating ; his eyes also were surrounded with black and blew , so that so few symptoms appearing , the chyrurgeon and all the standers-by made slight of the business ; but i having examined the business from the beginning , certainly affirmed that the skull was either broken or slit , and therefore that it was absolutely necessary to make a preforation as soon as possible , that the extravasated blood might be let out , and that there was no dallying till more terrible symptoms ensued , when art and industry would be too late ; so that at length my advice was followed . first therefore , after we had loosen'd his belly with a glister , the same evening upon the sinister bone of the bregma , an incision large enough was made in the form of the letter t. and the skull triangularly laid bare ; at that time we could perceive nothing for the blood ; but the next day we discovered two apparent fissures in the cranium , and upon one side a small particle about half a fingers length , somewhat depressed ; which particle was every way sever'd and broken from the bone. therefore in the next firm part we made a perforation with a trepan , and took out half an ounce of blood , which had flow'd out of the little broken veins between the cranium and the thick meninx , and there had shelter'd it self ; which being wiped off , we laid a little rag dipped in honey of roses upon the meninx , and having filled the wound without side with dry wooll , we covered it with emplaster of betony . the sixth of february , some little blood came forth ; but after that , none at all ; in the mean time we kept his belly loose with a gentle purge , thus we ordered the wound till the twelfth of february , and covered his head with a quilt of cephalic herbs , and other things ; afterwards we began to lay the following powder mixed with honey of roses upon the meninx . ℞ . sanguis draconis , frankincense , aloes , myrrh , an . ℈ j. fine barley flower , ℈ j. s. make it into a very fine powder . the eighteenth of february , the flesh began to grow from the inside of the meninx . the first of march , the meninx was covered with flesh . the sixteenth of march , a little scale was separated from the upper bone of the skull laid bare : and at the beginning of april , the man being perfectly cured went abroad . annotations . the suddain consternation of this person , as it were apoplectic was a certain sign of the skull being depress'd ; which depression could never have been made without a fracture or a fissure . and though for the following days the patient felt nothing in his head , in regard such a depression and fissure could not happen without breaking some of the little veins , it was better to open the skull and take out the extravasated blood , then to expect the symptoms of it when corrupted and putrified : for a very little blood , though no more then a dram , yet putrifying upon the meninx , may cause terrible symptoms and death it self . observation liii . the head-ach . petronel de kuijck , a country-woman , about threescore years old , complained in february , of terrible pains in her head , as also of catarrhs falling upon her eyes , teeth , shoulders , and other parts ; that she had been troubled all the winter , and felt a very great cold at the top of her head , as if the fore part of her head had been dipped in cold water ; therefore having prescribed her a hotter and cephalic diet , i purged her with pill . cochiae and golden pills , then i ordered linnen-cloths four doubled and dipped in spirit of wine warmed , and gently squeezed to be laid over all the upper part of her head , and to continue so doing for some days , which done , that diuturnal pain , together with her catarrhs , all ceased within a few days , then for prevention and preservation i prescribed her a quilt to wear upon her head , ℞ . marjoram one little handful , rosemary , sage , flowers of melilot , lavender , an . one little handful , nutmegs , cloves , an . ℈ ij . make a powder for a quilt . annotations . in these cold maladies of the brain , besides general and internal medicines , proper topics are very beneficial ; so that many times they alone , at the beginning of the distemper , contribute very much to the cure. in which case we made use of spirit of wine with good success ; the fomentations of which are highly commended ▪ by arculanus . plater commends dill ; forestus cammomile , however they are made use of in head-achs proceeding from cold causes . aetius applaudes goats dung , bruised and laid on morning and and evening . others dry up cold superfluous humors after this manner . ℞ . millet-seed lb j. common salt lb s. leaves of majoram , rosemary , sage , flowers of lavender , melolet an . one small handful , seeds of anise , fennel , dill , cummin an . ʒ ij . lawrel berries ʒiij . these being fryed in a frying-pan , let them be put into little bags , and while they continue warm , let the head be first dried and then well rubb'd with them for half an hour . aetius prefers vervein . with the roots , and creeping time , boyl'd in oyl , for the cure of all head-aches proceeding from cold and thick humors . he also recommends hog-lice boyl'd in oyl for the same purposes . p. aegineta writes of a woman who was very famous for cuing head-aches either with or without a fever by this means . she boyl'd the green roots of asses cucumers , cut very small , and wormwood in oyl , till they grew soft , and with this oyl and water she moistened and watered the head , and then clapt the root bruised with the wormwood upon it : which medicine is highly recommended by avicine , who prescribes it after this form ℞ . common oyl , common-water an . lb j. leaves of wormwood m. j. s. root of asses cucumers ʒ ij . let them boyl together . observation liv. a hickup . antonetta n. a poor woman desired me to see her daughter , a maid about twenty four years of age , she had been troubled for ten days with a continual violent , and troublesome hickup , and none of the old womens remedies would do her any good , when i understood her womb was well , i judg'd that the malady proceeded from some sharp matter , firmly impacted in the tunicles of the stomach ; therefore i gave her first a light vomit , which gave her three or four vomits , but no release from her hickup . thereupon i prescribed her this following little bag. ℞ . flowers of mint , camomil , dill , an . m j. of red roses , melilot an . m. s. one white poppy head cut small , nutmeg , aniseed an . ʒj . of dill , and cumin , an ʒj . s. cut and bruise them grossly , and make a linnen bag about the bigness of two hands breadth . this bag i ordered her to boil for half an hour , in new milk and common water an . lbj. s. and to take ever and anon a draught of this decoction ; and after she had gently squeezed the bag to apply it hot to the region of her stomach ; which when she had continued to do but for one day , her hickup left her . annotations . says hippocrates , a convulsion is caus'd by repletion or emptiness , and so is a hickup . but for the most part a hickup proceeds from repletion , seldom from emptiness as galen testifies . under the word plenitude are comprehended also whatever matter sticks close to the tunicles of the stomach , and twiching and gnawing them with its acrimony , whether sharp , tough humors , pepper or any other thing . a hickup if it last long , is very troublesome , but it seldom uses to continue long . yet m. gatinaria tells a story of a doctor of law , who was troubled with a hickup for twelve days together : and forestus makes mention of an old woman that hickupp'd many times for half a year together . to suppress this hickupping , those medicaments are most proper , which loosen and remove the sharp and biting humors from the tunicles of the stomach ; such are vomiting medicines and sternutories . hence says hippocrates , sneezing frees the person that is troubled with a hickup . but if these things nothing avail , and that the sharp matter will not be thus removed , then the acrimony of it is either to be mitigated ( thus in forestus we read , that a certain old woman , when no other remedies would prevail , was cured with looch sanum ) or else to be concocted and mitigated together . to which purpose a decoction of camomil-flowers , and seeds of dill , cumin , figs , or drinking of malmsey or other soft wine neat and pure . or else the matter is to be concocted , and at the same time the acute sense of the stomach is somewhat to be blunted , and then treacle , mithridate , and chiefly philonium are mainly contributory . sometimes we read of hickups cured by suddain frights : and variola confirms the same . observation . lv. a wound in the head ; and an opening of the skull with a trepan . lambert n. a dutch gentleman , about twenty four years of age , young and strong , the seventh of march , as he was managing a sprightly horse , was unawares thrown out of his saddle , and knockt the hinder part of his head against the carriage of a great gun , yet so that no wound appeared outwardly : presently after his fall he fell a vomiting , and was taken with an extraordinary dizziness , which ceasing for some time , he mounted again and rode home . but no sooner was he alighted in the stable , but being again taken with a dizziness , he fell down upon the flower , and his memory being as it were quite lost , he neither knew what had befallen him , nor how he fell from his horse , nor where he was . at the same time a camp chyrurgeon being sent for after he had shav'd off the hair behind the left ear , somewhat upward , where the patient complained of no pain , made a slight incision , which no way concerned the pericranium ; and the next day took about a pint of blood out of his left arm. the twelfth of march , the pains increasing , i was sent for ; at what time i found that the patient complained of most sharp pains in his head , yet there was no fever , in the place affected , besides the wound , which the chyrurgeon had made , i perceived a slight and soft tumour ; so that by the feeling , a man might easily conjecture a depression or fracture of the skull , the chyrurgeon had hitherto laid on a defensive of bolearmoniac , whites of eggs and vinegar mixt together , for fear of an inflammation , which because it was misapply'd in this case , i threw away , and ordered linnen cloaths four doubl'd and dipt in the following fomentation , and gently squeezed to be clapt warm over all his head , and to be shifted three or four times a day . ℞ . betony , rosemary , thyme , sage , marjoram , vervain , an . m. j s. flowers of stocchas , camomil , melilot , an . m. s. lawrel berries comin seed , an . ʒiij . white-wine , q. s boil them according to art to lb iij. add to the straining , spirit of wine ℥ vj. mix them for a fomentation . but in regard the patient had not gone to stool in four days , i gave him a gentle purge , which gave him five stools ; the same evening , after the fomentation several times applied , appeared in the place affected a tumour about the bigness of half a hens-egg , which being perforated , there flow'd out black blood ; therefore the next day sending for a more skilful chyrurgeon , i advised him to open the skull . but the patient and his friends being extreamly against it , we staid two days longer , till the fifteenth of march , which was the ninth day from the fall , by which time there appeared in the same place a tumour bigger then the former , so that then with the patients consent i ordered the skull to be laid bare about the evenings and in regard the wound was near the temporal muscle , there was an incision made cross-wise to the very bone it self , somewhat toward the hinder part of the head , by the lambdoidal suture , presently gushed out a large quantity of blood black and coagulated , which was expelled by the strength of nature , through the lambdoidal suture , which by the incision we had in part laid bare , and had stuck between the cranium and the pericranium ; the cranium thus laid bare , and the pericranium scraped , the wound was filled with dry wool ; the next night , the pain being somewhat mitigated , the patient slept a little , the next day the cranium was trepan'd , but scarce a dram of blood flowed out upon the opening of it , which till then had stuck between the cranium and the hard meninx , and by this time was in some measure coagulated ; from thence i judged the patient to be in great danger , when i found coagulated blood , and believ'd there might be more which still lying hid under the cranium could not come forth , and for that the meninx being gently squeezed , nothing followed . the seventeenth of march , a fever seiz'd him ; the next night followed convulsions , so strong that four robust , stout men , could hardly hold his arms and his thighs ; moreover he slept not at all , raved altogether , was very thirsty , and when drink was offer'd him , drank very greedily ; the next day he remain'd in the same condition , so that because of his delirium and his convulsions his wound could not be bound up , thus raving he both dunged and pissed in his bed , and more then that he bit off a peice of the tip of his tongue with his teeth ; of the pain whereof , when he came to himself , he very much complained ; these three mortal signs , the delirium , the fever , the convulsions continued till the twentieth of march ; at what time the convulsions remitted , but the fever , and raving contiued , that day the chyrurgeon with a flat , obtuse and oblong instrument , which i ordered to be provided on purpose , compressed the meninx a little , and between the meninx and the cranium , thrust in his instrument about the breadth of two fingers , separating the meninx from the cranium , by depressing it every way round about , to the end that if any coagulated blood lay there concealed , it might the more conveniently be evacuated ; but when he put down his instrument upon the meninx toward the back-part , by chance he litt upon the place where the cause of all the mischeif recided , out of which there came out about half an ounce of black blood , purulent , and watry . the twenty first , twenty second and twenty third of march , the same instrument being every day thrust in , a good quantity of blood and watry , putrified matter was brought away , in the mean time the delirium abated very much , and the patient took several naps . the twenty fourth the meninx being pressed downward nothing came out , then the delirium was very slight , and the patient rising out of his bed sat two hours by the fire , then also the flesh began to grow up from the lower bone about the meninx in the hole of the cranium ; he could hardly eat because of the pain in his tongue , of which he had bit of the tip with his teeth ; for which reason we gave him a proper water to wash his mouth , which heal'd his tongue again by degrees ; all this while we made use of the fomentation prescribed the twelfth of march ; but then leaving that off , we clapt a cap about his head with cephalic herbs sowed into it . upon the twenty fifth , the fever went off and the patient grew much better , hitherto we had laid nothing but mel rosaceum , or honey of roses mixed with a little spirit of wine , upon the hole of the cranium , or the meninx ; but then we mixt the following powder with the honey . ℞ . aloes hepat , sang. draconis , myrrh , mastick , olihanum , an . ℈ j. s. barley flower , ℈ ij . s. reduce the whole into a very fine powder . the twenty sixth of march , he quite recovered his sences , then again the meninx being pressed down with the foresaid instrument , there flowed out a small quantity of white and well concocted matter both morning and evening ; after this day he rose and sate up for three or four hours , and fed well ; the following days nothing of matter came forth of his skull ; but contrary to our desire , in four days time the hole was filled up with flesh , without side also the flesh grew every way , but too suddainly ; so that we were forced many times to take it off with a slight caustic ; in regard we were to stay till the bone scal'd , at last in the sixth week a great large and thick scale was seperated from the bone : and then the wound being filled up with flesh , the patient was cured in a short time ; only this inconvenience remain'd , that upon any suddain change of air his head would ake , and wine presently fuddl'd him . in this condition of health he lived above four years as he used to do . but in september , . as he was sporting in the camp , well in health with some other troopers , he fell down senseless , and presently his whole body being contracted with a most terrible convulsion , he expir'd within a quarter of an hour ; had i been there at that time , i would have opened his skull to have seen whether the cause of his death had proceeded from any thing of his old wound . annotations . as to wounds in the head with a fracture of the cranium , the question is , when the separation is to be made , says albucasis , if the patient come to the three first days after the wound , then the bone must be taken away before the fourteenth day : if it be in the summer , then make hast to remove the bone before the seventh , before what lyes under the bone of the pannicle be corrupted , and terrible accidents ensue . says avicen , separation must not be delay'd in summer beyond seven days , in winter not beyond ten , but the sooner the better . hippocrates allows but three days before separation of the bone , which is to be cut , and admits no longer delay if the weather be hot . to which hippocrates ought to have added , if the chyrurgeon be sent for soon enough : for if he be sent for late ; or that the patient and his friends will not consent , then the skull is to be perforated at any time , so there be any hopes of life . for in a certain danger a doubtful remedy is better then none . for it matters not , says celsus , whether the remedy be altogether safe , when there is no other . horstius opened the cranium of a certain person upon the eleventh day , and of another upon the fifteenth . hildan tells a remarkable story of a cranium perforated with success , two months after the wound received ; upon which the matter gushed out with a full stream , the patient was cured . thus in our patients case at first came forth mattry and watry blood , and upon the seventeenth day meer white matter . hildan also produces another example of a skull perforated upon the eleventh day . and aegineta writes , that he knew one whose cranium was perforated a year after the wound receiv'd , by which means , the patient recovered . however he advises separation of the bone in the winter before the fourteenth day , and in the summer before the seventh . in short these operations prove best at the beginning , and as avicen says the sooner the better . but if the beginning be over-sliped , it would be inhuman to give men over so long as there is hopes . otherwise as celsus says , it is part of a prudent man not to meddle , where there is no hopes at all . had those deadly symptoms there appeared in our patient before the operation , which appeared afterwards , we had never adventured it ; nevertheless he was cured contrary to our expectation . some physitians advise ye to take great care , least in the laying bare of the cranium , which proceeds perforation , you make any incision in the sutures , for fear the fibres of the hard meninx , passing by the sutures , and united with the pericranium , should be hurt : as if there were any such great danger in that . for i have been present at such operations many times , and have ordered incisions to be made upon the sutures , if i found it a proper place , and that the little fibres should be scraped off with a pen-knife ; and yet no harm ensued ; and i have found by experience , that such cautions as these are only fit for contemplating physitians , who never were present at such operations . only take care of hurting the temporal muscle , and that the trepan be not set upon the sutures , and the perforation made there . observation . lvi . an opthalmy . the wife of captain iunius was troubled with an extraordinary inflammation of her eyes with great pain , two days after two of her maids and a man servant were seized with the same distemper , and said they contracted it by looking upon their mistress ; after due purgation i laid upon the eyes , all night , the yolk of a hard-boyl'd egg , kneaded together with womans milk , to asswage the pain , afterwards i ordered one or two drops of this opthalmic water to be dropt into the eyes twice or thrice , which being duly observed , the ophthalmy vanished within three days . ℞ . white vitriol , ℈ j. sugar-candy , ʒj . plantain water , ℥ ij . rose-water , ℥ j. mix them together . annotations . galen numbers blear-eyedness among the contagious diseases , and says it may be contracted by contagion , like the pestilence or itch. but he gives no reason for what he says . thus plutarch , of all diseases , the contagion of blear-eyedness says he , creeps amongst them that live together from one to another , so sharp a faculty it has of affecting the sight . thus says ovid , dum spectant laesos oculi , laeduntur & ipsi ; multaque corporibus transitione nocent . as to the nature of this contagion , physitians are very silent ; but who treat of it , seem to be of this opinion , that corrupt vapours and spirits issue forth from the vitiated eye , which being carried to the eyes of those that are sound , infect the same . however benedictus faventinus writes , that there is something of putrid , which exhales from the blear-eyes , which infects the ambient air with the same quality , which air being received by the eyes of others , affects them by contagion . of the same opinion is mercurialis , that an ophthalmy is therefore contagious , because the spirits of the eye affected are contaminated , which when they come to touch those eyes that are sound , infect them likewise . but none of these seem to have hit the mark. first , who can believe that such a quantity of malignant spirits should exhale from the eye , which is covered with a hard horny membrane , as to infect the eyes of those that look at a distance . such a transpiration would dry up the eye in a few hours . secondly , grant such an exhaling should infect the ambient air , and so infect the eyes of others , why are not the eyes of all visitants and relations infected , but only of such as fix their eyes upon the party . thirdly , why are not they infected also , that more curiously and long behold and view blear'd-eyes in reference to their cure , as well as they that view short eyes but for a time , and only by accident ? for these reasons i do not believe blear-eyedness can be communicated by contagion , but that it may be contracted sometimes through the conturbation of the humors and spirits of the sound eye . which conturbation is not occasioned by corrupt humors or spirits , carryed from the blear-eye to the sound eye : but because the sound eye beholds the blear-eyes with a kind of terror and abomination ; which terror vehemently disturbs the spirits and humors of certain weak eyes , so that being rapidly mov'd and stirred up by that conturbation they flow to the eye , and their growing over hot enflame the eyes . which rabbi moyses seems to intimate ; where he says , he that first sees a blear-eyed person , presently has his eye disturbed , so that if he still look more intently , the eye is not only disturbed , but contracts an opthalmy . now i have said that weaker eyes are disturbed ; according to that of sennertus , you may know those eyes to be weak , that are bleared themselves by looking upon another . but stronger eyes , and such as are not terrify'd at the sight , as they are not disturbed , so they contract no ophthalmy . so that it is the strength or weakness of the eye , the more or less aversion , which is the cause that some eyes are endamaged by looking , others not . nor is this a new , or to be admired at opinion , when we find that contu●…bations and frights upon the sight of frightful objects are many times the occasions of very terrible diseases , as we find by experience in women great with child , whose tender issue frequently bear the marks of the mothers frights , and aversions of sight . others upon the sight of any frightful object having the spirits of their brain vehemently disturbed , have become paralitic or raving mad ; or upon a perturbation of the spirits of the heart , have fallen into palpitations , syncopes , fevers , or violent distempers : what wonder then that the spirits of a sound eye should be in a perturbation upon the frightful sight of a blear-eye , and by that vehement motion be heated to that degree , as to cause an ophthalmy ? if any one object that ophthalmies have been epidemical , we say , that propagation does not proceed from any contagion , issuing out of the affected eye , but from that common depravity of the air or dyet . nor does it signifie any thing , what aristotle affirms , that menstrous women will infect a looking-glass by looking upon it ; because it is not credible that such an infection happens through any contagion issuing from the eyes , but from certain corrupt vapors which they send forth upon the glass together with their breath . nor is it of any moment what philosophers say , that a basilisk will kill a man by looking upon him ; for which there may be other reasons given ; the first , for that many venemous vapors exhale not only from the eyes , but from the whole body of the serpent , which infect the ambient air. secondly , because he that sees that horrid creature may be terrified and disturbed in his spirits to that degree , that the venemous spirits may be easily drawn by that terror from the body close by , and carried to the heart , to its extream prejudice : so that it is not the sight , but the terror and conturbation , caus'd by that horrid sight , and joyned to the venemous habit which causes death ; i say , joyned to the venenmous habit ; for no man shall perswade me that a basilisk seen at a distance can ever kill a man with his eye , though the same man should look upon him all day long . to say that a basilisk will dye , if he sees himself in a looking-glass , is a meer dream , unless we may allow the creature it self to be so terrified , and disturbed at the sight of it 's own horrid shape , that he dyes upon his spirits being too much disturbed , and over tumultuously crowding about the heart . or else that he is so extravagantly overjoy'd at the sight of his own image , that the very dissipation of his spirits kills him . observation lvii . spitting of blood. john hugo trumpeter to monsieur de persil , having over-strain'd , and consequently over-heated himself with sounding his trumpet , soon after felt a kind of a dull pain in his breast , and with a little cough began to spit out frothy blood but not much , and became so weak that he could hardly draw his breath , neither could he stand or speak , but was forced to lye in his bed upon his breast ; he was so averse to physic , that he resolved to take the advice of no physitian : but after he had lain about six or seven weeks in that condition , and found himself nothing better at length upon the tenth of march , he sent for me , i found him sick without a fever , but very weak , which weakness proceeded from some want of breath ; for he could not dilate nor contract his breast at his pleasure ; the reason of which malady was , for that by his straining in blowing his trumpet , he had over-stretched the muscles of his breast , and thereby so weakned them , that they could never afterwards be contracted , but the spitting of blood , which was very much , proceeded from some little vein that was broken in his lungs . first therefore i prescribed him a proper diet ; next i purged him gently , thirdly , i took out of the median vein of his right arm , half a pint of blood ; and lastly i applied the following cere-cloth to lay over all his breast . ℞ castor , saffron oriental an . ℈ ij . mastic , olibanum , storax an . ʒj . benzoin ʒ j. s. gum taccamahacca , galbanum dissolv'd in vinegar , emplaister of melilot , oxocrotium an . ℥ j. make a cere-cloth to be spred upon red leather big enough to cover the whole breast from the sword-form gristle , to the asperia arteria , as also to come about the sides under the arms on both sides , let it be anointed with oyl of nuttmegs . moreover i ordered a girdle to be made of the skin of an elke , about a hands breadth , with a broad button ; the cere-cloth was first laid on , and then the girdle girt about his breast just under the arm-pits , as hard as he could well endure it , and so button'd . this done he presently felt a great deal of ease , and fetch'd his breath much more freely , and strongly . the fourteenth of march , his spitting of blood , together with his cough , quite left him ; this cere-cloth lay on a month , by which time the muscles of his breast were so closed , that the patient had no need of any other medicins , and sounded his trumpet again , without his girdle , however i advised him to wear his girdle ; especially when he told me , that he blew his trumpet with more ease when he had it on . annotations . this patient would swallow nothing but only a laxative medicament , which made me fear he would fall into a consumption ; for besides his spitting of blood , his strength was so wasted , that he could not sit upright in his bed , but was forced to lye upon his back . but when i found that weakness proceeded meerly , from a defect of motion in the instruments of respiration , i recovered him contrary to the expectation of all men , by the said cere-cloth and girdle . nor was the least part of the cure to be ascribed to the girdle ; for so soon as i had bound his breast tite , he could sit up in his bed , and fetch his breath much more freely . many of these trumpeters striving to out-vie one another , strain themselves in their sounding to that degree , that often-times they become bursten , or spit blood , and many times crack the thread of their own lives . as we saw in november . at what time one of captain bax's trumpeters , striving to out-do the rest in sounding , broke a great vein in his lungs , which bled in such abundance that within two hours he expir'd . observation lviii . an hysterical suffocation . richerda , a maid , belonging to the lady of nassau , was troubled with a vehement hysterical suffocation accompany'd with a grumbling in her belly , and sometimes with vomiting and raving talk , she said she contracted this distemper by sitting in a cold house of office exposed to the wind , which she received up into her body . the ninth of ianuary , because she was bound , i gave her a gentle purgative , which gave her five stools ; upon which day she was clear of her fit ; but the next night her fit was more violent , and the next day very greivous ; the fit went off very well with the smoak of partridge feathers held to her nose ; besides that , we gave her a ball of assa faetida , made up with castor and galbanum to hold in her hand , and smell to ever and anon ; toward evening two hours before her grand fit , she fell into such deliriums , that she talked idly , and had several inclinations to vomit , but nothing came up , but what she had eaten or drank before ; the fit went off again with the smoak of partridge feathers , and the following emplaster was applied to her navel , ℞ . castor ℈ j. benzoin ℈ j. oppoponax ▪ sagapen dissolved in vinegar an . ℈ ●…j . mix them and spread them upon a peice of leather of a hands breadth . i gave her also an hysterical draught ; but that she brought up again within an hour . the eleventh of ianuary , she took the following apozem ever now and then . ℞ . roots of masterwort , valerian , dittany an . ʒiij . leaves of mug-wort , peny-royal , feverfew , an . m. j. seeds of lovage , wild carrots ʒij . common ▪ water q. s. boyl them to a pint and a half . all that day she took of this , and never vomited ; but without any benefit ; her deliriums and ravings returned by intervalls , toward evening i gave her this powder in a little ale , ℞ . castor ℈ s. oriental saffron , gr . v. trochischs of myrrh , ℈ s. make them into powder . all this did no good ; therefore the twelfth of ianuary , when the symptoms began again to appear i gave her only ʒj . of yellow amber prepared and pulveriz'd with a little ale ; which powder when she had taken , within an hour all the symptoms miraculously vanished ; but in the evening when she began to perceive some fore-bodings of her distemper , the same powder was given her again , and so she slept quietly all the next night , the thirteenth and fourteeeth when she perceived any grumbling in the lower part of her belly , she took the same powder again morning and evening , which quite recovered her . annotations . amber is said to be a prevalent remedy in hysterical distempers by a peculiar faculty ; the effect of which when i found by this experiment , i made use of it again with great success in the like cases . the smoak of patridge feathers is very effectual also in the time of the fit , of which i also made use upon the like occasions with the same good fortune . with these feathers forestus freed a hysteric woman from her fits , when all other remedies fail'd , as he writes himself , and therefore he always kept them by him , as being endued with an occult quality for that purpose . gradus , bottonus , riverius and others commend the same , beside that it is a remedy well known among the women . most physitians extol the smoak of hair , horns , old shoes and rags burnt , and held to the nose . galen and priscian commend the smell of rue ; and the same effects are produced by galbanum , castor , assa faetida , and such like stinking smells held to the nostrils . leonellus compounds a ball of castor ʒiij . assa faetida , galbanum an . ʒij . wax . q. s. to incorporate them . among all the remedies , says bottonus , that , that soonest recals women out of their fits is a fumigation of the powder of wens , that grew upon horses legs , dryed in a hot oven , burnt upon the coals and held to the nostrils . this powder is commended also by augenius and other physitians . but though these stinking and loathsome fumigations , tryed by common experience , and by galen , avicen , and other famous physitians , are made use of , and extolled as the best and most present remedies in these uterine suffocations , yet there are some who utterly reject and disapprove them . thus cleopatra , and moschio disparage them as vain and frivolous . capivaccius writes , that they do very ill , who at first make use of frictions and fumigations ; for he would have the whole body first evacuated , and in the first place the uterine parts . duretus writes , that ill smells nothing avail in suffocations , that proceed from menstruous suppressions , or suppression of the seed , but do more harm then good ; which mercatus also affirms : but that they are only proper , when the womb moves of it self to the liver , and sticks to it . however with their good leave , this opinion seems very repugnant to the doctrine of hippocrates , whom in all uterine suffocations prescribes stinking things ; but for the lower parts recommends sweet fumes , as also the fumes of castor and fleabane . as for the suffocation when the womb ascends voluntarily to the liver , 't is hardly credible there should be any such thing in nature ; for the womb never moves of it self , but when it is forced by some manifest cause , as menstruous suppression , refrigeration , corruption of the seed or the like . observation lix . loss of appetite . mr. hare , an english gentleman about thirty years of age , having for several days together , contrary to his custom , fed excessively hard , and by that means disturbed the functions of his stomach , and collected many crudities therein , lost his stomach to that degree , that for a fortnight together , he could scarce eat any thing at all , at length by my advice he took this vomit ; ℞ . green-leaves of asara-bacca , ʒiij bruise them , and press out the juice with ℥ ij . s. of the decoction of radish , add to the expression oxymel with agaric ℥ j. mix them for a draught . this caused him to vomit stoutly , afterwards i ordered him to eat three or four mouthfuls of candied elecampane root , three or four times a day , to observe a warm diet , to abstain from immoderate eating , to drink generous wine , but in a less quantity , and after dinner and supper , because his stomach was very moist , to eat a bit or two of a raw salt herring , and by this means he recovered his stomach again within a few days . annotations . loss of appetite sometimes proceeds from a hot cause , as a hot distemper of the stomach , a fever , abundance of choler , and then it is cured with choler purging and refrigerating medicines . sometimes it proceeds from a cold disposition of the stomach ; which happens either through weakness of the innate heat , as in old men , or through bad dyet ; and thence crudities collected in the stomach ; or else by reason of cold humors flowing from the head , or other parts to the stomach . now in every cold disposition of the stomach , by reason of the weakness of the concoctive faculty , mary crude , flegmatic , moist and cold humors are collected in the stomach , which weaken the heat of the stomach , and dissolve the strength of it , and blunt the sense of attraction and suction . in the cure of this distemper , t●…●…lear the stomach from the filth of crudities , vomits are mainly necessary . but if other purgatives are to be made use of , hiera pills are chiefly commanded by galen . then a dyet is to be observed upon things of good juice and easie of digestion , hot and dry , not fat or oily , which take away the sence of suction ▪ the use also of most hot things , ga●…gale , calamus aromaticus , rosemary , marjoram , hysop , sage , lawrel-berries , hot seeds , all spices and the like , all generous wines , and mo●…e ●…pecally wormwod wine , spirit o●… wine is commended by all , either simple , or distilled off with juniper-berries , seeds of anise , caraways , fennel , cinnamon , or cloves : all hippocras and cinnamon water sublimated out of wine . matthiolus extols his own aqua vitae , which is used by many physitians , levinus lemni above all extols ginger , either dry or condited , to help concoction , restore the appetite , dispel wind , and consume crudities . others are for swallowing some few pepper-corns , either whole or cut into three or four pieces . i have observed in my practise , that the roots of elecampane alone , so condited , that they still retain their bitterness , are more effectual than all the rest ; by the 〈◊〉 of which i have made those who have lost their stomachs , in a short time , in a few days very hungry . i also used to give them pulverized with strong wine , and have found them answer expectation . for they warm the stomach , yet not too much , consume crudities , promote concoction , corroborate , open , dry and dispel . salt meats also very much excite the appetite ; so that i have observed that the eating of a third or fourth part of a pickled herring after dinner or supper has recovered a lost stomach , if the person be not very old ; for it extreamly drys and corroborates the stomach : for though a herring be hard of digestion when it is boyl'd or broyl'd , yet taken out of the pickle and eaten raw , it is easie of digestion . observation lx. a superfoetation the wife of dionysius n. a souldier living at nimeghen in october . was brought to bed of a boy lusty and at the full time , which she nursed her self , after she was delivered , her terms came down in due order , and she was indifferent well all the time of her lying in , like other women , after her month was out , she went about her business as before ; but the seventh month after her delivering being at church , she felt such a suddain alteration that she was forced to return home ; where a midwife being sent for , her waters came down accompanied with the throws of delivery , and while the women were all admiring what the matter should be , she was brought to bed of another lusty sound child , which she nursed with the former , and may be alive still for ought i know . annotations . says the great hippocrates , the mouth of the womb of such women as are with child is compressed . and galen observes , that if the mouth of the womb be shut , 't is a sign of conception : and he says it is then so close shut , that it will not admit the point of the smallest bodkin . but granting all this , yet we must not conclude from hence , that there can be no superfoetation though it rarely happen . for says aristotle , if after conception there be copulation , there may be a superfoetation ; though rarely ; for that the womb though very rarely closes it self till delivery . thus hippocrates , those women have superfoetations whose wombs are not exactly closed after the first conception . he also gives us an example of superfoetation in the wife of gorgias , who conceived a girl , and when she was near the time of her delivery conceiv'd again . i knew a woman says albucasis , that was again impregnated , when she had a dead birth in her womb. says cardan , superfoetation is rare , yet seen at millan in our time . says dodonaeus superfoetation is very rare , yet there has been an example of it in the wife of a very honest man. and plater gives us two examples of superfoetation . but now granting superfoetation , the question is how the superfoetation can be brought to perfection , aristotle says , that if after the first conception a woman conceive again , the superfoetation may be nourish'd ; but if the first conception be grown , then the second proves abortive . which is the opinion of hippocrates plinie , dodonaeus , bauhinus and others , reason also seems to agree with experience , which teaches us that the first conceiv'd , and first increas'd , draws the chiefest part of the nourishment to its self , by which means the latter conception must be depriv'd of nourishment , and consequently dye and be expell'd as an abortion . but if the last conception draws sufficient nourishment , and be sufficiently perfected , and do not prove abortive , it is impossible it should be ready so soon for delivery as the former ; and yet it will be delivered in time : as we find by this example , by me recited , for the ratities sake . yet nicholas tells ye a greater wonder ; i knew , says he , the wi●…e of zachary de scarparia , who brought forth a male child , and three months after that was delivered of another boy , and both lived in good health . therefore we must conclude , the last conception had nourishment enough in the womb , and was strong , and consequently able to retain it self in the womb , during the delivery of the other , in regard the woman's labour was easie and without any violence . observation lxi . worms in the head. the son of a certain treasurer of iuliers , a young lad about twelve years of age , from his child-hood had been always troubled with worms in his head , at length his mother by the advice of a quack , washed and daubed his head with i know not what lotions and oyntments , and so the worm was kill'd ; by which the mountebank thought to have got himself a great name in the town ; but within a few days after the boy began to complain of a pain in his head , which every day increasing at the months end was so intollerable , that i was sent for , but all to no purpose ; after tryal of all external and internal medicaments ; at nine weeks end , epileptic convulsions seiz'd him , which in a few days turned to a vehement epilepsie , which afflicted him at first every day , then every hour , then every quarter of an hour , at length the child died ; his head being open'd , the hard meninx was all over of a red colour , and very black in that part next the upper-part of the head , somewhat toward the the left side , this being dissected , there came forth a blackish and watry goar , which had lain between both the meninxes ; the substance of the brain was very little altered : but in the ventricles of it there was a kind of greenish humour , watry , yet not very clammy , but the quantity very small , in other things there was no alteration . annotations . in this manner it was that these worms were cured by this mountebank ; however he was wise in this , that upon notice of the boys death , he sneaked out of nimeghen ; perhaps afraid i should upbraid him with the death of this patient ; like an ignoramus as he was , who had stopp'd up the way , by which nature voided the noxious excrements of the brain before he had made any diversion . observation lxii . a tertian and intermitting fever . the wife of monsieur de spieck , a strong child-bearing-woman , the second week after she was brought to bed , found her self very well ; but trusting too much to her strength , got out of her bed , walked about the chamber , and eat a bit of a dry'd neats-tongue ; but at the end of the third week , she was seiz'd with a violent double tertian intermitting fever , with an extraordinary heat , continual waking , her stomach quite lost , unquenchable thirst , with several other bad symptoms . the twenty second of august , i was sent for , when i found her very anxious and weak and in the midst of her second fit ; which most people thought would have carry'd her off . i gave her presently bezoar stone ℈ . s. confection hyacinth ℈ j. with six drams of our treacle-water , which as she said soon after gave her some ease ; to quench her thirst i gave her this julep , which pleased her so well that she drank nothing else all the time of her distemper . ℞ . waters of carduus benedict . succoury , borage , an . lb. s. syrup of limons ℥ j. s. violets ℥ j. oyl of sulphur q. s. to make it grateful to the pallat. toward the evening i prescribed this infusion which she took the next morning . ℞ . leaves of senna well cleans'd ℥ s. rubarb the best ʒj . s. rhenish tartar , anniseed an . ʒj . succoury water q. s. steep them all night ; the next day boyl them gently , then press them strongly , adding syrup of roses solutive ℥ s. for a draught . this gave her four stools which brought away much stinking excrement , and gave her great ease ; after the purge i prescribed her chicken broth with sorrel and chervil boiled together in it , with a little juice of citron , to relish it , and to quench her thirst still gave her the julep before mentioned . the next night she slept indifferently , and when she waked found her heat much abated , the next expected fit was so slight , that she was hardly sensible of it ; nor did the fever after that appear any more , being vanquished by these medicins only . annotations . child-bearing women not careful of themselves when they lye in , oft-times pay for their rashness , as this gentlewoman did : as also did a neighbour of ours , who going abroad too soon fell into a continued fever , upon which first a frenzy and then death ensued . another of our acquaintance the second week of her month , looking to soon after her house affairs , and presuming to combe her head , fell into an epilepsie , upon which a delirium ensued ; which maladies though at length they were much abated , yet could they never be cured all the while the gentle-woman lived . observation lxiii . a bleeding at the nose . theodore bijl about fifty five years of age , in august about four a clock in the morning , was taken with a bleeding at his right nostril : three hours after , being sent for , for revulsion i ordered the chyrurgeon to open a vein in his right arm with a large orifice , and to take away ten ounces of blood ; which done , by applying cold water to his neck and forhead , the bleeding was stay'd ; three days after , being invited to a feast where he drank wine a little too freely , upon his return home , he was again taken with the same malady , and bled all that night before i was sent for ; the next day i ordered him to be let blood as before , but to no purpose ; nor durst we repeat blood-letting in regard of his age and his strength , nor would he permit any tents to be put up into his nostrils ; and therefore we apply'd a little lock of tow moisten'd with this mixture to his forhead ; ℞ . bole armoniack ʒij . s. bloodstone , mastick , frnkincense , red coral an . ℈ ij . the white of one egg. vinegar of roses q. s. mix them together . moreover oxocrate , which is actually cold , was applied to his neck , forehead and testicles , and revulsions by ligatures and painful frictions of the extream parts , and by cupping glasses applied to his shoulders , which avail'd nothing ; at length , after the bleeding had continued above thirty six hours , and the strength of the patient , through loss of blood was very much exhausted , then he was forced to admit of astringents to be thrust up into his nostrils ; therefore when we had cleansed his nostrils from the clotted blood , we ordered a powder of trochischs of myrrh , of bole-armoniac , mastick and frankincense to be blown through a quill into his nostrils , and withal thrust up a thick tent made of linnen about a fingers length dipt in vinegar , and the white of an egg , and sprinkled with the same powder , by which means the bleeding seemed to stop for two or three hours ; but afterwards the blood began to descend through his palate into his mouth , and the tent falling out , he bled again at the nostril . then after we had once more cleansed his nostril ; we blew up the same powder again , and thrust up a peice of chalk in the form of a tent , so big as to fill the whole concavity of the nostril ; which stopped the bleeding presently ; however , to be sure , we let the chalk stay in three days ; and so for this time the patient escaped a most threatning danger ; the next year , in autunm , the same bleeding took him again , for the stopping of which , after he had used a whole day and a night certain idle old women's remedies in vain ; when his strength was almost exhausted , he sent again for me ; and then with the same means of a chalk tent i presently stopped the bleeding as i had done before ; but not long after , his liver being refrigerated and weakned through the loss of so much blood , being seiz'd at the same time with a dropsy and an asthma , he ended his days . annotations . an excessive bleeding at the nose , when symptomatical , and not critical , in regard it occasions the dropsie , a cachexy , and other greivous maladies , is to be stopped with all the speed imaginable . this is cured by revulsion of the blood flowing to the nostrils ; by repelling the blood from the nostrils ; by thickning the blood ; and by shutting the opened veins . the best and suddainest way to draw back the blood , is , by opening a vein in the arm , on that side which is affected ; by which means galen affirms , that he has suddainly stopped violent bleedings at the nostrils . most physitians believe a little orifice is best , and to take away the blood in a small quantity and at several times . but we are for a large orifice , that the blood may freely spin forth , which causes a swifter revulsion , cupping-glasses also are are prevalent revulsives . thus galen stopped a bleeding in a young man by applying a cuping-glass to his hypochondriums . forestus cured a desperate bleeding at the nose by cupping-glasses applied to the foot ; which experiment we have frequently try'd with success . cupping-glasses apply'd to the shoulders are not so well liked by many ; because they draw the blood from the lower parts to the upper . crato commends the painful bending of the little-finger on the side affected : of the same nature are frictions and painful ligatures of the extream parts , and an actual cautery applied to the soles of the feet ; by which means zacutus writes , that he cured a most desperate bleeding at the nose . the blood is repelled from the nostrils with vinegar , cold water , or oxymel applyed to the temples and neck , or with cataplasms of bole , sealed earth , mastic , frankincense , vinegar , whites of eggs and the like ; to which may be added plantain , pimpernel , and other astringent and cooling herbs , gathered fresh and bruised ; snails with their shells mixed with frankincense and vinegar , and applied to the forehead and nostrils , are much commended . riverius commends parget kneaded with vinegar , and laid upon the forehead and nostrils about the thickness of two fingers . others prefer vinegar alone or oxymel snuft up into the nostrils , or cold water dashed unawares in the face . actius commends the steam of vinegar , pour'd upon a red hot tile . says pachequus , being sent for to a countryman , who bled so excessively that he was just at deaths door , i dropt into the contrary ear to the nostril that bleed , some drops of vinegar of roses , and presently the bleeding stopped . this i learnt from dr. pontuado , who saw this remedy made use of by a dutch physitian . thickning of the blood is performed by cooling , astringent and thickning medicaments taken inwardly , and outwardly applied , such are oxymel and cold water , and the repelling medicines already mentioned . thus hildan , by wrapping the whole body of the party in linnen cloaths , dipped in oxymel , stopped a bleeding of which the cure was dispaired of . the veins are shut by astringent and glutinying medicaments thrust up into the nostrils . galen mixes frankincense and aloes reduced into powder with the white of an egg , and with a linnen cloth first strewed with hare's hair , put up into the nostrils . the moss that grows upon dead mens skulls exposed to the air , powdered , and put up any way into the nostrils , is accounted a most effectual and present remedy . for my part i have always found the benefit of a round piece of chalk . cotten dipt in ink , and thrust up into the nostrils is a very good remedy . hogs-dung if applied while warm , or warmed with bole-armoniac and vinegar is accounted a specific , if applied to the forehead and temples , smelt to , or thrust up , into the nostrils ; by which means i knew a noble german , cured of a desperate bleeding at the nose . rodoric a castro , and zacutus commend asses-dung , used in the same manner , the powder of mans blood dried , and snails burnt with the shells , and frogs burnt , and blown up into the nostrils , is by some no less esteemed . pereda tells us of his curing an old woman that had bled for three days , with only thrusting up mint into her nostrils . the juice of nettles either taken inwardly , or applied to the nostrils , or else nettles bruifed and laid to the forehead by a specific quality , stop bleeding . lastly , riverius applauds for a present remedy , spikenard finely powdered , and one dram given in broth , plantain , or other proper liquor , which not only by a specific quality , but by strengthening the liver stops blood. observation lxiv . the french pox. a certain captain about sixty years of age , complained of a very dry cough , which had troubled him for two or three months together , with some difficulty of breathing , and a very great pain in his chest ; he had eaten very little in two months , his stomack was so bad , which had reduced him to a very low and weak condition , though he did not keep his bed ; his head and shoulders aked extreamely , but cheifly in the night , he had a pain in his loins , he made water very often , but very little ; and when he had need he must do it presently ; for he could not hold his water , sometimes his urin was very sharp , and pain'd him in passing through ; besides that , it died his shirt of a safforn or reddish colour , more then this he had found himself impotent for a whole year together . by these signs i judged him to be troubled with the french disease ; more especially because he confess'd he had been a long time troubled with a gonorrhea , which an unskilful chyrurgeon had stopped without any preceding purgation , which occasioned these symptoms , that every day increased . he had also been pepper'd with the distemper , about ten years before ; and was known to be a common frequenter of leud company . as for the inward pain of his chest and dry cough , i knew they proceeded from his immoderate taking tobacco , sometimes fifty , and when he took least , thirty pipes a day . first therefore i prescribed him a proper diet : and among other things enjoyned him to leave off his excessive taking tobacco , allowing him three or four pipes a day , for fear the total forsaking of an inveterate custom might do him an injury , then for his cough and the pain in his breast i prescribed him the following emplaster to be laid over all his chest , which in a short time first abated , and then perfectly cured his cough , and difficulty of breathing , to a wonder ; ℞ . castor , the best saffron , nutmegs , cloves , storax , calam. bezoin an . ℈ j. s. reduce them to a fine powder ; and mix therewith g●…m armoniac , galbanum dissolved in wine , emplaster of meltlot , oxycroceum , an . ʒ v. make a plaister to be spread upon a thin peice of leather . before i laid on this plaister , i purg'd his body . the next day , being the twenty second of november , i prescribed him this decoction , to take every morning a good draught , and sweat a little , and in the evening to take another draught , but because he was so weak , no sweating was expected . ℞ . lig. guaiacum . ℥ xii . bark of the same , salsaperil . an . ℥ iij. sassafrass-wood , licorice sticed an . ℥ j. s. common-water lb. xii . macerate them near the fire twenty four hours . then boyl them in a vessel close shut to lb. v. roots of elecampane ℥ j. carduus benediot . m. ij . rosemary , scordium , baum , germander , groud-ivy , marjoram , centaury the less an . m. j. stoned raisons of the sun. ℥ vj. make a decoction . the twenty eight of november he was purg'd again , and he took the same decoction again , adding ℥ j. s. of china-root ; but he sweat with a great difficulty , and very little , because of the extremity of the cold weather . by the fifth of december , the pains in his shoulders and head were much abated , so that he slept quietly at nights , and felt himself much better , however the sharpness of his urine still continued , and a slight gonorrhea ; where we went on as we begun ; for his cough and weakness of his stomach , i prescribed him this tablet . ℞ . dry root of elecampane ʒ j. english saffron ℈ . s. calamus aromaticus , florence-orrice , benzoyn an . ℈ j. flower of sulphur ℈ ij . sliced licorice ℈ j. s. reduce them in a very fine powder ; and with fine white sugar dissolved in fennel-water make them into tablets . the tenth of december , he purged with our antipestilential pills : for his body was soon moved . the seventeenth of december , he took decoction again , which made him sweat plentifully , because perhaps the long use of the decoction had made nature more prone to sweat ; and now all the symptoms began to vanish by degrees , his appetite returned , and in regard the patient felt no more pain , we forbore any more physic ; and thus by this easiy course , the gentleman was perfectly freed from that detestable disease . but his genitals had contracted such a debility from a long continu'd gonorrhea , that his venereal abilities were quite decayed , nor could be restored by any provocatives whatever . the year following . in feburary returning to his wonted excess of taking tobacco , the pain in his breast , his dry cough , and difficulty of breathing likewise returned , which by his abstaining from tobacco , and the application of the foresaid emplaster were again absolutely removed . observation lxv . a diarrhaea . a dutch gentleman having drank in the evening too large a quantity of new wine , all that night was tormented with violent pains in his belly ; the next day he was taken with a loosness , which seemed at first to give him some ease ; but afterwards increasing within two days was changed into a dysentery ; then the gentleman , afraid of his life , sent for me ; i presently gave him the following purge ; ℞ . the best rubarb ʒij . leaves of senna cleans'd ʒiij . myrobolan cheb . ʒij . seeds of anise ℈ ij . decoction of barley . q. s. make an infusion . to the straining add syrup of succory with rubarb ℥ j. mix them for a draught . this brought away much choleric matter , and strangely eased the gripes of his belly ; the next evening i gave him the following sudorific , which caused him to sweat much that night afterwards he sweat quietly , and both the pain and the flux ceased , and his former health returned . ℞ . treacle of andromachus ʒj . philonium romanum ℈ j. of our treacle-water , stone-parsly-water an . ℥ j. mix them for a potion . annotations . must or new wine , as diascorides and galen testifie is difficulty concocted , and begets wind. hence crudities , oppilations of the bowels , and griping of the guts . many times the excessive drinking of it causes a suppression of urine , as it befel my self once in france . sometimes it begets cholic pains ; sometimes it causes a dysentery , as it happen'd to our patient . hence it happens that our germans little accustom'd to must , when they go into france and swill it too immoderately , are troubled with diarrheas dangerous and many times mortal dysenteries , especially such as had eaten great plenty of grapes before . observation lxvi . an uterine suffocation . joan segers a widow , in the flower of her age , left with child by her husband , that dyed some months before , was delivered of a son in august . this woman during her month having been too busie about her house , in the third week was taken with an uterine suffocation ; so that she thought her matrix ascended up to her throat ; and this suffocation was accompanyed with murmuring and pains of the belly and sides . the woman had not slept in three whole days and nights , nor could she either sit or lye still in a place for a quarter of an hour . i conjectur'd that these suffocations proceeded from wind or cold receiv'd into her body through her womb. in the evening therefore i gave her the following potion , which caus'd her to sleep a little , and put off the greatest part of the symptoms . ℞ . flowers of cammomil . m. s. lovage seed . ʒj . s. wild carot seed ʒ . s. white-wine q. s. let them boyl a little . ℞ . of the straining , ℥ ij . roman philonium , mithridate of damoc , an . ʒ s. oyl of amber distilled by descent drop , ix . mix them for a potion , the next day , though she was much better , yet because the symptoms were not absolutely ceas'd , and for that she had not gone to stool in three days , i gave her a gentle purge ; which done , this emplaster was laid to her navel . ℞ . castor pulveriz'd , benzoyn an . ℈ j. s. galbanum dissolved in vinegar , tacamahacca , an . ʒij . s. mix them , and spread them upon a peice of leather of a hands breadth . in the evening going to bed she took ℈ ij . of amber powdered with a little wine : she slept quietly , and heard no more of her symptoms . annotations . erotis in a suffocation and dislocation of the womb , commends the root of lovage boyl'd and bruis'd with hogs-grease , and laid to the navel ; but i believe the raw root bruis'd to be better . mercatus recommends tacamahacca or caranna alone ; or an emplaster of great treacle , angelica and agnus castus seed . montagnana extols for a great secret , and a present remedy , the following emplaster laid upon the navel : ℞ . mugwort , feverfew , lignum aloes , an . ℈ . s. galbanum , ammoniac dissolv'd in vinegar an . ʒj . s. wax , q. s. for a plaister . but he more highly applauds the following emplaster . ℞ . galbanum dissolved in vinegar , ℥ j soft and whitish bedellium ʒij . powder of feverfew ʒj . s. myrrh . ℈ j. mix them for a plaister . forestus affirms that a plaister of galbanum alone has done miracles : but that he had found by daily experience the extraordinary benefit of the following magisterial emplaster , which he spreads upon leather , edg'd about with galbanum , to make it stick the better . ℞ . gallia moscata , alipta moscata , storax calam. pure laudanum , mastic , an . ℥ . lignum aloes , xylobalsamum , galangal , cyperus carpobalsamum , an . ʒiij red roses ʒj . s. new wax lb. s. turpentine , q. s. make a plaister according to art. observation lxvii . a burstenness in the groin , with a gangrene . thomas adeler , an english trooper , about sixty years of age , had had a burstenness in his left groin for many years . in the year . in september , the gut which fell down into the burstenness , being distended with a great quantity of wind , hapned to break , so that the ordure fell down into the void space of the burstenness . this presently caused a gangrene of the part , with an intollerable stench ; by which means , the part being putrified and broken , the ordure of the belly came forth at that hole , never at the fundament . being sent for , though i thought him incurable , yet i ordered spirit of wine , with mel rosatum , and oyntment egyptiacum , to be applied to the part ; till the gangrenous parts were separated from the sound parts . then we found that the gut was not only broken , but quite broken off the one part from the other , and that the upper part hung out , and gave passage to the excrement . the end of this intestine afterwards grew fleshy , and acquired a kind of a fleshy ring , and this ring cleaved afterwards so fast to the neighbouring flesh ; so that for the future , the intestine remained always fix'd and open in that part , and gave passage to the excrement : so that we ordered him to carry a little brass pot , so ordered and hung , as to give him the least trouble that might be ; and thus , in all other parts sound and healthy , he walk'd abroad where-ever he pleased ; and in nine years , that he was forced to carry about him that troublesome burthen , he was never sick . annotations . this is a tare and remarkable example . i never thought before that a broken gut could grow to the adjoyning flesh in the groyn , till i was a witness of it in this patient . true it is , that if a gut happen to break among the fleshy muscles of the abdomen , such a coalition may sometimes happen , as plater observes : a certain captain , says he , being wounded in his belly , voided his excrements through a pipe which was left there after the wound was cured , and was for many years afterward alive and well . the cause of which , when i examined , i found that wounds of the guts , if they seem to trace the fleshy portions of the muscles of the abdomen , after the lips of the wounds of the guts and muscly flesh are glutinated on both sides , there may be a passage made for the excrement to come forth , and be prevented from falling into the cavity of the abdomen ; and that those wounds , although they cannot be consolidated , yet they are not mortal ; which though very seldom happens , sometimes in other parts , as in the bladder . iohn hornung , also a physician of heydenheim , tells a story of a country man , whose right gut , upon a wound in the abdomen , came forth , opened with a broad wound ; nor was it put back by the chyrurgeon , but the wound of the abdomen being cured , hung out as long as the man lived , retaining its natural colour , yet somewhat more thick and more fleshy ; and through this passage it was that the excrement came always forth with an extraordinary stench , forsaking the common road of the fundament . observation . lxviii . a pining consumption , caused by a vitiated stomach . monsieur de nassau , a captain of horse , in the flower of his age , in the year . during the siege of breda , in september , as he lay in his bed all in a sweat , hearing some troops of horse march by his window , leap'd out of his bed , opened his casement , and stood looking out for some time ; and by that time became suddenly overcool'd by a north wind , at that time cold and tempestuous , fell into a violent distemper . presently he complained of an extraordinary griping in his belly about the region of his stomach ; he had also withal , a slight fever , with a violent cough , which brought up much clammy , flegmatick , ill-coloured matter , yet without any pain in his breast . several of the most eminent physicians were sent for , who by his spittle , his cough , and other symptoms , concluded that his disease was a real consumption , and that incurable , and told the prince of orange that he would suddenly dye . as for the pain in his belly , those they unanimously agreed to be the cholic passion , caused by the suddain cold. to asswage this pain , which they call'd the cholic , they used several remedies for a long time , which gave ease sometimes , but never cur'd , which they affirmed was impossible to be done . to abate his cough , they made him an issue in his left-arm , and gave him the following apozeme to take for many weeks ; ℞ . china roots the best ℥ j. leaves of scabious , colts-foot , betony , pim●…ernel , plantain , an . m. j. cordial flowers , an one small handful , ston'd raisins ℥ j. licorice shav'd ʒij . anise-seed ℈ iiij . boil them in barley water of the second decoction , q. s. to lb ij . for an apozeme . for an ordinary looch , they gave him equal parts of syrup of poppy and cumfrey . also they prescribed him a cold diatragacanth in tablets ; and to loosen his belly , they gave him this small potion . ℞ . rhubarb choice ʒj . yellow saunders ℈ s. decoction of barley ℥ iij. infuse them all night , and to the straining add manna of calabria ℥ s. for a potion . this gave him one or two stools . now , when they had had the gentleman two months and a half , and all their physick did no good ; insomuch that the gentleman was reduced to skin and bone , and his strength every day more and more decay'd ; they would give him no more physic , but gave him over for incurable . then i was thought of , and the gentleman was brought from breda to nimeghen in a man of war. the gentleman gave me a full accompt of his distemper , and what had been done to him , and shewed me the receits that had been prescribed him , and which he had taken : so that when i had considered all things , i could not be of those physicians opinion . for by his spittle and cough , he shewed no signs of a consumption , for though he brought up tough and ill-coloured stuff , yet neither was it matter nor blood. the pain of his stomach was no cholic , as being fixed in his stomach , and not accompanied with wind ; but twitching the ventricle with extream pains , by intervals , not wandring through the guts . therefore i judged the cause of this pain to be a salt flegm , caused by the first sudden refrigeration , and adhering to the ventricles of the stomach , which fermenting at intervals through the afflux of choler , or sharp rhume , caused those cruel gripings . other things also shewed the stomach to be offended , as loss of appetite , inclination to vomit , troublesome belches , crudities , &c. the cough i looked upon , as caused by defluctions falling upon the lungs , which were continually fed by the crude vapors carried from the ill affected stomach to the head , and thence falling down again upon the breast ; the gentleman thus satisfied with my conjectures , in order to the cure , upon the twenty sixth of november , i laid him on upon his head , a cap or quilt of cephalic herbs , and other hot ingredients , which he wore all that winter . i ordered him a warning and attenuating diet , meats of good juice , and easie of digestion ; to which diet , i left him wholly , without giving him any other physic , for three or four days , because of his extraordinary weakness . within a few days , his stinking and ill-coloured spittle , his brain being corroborated by the help of the quilt , and his defluxions ceasing , became white and of its natural consistence , and neither so much nor so clammy as before . the thirtieth of november , the pains of his stomach began to gripe him , not extending themselves beyond the region of the stomach , yet so terrible , that they seemed to surpass the pains of child-bed . to asswage this pain , i gave him one dram of our anticholic electuary , by five a clock in the morning , and again , at eleven at noon ; but this would not stir the pain . thereupon i applied to his breast a cere-cloth of storax , benzoin , castor , galbanum , all over the region of his stomach . the first of december , the patient would swallow no physic , only he took a glister that gave him one stool . the next day , he having taken pill . ruffiae , had three stools , but his pain nothing abated , so that his strength being extreamly wasted by the violence thereof , we were forced to narcotics ; of which , i made choice of the hotest , by its heat to strengthen the stomach , and digest and cut the clammy cold humors , and by its narcotic faculty to asswage the pain . to which purpose , i gave him about night one dram of philonium romanum , prepared with euphorbium , which allay'd the pains within three hours . the third of december , he took several times that day a small quantity of the following conditement ; ℞ . specier . diamosch . diambra , an . ℈ j. s. diagalanga ℈ j. roots of calamus aromaticus condited , conserve of anthos , an . ℥ s. preserved nutmegs ʒij . confection of alkermes ℈ ●…j . syrup of limon q. s. oyl of cinnamon gutt . ij . for a conditement . about night his pains began to return again , but not with that vehemency . the next day , taking pill . ruffiae , he had three stools . toward evening , by his pulse i found him somewhat feverish ; but upon taking this small potion the fever vanished . ℞ . treacle of andromac ʒj . of our treacle-water ℥ j s. oyl of vitriol gutt . vij . for a draught . the fifth of december , the pain in his stomach was very gentle ; his cough and spitting ceased ; but some beginnings of a fever appeared , which upon taking this apozem vanished ; ℞ . succory roots of asparagus , an . ℥ j. of elecampane ℥ s. herbs , endive , centaury the less , roman wormwood , an . m. j. carduus ben. m. s. anise-seed ʒj . s. corrents ℥ ij . orange and citron peels dried , an . ʒiij . boil them in common water q. s. for an apozem , to lbj. s. in the evening i gave him an amigdalate , which caused him to sleep , which was continued for three days , during which time , feeding now and then upon chicken-broth , his strength was somewhat recovered . all this while there was somewhat troubled the patient's stomach , which he could not well express in words , only that something ascended up now and then to his throat ; this spoiled his appetite , and hindred his digestion , and as the patient believed , was that from which the fits derived their original ; therefore to extirpate this malady , i gave him the following antimoniate wine . ℞ . crocus metallorum of our preparation gr . xv . strong french wine ℥ iiij . steep them all night , the next morning strain them through a double brown paper for a draught . he took this potion the twelfth of december , at eight of the clock in the morning : at nine a clock he had an inclination to vomit , but brought up nothing ; but a little after , he brought up some few lumps like glew , and of a greenish colour . about eleven a clock , his anxiety ceasing , he had seventeen watry stools , of a mixed colour , without any gripes ; however , because his strength was much impaired , we refreshed him with cinnamon-water and sugar . in the evening , i gave him a draught of generous wine , with a dram of treacle , and so the next night he slept indifferent well . the next day , he perceived the thing that troubled him in his stomach to be gone , which he never felt more . from that time his stomach began to come to him , and he eat three porringers of broth that day , and digested them well . the following days he was so hungry , that he not only eat three or four times a day , but sometimes at midnight : the two first days he was fed with broths variously prepared ; the third day , be began to eat boil'd chickens , lamb , veal , &c. and sometimes to drink a glass of wine ; the fourth , he came to roasted meats , and so fell to his accustomed diet , and so in a short time he recovered his former strength . observation . lxix . nephritic pains . monsieur bronkherst , lord of werdenburgh , in the flower of his youth , and a great lover of rhenish-wine , was taken the twenty sixth of december , with most cruel nephritic pains , not without some obstruction of his urine . six years before , being troubled with the same pain , he had voided a little stone , but after that he had not had the least touch of the malady , nor so much as voided any gravel . to asswage the pain , i gave him an emollient glister , then prescribed him this mixture . ℞ . oyl of sweet almonds new drawn ℥ iij. s. iuice of limons ʒvj . malmsey-wine ℥ iij. mix them for three doses , to take once in three hours . the following liniment was also laid warm to his loins ; ℞ . oyls of scorpions , lawrel , bitter almonds , an . ℥ s. of cammomil , dill , turpentine , an . ʒij . mix them . toward evening his pains ceased ; in the night , making water freely , he voided a rough unequal stone , about the bigness of a pea. the fourteenth of ianuary , having exposed himself to the cold in vehement weather , his pains returned ; at what time , taking the same mixture again , he voided another stone , and was again freed from his pains . but for the future prevention , i advised him to swallow every other day a pill of transparent aloes , or a bolus of venice turpentine , and sometimes to use fernelius's syrup de althea ; but above all things , to forbear the use of rhenish-wine . annotations . the reason why rhenish-wine engenders the stone , and causes the gout , is the sal tartar , which is more sharp , and four times more abounding in rhenish-wine , than in french or canary , or any other wine ; which tartareous salt , not being well digested in some bodies , is separated from the mass of blood , and with the serum , carried to the kidneys , and so hardens into stones , and being expell'd into the joynts , causes most dreadful torments . for the nature of salts is , by corroding other bodies to reduce them into atoms , and associate to themselves . this corrosion is the cause of the gout ; for while the tartarous salt corrodes the nervous and membranous parts , and endeavours to associate them to its self , those cruel pains are excited , which are mitigated by an afflux of watry humors , for salt dissolv'd with much moisture looses its acrimony . but you 'l say , why does not this salt cause as great pains in the kidneys as in the joynts ? because the most subtle and acrimonious part of it , is dissolved by the continual passage of the urine , and carried away with the urine through the bladder ; but the thick , gravelly and earthly substance remains , which does not offend so much by its acrimony , as by its bulk and roughness . now the reason why the german wines abound with tartar , is , because the very soil of germany it self , where the vines grow , aboundeth with tartar ; nor is there any plant which sucks up the salt and tartarous parts of the earth , more than the vine . and therefore it is , that in many places of moravia , austria , bohemia and hungaria , where the soil is such , that most men are troubled with the gout , or stone in the kidneys and bladder , or both . lastly , that wine engenders the gout , is apparent from hence , for that the forbearance of vvine cures it . of which , the physicians bring many examples ; and m. donatus himself confesses , that he was cured of the gout by leaving off vvine for two years . observation lxx . an extream pain under the sternon-bone . lieutenant more , in the flower of his age , in ianuary , felt a most terrible pain , which extended it self in a right line from the top of the aspera arteria , to the upper orifice of the stomach , all along the sternon-bone , and so cruelly tormented the person , that he could not move himself one way nor other . he neither had any cough or difficulty of breathing ; his lungs and aspera arteria were perfectly free ; nor did his gullet pain him in swallowing ; neither lastly , was there any thing to be seen outwardly . the pain lay under the sternon , where it is fastned to the mediastrinum , or in the membrane annexed to it withinside , which was thus occasioned . the patient , the evening before , had been hard drinking a strong sort of french wine , at a great supper , and with that and a very great fire all the time in the room , had over-heated himself to a great degree . after which , going home at midnight in a sweat , of a suddain by the way , he was taken with a violent cold , for it freezed very hard ; hence the pores being presently shut , the hot and sharp vapors being condensed and congealed , stuck to the inner membrane of the sternon-bone , which almost numb'd that part with the sharpness of the pain , that was still encreasing by the motion of the breast . for the cure of this malady , i loosened his body with a glister , and then prescribed him this sudorific to take warm . ℞ . treacle ℈ iiij . extract of carduus ben. and angelica an . ℈ j. english saffron gr . vj. of treacle-water ℥ ij . oyl of anise gr . iiij . mix them for a potion . upon this he sweat very well , but the pain continued as before . after he had sweat , i applied the following cere-cloth to the place affected . ℞ . powder of castor , cloves , benjamin , saffron , an . ℈ j. galbanum dissolved in wine ℥ s. melilot , oxicroceum ʒiij . mix them and make a cere-cloth to be spread upon leather as long as the part affected , four fingers broad , and anoint the same with oyl of nutmegs distilled . after this cere-cloth had stuck six or seven hours to the part , the pain began to abate very much , so that the patient could move himself with more ease . the next day he took a purge , and had five stools ; which done , after the cere-cloth had stuck on three days , the pain went quite off , and the gentleman went abroad well in health . but afterwards , in february , having over-heated himself with drinking of spanish wine , the same cere-cloth cured him again in three days . observation lxxi . the head-ach . peter ioannis , an ale-brewers servant , a strong fellow , in ianuary , when it freezed very hard , was taken with a terrible pain in his head , otherwise ailing nothing ; by reason of which pain , he could take no rest night nor day , for several days and nights together , which not only caused the loss of his stomach , but also a delirium ; nevertheless , the patient was so obstinate , that he would take no physic , only by much perswasion he would admit of topics . thereupon , for present ease , i prescribed the following fomentation , with which being warm , i ordered his head to be fomented , and napkins four times doubled , and dipt in the fomentation , to be laid all over his head , and to be shifted as they grow cold , and this is to be continued all the night long . ℞ . rosemary , vervain , betony , thyme , an . m. j. marjoram m. j. s. sage m s. flowers of cammomil and melilot an . m. j. of dill and stoechas , an . m. s. seeds of cummin and dill , lawrel berries , an . ℥ s. white-wine q. s. boil them to lb iij. to the straining add spirit of wine ℥ iiij . for a fomentation . the next day the pain was much abated ; but in regard the patient refused all manner of physic , the fomentation was continued for two days , by which time his sleep returned , and the pain went almost all off , only some remainder of pain in his fore-head , a little above his nose , with some obstruction of his nostrils , which proceeding from a tough flegm , closely adhering to the ethmoids-bone ; i prescribed him a sneezing medicine of the juice of the root of betony , which when he had drawn up into his nostrils , first opened with a quill , he voided from his palate and nostrils a great quantity of tough flegm , and so was quite freed from his intollerable pain . annotations . i confess this course of curing , without any evacuation or diversion preceding , was not so safe ; for that the flegmatic humors collected in the brain , and attenuated by the hot fomentation , might have easily fallen upon some noble bowel , not without great danger ; but in regard the great abundance of humors threatned either an apoplexy or a delirium , or a lethargy , and the intensness of the pain , a fever , and for that the patient refused to take any physic , not so much as a glister , nor would suffer blood-letting , i was forced , for the prevention of greater mischiefs , to proceed as i did to topics , remembring the saying of celsus , 't is no matter whether the remedy be safe when there is no other . observation lxxii . the scurvey . agnes alberti , a maid of about twenty four years of age , complained of a dull heavy pain in her left side , under the bastard ribs ; as also of a certain chilliness of her whole spine . she had also certain cold shakings , frequent debilities and fainting fits , which presently went off ; besides , she had certain black and blew spots upon her thighs ; moreover , her teeth were loose , and her gums eaten away , she had an ill smelling . by these signs , i judged her to have the scurvy . but in regard it was in the midst of a hard frosty winter , when no proper herbs were to be got , and because the extremity of the cold would not permit of purgation , i only prescribed her this following electuary , to take of it the quantity of a nutmeg three times a day , and all the while to observe a good diet ; ℞ . specier . diambrae , of aromaticum rosatum , seed of bishops-weed and parsley , an . ℈ ij . nasturtium , cremor tartar , an . ʒiij . choice cinnamon ʒj . sal prunella ℈ j. reduce them into a very sine powder . then , ℞ . long fat raisins q. s. boil them in wine till they are soft , and strain the pulp through a hair sieve . ℞ . of this pulp lbs. and mix the whole powder with it , together ▪ with oyl of anise and iuniper , an ℈ j. syrup of limons q. s. for an electuary . i would willingly have mixed some bitter things , but she had an aversion to them . i advised her also , if there were any winter scurvy-grass or nasturtium to be got , to steep those herbs in small ale or wine , and then to boil them gently , and to take that decoction , deferring the rest of the cure till april ; in the mean time , to fix and fasten her teeth , i prescribed the following alum-water . ℞ . powder alum , ʒj . common vvater ℥ vj. cinnamon-water ℥ j. mix them to wash the mouth . after she had made use of these things a while , she felt a great ease , and the spots of her thighs vanished . the twenty sixth of april , the following apozem was prepared for her ; of which , after she had taken three or four times , and purged her body twice , she was quite freed from her distemper . ℞ . pylypody of the oak , rind of caper-roots , an . ℥ j. roots of fennel , eryngos , stone-parsley , elecampane , an . ℥ s. fumary , dodder , lesser centaury , the whole dandelyon , an . m. j. roman vvormwood , flowers of elder , an . m. s. seeds of parsley , anise , fennel , nasturtium , an . ʒj . s. currants ℥ ij . rhenish tartar ℥ j. common vvater , q. s. boil them according to art , adding at the end , root of wild raddish ℥ j. herbs , scurvy-grass , vvater-nasturtium , brook-lime , an . m. j. to make an apozem of lb ji . annotations . many believe the scurvy to be of the number of those new diseases , which dodoneus writes were first known in brabant , in the year , though epidemic for some years before ; among the belgians , danes , and other northern regions . however , hippocrates describes a certain disease call'd the bloody volvulus , very like the scurvy , if not in all things , yet in most , as a stinking mouth , starting of the gums from the teeth , bleeding at the nose , ulcers upon the thighs , some going off , others newly come , the skin emaciated and black , sloathfulness , and inability to work or walk . pliny describes this disease by the name of sceleturbe , where he says , that there was a new disease in germanicus's camp beyond the rhine , which caus'd shedding of teeth , and loosned the joynts of the knees . but that there was a root which was found out for it , which was called britannica , good for the nerves and maladies of the mouth , having a long leaf and a black root . for as in the french disease , guaiacum , sassaperil , and some few other things are specific ; so has this disease certain proper antidotes , as spoon-wort , the nasturtiums , brook-lime , fumitory , wild radish , &c. with some other bitter things that are not purgative . observation lxxiii . a weakness of the stomach . captain de gone , about fifty years of age , for some weeks had been troubled with a weakness of his stomach , which had both lost its appetite and concoction , accompanied with troublesome belches , and a nauceousness . after i had prescribed him a proper diet to cleanse his stomach from crudities and cold and viscous humors , i prescribed him this apozeme , to take at four times , four mornings together ; ℞ . roots of elecampane , mecoacan , fennel , an . ℥ s. calamus aromat . galangale , an . ʒij . herbs , mint , rosemary , nipp , marjoram , lesser centaury , an . m. j. wormwood , baum , hyssop , an . m. s. seed of carthamum ℥ j. of fennel , caroways , an . ʒij . raisins stoned ℥ ij . common water q. s. boil them , and add toward the end , white agaric ʒij . leaves of senna cleansed , ℥ j. s. anise-seed ʒv . this gave him three or four stools a day ; so that after he had thus purged , i ordered him to take an hour before dinner and supper , a dose of this powder in a draught of generous wine . ℞ . root of calamus arom . specier . diagalangae , diambra , an . ʒj . s. mace , choice cinnamon , ginger , an . ʒj . make a powder to be divided into ten equal doses . i advised him also in a morning , to drink a draught of wormwood-wine , and these few means restored his stomach to its former strength . annotations . in cold distempers of the stomach , besides those already mentioned , observation . . there are several others which are highly commended by physitians . some extol the use of turpentine , and call it the true balsam of the bowels , in regard it gently heats , purges and cleanses the bowels . zechius highly commends this bolus , and says there is nothing better can be used . ℞ . clear turpentine ʒj . mastich powdered ʒs . powder of aromaticum rosatum ℈ s. make a bolus to be given two hours before meat . some there are that boil up turpentine into the form of pills , but erroneously ; for that the more effectual vertue of the turpentine exhales in boiling . balsam of perue is an admirable thing to strengthen the stomach ; if you take some few drops of it in strong wine before meat . crollius commends his elixir proprietatis : hartman and others prefer zedoary before all other things . the decoctions of guaiacum and sassafras are very good . distilled oils also are very proper , of cloves , anise , carroways , cinnamon , nutmegs , and the like , given in some few drops of strong wine . the following digestive powder is also very much used to help concoction . ℞ . coriander prepared ℥ j. sweet fennel-seed and aniseseed , an . ʒij . cinnamon , cloves , an . ʒs . sugar ℥ iij. reduce them into powder ; the dose one spoonful after meals . wormwood also taken any way is very much commended , as galen testifies , who cured a woman that had lost her stomach , and so weak , that she could get no food down , with only wormwood-wine . therefore , says montagna , among medicines which strengthen the appetite and digestion , and open the obstructions thereof , and cleanse away and dries up the matters therein contained , wormwood is the most famous : and all wormwood medicines , whether julebs or confections . langius's electuary is also very proper in such cases . ℞ . conserve of roses ℥ ij . s. rosemary flowers ℥ j. lavender flowers ℥ s. galangale , cubebs , xyloaloes an . ℈ j. aniseed ʒs . cinnamon ʒj . calamus aromaticus ʒij . ginger condided ℥ s. pine apples prepared ʒvj . make these into an electuary with syrup of preserved citron . i restored a lost appetite , and a stomach overwhelmed with crudities by the use of this powder . ℞ . roots of zedoary , galangale , calamus aromat . an . ʒj . vvhite ginger ʒs . cinnamon ℈ ij . cremor tartar ʒij . make a powder , the dose ʒs . or ℈ ij . in the morning , after dinner and supper in a draught of generous vvine . monsieur de spieck generally made use of this ; ℞ . root of calam. aromatic . vvhite ginger , galangale , an . ʒj . for a powder . but these kind of stomachical electuaries , powders , tablets , &c. every physician ought to prescribe according to the disposition of the patient . horstius makes use of this powder . ℞ . coriander-seed prepared ℥ j. s. anise , fennel-seed , an . ℥ s. ginger , galangale , an . ʒj . s. lignum , aloes ʒs . cinnamon ʒj . fine sugar , the weight of all the rest , for a powder . observation lxxiv . the stone . rutger schorer , a little boy , had a small stone which fell down into his bladder , with extraordinary pain , but being afterwards expelled into the passage of the yard , because it was too big to pass , it stuck in the middle of the pipe , and stopped the urine . several ways were tried in vain to get it out , so that at length , to add to the pain , there appeared an inflammation of the part ; by which we found that there was no way but incision to get it forth . wherefore , after the chyrurgeon had pulled up the skin somewhat toward the glans , he opened the ureter on that side where the stone stopped , and took out the stone , and so the wound was presently consolidated , without any hurt to the child . annotations . this sort of operation , mentioned by aetius , grumelenus and paraeus , seems difficult and dangerous , but yet is very secure . plato also recites two examples of stones cut out of the ureter . and though some are afraid of a fistula upon such a wound , yet i never knew any such consequence ▪ observation lxxv . nephritic pain . the son of lieutenant st. george , about eighteen years of age , who had been always troubled with gravel from his infancy , and had often voided little stones , in ianuary , was so tormented with a stone that stuck in both ureters , that he knew not where to turn himself : for cure i prescribed him this apozem , ℞ . roots of fennel , saxifrage , an . ℥ s. licorice scraped ʒvj . herbs , althea , mallows , an . m. j. cammomil flowers , m. j. s. cleansed barley ℥ j. seeds of wild carrots , mallows , nettles , burdock , an . ʒj . four greater cold-seeds , an . ʒj . s. fat figs n o ix . dates xi . new milk , common vvater equal parts . biol them and make an apozem to lbiij . this being taken the same , and the next day , the pain ceased , after he had voided a small stone and much gravel . the next month he was troubled with the same pains , but then , by taking the said decoction , the stone was easily brought down through the ureters into the bladder ; but then , when it came into the yard , it was so big it could not pass , but obstructed the urine with most cruel torture , which the father not being able to bear , there being no chyrurgeon to be sent for , with a razor , made a small wound underneath the urinary passage , where the stone stuck ; which done , the stone spurted out , and the urine followed in great quantity . the wound was consolidated afterwards , sooner than we imagined , with the application of a few plaisters . observation lxxvi . milk in a virgin 's breast . a certain noble young lady , about twenty years of age , a virgin of eminent chastity , in the month of february , complained of a pain in her right breast , which was also full of milk. when i had diligently examined the place affected , i felt a hardness in the middle of the breast , about the bigness of a pidgeons-egg , which pained her upon compression : i also understood from her self that her purgations had been suppressed for four months together . in order to the cure , i prescribed her first a convenient attenuating diet ; then , after i had purged her body , i gave her some apozems to move her evacuations , and three or four days before the time of the period , i opened a vein in the heal , by which means , the evacuation succesfully ensued , which having continued three or four days , the swelling in her breast fell down , nor did any more milk come forth . however , in regard the hardness remained with some pain , i laid this oyntment spread upon linnen , upon the place affected , shifting it once a day ; ℞ . honey , populeon oyntment , virgins wax , an . ℥ j. first melt the wax , then mix the rest , and stir them with a spatula till they are cold . this topic very much abated , and within four days the hardness came to suppuration . after the apostem was broken , and had cast forth much white matter , within a few days the same topic cured her . annotations . certainly had not this lady been a person eminent for her chastity , she might easily have incur●…ed the scandal of lost virginity among the vulgar . for rational physicians will not deny , but that upon menstruous obstructions , milk may sometimes be generated in the breasts of virgins . for , says hippocrates , if a woman , that neither is with child , nor ever brought forth , has milk , that woman labours under a suppression of her courses . and i remember the same case in a young lady of montfort , whose chastity was above the reach of scandal , who was cured upon the forcing down her purgations : to which purpose , bartholin thus writes , even in virgins , many times milk may be generated , if the breasts are full of sperituous blood , and that there happen withal a menstruous suppression , in regard the glandulous substance concocts more than is necessary for the nourishment of the vvoman . but 't is no wonder that such things should happen in young virgins that have their flowers , when it is known that the same thing happens to old women . for bodin reports a story of an infant , that sucking a dry old woman upon the death of her mother , at length drew milk out of her breasts , and was nourished with it to sufficiency . nay , i have seen milk more than once milked out of the breasts of infants not above two years old ; which is also attested by cardan and camerarius . but more wonderful it is , that milk should be generated in the breasts of men ; as aristotle testifies of a certain lemmian slave ; and abensina , who saw milk milked from the breasts of a woman , enough to make a cheese . several other stories also there are in several other authors , of men giving milk , too tedious to relate . observation lxxvii . epileptic convulsions . a little son of iohn ab udem , an infant of seven months old , was twitched with epileptic convulsions , almost , without intermission , for two days together , so that nothing but death was expected . the third day i was sent for , presently i ordered this quilt to be prepared and laid upon his head. ℞ . leaves of marjoram , vervain , rosemary , flowers of melilot , an . one small handful , nutmegs ℈ j. s. cloves ℈ j. make a gross powder to be quilted up in red silk . after this had lain four or five hours upon his head , the convulsions ceased by degrees , and within twelve hours vanished quite , to the admiration of all , that the child should be so soon freed from so desperate a distemper . annotations . in regard the brains of children are very moist , and that thence arise many watry and flegmatic vapors ; nature , for their more easie evacuation , leaves the skull open for some time at the top of the head. but as this opening gives an easie exit to the vapors , so if the head be not well covered , to prevent the entrance of the external , cold then upon shutting the pores , and the refrigeration and weakning of the brain , the vapors being detained therein , condense into a tough slime in the ventricles of the brain ; which burthen , when nature cannot throw off , thence arises epileptic convulsions , which procure the death of many infants . or if they scape with life , they either become changlings , or retain some other terrible misfortune as long as they live ; as some paralytic member , blindness of one eye , &c. however this diistemper differs from a true epilesie , in regard the convulsions in this malady are less vehement , though more frequent and of longer continuance : besides , that these convulsions proceed from abundance of humors , and weakness of concoction an●… expulsion in the brain ; but the true epileptic , from the malignity and the envenomness of the humors . nevertheless it has been known when the humors so collected in the brain , if the distemper have continued long , by degrees have acquired a malignant quality , and indeed a malignant quality into the brain and meninxes , and then these convulsions become the most grievous of all epilepsies . the cure of this distemper consists chiefly in corroborating and warming the brain , to the end the pores may be opened , and the vapors have free exit ; which being done in time , i have known many that have escaped the distemper . some endeavour an evacuation of the flegm at the nose and mouth , by thrusting up oyl of amber and rosemary into the nostrils . but when the brain is become so weak through the extraordinary quantity of flegm that overlays it , that it cannot contract it self , that way of cure does little good , or rather more harm ▪ as causing stronger convulsions , while the enfebled brain is forced to more vehement expulsion . therefore it is much more expedient to warm and corroborate the brain , and by that means to promote the concoction of the crude humors , and to evacuate the vapors through the brain , not yet consolidated : which done , the brain is sufficiently able to concoct and dissipate the rest of the slime which adheres to the ventricles , and to expel it through the passages appointed for that evacuation . to which purpose i have often found a quilt lay'd upon the top of the head , to be very prevalent ; for it answers all expectations , it warms and corroborates the brain , it opens the pores , and powerfully promotes the concoction and dissipation of the crude humors . sometimes before i lay on the quilt , i anoint the top of the head with a drop or two of oyl of marjoram . sometimes i order the patient to take a spoonfull or two of the water of the flowers of lilly of the valley , and syrup of stoechas , two parts of the first , and one of the latter . i have also observed , that if infants wear these quilts till their heads are firmly consolidated , they are not only free from this , but many other maladies of a cold brain . nicholaus fontanus ▪ in this case highly extols childrens urine , and tells a story of a patient to whom he gave three glysters with success , of the decoction of proper herbs boiled in urine , and then gave him to take , a syrup of childs urine , made up with various cephalics . observation . lxxviii . an intermitting tertian ague . joseph wenties , a young man , in the beginning of march , was taken with an intermitting tertian fever , which seized him with an extraordinary shaking , and went off with a violent sweat : within a months space he had made use of a hundred several remedies of old women and mountebanks , purges , vomits , and topics to his wrists , not forbearing charms and amulets to hang about his neck ; all which were so far from abating the fever , that after the beginning of april , it grew stronger every day than other . upon the seventeenth of april i was sent for ; i found the patient very weak , his stomach quite gone , and so lean , that his skin could hardly cover his bones . he had taken a vomit the day before , and therefore i thought it not proper to purge him any more . wherefore , after i had prescribed him a proper diet , i gave him an opening and refrigerating apozeme , which he drank three days together , but without any benefit . thereupon i ordered the following mixture for a bag to be hung up in a vessel of white-wine . ℞ . leaves of carduus benedict . lesser centaury , vvormwood , an . two small handfuls , lucid aloes , ℈ ij . cut the herbs small , and bind them together in a bag to be hung in 〈◊〉 v. of white-wine , and sometimes to be squeezed out . of this bitter wine he drank a draught of ℥ iiij . or v. the first day twice , but afterwards once a day ; this gently purged him , and brought the distemper to a simple ague ; and then it abated every day ; and this drink being continued , in a short time went quite off leaving the patient restored to a very good stomach . observation lxxix . a bastard intermitting tertian . the lady of nassaw , in the flower of her age , but lean and squeamish , was seized by an intermitting tertian , that came every other day , but no certain hours , sometimes latter , sometimes sooner , accompanied with pain in the head , nauseating , anxiety of heart , and seizing with an extraordinary shaking , but going off with a violent sweat ; her stomach was gone and she slept very little ; and in regard she was very thirsty , she would drink six or eight pints of water during her fit. upon the twenty fifth of april , at the beginning of her cold fit i was sent for , at what time to make her sweat the sooner , i prescribed her this draught . ℞ . salt of wormwood , extract of carduus ben. confection of hyacinth , an . ʒj . treacle water , ℥ j. mix them for a draught . the next day , not willing to a purge , she took a glister only , which gave her two stools ; after which , she took no more physic for four days . may the first , i prescribed her a refrigerating and opening apozem , which she drank up in two days ; her ague still continuing in the same state ; thereupon because she abhorred the taste of physic , i gave her the following vomit which when she took , she thought she had drank wine . ℞ . crocus metallorum , gr . xvi . white french vvine ℥ iiij . or v. steep them all night , and the next day strain them through brown paper . this draught she took the sixth of may in the morning , about nine she began to vomit , without much trouble at first ; but at length she brought up a whole chamber-pot full of yellow green choler , mixt with a tough and flegmatic slime : and her vomiting ceasing , she had also two or three stools : but still the ague continued in the same condition ; but then i prescribed her a magisterial wormwood-wine in this manner . ℞ . carduus benedict . lesser centaury , vvormwood an . two small handfuls lucid aloes , ʒj . cut the herbs small and hang the mixture in a long bag in a glass vessel filled with 〈◊〉 viij . of small white french or rhenish wine of this wine she drank four ounces morning and evening for the first two days , but afterwards , because it gave her three or four stools a day , no more then only once a day , that is to say in the morning ; the fourth day , through the use of this wine the ague became simple , much milder and shorter , and from that time abating by degrees , upon the eighth day left her quite ; however for more certainty i ordered her to continue the wine for four days longer , which gave her two stools a day : and thus both her appetite , and her sleep returned , and she recovered her lost strength in a few days . annotations . at this time intermitting bastard agues were very rise about nimeghen and the neighbouring parts , obstinate and of long continuance , in some simple , in others double . physic seldom cur'd them , ordinary helps nothing avail'd ; not would blood-letting do any good . some felt a slight pain in the right hypochondrium : some vomited great store of choler of their own accord : some were troubled with head-aches , others with anxiety of heart ; all were very thirsty , during the fit ; very cold and shivering at the beginning but intensely hot at the end . that the cause of this ague proceeded from the excrementitious choler putrifying in the follicle of the gall and neighbouring parts , the very signs , and the fever it self , sufficiently declar'd . somtimes the cause of the disease being evacuated by vomits , the disease ceas'd : sometimes neither vomits nor purges would avail ; for that though they purged away a great quantity of choler , yet they left some remainders of the corrupt choler behind , to which new humors flowing were infected with the same corruption . blood-letting nothing profited , because the seat of the distemper lay neither in the veins or blood. refrigerating medicaments could not subdue the choler , because they could hardly reach thither , in regard the follicle attracts that one which is most bitter and hottest in the blood. upon these considerations i thought that the cure of this disease required some cleansing , opening , bitter and moderately hot , and that in a thin and liquid substance : that by reason of its liquidness it might be able to penetrate the mesaraic veins more easily , and by reason of its heat and bitterness be more eagerly drawn by the follicle ; and be more effectual to concoct crudities , remove obstructions , resist corruption , cleanse the part affected , and expel noxious and superfluous humers . to answer all which expectations , i thought nothing better then the foregoing wormwood-wine , with which i have cured several without any other remedies . nor let any one wonder that i give wine in fevers contrary to the opinions of all the ancients : for that the ancients meant simple and not medicated wines , seeing that both galen and several others both ancient and neoteric physitians recommends wormwood-wine in agues . some question whether medicaments prepared with wormwood are proper in exquisite and bastard tertians ; trallian allows them in bastard , not in tertian agues ; and with him avicen , oribatus , and amatus of portugal agree . but says galen , if the signs of concoctions appear , then thou mayst safely administer wormwood-wine ; which is otherwise a soveraign preservative of the stomach , when molested by choler . to decide the question therefore i say that wormwood is not less proper in exquisite , then in bastard agues , especially after concoction in regard it potently cleanses choler , and purges as well by st●…ol as urine : for which reason it must of 〈◊〉 abate an ague by removing the evil mat●…er that feeds the distemper : and that therefore the heat and draught of it ought not to be scat'd , especially if it be given with other refrigerating things ; in regard that the choler being remov'd , the heat will cease . observation lxxx . the cholic passion . peter galman , a german merchant , in march , the weather being cold and rainy , had the hap to travel along with me ; at what time not being able to heat our selves by riding the excessive cold brought upon him a most vehement cholic passion ; so that he could no longer sit his horse ; alighting therefore at the first good inn , we came to , we warm'd our selves by a good fire , and apply'd warm cloths to his belly to mitigate the pain ; but the pain increasing more and more , for want of other medicaments , that were not there to be had , i took of common sope and white-wine of each ℥ j. and after i had warmed them very hot over the fire , i added ℥ j. of spirit of wine . in this mixture i dipped a linnen-cloth doubl'd fourfold , about a hands breadth , and apply'd it hot to his navel , and by that only topic freed him from his pain within a quarter of an hour . annotations . besides several remedies against a flatulent cholic to be given inwardly , there are various topics which being outwardly applied are of singular vertue , as we found by this quick and successful experiment . in this case there is an oyl of sope , the extraction of which sennertus teaches us in his institutions , that it is very prevalent , nor is oyl of galbanum less effectual ▪ galbanum also it self dissolv'd in wine or aqua vitae , then mixt with castoreum , and applyed like an emplaster to the navel , as also caranna and tacamahacca dissolved with spirit of turpentine , are of singular efficacy . holler prepares this liniment of civet ; which he says , he has often tryed . ℞ . oyl of rue , nard . an . ʒvi . galbanum dissolved in aqua vitae . ʒiij . melt them together , then add civet gr . iiij . saffron gr . vj. horstius anoynts the navel with treacle mix'd with a little civet . and it is not amiss to apply warm to the belly equal parts of common salt and sand tyed up in a linnen bag. the ophite or serpents stone heated and applyed is also in great esteem among the vulgar . little bags also of flowers of dill , cammomil , melilote , cummin , anise , fennel seed and the like , sprinkl'd with warm wine , or gently boyl'd in wine , and applyed hot to the belly . one thing more i may add concerning sope , which a mount●…bank in france was said to have cured several persons of the wind cho●…ic : his secret was this . ℞ . malmsey wine lb j. spanish sope ℥ s. or ʒvj . and sometimes also an . ℥ . salt ʒij . dissolve these altogether for a glyster . observation lxxxi . an obstruction of the spleen . justin de nassau , a noble youth about six years of age , about the end of april , began to be troubled with an obstruction of his spleen ; which within a fortnight encreased to that degree , that the hard spleen bunched out almost half as big as a mans fist ; when i came i felt the boy 's spleen with my hand , and perceived the child otherwise chearful , then grown melancholy like an elder person ; but in regard he loath'd physic , i only prescribed him a proper diet , and ordered him only ʒ s. of tartar pulverized every morning and evening in a little broth ; i also order'd the following emplaster to be laid upon his spleen , which after it had lain on ten days , and then but once shifted , the hardness vanished , and the obstruction was dissipated ; ℞ . gum ammoniac , galbanum dissolved in vinegar , an . ℥ j. emplaster of melilot , ʒiij . mix them and spread them upon red leather . observation lxxxii . a suffocation of the womb. godefrida ab essem , a woman about thirty years of age , had been troubl'd with an uterin suffocation , for which she had taken in vain several things that had been given her by midwives and other women ; her fits increasing i was sent for , and found her somewhat red in the face , but altogether senseless , only she breath'd and that but very little neither . the woman cry'd out her womb was got up to her throat , which was impossible ; but indeed i felt a certain hardness in the upper region of her stomach , that moved up and down from one side to the other , about the bigness of a mans fist ; therefore because she was not in a condition to swallow any thing , i ordered her temples and the inside of her nostrils to be rubbed with oyl of amber distilled by descent . then i ordered the midwife with her middle finger smear'd with three or four grains of civet , to fret the sides of the matrix within side , while another woman with all her strength forced down the hardness : and thus within a quarter of an hour , the woman after she had ejected a putrid sort of seed , came to her self again , nor had she ever after any more fits. annotations . that sweet odours applyed below draw down the womb , not only the authority of authors , but experience tells us . therefore galen says that perfumes which heat and loosen , do good , because they heat . those that heat , attenuate also and loosen , by which means what is thick , and difficultly moveable is easily purged out through the open pores : moreover that they have a faculty to dispel wind , which is very troublesome in uterine suffocations . aegineta advises the pouring of most odoriferous oyntments i●…to the womb : and aetius would have the womb fumigated with spices that have a faculty of loosning , sweating , and expelling wind. however care is to be had how you hold these sweet odours to the nose , least you encrease the suffocation by oppressing the head. in this case some physitians make use of many sweet scents ; but for my part , i only make use of musk mixt with a little oyl of lillies : and many times order a woman to fret and sitillate the inside of the orifice with musk only , which has produced wonderful effects . frication with the finger alone helps to a miracle , and is , commended by galen , avicen , valesco de tarenta , simon betreino : though indeed there is nothing like present copulation , where it is to be done with allowance ; so that indeed for a woman in the same condition with our patient , there is no such remedy as a husband . thus duretus being call'd to a woman under a hysterical suffocation and finding her in a fit as cold as ice , and her husband by , order'd him to have to do with her , which he did , and the woman presently recovered . observation lxxxiii . an erysipelas , or st. anthony's fire in the thigh . monsieur kelfken , consul of nimeghen , had an erysipelas in his right thigh , with which he had been formerly often troubl'd ; he was threescore years of age , and had a very foul body . he had laid upon the erysipelas linnen rags dipt in vinegar , and water of elder-berry flowers , which somewhat abated the erysipelas , only certain little blisters rose up here and there , as he was wont to have when he used the same vinegar and water before ; upon these blisters after he had prickt them with a needle , he laid a leaf of green tobacco ; but after it had lain on for three or four days the skin was more and more exulcerated , and a certain gangrenous particle began to appear ; upon which the gentleman sent for a chyrurgeon ; who easily cut out that gangrenous part , sticking in the skin ; and then endeavoured with various plaisters , to cure the solution ; anointing the whole thigh , because of the erysipelas with galens refrigerating oyntment , and this course he took for six weeks ; but when he could do no good i was sent for ; i found the patient full of watry and flegmatic humors , which falling salt upon his thigh , caused that continual exulceration : this made him loose of body , and his stomach was indifferent , but he had such an aversion to physic that he would swallow nothing ; when i look'd upon his thigh , i found the plaisters were the cause of the exulceration of the neighbouring parts ; which by reason of their fatness and density they were not able to retain or suck up the salt and sharp humors flowing into them , the humors were forced to flow to the neighbouring parts , which they corroded ; therefore deeming it the best way to perform the cure with cataplasms , which by reason of their softness , might suck and dry up the flowing humors , i prescribed the following cataplasm without any oyliness or fatness . ℞ . pomegranate rinds , flowers of pomegranates , an . ℥ j. leaves of oake , of plantain , egrimony , sanicle , an . mij . pimpernel , flowers of red roses , an . mj. common water , l. iiij boil them to the consumption of half . ℞ . leaves of oake , m. iiij . of egrimony , plantain , an . mj. s. powder them together ; then ada bean flower , ℥ ij . of the said decoction , q. s. boil them a little , and make a cataplasm . this being oftentimes shifted , cured the ulcer ; but about three months after a new defluction fell upon the thigh , causing a large fiery erysipelas ; now unless it were one purge , and one decoction of china , sarsaperil . &c. he would take nothing inwardly ; thereupon the foresaid cataplasm was laid on which did very well for a time ; but then a new defluxion happening with a large erysipelas , the pains encreased , the ulcer enlarg'd it self , and a little after the part gangren'd , and there appeared a blackish gangrenous particle in the outer side of the thigh , about the bigness of a doller ; the chyrurgeon therefore washed the part affected with lukewarm wine , anoynted it with cleansing oyntment of parsley , and laid on the same cataplasm , which caused the gangrenous particles to fall out ; then the ulcer being well cleansed , the cataplasm alone was laid on ; in the mean time for the more convenient evacuation of the humors descending , i would have made an issue in the outer part of the calf of the leg ; but the patient would not permit it . in march , the ulcers being by this time healed , a new sharp defluxion fell down with an erysipelas , which raised a new ulcer as broad as the palm of a mans hand , on both sides the thigh ; the cataplasm would do no good ; both strength and appetite decay'd , and he became so weak that he could hardly go , presently after a gangrene appearing as broad as a mans hand , the patient seemed to be in some danger , as well by reason of the abundance of ill humors in his body , as also because of the great loss of his strength , however the gangrenous ulcers were anoynted with cleansing plaister of parsley , the cataplasm laid on ; for spirit of wine so tormented him that we were forced to leave it off . then he admitted an issue in the calf of his leg , which was made with a potential cautery ; within three or four days the gangrene was much increased in the ulcer , and seized the very place where we had applied the cautens , from which the crust was not yet fallen off ; thereupon the chyrurgeon scarified the cauteriz'd place to the quick , for the more speedy separation of the crust , some bits of which he cut off . the three next days the gangrene encreased more and more , so that in the place of the issue , there was a piece of dead flesh , to be cut out as broad as a dollar , and as deep as my thumb ; the next day the gangrenous parts stunk like putrified carrion , and the gangrene continually encreased , therefore to resist putrefaction and mortification , we rubbed the part affected with spirit of wine , wherein we had first disolved common salt : and laid on tents dipt in the same liquor , and bound up the ulcer three times a day , by which means the stench was taken away in half a day . then that the gangrenous and dead parts might be the sooner seperated by suppurating from the parts adjoyning , and the sound be preserved from corruption , we laid on our own magisterial balsom , which powerfully resisted putrefaction , and promoted suppuration , by which means the gangrenous parts began to fall away : which being taken off , for sometime a disgestive oyntment was laid on , and then the cataplasm alone , by which the ulcers at length were cured , but very slowly ; and the humors afterwards vented themselves out at the issue . observation lxxxiv . an exquisite tertian ague . captain willmot , a strong man , was seized with an exquisite tertian intermitting fever , after the third fit he sent for me ; and upon his well day i gave him a purge that gave him six or seven stools , and brought away much choleric matter ; but hi●… fit returning the next day , with the same violence , he would take no more physic , but by the advice of another captain , applied the following mixture hotb his wrists ; which the other captain told him had expelled agues in three or four days time , so that they never returned . ℞ . vvhite mustard prepared with vinegar , ʒ j. s. black peper , gr . xv . five cloves of garlick , salt , a small handful , chimney soot , sowre leaven , an . ʒiij . beat them together and make a past with a little vinegar of roses . of this apply to each vvrist , a piece about the biggness of a dollar , and let it lye on three days . annotations . our patient , and many others who saw him thus cured , ascrib'd the whole cure to this only topic : but they were mistaken ; in regard that after the purgation , the ague had ceas'd of it self in the same interval of time , without that topic , or the taking of any other physic ; for the patient observ'd an exact dyet , and the ague was an exquisite intermitting tertian ague , which as i have observ'd , never exceeds above the seventh fit , unless any error in dyet be committed . for confirmation of which we have that rule in hippocrates , an exquisite tertian is judg'd at the end of seven fits at most . i have seen a thousand several topics , a thousand times apply'd to wrists , which have avail'd nothing ; or if after their application the agues have either abated , or being cured , it was not to be ascrib'd to those topics but to other causes . i remember i once knew a person that had been long molested with a diuturnal bastard tertian , which when it could not be cured by all the remedies prescrib'd by two physitians , at length by the advice of an old woman , he took ginger , seed of nasturtium and cobwebs kneaded together with a little populeon-oyntment , and laid it to his wrists . this topic being twice or thrice shifted , the ague ceas'd within four days , not through the vertue of the topic , but because the topic was applyed at such a time when nature was endeavouring a crisis by a choleric loosness and evacuation of the belly . which crisis happening the next day after the application of the topic , and lasting two days , freed the patient from the ague by evacuating the matter which fed the ague , though the cure were by the ignorant ascrib'd to the application of the topic. another i knew , to whom an egregious critical vomiting happen'd presently after the application of a topic of the same nature , who was freed from his ague not by vertue of the topic , but by the force of the vomiting . but these follies have invaded some physitians to that degree that they ascribe great vertues to these topics which are but meer whimseys . thus many extol cobwebs , concerning which , says abraham seiler , i have observ'd , that if before the fit comes , you apply cobwebs mixt with populeon to the wrists it has done very much good . these cobwebs others mix after this manner . ℞ . the lesser nettle , sage . an . m. s. cobwebs ℥ s. common salt. ʒiij . strong vinegar one spoonful . mix them for an emplaster to be applyed to the vvrists two hours before the fit comes . the egyptians prepare an oyntment of spiders themselves bruis'd together with their cobwebs , and reduced into the form of a liniment with oyl of roses : or else they boyl spiders in oyl of roses , and clap them warm to the wrists , others prepare this mixture . ℞ . leaves of plantain , celandine the greater an . mj. cobwebs , nettle seed , coimney soot common salt an . ʒj . strong vinegar . q. s. make a cataplasm , to be applyed to the vvrists before the fit , and to be shifted three or four times . plater takes the inner rind of a nut-tree , and after he has steeped it in strong vinegar applys it to the wrists : at the same time he also commends this that follows ; ℞ . leaves of treacle , mustard , plantain , shephearas-purse an . m. s. apply them bruised with salt and vinegar . others commend chimney soot bru●… with nasturtium and the white of a●… ▪ egg : others soot with garlick and onions ; others the fresh leaves of crowfoot bruis'd : others mousear bruis'd with salt and vinegar ; and some prick-madam prepared after the same manner . i knew a woman that applyed to the wrists seed of zedoary bruis'd and mix'd with oyl of turpentine . coetius applies this following topic to the wrists , which he says has cured several ; ℞ . the greater celandine green , feverfew an . m. s. bruise them in a mortar , and then add olibanum powdered ʒ j. sowr leven ʒiij . strong vinegar q. s. make soft past . yet though these things are extolled by many , i cannot conceive by what vertue they perform their work , or how they can do any good . nay the known vertue of the ingredients are sufficient to shew the vanity of them . neither does sennertus seem to give any credit to these topics . is you ask , says he , how these medicaments operate , there can no other reason be given then this ; that the putrid vapours is by these medicaments drawn from the heart ; especially that defilement which corrupts the humors , more especially if any small corruption remain behind , and the ague be in its declination . thus because some raise blisters in the wrists in the cure of agues , therefore all vesicatories may be said to have an ague expelling vertue . but as for cobwebs , plantain , feverfew , olibanum , sage , &c. there never was nor can be given any reason why they should have any such vertue . reiverius however believes that they communicate their vertues through some remarkable arteries running to the wrist ; and by that means may be able to work a cure. whereas the heart expels from it self through the arteries , so that the vertues of topics can hardly ascend through them to the heart ; besides that , this reason does not shew us by what vertue these topics which are so well known can any way prevail . so that unless reverius will fly to the common sanctuary of occult quality , i do not find how he can get out of this labyrinth : therefore my advice is that men abstain from things venemous and corrosive , and endued with such a malignity as may do much hurt : but as for other things that do neither good nor harm , let the physitians prescribe them as they please , not that any cure is to be expected from them , but only to satisfie their patients . observation . lxxxv . a swelling in the face caused by a fall. mary de frist , a young maid , the wagon where she sate being overthrown , fell with a terrible fall upon the left side of her face , presently she vomited extreamly , and lay in a swoon for half an hour ; when she came to her self she vomited blood , but that seemed to have fallen down into her stomach from some vein broken in her nostrils ; half her head swelled extreamly ; so that her eyes were hardly to be seen ; in the exteriour part of the orbit of the eye , there was a small solution of the continuum : and blood came out from the inner corner of the eye , so soon as i saw her to dissipate the contussion and tumors , i ordered this fomentation to be apply'd . ℞ . leaves of betony , flowers of camomil , melilot , red roses , an . m. s. cumin seed , ʒj . shred them and sow them in a little bag : which must be boiled a while in wine and pressed , and then laid on warm . i did not question much a fissure in the skull , for that presently after her vomiting she fell into a swoon ; blood had come out of her eye , and because a very great swelling accompany'd the contusion : therefore after application of the topic , i took out of her right arm half a pint of blood ; about night she had a slight fever with shivering , which upon her taking a sudorific left her , and returned no more . the next day i ordered her a purge , that gave her four stools , two days she continued the foresaid fomentation , repeating it twice or thrice a day . the sixth of iune , the swelling in her face was very much fallen , so that she could open her eye indifferent well ; the fomentation therefore being continued for two days longer , her eye , that was over-spread with a redness and wept much , so that she could not see out of it , had the following collyrium laid all over it , between two linnen-rags , and shifted morning and evening . ℞ . whites of two eggs , beat them with a little alum till they thicken into the form of a hard oyntment ; in which after you have steeped a flake of tow , lay it between two linnen-rags upon the part affected . this collyrium presently took away the redness of the eye ; abated the weeping , and restored her sight ; but the swelling of the face being dissipated , there still remained a deformed redness all over her cheek , which i cured by washing her face three or four times a day with virgins milk ; nevertheless there still remain'd a weeping of the eye , which was very troublesome , i ordered a peice of raw beef , cut from the muscles of the neck , to be laid ●…o the neck of the patient , and so to be bound on , shifting it morning and evening ; which being done for six days , the weeping ceased . and thus was this maid restored to her former health , only that she had a little scar in the outer corner of the eye , next her cheek , in which place , after the cure , it manifestly appeared that the bone was depressed by the fall . observation lxxxvi . the kings evil miraculously cur'd . sir water vane , a captain of horse in our army in his youth had been troubled with the kings-evil , nor could all the art of all the physitians , and chyrurgeons of england , of any remark , do him any good : so that the malady still encreased , thereupon he was advised to go to the king , and to desire his blessing , from which he could only expect a cure ; this favour was easily obtained by his father , then secretary to king charles the first , who moved with compassion laid his hand upon the head of the young lad , and at the same time pronounced these words . the king touches thee , but god heales thee : and withal gave an angel peice of gold , boar'd through , and threaded with a blew riband , to hang about his neck , which afterwards he always wore as long as he lived . and from that time his distemper vanished in a few months , without the help of any physic ; i asked him several times , whether he durst not leave off that peice of money , for sometime ; to which he answered , that he durst not , for that he had known some who having thrown away their money , were again persecuted with the same distemper , and though touched a second time by the king , could never be cured . annotations . this privilege of healing the evil many ascribe to the kings of france only ; and among the rest andrew laurentius . but experience shews us that this divine privilege is granted by god , not only to the kings of france , but also to the kings of england . for besides this sir walter vane , i knew another young gentleman the son of c. killegrew , who having receiv'd the same kings blessing , was cured of the evil otherwise incurable , who also wore such another peice of gold about his neck as captain vane did . observation lxxxvii . obstruction of the spleen . captain aussuma , in the full vigour of his age , had long been troubled with an obstruction of his spleen , and was become very melancholy . at length his spleen grew hard and swelled very much , so that it bunched out a good way ; so soon as he came to me , after he had try'd several others in vain , i prescribed him a proper diet , forbidding him smoak'd and salt meats , windy fruit , shell fish , herrings , salmon , in a word all sorts of meat , breeding crude and flatulent humors , all strong and sweet wines , all muddy sorts of ale : but to observe a moderate diet upon food of easie digestion and good nourishment ; and for his drink enjoyn'd him small wine and small ale , and moreover to keep merry company and refrain melancholy ; this done i gave him a convenient purge ; but because he had an antipathy against physic , i ordered him only to take a draught morning and evening of this medicinal wine . ℞ . rind of the root of tamarisch , capers , fennel , elecampane , polypody of the oak , an . ℥ s. water-tresoile , mj. dodder , ceterach , fumitory , lesser centuary , roman wormwood , an . m. s. nutmegs , iuniper-berries , seeds of fennel , bishops-weed and anise , an . ʒj . make a little 〈◊〉 to steep in 〈◊〉 . v. of white-wine . this being drank up , the same was repated again with an addition of senna leaves , ℥ j. s. aniseed , ℥ s. of which he drank a draught every morning that gave him five stools ; this gave him some ease , brought him to a stomach , and made him a little more chearful ; but the hardness of his spleen with the pain remain'd as it was before ; but in regard , the patient would take no decoctions , powders , condite●…ents , or other medicaments , nor would take the wine prescribed him any longer , i prescribed him the following topics , ℞ . wormwood , althea , mallows , flowers of camomil , melilo●… , elder dill , an . mj. seeds of cummin , ℥ s. of anise , lovage , fennel , an . ʒij . make two little quilts , according to art. ℞ . roots of dwarf elder ℥ j. althea , ●…ryony , fennel an . ℥ s. flowers of elder , coleworts . h●…mlock , an . m. j. s. mallows , bee●…s , althea , flowers of melilot camomil , an . m j. cummin-seed , anise , ʒvj . boyl them in commo●… water , q. s. to . lb j. s. then add strong vinegar 〈◊〉 s. ℞ . oyl of capers , wormwood , bitter almonds , goose-grease , an . ℥ j. oyl of turpentine , ℥ s. mix them for a limment . in the morning he made use of these topics in this manner , first the region of the spleen was chafed somewhat hard , the two little bags were dipped in the decoction being warmed by turns , and the fomentation continued for half an hour : afterwards the place affected was anointed with the warm oyls , which being contiued for some days and the patient now and then taking a draught of the last wine , the swelling in his spleen quite vanished , and the hardness went off ; and to dissipate the relics , all other topics being laid aside , this only emplaster was applied . ℞ . galbanum dissolved in vinegar , ʒvj . ammoniac , ʒiij . emplaster of melilot , ℥ s. mix them , and spread them upon leather . thus the captain being freed from his distemper , returned to the camp. annotations . obstructions and hardness of the spleen , where the patients refuse to take inward medicines , are many times remarkably cured by topics . among which galbanum , and ammoniac dissolv'd in vinegar are cheifly to be commended ; fabricius ab aquapendente applauds his own cere-cloth , made of two parts of ammoniac dissolv'd in vinegar , one part of juice of tobacco , half a part of pine rosin , turpentine and juice of dwarf-elder , the other of oyl of capers and new wax , q. s. with which degestive and emollient plaister he cured several hard spleens . mercurialis applauds this that follows , ℞ . g. ammoniac dissolv'd in vinegar , ℥ j. powder of both hellebores , colocynth an . ʒj . mix and apply them . heurnius compounds a most effectual plaister thus , ℞ . hemloch , m. iiij . ammoniac . lb j. infuse them in very sharp vinegar eight days ; then let them boyl till the ammoniac be dissolved . then strain them hard through a strong linnen cloth ; and let the strain'd liquor simper five times , then with the wax and oyl of sweet almonds make an emplaster . forestus makes use of the following oyntment . ℞ . oyl of capers , white lillies ; new butter an . ℥ s. iuice of briony , and sowbread an . ʒv . boyl them to the consumption of the iuices , then add ammoniac dissolv'd in vinegar , ʒij . s. hens grease , marrow of calves legs , moist sheeps-grease an . ℥ s. powder of the rind of the roots of capers , tamarish , ferne , ceterach an . ʒs . seed of broom , agnus castus an . ℈ s. a little wax . for an oyntment . amatus of portugal extols this for a miracle , as that with which he has cured the most obstinate schyrruses of the spleen , ℞ . common oyl , 〈◊〉 iij. marrow of oxes leg , lb j. new bu●…er , 〈◊〉 s. iuice of briony , sowbread an . lb j. let them boyl over a gentle fire to the consumption of the iuices . to the straining add green wax , ℥ viij . powder of ceterach , rind of c●…per-roots , tamarish , and agnus casti-seed an . ʒ iij. mix them for an oyntment . senertus prepares a sovereign remedy of the juice of the flowers of elder mixt with a decoction of mallows and oxycrate . galen commends simple vinegar , because it cuts and attenuates thick obstructing humors , and is proper in respect of the bowel , because fermentation is not troublesom to it . aquapendens his having cured the schyrrus of the spleen and dropsie , by fomenting the abdomen with a spunge dipt in lime-water . but as for cutting the spleen as it is called , he laughs at it as a ridiculous peice of witchcra●…t ; this is done , says he , by setting the edge of an ax upon the hard spleen , the place being first covered with a piece of paper , and then striking upon the ax with a hammer or mallet . one of these professors once brought his ax to one that was troubled with a hard spleen ; but after he had set his ax upon the paper , he stroke so hard with his mallet , that he cut through paper and skin , into the very spleen it self , to the loss of his patients life . observation lxxxviii . the sciatica . the son of albert verstegen , about twenty four years of age , addicted neither to venery nor gluttony , began to complain of sciatic pains in his right side ; which increased in a few days to that degree , that he could no longer go , when i was sent for i found no tumour in the part , nor inflammation , but a sharp pain with a weakness in the joynt , so that he could not move his thigh but with great trouble ; he had taken by the advice of others two purges ; and therefore i rather chose that i might abate the defluxion of the humors to prescribe the following apozem , of which he was to drink three or four ounces in a morning , which gave him three or four stools . ℞ . roots of elecampane , valerian , fennel , bryony , mechoacan , stone parsley , an . ℥ s. herbs , rosemary majoram , betony , an . mj. thyme , baume , sage , germander , ground-ivy , flowers of elder , an . m. s. of stoechas , two little handfuls , seeds of lovage and anise , an . ʒ ij . of carthamum , ℥ j. raisins of the sun well washed , ℥ ij . boyl these in common-water , q. s. adding at the end leaves of senna cleansed , ℥ j. s. white agaric , ʒij . fennel-seed and dill-seed , an . ʒj . s. make an apozem of 〈◊〉 ij . the following emplaster was likewise applied to the part affected . ℞ . sulphur finely powdered , ʒv . castoreum , ʒj . tar. ʒvj . oxycroceum plaister , ℥ s. balsome of sulphur ʒij . for a plaister to be spread upon red leather . after he had taken all his apozem , and that his pains remain'd in the same condition , i prescribed him another purging decoction ; of which he drank twice a day . ℞ . sassafrass wood , ʒvj . roots of eringos , cammoch , lovage , an . ʒj . masterwort , fennel , stone parsley , an . ʒ s. vervaine , rosemary , betony , majoram , germander , ground ivy , an . mj. savine , flowers of stoechados , an . m. s. anise-seed . iuniper-berries , ʒiij . boyl them in common-water , q. s. to 〈◊〉 . ij . then add . syrup of stoechas , ℥ iij. for an apozem . two days after the former plaister was laid on again , and when he had drank up his apozem , i gave him the following vomit , which brought up a great quantity of viscous flegm with choler . ℞ . leaves of green assarabacca , ʒiij . bruise them and press out the juice with ℥ ij . of the decoction of raddish , to which add oxymel scyllit , with agaric , ℥ j. mix them for a potion . when all these things did no good i applied this other plaister . ℞ . white mustard-seed , and of nasturtium , an . ʒj . castorium ℈ ij . euphorbium ℈ j. s. spanish-so●…e , ʒx . pine-rosin , and turpentine , an . ʒiij . mix them well to spread upon leather . after this had stuck on two days , it had raised innumerable little blisters in the skin , out of which a green humour flowed from the inner parts in great quantity ; so that in four days he felt great ease . the plaister being removed i laid on colewort-leaves ; but observing the plaister not to be very violent , but that it only gently drew out the internal humors , and kept the blisters open without corrosion , i laid it on again ; and so in twelve days the pain went quite off , and the joynt was so corroborated , that the patient went about without any trouble ; but for fear of a relapse i gave him the purging apozem again , and the plaister of sulphur was laid on for a fortnight longer , which absolutely compleated the cure. annotations . though the sciatica be a kind of a gout , yet because of the place the cure differs in some remedies . sometimes it is very hard to be cured , because that joynt is not so profound , that topics cannot reach it by reason of the thickness of the muscles that lye over it : and for that inward medicines require a great deal of time to abate and remove the cause . this disease proceeds from too much fullness of blood , sometimes from a defluxion of cold and and sharp humors . in repletion blood-letting is requisite ; which in a very great repletion is to be done in the arm , then in the thigh affected . the vein is to be opened in the ham , or else the sciatica vein . i have cured , said galen , the sciatica by opening a vein in the thigh . some there are that apply leeches to the fundament instead o●… blood-letting . which way paulus and aurelian commend , if you lay on eight or ten leeches at a time ; and zacutus affirms , he has cured the sciatica with leeches , when other remedies sailed within the space of ten hours . some prefer cupping-glasses before leeches . but if the malady proceed from sharp , tartarous and cold humors , blood-letting does no good ( unless there be a plethory ) but first there must be strong purging with elect. caryocostin and hermodactyl pills ; or vomits of ammonia , or asarabacca ; and then topics such as asswage pains , sufficiently known to every skilful physitian . some extract and dissipate the morbific matter insensibly : to which purpose donatus ab altomary , takes a great quantity of the stones of sweet grapes , and presses out the liquor strongly . this he heats with its must , then pours it out upon the pavement , and with his hands strongly compresses into a heap ; then making a kind of a furrow in the grape-stones , burys the patient in them , up to the mid-belly ; and there lets the patient lye to sweat for half an hour , or an hour twice a day . duretus commends grape-stones in all sorts of gouts . if in vintage time the grapes are carried into a barn , and covered with coverlets till they grow warm , and then for the patient to thrust his feet , arms , legs , ●…r else to lay his whole body in the heap . then which says he , there is not a better remedy under heaven . solenand●…r also among the best and safest remedies that corroborate the parts affected , and cherish the natural heat , commends the laying the hands and feet , or other parts affected , in a heap of grape-stones hot from the press , or heated with new wine , and this continued for fifteen days . to which he adds that he knew a noble person , that could not go , who was recovered by the use of this medicine . i knew my self , a country man cured by such a fomentation , for some days together in horse-dung . matthiolus affirms experimentally , that several sciaticas have been cured with the slimy water of snails , when all other remedies failed , which paraeus and laurentius approve . old stinking cheese kneaded into the form of a cataplasm , with the decoction of a westphalia-ham , asswages the pain , draws forth the cause of the malady , and dissolves the rigid hardness of the part. sylvius commends a cataplasm of dwarf-elder , barley-meal and honey . forestus also tells of two sciaticas cured , with laying upon the part only nettles boyled in ale. we look upon balsom of sulphur among the most effectual remedies ; as having more then once observed the happy effects of it . galen commends an emplaister of pitch two parts , and one of sulphur , mixt and laid upon the part affected , till it fall off of it self : which forestus so highly extols as the most effectual remedy that can be invented ; only he believes it would be better to equal the proportions of the pitch and sulphur . if these things , or the like , avail not , then such things must be made use of that insensibly draw forth the matter , and that either by diversion or from the part affected . by diversion , ●…auteries applied to the arms and thighs are of great use . so paschal tells us of a physitian cured of a pain in his hipps . by a caustic applied under his knee , of quick-lime and alum . hippocrate●… orders an incision of the veins behind the ears . zacutus of portugal in ●… defluxion from the head , saw a person cured by a caustic applied behind the ears , from whence after the falling off of the crust , for ten days together ▪ there flowed a thin and watery moisture , and so the distemper ceased . from the part affected visicatories and rubificants draw forth the peccant matter . thus douynetus tells us of several that have been cured by the application of vesicatories . arculanus and others have successfully made use of a blistring cataplasm in an obstinate pain that gave way to no other remedies . ℞ . sowre leven lb s. cantharides ℥ j. pulp of figs ℥ s. andrew laurentius recomends this visicatory . ℞ . old leven ℥ ij . cantharides ʒ . ij . seed of mustard and stavesacre , an . ʒiij . beat them together with strong vinegar , for a vesicatory . iohn matthew de gradibus prepares another of the seeds of mustard and nasturtium , pigeons-dung , decoction of figs and venegar ; which rubifies and raises blisters , which being broken and cleansed with the decoction of figs , then lay on a colewort leaf warm ; and this he says extirpates the inveterate pains of the hips and the gout . galen , aetius , and paulus prefer a cataplasm of wild cresses , which raises blisters ; and is accounted a peculiar remedy for these distempers . schenkeus tells us of a sciatic , who when all other remedies failed , of his own head took skins of hemp macerated with ashes , and having boiled them in strong vinegar , laid them to the place affected , as hot as he could endure them : this raised several blisters upon the skin , out of which flowed a great quantity of greenish yellow water , by which means his pain left him . tagaultius celebrates this emplaister of galen and avicen , then which he says there can be none more effectual , or that gives such present ease . ℞ . mustard and nettle-seeds , sulphur , froth of the sea , round birthwort bdelium an . ℥ j. old oyl , wax an . ℥ ij . for an emplaister . i have found that emplaister , which i prescribed to our patient , with spainish soap , to have wrought wonderful effects . i remember a young maid at montfort , miserably troubled with the gout , so that she could neither move shoulders , arms , nor hips , who was cured only with emplaisters of spanish soap , mollified in wine , and spread upon leather ; which raised blisters , and drew out a great quantity of yellow , greenish water ; which restored her unexpectedly to her health in a few weeks . observation lxxxix . a wound with a bullet . a citizen of nimeghen , the twentieth of may , . imprudently discharged his pistol downward ; so that the bullet rebounding from the flint-stone-pavement of the street , hurt a woman that was passing accidentally by . the bullet had entered the cavity of her breast about three fingers from the spine of the back , between the fifth and sixth rib , and entring the exteriour substance of the lungs , had made a great wound in the fourth rib , in the side from the inner part , so that the rib was broken , but the bullet did not pass through , but stook in the cavity of the breast , not round but flat and oblong by hitting against the stone , as appeared by the wound unequal and bigger then usual , the woman was carried wounded home ; very little blood issued from the wound ; but the next day with coughing she threw up a good quantity , the danger was great which i foresaw ; in regard that the bullet lying upon the diaphragma , could no way be drawn forth out of the cavity of the breast : as also for that wounds in the lungs are difficultly cured , because of their continual motion ; especially when the wound is made by a bullet , which cannot be done without a great contusion . however the chyrurgeon bound up the wound , and after i had gently purged her body , i prescribed her this apozem to drink morning and evening . ℞ . roots of madder , ℥ j. eryngos , fennel , stone parsley , an . ℥ s. scraped licorice , ʒvj . herbs , scabious , violet-leaves , coltsfoot , chervil , leaves of black ribes , or garden currants , an . m. j. greater celandine , m. ij . four greater cold-seeds , anise-seed , an . ʒj . raisins of the sun , ℥ ij . boyl them in common-water , q. s. to lbij. add syrup of licorice , poppy rheas , an . ℥ j. s. mix them for an apozem . she complained of no pain but one where the wound was , and the place where her rib was broken , which pain went off upon laying on a plaister of oxycroceum , and her rib closed again . the first six days she was very weak , she eat little or nothing : little or no matter came out of her wound : she had no fever or cough or difficulty of breathing ; and after the second day she spit forth nothing either of blood or matter out at her mouth . may twenty seventh , being somewhat bound , we gave her a loosening draught , which gave her two or three stools . may the thirtieth she was grevously tormented , so that every body thought she would have died ; but in the evening of a suddain she coughed up a good quantity of white matter with some blood , which gave her great ease , and then she began to be better , the wound also closed against our wills ; neither did any thing of matter come forth from the wound out of the hollowness of her breast all the time of the cure ; after she had voided this corruption , for seven days she continued without a cough . the seventh of iune , with a slight cough she spit up a small quantity of corruption again , and then the cough ceased , and the patient grew stronger and stronger every day , nor did she after that spit forth any more matter or blood , but after the second month being restored to her perfect health , went abroad again , feeling no inconvenience from so great a wound afterwards for nine years together , nor did she feel the leaden bullet in her breast , only when she fetched her breath with a deep sigh , she felt something heavy upon her midrife . annotations . without doubt the bullet did not pass the middle of the lungs : nor touched the bronchia or bigger vessels , but only slightly touched the substance of the lungs in the outer side : otherwise more terrible symptoms would have ensued ; nor would the cure have been so soon accnmplished ; which however was sufficiently to be admired , when such a wound could not happen without a very great contusion . now the great wounds in the lungs are incurable , and slight wounds difficult to be cured , yet we are not to despair , since very great wounds in the lungs have been often cured . i remember i knew a victualer that lived near leyden , who in a scuffle with a country-man was stabbed under the pap of his right breast , with a broad knife that past through the middle of his lungs , and went out behind under the scapula . yet this man reduced to meer skin and bones , through the exulceration of his lungs , two years afterwards being brought to utrecht , was perfectly cured by a chyrurgeon , with only vulnerary decoctions . however a great pa●…t of his lungs was consumed by suppuration , which was easily perceived , when he moved backward or forward , for then his right lung would strike against his breast , like the clapper of a bell. 't was to be admired that such a wound should be brought to a perfect cicatrization ; yet this man i saw ten years after without a cough , without any malady , sound and whole as ever i saw a man in my life . in the year . i had another sturdy country-man in cure , who had received a wound under the pap of his left breast , with a broad knife that entered as far as the middle of the lungs . other country-men before we came had laid him upon his belly , and kept the wound open with their hands ; so that he had bled three full chamber-pots . after we had bound up the wound , the patient sounded and it was thought he would have died , but upon giving him corroborating cordials he came to himself . for the first day he voided sometimes a great deal of blood , and sometimes corruption ; and frothy coagulated blood came forth from the wound , but not much ; yet to be short , this man was cured of this dangerous wound by the use of proper medicaments , nor did he afterwards feel any inconvenience in his chest. hildan tells us also of a remarkable cure of the lungs wounded , at what time a good part of the lungs was cut away . and many other examples of the lungs cured are frequently to be found in several other authors . observation xc . an extraordinary binding of the belly . n. ab offendorph , a german gentleman , a strong man in the flower of his age , was usually so bound in his body , that he could hardly go to the stool without the help of physic ; yet he was not sick , but when he had not gone to stool in five or six days he grew sleepy , dull and lazy . in august , not having been at stool for seven days together , when his usual pills would not move him , he went to monsieur romphius , physitian to the queen of bohemia , who gave him two glisters and two purges without success ; then afraid of his life he came to me : at what time he had been bound for sixteen days together , first therefore i try'd to move him with this following glister . ℞ . roots of bryony ℥ j. herbs , mallows , althea , herb mercury , wormwood , lesser century , flowers of camomil , and melilot , an . m j. leaves of senna ℥ j. s. colocynth apples ʒj . fat figs no. vij . anise-seed ℥ s. boyl them in common-water , q. s. to ℥ x. add to the straining stibiate-wine , ℥ iiij . for a glister . after he had kept this a quarter of an hour , his belly was much moved , and he had above twenty stools with a great deal of ease , afterwards i prescribed him a loosning and emollient diet , and so sent him away back to the camp quite eased of his burthen . annotations . schenkius has collected several examples of people that have been strangely bound in their bellys . in which cases , when cathartics will do no good : i have observed the wonderfull operations of stibiate-wine : i remember i gave a purge to a strong lusty country-man once , that was very much bound in his body , but without success . the next day therefore i gave him a glister , wherein among other things i boiled ℥ s. of dry tobacco , which presently opened his body with a witness . i knew a captain of a man of war also , that told me , how he was bound in his body at sea , to that degree , that when no medicaments would move him , and that he was in dispair of his life , by the advice of one of his seamen , drank the parings of his thumb-nails in a draught of ale ; which when he had done , at first he fell into a swoon , so that every body thought he would have dy'd ; but coming to himself , he purged upward and downward to that degree , that he was soon freed from his distemper . observation xci . a bastard ague . a daughter of captain rifflaer , about six years of age , had been troubled a long time , with a disorderly kind of ague , yet not very vehement , which took her sometimes in the forenoon , sometimes after dinner , sometimes at night , sometimes every day , sometimes every other day ; she looked black and blew about the eyes ; slept unquietly , had her belly swelled and distended ; rubbed her nose often but complained of no pain , from these signs i conjectured that crude and flegmatic humors were putrified in the lower region of her belly , which caused the ague , and that moreover she might have worms in her belly ; now in regard she was very squeamish and would take nothing that was bitter , i gave her ℈ j. of mercurius dulcis which gave her five or six stools , that brought away much viscous and slimy matter , and three or four large worms ; the three days following i ordered her to take a dose of the following powder , morning and evening , in which time she voided eight worms . ℞ . harts-horn , burnt coral prepared , an . ℈ iiij . sugar-candy ʒij . to be divided into six equal doses . afterwards when i observed her ague , and the distension of her belly to continue in the same condition , i gave her again ℈ j. of mercurius ducis , which after it had given her six stools , she found her self better , the next three days she would take nothing ; the fourth day i got her to take mercurius dulcis again , which after she had voided much viscous and watry matter , but without worms , the distension and tumour of her belly went off together with her ague , and she recovered her former health . annotations . in these cases i have frequently with success made use of mercurius dulcis : and though several eminent physitians disapprove the use of it , as too dangerous , yet so it be well prepared , i never observed that it did any harm in moist bodies . for dry constitutions it is not thought so proper , and therefore to such i either give other physic , or mix other purgatives with it , that it may be the sooner expelled out of the body . thus simeon iacoz , gave xii . gr . of it mixed with gr . v. of diagridion to a child of four years of age , which within two hours brought away twenty worms . and indeed it is a most excellent remedy against worms in the belly ; for it not only kills and expels the worms , but brings away the the cause that breeds them ; therefore says sebastian strommayien , there is no such remedy to be found ; for it falls upon all manner of worms bred in our bodies , speedily , safely and pleasantly , and by a certain specific quality utterly expels them : which experience has sufficiently made manifest . sometimes instead thereof ℈ j. of jalap pulverized ; or less according to the age of the patient , which is an insipid medicine and and not displeasing to the taste , which gently purges away the cause of worms and agues joyned together . rondeletius extols electuary diacarthamum , as a powerful remedy to expel worms and purge away flegm , and the corrupt chylus that breeds and nourishes worms . others commend diaturbith with rhubarb . for such as can take ill tasted physic hiera picra , or aloes alone is an excellent remedy , given in pills . dodoneus tells us of a woman of forty years of age suddenly taken with terrible gripings in her stomach , that upon taking hiera picra voided forty worms ; and the same vertue have all medicaments , wherewith aloes is mixed . benivenius writes of one that after he had taken a composition of aloes , myrrh and saffron , voided forty eight worms . crato recommends these pills that follow . ℞ . aloes rosat . ℥ j. choice mirrh . ʒ j. make them into pills , the dose ʒ s. plater commends these , ℞ . aloes , ʒij . myrrh , ʒj . worm-seed ℈ j. make them into a mass with juice of wormwood or gentian , the dose from , ʒs . to ʒj . sennertus prescribes these , ℞ . aloes , ℈ j. rhubarb . ℈ ij . myrrh , ℈ s. trochischs of alhandal , gr . iij. powder of coral , ʒ s. make them into twenty two pills with juice of wormwood . the dose for children ℈ j. to destroy all matter and nutriment of vvorms in the guts there is not any better remedy to be found , then for the patient to swallow once a vveek one ℈ . of aloes succotrine ; for aloes has a peculiar occult quality to purge and cleanse the extream parts of the guts . this is the opinion of mercurialis in his own words ; but i usually order a ʒ or two of rhubarb to be put into a little bag , and hung up in the ordinary drink which the patient drinks ; and by that means i both expel the worms and the cause of the worms . saxonia and solenander with many others extol the decoction of sebesten , in ʒiiij : of which crato macerates , ʒj . of rhubarb and gives the straining to drink ; rhubarb also given in substance is a great enemy to the worms ; and dodoneus voids them with this powder . ℞ worm-seed ʒj . shavings of hearts-horn , citron-seed , and sorrel-seed , an . ℈ j. rhubarb , ʒij . make them into a powder , the dose , ʒ j. riverius takes , ℞ . powder of rhubarb , and coral , an . ʒs . duretus prescribed this , ℞ . chosen rhubarb , wormwood , sea wormwood , shavings of harts-horn , an . ʒiij . make them into a powder dose ʒj . with the decoction of scordium . this as we have tried , says he , excells all the rest . lastly antonius cermisonius as a most destroying expelling remedy against the worms , prescribes a glister of ʒ x. of goats milk , and ʒij . of honey . observation xcii . the worms . the son of mr. cooper , about six or seven years old , had been long troubled with worms in his belly , which sometimes ascending his gullet , crept out at his mouth in the night-time . the parents had often given him worm-seed , but to no purpose ; so that at length , when the child was nothing but skin and bone , they sent for me . i found him thirsty and averse to all manner of physick ; thereupon i took half a pound of quick-silver , and macerated it in two pound of grass-water , shaking the water very often . afterwards , having separated the mercury , i added to the water , syrup of limons ℥ iij. oyl of vitriol , q. s. to give it a grateful taste . this he only took for two days together , in which time he voided downward six and thirty worms and being so rid of his troublesome guests , recovered his health . annotations . some extol quick-silver it self given in the substance , as an excellent remedy against the worms ; insomuch that sanctorius says , there is no killing of the worms but with strong and violent medicines , as aloes and mercury or quick-silver . of which , baricellus thus writes , quick-silver , says he , which many take to be poyson , is given with great success against the worms , and is accounted so certain a remedy in spain , that the women give it to infants that puke up their milk , to the quantity of three granes . i cured a vvoman that for nine days together had been troubled with continual vomiting , occasioned by the vvorms ; besides that , she had not eaten in three days , nor could keep what she swallowed ; but after i had given her two drams of quick silver , mortified with a little syrup of quinces , without any trouble , she voided downward about a hundred vvorms , and was freed from her distemper the same day . i have vvater at home wherein i continually keep quick-silver infused , and wil lingly give it away to children for the vvorms , yet never heard of any hurt ▪ that ever it did . the dose of mercury to be given to children is ℈ j. to elder people ℈ ij . or ʒj . it is corrected and mortified by bruising it in a glass mortar with brown sugar , till it be dissolved into invisible parts ; and to prevent it from returning to its pristine form , you must add to it two little drops of oyl of sweet almonds , and give it fasting with sugar of roses , syrup of violets or quinces to the party affected . zappara confirms this use of quick-silver by many examples ; and hildan tells of a woman cured of the worms by quick-silver , of which she passed ʒj . s. through a piece of leather , and then swallowed it . where this is remarkable , that the same woman at that time wore a plaister upon her navel , which was afterwards found all covered over with quick silver . thus many physicians celebrate quick silver ; but more applaud it than condemn it ; as plater , horatius , e●…genius ; and fallopius , says of it , that it does not work those effects being drank , as used by way of oyntment . i have known , says he , women that have drank pounds of it to cause abortion without any dammage ; and i have given it to children for the worms . the same is testified by marianus sanctus , and fracastorius . and matthiolus affirms , that quick-silver is only prejudicial , because it tears the guts by its weight ; and therefore if it be not given in too great a quantity , he says it can do no harm . and i have seen it given by midwives to women in difficult labours , without any hurt at all . for my part , i never give it alone , but always in some infusion of grass-water , wine , or other liquor . and as for stromaiier and horstius , though they reject raw quick-silver , yet rightly prepared , they extol it as the best remedy in the world against the worms . sennertus however advises , that though quick-silver may be used in desperate cases , yet to forbear it where milder medicaments may serve the turn . since there is a possibility that it may do mischief . observation xciii . the gout . mr. hamilton , in the flower of his age , was miserably tormented with the gout , in the joynt of his right-shoulder ; so that he had not slept in three days and nights . after i had prescribed him a proper diet , i purged him with cochia pills , gave him a diuretic decoction for some days , and then applied this plaister to the place affected . ℞ . gum. galbanum dissolved in spirit of wine , tacamahacca dissolved in spirit of turpentine , emplaster of oxycroceum , an . ℥ s. mix them and spread them upon leather this plaster stuck on eight days , within which time that immense pain went off , so that he could freely move his arm ; after that , he returned to the camp , where he was unfortunately slain . annotations . many disputes there are about the causes of the gout ; but for my part , i believe there are necessarily two . for either those pains proceed from cold defluxions , mixed with some salt and acrimony , falling from the head upon the joynts , refrigerating and corroding the nerves , tendons and ligaments , annexed to the joynts . for how great an enemy cold is to the nerves and membranous parts , we find in winter-time , by the wounds by which those parts are laid bare . there , says hippocrates , all cold things are fatal to the nerves . besides , that such defluxions cause weakness and stiffness of the nerves , or too much relaxation ; so that being oppressed with weight , they are extended with pains ; but this sort of gout is not so terrible . for the second cause of the gout proceeds from the salt , sharp and tartarous humors , separated from the blood , and thrust forward upon the joynts . therefore , says sennertus , i must conclude , that a sharp , salt , subtil humor , nearest to the nature of salt spirits , is the cause of the gout . let any man call it by what other name he please , choler , or flegm mixed with choler , salt or tartar , so the thing be rightly understood . in vain therefore physicians have hitherto sought , for the cause of the gout in the heat and drougth of choler , or the moisture and cold of flegm , for they are not the first but the second qualities which induce those pains ; that is , the salt and the acrimony which corrode and gnaw those parts . therefore , says hippocrates , 't is not hot , cold , moist and dry , that have the acting power , but bitter and salt , sweet and acid , insipid and sharp , which if rightly tempered together , are no way troublesome , but when alone and separated one from the other , then they give the vexation and shew themselves , &c. in the cure of the first , in regard the cause proceeds from a depraved disposition of the brain ; therefore the brain is to be evacuated and corroborated , to prevent these excrements from gathering any more in that place . the parts affected also are to be corroborated with topics , warming the parts , dissipating and drying up the crude humors . in the cure of the hot gout , the salt humors are to be evacuated and purged away by inward medicaments , before they be pushed forward into the joynts , and that their generation may be prevented . topics also must be made use of to temper the acrimony of the salt humors , to dissolve , dissipate and evacuate by transpiration , those humors ; the forms of which , i shall give in another place . observation xciv . a pain in the stomach with vomiting . petronella beekman , a maid about twenty seven or twenty eight years of age , the nineteenth of iune , was taken with an intolerable pain in the upper part of her belly , which extended it self sometimes to the right , sometimes to the left , but most to the sides . she had a vomiting likewise , sometimes more gentle , sometimes vehement , which brought up all her meat . sometimes her vehement vomiting brought a pint , or a pint and a half of black water , with some tough flegm : at the top of this water swam certain little bodies , about the bigness of a filberd , in colour and consistence resembling butter . when these came up she had some ease for two or three hours , but then her pain returned again . she had no fever , no tumor in her spleen , no obstruction in her kidneys ; and she made water without trouble , but very thick , neither did she void any gravel either before or after ; nor was there any distemper to be perceived in her womb , where all things proceeded according to nature ; nor had bad diet been the cause of her distemper , but what that buttery substance should be ▪ i could not certainly tell for my life , only i conjectured that it might be some corrupt choler , preternaturally chang'd into that substance . however , the first thing i did , was to stop her vomiting ; to which purpose , i caused her stomach to be anointed with oyl of nutmegs , and applied a warm cataplasm to it of mint , red roses , nutmegs , cloves , mastich , olibanum , sowre ferment and vinegar of roses , but all to no purpose . the next day , her pains and vomiting having very much weakned her , i gave her a corroborating medicament of matthiolus's aqua vitae , treacle and cinnamon-water and syrup of limons , equal parts , to take frequently in a spoon , which stay'd with her . the twenty first of iune , i applied to the region of her stomach a corroborating plaister of tacamahacca , galbanum , cloves , benjamin , and the like . the twenty second , i gave her a gentle purging draught , which she presently brought up again ; then i ordered her a glister , which gave her two or three stool , but her cruel pain and vomiting continued still . the twenty fourth i gave her one scruple of pill . ruffiae , which stay'd with her , and gave her three stools about evening ; and then , because the plaister was troublesome , i took it off , and applied in the room a linnen quilt filled with mint , wormwood , sage , flowers of cammomil , melilot , dill , nutmegs , cumin-seed , fennel , and dill-seed ; which quilt was boiled in strong wine , and applied to her stomach . the twenty eighth she took another glister . the twenty ninth about night , i gave her two scruples of philonium romanum , prepared with euphorbium in a little wine , which caused her to sleep that night four hours , whereas she had not slept till then from the beginning of her distemper ; the next day her pain returned , nevertheless the philonium seemed to have endeavoured some concoction ; for that she began to belch , which gave her some ease ; wherefore about evening i gave her two scruples of philonium . the first of iuly , she belched more freely , therefore that evening i gave her philonium again . the next day her pains abated , and her vomiting ceased , and at noon she supp'd a little broth , which was the first nourishment she had taken since her sickness . iuly the third , she took pill . ruffiae to loosen her belly . the fourth of iuly , her pains encreasing , i prescribed her an amigdalate , but she brought it up again . therefore the sixth of iuly , i gave her two scruples and a half of philonium , which caused her to rest indifferently . the next day her pains abated , so that at night the same dose of philonium was again given her , as also the next evening ▪ the ninth of iuly , in the morning , she took pill . russiae , and in the evening philonium again , and so for three evenings more one after another ; by which means her pains and vomiting ceased , her appetite returned , and she recovered her health . the twenty third of november she was again taken with the same pains and vomiting ; thereupon , after i had purged her body with pills , i gave her philonium again , which gave her ease , and so continuing the use of philonium for twelve evenings together , and loosning her body every day with pills , at length i mastered the obstinate disease ; so that for six years together , i knew her safe and sound from that and all other distempers . observation xcv . a bastard intermitting tertian ague . herman n. in the vigor of his age , in the beginning of march , was taken with a bastard intermitting tertian ague , which began with a great coldness , and ended in a violent heat ; it came every other day , but at uncertain hours , sometimes sooner , sometimes later . during the fit , his head ach'd violently , and he was very faint ; his stomach was gone , and his strength much wasted . after he had taken many things in vain from other physicians , coming to me , i gave him half a dram of lucid aloes reduced into pills , which gave him five stools ; afterwards i ordered him to take dry wormwood mj. lesser centaury mij . carduus ben. flowers of cammomil , an . mj. s. and to cut them all ▪ small , and then boil them in three pints of small ale for a quarter of an hour , and then to squeeze it out strongly , and to take of the straining warm , twice upon the fit-day , and thrice upon the intermitting-day , and when that was done to make more ; but this decoction served the turn , for the ague vanquished by this medicine , lasted not above four fits ; after which time the patient was fully cured , and his stomach returned . annotations . this decoction , by which this patient was freed from a long ague , though it did not consist of many costly far-fetch'd ingredients , or prepared by laborious and pompous chymistry , yet was compounded of such simples as are chiefly celebrated for the cure of agues . for wormwood , carduus and centaury the less manifestly open all obstructions of the bowels , concoct and remove crudities , cut thick matter , and resist putrefaction , and expel noxious humors by urine and sweat , and are so well known among the vulgar to have these vertues , that they are able to be their own physicians in the cure of agues , by the use of powder of carduus , wormwood-wine , and decoctions of centaury . i added flowers of camomil , by reason of the wind which troubles the hypochondriums , and therefore of great benefit in agues . camomil , says galen , discusses and dissolves agues where there is no inflammation of any bowel ; especially such as proceed from choleric humors , or thickness of skin . for which reason , by the wise egyptians it was consecrated to the sun , and was looked upon as a remedy against all agues , but in that mistaken for it ; only cures such agues as i have mentioned , and those concocted . though it helps the rest , which are melancholy and flegmatic , and proceed from the inflammation of the bowels . for against those it is also a potent remedy , when they are once well concocted . wherefore cammomil is most grateful to the hypochondriums . but though galen tells us here that cammomil is only to be used after concoction of the matter ; yet in regard that of it self it is very prevalent to promote that concoction , cuts thick humors , opens obstructions , removes crudities , discusses wind , and provokes sweat and urine ; therefore it is thence apparent , that it may be given with success before the concoction of the morbific matter . thus sennertus reports , that iohannes anglicus was wont to give cammomil promiscuously , as well before as after concoction , and that he always found it very advantagious ; and therefore it was no wonder that our patient succeeded so well with those four most noble febrifuges boiled together , and that the morbific matter was so speedily concocted , discussed and expelled . observation . xcvi . thunder-struck . in the year , upon the twenty fourth of august , rose a most terrible tempest , with horrid thunder and lightning . at that time a servant of a country-man of nimeghen was abroad in the field gathering in harvest , having with him a girl , an old woman with a child , and a cart with one horse ; they terrified with the tempest fled , and the old woman with the child crept under the cart , while the servant and the girl were endeavouring to bridle the horse . in the mean time a violent thunder-clap struck the servant , the girl , the cart and horse , the old woman and the child receiving no harm . the beam of the wagon made of strong wood , was broken into shivers ; the horse fell down dead of a suddain , and yet nothing of hurt appeared outwardly ; the girls right-thigh and leg were both struck by the thunder , so that all the parts appeared black , blew and purple ; besides that , her peticoat and smock were torn into long rags ; the girl also was thrown to the ground and lay speechless for two hours . the servant was maim'd over all his body , especially upon his right-side ; from which side , his doublet , breeches , drawers and shirt were not only torn , but shivered into long rags , and retained a vehement stink of fire , as if they had been burnt for tinder . his right-shoo , made of very strong leather , was rash'd into long thongs , and cast thirty paces from his foot. by such a vehement stroke the young man being lay'd prostrate upon the ground , fell into a swoon , and was carried home for dead : this fit lasted for two hours , and then he came to himself . i saw the man , and viewed his whole body , and found his right-side from head to foot all of a colour , between black and purple , his skin flead off in some places ; there was also a very great contusion , and a burning fiery heat joyned with it . the patient spoke very little , only complained of a violent pain of his whole side , an extraordinary heat of his heart , a compression of his breast , and difficulty of breathing ; he could not move the joynts of his right-side , and remained so disabled for two months . being asked what he first felt , he answered that at the very moment that he was struck , he thought his heart had been burnt with a red hot iron ; neither could he draw his breath , which was the reason that he fell down as if he had been stifled . i gave him several things , and applied several topics to the parts affected ; but nothing availed against that aethereal fire ; till at length , the patient , by divine assistance , was cured without the help of any medicaments . the old woman , that with the infant escaped under the cart , related that she smelt a most horrible stink when the stroke was given , and felt such a violent heat , as if her head had been in a bakers oven , so that for the time she could hardly draw her breath . annotations . with what a violent force , and how wonderfully thunder sometimes strikes inferior things , both antient and modern testimonies sufficiently convince us . in the year . eight days before easter , rose a very great tempest , with thunder and lightning ; at what time , with one clap of thunder , four houses and six barns were quite overthrown in blockland near montfort , and above three thousand trees , not only broken , but torn up from the roots , and cast at a great distance from their holes , neither men nor beasts receiving any harm . in the year , a country man was killed in the fields near bodegrave with a flash of lightning , his bones being broken to bits , yet neither his skin or flesh endamaged . in france at poitou , in a certain tower , we saw the rafters burnt , the lead being untouched ; nor was the fire quenched without a great deal of trouble . in the year , at nimeghen , in the walk called the calves-wood , above a thousand birds were kill'd at one time by the lightning ; and while the same tempest lasted , some oxen were killed by the lightning , having their bones broken , and several trees were thrown down and broken , having their leaves scorched and parched by the flame ▪ cardan reports , that in the year , the castle of millain was almost demolished by lightning , at what time a hundred and thirteen men were kill'd . hildan tells a remarkable story of a gentleman , who was thunder-struck himself , at what time his own horse , and his man with another horse were both killed out right . the gentleman's cloaths were torn to peices , and his sword melted , the scabbord , receiving no harm ; only that the iron chape was melted at the same time . therefore says cardan , upon this ; motion not only causes a greater penetration , but kindles the heat it self , and renders the fire hotter . therefore it is no wonder there should be such a force in lightning , and that a fire so different from the nature of other fires , should work miracles ; for by reason of the swiftness of its motion , it not only penetrates more , but the fire is also hotter than any other fire : for what other fire is there that kills by touching ? this is peculiar to this fire ; that is , the hotest of most hot ; or as i may say , the fire of fires : and therefore sometimes it melts the money in the purse , and leaves the purse untouched , &c. observation xcvii . a cough . nicolaus kerckwegg , in the vigor of his age , was troubled with a lamentable cough for three or four years ; he was nothing but skin and bone , and seemed to be perfectly ptisical . when , after he had tried several others in vain , he came to me ; i examined the condition both of the person and the disease ; i looked upon his spittle , which was slimy and tough , without any matter or blood , therefore i could not judge him to be in a real consumption , but that the cough proceeded from a cathar falling upon his lungs , which in a long time of continuance , had weakned , not only his lungs , but his whole body . for cure , i prescribed him a proper diet , and some few remedies , for that his antipathy against physic , and his weakness , would not permit me to give many . therefore , having gently purged his body , i ordered him to take a draught of the following decoction three or four times a day . ℞ . white horehound m. iij. shred it small , and steep it all night in common water lbj▪ s. to which , the next day , add the head of one white poppy shred into bits , leaves of hyssop m. j. oxymel lbj. s. boil them in an earthen pipkin close stopped , to the consumption of the third part , and keep the straining for your use. this decoction he continued for three or four months till at length the cough abated every day more and more , and at length ceased ; the man also having recovered his strength , and growing fat and lusty , so continued without any further molestation . observation xcviii . an uterine suffocation . the wife of a brick-layer at nimeghen , about twenty eight years of age , in iuly , was troubled with a suffocation of her womb with a great pain in her left-side , and difficulty of breath . being sent for about evening , i gave her the following draught , which when she had taken , the malady ceased in part , and so she slept quietly that night . ℞ . english saffron , castoreum an . gr . v. trochischs of myrrh ℈ s. prepared amber ℈ j. treacle ℈ ij . treacle-water ℥ j. mugwort ℥ s. oyl of amber gut . ix . mix them for a draught . the next day her fit returned with the same vehemency , and because she had not been at stool in three or four days , i gave her this purge . ℞ . leaves of senna ℥ s. lovage-seed ʒj . s. mugwort-water q. s. make an infusion , then add to the straining elect. diaphenicon , hiera picra , an . ʒj . s. for a potion . this gave her five stools ; the suffocation remaining , nay , growing more violent than before , wherefore i prescribed her the following decoction , of which she drank warm an ounce , or an ounce and a half every hour , which after she had continued the whole day , her evacuations came down , and the suffocation vanished . ℞ . roots of masterwort , valerian , an . ℥ s. dittany , briony , an . ʒiij . savine m. j. seed of lovage ʒvj . of wild carrots ʒij . white-wine q. s. boil them for an apozem to lbj. s. observation xcix . deafness . the wife of henry iordens , in the month of august , complained that for half a year she had been troubled with a very great deafness , so that she could hear nothing but very loud noises . she was about forty years of age , and during this deafness , had been all along very hard bound in her body , so that she seldom went to stool in four or five days ; for which reason , i judged that many vapors ascended up to her brain , which furring the auditory nerve and tympanum , caused this deafness : thereupon , after i had well purged her body with pills , i ordered her every evening when she went to bed , to swallow two pills of lucid aloes , about the bigness of a pea ; by taking of which , her body was naturally loosned , and so that great deafness , within a fortnight , was quite taken away , to the admiration of many . annotations . the head , like a lembick , receives the vapors of all the parts that lye underneath : which if they are carried thither in greater abundance than can be digested and discussed by the brain , causes various diseases of the head , pains , catarrhs , ophthalmies , deafness , &c. and this abounding ascent of copious vapours , chiefly happens to those that are bound in their bodies . for this reason , if the deafness have not been of a very long standing , then the malady is easily cured by loosning the body ; by which means the morbific matter is derived to the intestines : which celsus intimates ; where he says , nothing more prevails against deafness than a choleric belly . for which , galen gives this reason , because that choler being carried to the auditory passages , and causing deafness if it be removed from those parts to the lower parts , the deafness is cured by choleric stools . neither is this only true in deafness , but in ophthalmies , and other affections of the head , according to that saying , all stools below remove the diseases of the superior parts : which is to be understood not only of evacuations of choler , but of all other evacuations by stool . hippocrates and celsus speak particularly of choleric humors , because they occasion deafness more than any other humor , in regard that choler has a familiar passage to the ears ; as appears by the bitterness of the excrement of the ears : which mercurialis believes that nature carries thither , meerly to cleanse the auditory organ , and keep it clean . wherefore in such maladies of the head , purging medicins that mollifie the belly , are of great use ; partly to hinder the ascent of such humors and vapors ; partly to draw off such as are already got up into the head ; of which , we saw the happy event in our patient . for though there be no conspicuous passage for the descent of those humors from the brain , yet nature finds out ways unknown to us , by which she evacuates the morbific matter , and rids her self of many distempers . observation c. the itch. a young gentlewoman had got the scab , which chiefly infested her hands with an extraordinary itching . this malady had continued for half a year , and because it began to spread more and more , i was sent for : thereupon , after i had purged her body , i ordered her to wash her hands with equal parts of mercuriated water and virgins milk , and to let them dry of themselves . by which means the scabbiness came forth more and more for two or three days , but within three or four days afterwards , wholly dry'd up , and was cured . observation ci. a malady in the stomach . isaac of aix la chapelle , forty six years of age , was troubled with an old distemper in his stomach , occasioned by difficult and painful belchings ; so that after he had eat or drank any thing , he was forced to belch fifty , and sometimes a hundred times and more , and that often both by day and by night ; neither could he stop them ; or if they did not break forth , he was like one that was ready to burst . besides , his sight was very weak , so that he could not see to read or write without spectacles , and that at a very near distance too , and thus he had been troubled from the twentieth year of his age till then . he had had the advice of several physicians to no purpose ; upon which , i desired him to try only one experiment , which was to smoak one pipe of tobacco after dinner and supper . at first he took but half a pipe , but afterwars he grew such a proficient , that he would take two or three ; so that after he had continued the use of tobacco in that manner for about a month , his belching ceased , and his sight was much amended . annotations . nicholas monardes writes , that tobacco is hot and dry in the second degree , and therefore attenuates , concocts , cleanses , discusses , asswages pain , and has a stupifying quality , is good against the tooth-ach , allays all pains of the head being outwardly applied , and laid upon the cold stomach , cuts the same , &c. which qualities , dodonaeus acknowledges also in tobacco . but in regard that in their time this plant was not so much in request , the benefit and abuse of it was less known to them than to us . practical disputations of isbrand de diemerbroeck , concerning the diseases of the head , breast and lower belly . the cures of the chief diseases of the whole head , in twenty five disputations , annexed to the cases of the patients themselves . history i. of the head-ach . a person of forty years of age , of a flegmatic constitution , often liable to catarrhs , in the midst of vvinter , in a very cold season , had travelled for forty days together , and by the way had fed upon flatulent , viscous meats , of hard digestion , and other such kind of food , to which he had not been accustomed , and instead of vvine , he had been forced to drink thick muddy ale. upon his return home , he complained of a troublesome pain in his head , more heavy and obtuse than acute , which if you laid your hand hard upon the place , was so far from being exasperated , that it was more gentle for the time . this pain was also accompanied with noises in his ears , an inclination to sleep , which his pain however would not permit him to take , and a want of appetite , a lassitude of the whole body , and paleness in the face . i. in this patient we find the head to be first affected , by the pain thereof , and the noise in his ears : whence , by consent , the whole body suffers , as appears by his lassitude and other simptoms . ii. the malady of which he chiefly complains , is a pain in the head ; which is a trouble to the sense of feeling in the membranous parts , caused by the solution of the continuum . iii. this pain is internal , in the parts contained within the skull ; as is from hence apparent , for that it is not exasperated , but somewhat mitigated by laying the hand hard upon the part. iv. the remote cause of this malady is disorderly diet ; by which means , by the use of meats of ill juice and hard concoction , several crude and flegmatic humors are generated in the whole body , but especially in the head , which produce the antecedent cause ; which being encreased by the external cold , wherein he had traveled for four days together , and fixed in the membranous parts of the brain , occasioned the containing cause . v. these flegmatic humors being by the external cold condensed in the head , and not being evacuated through the pores , obstructed by the cold , or other passages appointed for the evacuation of the excrement , were gathered together in great abundance in the passages of the brain , and by reason of their quantity distending the membranous parts of the brain , and dissolving the continuum , caused the pain . vi. the cure is to be hastned , for if that flegmatic humor stay long in the head , 't is to be feared that the malady may turn to a heavy drowsiness , or an apoplexie , or if it dissolve too soon , and make too improper a way , least it cause some dangerous catarrh , which falling upon the lungs or lower parts may endanger a violent cough or suffocation , or some other desperate distemper in some other part . vii . four indications are here to be considered in order to the cure. . that the abounding flegm be evacuated from the head and whole body . . that it be specially evacuated out of the head it self . . that the pain be allay'd . . that the head be strengthened , and the concoctions of the bowels be promoted , and so a new generation of abounding flegm , as well in the head as whole body , be prevented , and that the flegm already generated and abounding may be consumed . viii . for the evacuation of flegm abounding in the whole body , let him take this purging draught . ℞ . trochischs of agaric ʒj . leaves of senna cleansed ℥ s. anise-seed ʒj . s. white ginger ℈ j. decoction of barley q. s. make an infusion . then add to the straining elect. diaphaenicon ʒij . diagredion gr . iiij . mix them for a draught . if the patient cannot take this , give him of pill . cochiae ℈ ij . or iij. or else ʒj . of powder of diacarthamum , or diaturbith with rhubarb . this purgation must be repeated to prepare the humors three or four times every three or four days one after another . ix . for evacuation of the flegm , particularly accumulated in the head , sternutories and errhines are of great use . the one , because they draw down viscous and tough humors through the nostrils and palate . the other , because the brain being by them provoked , and violently contracting it self , as violently expels tough humors sticking to the ethmoides bone , and by removing the obstruction , makes way for the excrements detained therein . x. of this sneezing-powder , let him twice or thrice a day snuff up a little into his nose . ℞ . marjoram leaves ℈ j. root of white hellebore ℈ j. s. pellitory of spain ℈ s. black pepper , benjamin , an . gr . v. if sneezing prevail not , let him snuff up a little of the following errhin into his nostrils . ℞ . iuice of marjoram ℥ s. iuice of the root of white beets ℥ j. mix them for an errhin . xi . in the mean time , to allay the pain , anoint the fore-head , temples and top of the head with martiate or alabastrin oyntment , mixed with a sixth part of oyl of dill ; or a cataplasm of flowers of cammomil , melilot and dill ; adding a little nutmeg and saffron with as much of the crum of white-bread and white-wine as is sufficient , and lay it between two linnen rags to the temples and forehead ; but beware of all narcotics . xii . for the corroboration of the head ▪ and the rest of the bowels , and diminution of the flegm , external and internal medicaments are proper , and a convenient diet. ℞ . roots of calamus aromatic . elec●…m pane , fennel , an . ℥ s. galangale ʒiij herbs , betony , marjoram , rosemary , hyssop , baum , thyme , an . m. j. sage . fowers of cammomil , staechas , an m. s. seed of fennel , ani●…e , caroways , an ʒs iuniper-berries ʒvj raisins cleansed ℥ ij . common water ●…nd white●…ine equal parts . boil them an●… make an apozem to lb j. s. with which , mix syrup of staechas ℥ ij . or iij. if after he has taken this , there requires more exsiccation still , the same simples may be boiled in a decoction of 〈◊〉 , sassape●…il or sassafras , which will make the medicine more effectual . let him continue this decoction for some time , or if at length it prove distastful , let him often take of this conditement . ℞ . specier . diambra ℈ iiij . aromatic . rosatum ℈ ij . ginger condited , conserve of flowers of sage and rosemary , an . ℥ s. syrup of staechas q. s. for a conditment . xiii . and in regard that topics are of great use to corroborate the head , and fetch down cold humors therein remaining , let him anoint his temples and fore-part of the head upon the coronal suture with this liniment . ℞ . oil of nutmegs pressed ʒj . oils of thyme , rosemary , dill dis●…illed , an . ℈ j. mix them for a liniment . after this anointing , put upon the head the following quilt . ℞ . leaves of rosemary and marjoram , an . ʒs . flowers of melilot , red roses and lavender , an . ʒj . root of florence orrice , nutmegs , cloves , benjamin , an . ℈ j. beat them into a gross powder for a quilt . let him wear this a month or two upon is head. xiv . let the patient keep a proper diet ; live in an air moderately hot : let his food be meats of good juice , hot and easie of di●…estion , seasoned with rosemary , marjoram , stone-parsly , sage , betony , hysop , pepper , ginger and other spices . his drink , small wine or mede , or midling ale. let him not sleep long , and use moderate exercise . let him keep his body soluble . let him avoid sadness , melancholy and sudden frights , and keep himself in an even temper , free from passion . history ii. a phrensie . a stout young man , of a choleric constitution , abounding with blood , and living intemperately , having drank over freely at a merry ▪ meeting , and thereby over-heated , at length , being affronted by one of the company , fell into a most violent passion ; yet being hindred from his present revenge , and carried home , never slept all that night , but like a mad-man ran about his chamber , talking of nothing but brawls , fighting , wounds and revenge ; and that with great rage , and many follies intermixed , the next day he was absolutely mad , and began to lay violent hands upon the servants , so that he was forced to be held by lusty men. the next night he continued waking with an extraordinary delirium and fury , picking straws and the bed-cloaths , sometimes flying upon those that were in the room . his eyes were red , his looks furious and wild , he bawl'd and roar'd , was very thirsty , feverish , and his urine pale . the third day the physicians were sent for . i. the continued and raging delirium , with his waking shewed that the brain of this patient was distempered , and the fever was a sign that his whole body was out of order . ii. the disease was an inflamation of the membranes of the brain , and thence a hot distemper of the brain and spirits , which caused the fever ; and that the commotion of his mind , which the physicians call a phrensie , which is a raging and continued delirium , with a continued fever , arising from an inflammation of the membranes of the brain . iii. the remote cause was intemperance in diet , which engendring a great quantity of choleric blood in the body , occasioned the antecedent cause . which choleric blood being heated by excess of drinking wine , and carried in greater quantity to the head , and there powred into the substance of the membranes of the brain , constitutes the containing cause of this distemper , which disease this simptom follows . iv. for the hot blood flowing over copiously into those membranes , and there putrifying inflamed them ; and part of that putrefaction being communicated through the veins to the heart , and thence expelled hotter through the arteries to the whole body , kindles the fever , which causes the extraordinary drought of the gullet and mouth . v. this inflammation of the membranes infects with a hot distemper the brain it self , and spirits , whose extream heat , mobility and inordinate motion , deprave the principal functions of the brain , and so breed a delirium , which proves raging and continued , because of the extream and continued heat , and rapid motion of the fervent spirits . vi. this disease is dangerous for several causes . . because the principal part is affected . . because continual waking weakens the patient . . because this delirium is not accompanied with laughter but with raging . . because the inflammation is thereby much augmented and fomented , and the choleric matter which uses to dye the urine is carried all to the head , and leaves the urine pale . only there is some hopes of cure , because there is no decay of strength , or appearance of bad simptoms , as convulsions , loss of speech , hickupings , gnashing of teeth , or the like ; and therefore cure must not be delay'd till the patient grow worse . vii . this cure consists in taking away the antecedent and containing cause , and correction of the ill temper of the parts . viii . the choleric blood which flies to the head , is first to be evacuated , drawn back , derived , and repelled . and therefore after an emollient glister given , open a vein , first in one arm , and take away ten or twelve ounces of blood ; the next day in the other , and the third day again , if there be necessity , in the vein of the fore-head . ix . to evacuate the choleric humors , give this draught . ℞ . rubarb the best , leaves of senna , an . ʒij . rhenish tartar ʒiij . anise-seed ℈ j. succory water q. s. make an infusion , then add to the straining elect. diaprunum solutive ʒiij . diagridion gr . iij. mix them for a draught . the next days , if he be bound , let him be loosned with glisters , and the third or fourth day give him the foresaid purge again . x. let his temples and fore-head be anointed twice or thrice a day with the following liniment . ℞ . populeon oyntment ʒvj . oyl of poppy ʒiij . mix them for a limment . after anointing , apply the following oxyrrhodine , with rags luke warm to his fore-head . ℞ . oyl of roses ℥ ij . iuice of lettice ℥ iij. iuice of housleek , rose-water , vinegar of roses , an . ℥ j. s. mix them well together . xi . for diversion of the morbific matter , apply pidgeons dissected alive to his feet , or else this following medicine . ℞ . leaves of red cabbage , white beets , an . ●… . j. s. beat them in a mort●…r , and make them into a ▪ past with sowre levea ℥ iiij . salt ʒij . vinegar of roses q. s. xii . about night , give gr . iiij . of laudanum in a pill , or if he refuse a pill , dissolve three grains of that laudanum in one ounce of decoction of barley , adding an ounce of syrup of poppy rheas to provoke sleep . xiii . while these things are done , for his usual drink , give him small ale , or whey of sowr milk or fountain water , having some pieces of citron steeped in it , adding a little sugar and rose-water , or else this julep . ℞ . lettice leaves m. iiij . endive m. ij . red currants m. j. barley-water q. s. boil them to a pint ; to the straining when cold , add syrup of violets and limons , an . ℥ j. of poppy ℥ s. iuice of citron q. s. to make it pleasing . xiv . let him also take of this conditement often in a day . ℞ . powder of diamargarite cold ℈ iiij . pulp of tamarinds , conserve of violets , pale roses , robb of red currants , an . ʒ iij. syrup of violets q. s : about evening , when he does not take his laudanum opiate , let him drink one or two draughts of this emulsion . ℞ . four greater cold seeds , an . ʒ ij . seed of white poppy ℥ s. decoction of barley q. s. make an emulsion of about ℥ vij . to which add syrup of violets and poppy r●…eas , an . ʒ v. xv. when the distemper begins to asswage , the sooner to dissolve the peccant matter , cut alive hen in the middle , and lay it to his head , or else the lungs of a calf or sheep newly killed . xvi . let his air be between cold and moist , and his chamber somewhat dark . his diet sparing and cooling , prepared with lettice , endive , borrage , sorrel , and the like ; his drink as before . let him not be t●…oubled with much company nor talk. only let those , for whom he had a kindness in his health , endeavor now and then to pacifie his rage with good words ▪ lastly keep his belly soluble . history iii. of melancholly . a learned man , forty years of age , of a melancholly constitution , in the summer time , walking out of the city with a son of his , came to the river side , pulling off his cloaths , lea●…t into the water , to please himself with swimming , to which he perswaded his son likewise , to make him skilful of the same art ; but his son leaping into the water , sunk to the bottom , and was drowned before his father could come to his assistance . upon which , the father fell into such a deep sadness , continuing thinking of his misfortune , and believing himself the author of his childs death , that he did nothing but weep day and night , without sleeping : and within a few days , was brought to that pass , that he believed himself guilty of murther , and for that reason eternally damned . he also thought the devil , who had tempted him to do the fact , alway stood at his side , and shewed his horrid shape to those that stood by , pointing at him with his finger , wondring they did not see him , as well as he. as to other things he was well enough ; only this false imagination stuck so deeply in his mind , that no perswasions or consolations of his friends could root it out . i. vvhen the seat of the principal faculties in the brain was endamag'd , and the imagination deprav'd , it was a sign the patients brain was out of order , as appeared by his sadness and fear . ii. this malady is melancholly , and a deprav'd distemper of the brain , hurting the imagination , and deluding it with false apparitions , and causing fear and sadness without any reason ; which are two unquestionable signs of melancholly , according to hippocrates . therefore we may well define melancholly to be , a delirium without a fever , arising from a melancholly fancy . iii. the first and external cause of this mans malady , was his grievous misfortune , having his son drown'd , which seiz'd him the more violently , as being naturally melancholly . which when he could not forget , but spent whole days and nights , continually thinking upon it without any sleep , the animal spirits , prone to melancholly , were disorderly agitated in the brain , and so contracted a specific and ocult distemper , which they communicated not to the brain , but to the heart and whole body : hence horrible thoughts , sadness and fear . vi. when he thought of his son , whom , he believed to be drown'd by his fault , he perswaded himself he was guilty of murder , which because he knew it was a sin hareful to god , therefore he thought himself damn'd , and the devil to be always at his elbow ; the continual thinking upon which , had shaped the idea of a devil , so firmly in his mind , that he could not be otherwise perswaded , but that the devil was always before his eyes , nor could any body dispossess him of that imagination . in other things he was well , because his perception and judgment of things was no way hindred by that false imagination : as being wholly taken up with that imagination , and nothing so much , not with such an emotion of mind intent upon other things . v. because this occult distemper of the brain and animal spirits was bred in the brain , plain it is that this was a primary or self-suffering melancholly . vi. this melancholly delirium , tho' very troublesom , yet is it not mortal ; and gives great hopes of cure , because only the imagination is depraved , the ratiocination and memory little endamaged ; then again , he was sound in body , and lastly , because he was a learned man , and so much the sooner to be governed by reason : besides that it was in the summer when this happened ; which was a season more proper for cure. vii . in the cure the evil melancholly matter , and the ill temper of the brain is to be amended , that the purer spirits may be freed from that specific melancholly , contamination and generated anew . the same evil matter is also to be evacuated , and his head to be corroborated , and all means try'd to take off the patients thoughts , from false and horrible imaginations . viii . first , therefore purge him with this bolus . ℞ . con●…ection hamech , elect. diaphoenicon an ʒ j. s. diagridion gr . vij . mix them . or if he will not take that , give him this glister . ℞ . emollient decoction to which an ounce of the leaves of senna has been added ℥ ix . elect. diaphoenicon ℥ ij . oyl of camomil ℥ j. s. salt. ʒ j. ix . because such a patient has not much blood , therefore to preserve his strength , there is no blood ▪ letting to be used , unless there be a palpitation of the heart , or any such symptom which requires it . x. after the belly is well cleansed , to prepare the melancholly humor , and strengthen the head , let him drink three or four times a day , a draught of this apozem . ℞ . root of polypody of the oak ℥ j. calamus aromatic . fennel , rind of caper-roo●…s , tamarisch an . ℥ s. herbs baum , borage , march violets , tops of hops , betony , germander , majoram an . m. j. flowers of stoechas m. s. cordial flowers , an . one little handful , citron and orange peel an . ʒ iij. seeds of fennel and caraways an . ʒ j. s. currants ℥ ij . water and wine equal parts . make an apozem for a pint and a half , to which mix syrup of stoechas and borage an . ℥ j. s. xi . after this preparation , purge with this potion . ℞ . leaves of senna ℥ s. white agaric ʒ j. anise-seed ʒ j. ginger ℈ j. decoction of barly q. s. infuse them all night . then add to straining confect . hamech ʒ iij. xii . this done let him take this apozem again , and continue it for some time , loosing his belly every three or four days either with the foresaid draught , or confect . hamech , or cochiae pills , or mesues and compounded syrup of apples , highly commended by rondeletius in this case . xiii . after every dose of his apozem , as also after dinner and supper , let him eat the quantity of a nutmeg of this conditement . ℞ . specier . diambr . sweet diammosch dianthos an . ℈ ij . candid citron and orang peels , an . ʒ iij. conserve of flowers of borage , baum , and rosemary , an . ℥ s. confect . alkermes , ℈ j. s. syrup of citron rind . q. s. mix them , for a conditement . xiv . in the midst of these cures , peculiar evacuations of the head will not be amiss , either by masticatories or sternutories made of mar joram , gith-seed , roots of white hellebore , and pellitory , or the like . xv. great care is to be taken to provoke the patient to sleep . therefore for his supper give him sometimes a hordeate or amygdalate , made with a decoction of barly and lettice , with which if he be hard to sleep , mix one ounce of syrup of poppys or more . or if these avail not , of the mass of pills of storax fifteen grains , or of laudanum opiat . three grains ; but this not often : when he is not so much troubled with waking , it will suffice to anoint his temple with oyntment of populeon , mixt with some few grains of opium . though narcotics are to be used as little as may be , for fear of accustoming the patient too much to the use of them . xvi . his diet must be such as breeds good blood , and corrects all the qualities of melancholly humors ; easie of digestion , moderately hot and moist , prepared with barly cleansed , borage , baum , bugloss , marjoram , raisins , betony , &c. avoiding leeks , onions , garlic , cabbige , fish long pickled , or dry'd in the smoak ; and whatever beeds ill juice and melancholly nourishment : let the patient be moderate in his diet , neither too full nor too empty : let his drink be small , with a little baum , rosemary or other such herb mixt with it : let his exercises be moderate : his sleeping time much longer : let his body be kept soluble . and which is of great moment in this cure , let his mind be taken off from all manner of sadness and thougthfulness ; and all occasions of fear and grief be avoided ; while his friends on the other side labour with grateful arguments to perswade him of the vanity and falsehood of his idle dreams and imaginations . history . iv. of hypochondriac melancholy . a noble german of forty years of age , of a melancholy constitution having suffered deeply in the calamities of the late german war , as captivity , exile , famine , and other miseries , which had reduced him to an ill sort of diet ; the long use of which had begot wind , roarings and distensions about his midriff , and a troublesom ponderosity especially about his left hypochondrium , with difficulty of respiration , and a palpitation of the heart , though not continual , with loss of appetite , which made him sad , fearful , and thoughtful ; till at length understanding the death of his wife , he became so consternated , that no perswasive and kind language could asswage his sadness ; so that through continual watching , restlessness , horrible thoughts , and want of sleep he began to rave at first by intervals , but afterwards without ceasing ; he thought every body came to kill him , and therefore sought retirement , and avoided society . no body but servants entered his chamber , and of them he was afraid too : if any other persons came to visit him , he besought them not to murder him unprovided , but to give him time to prepare himself for death ; he only seemed to trust his physitian , from whom he often desired antidotes against poyson , which he assured himself were often mixed with his meat , and took any medicaments that were brought him . in this person thus distempered , various parts were grievously afflicted , especially the brain , as appeared by the delirium , and the bowels of the middle and lower belly , which the palpitation of his heart , difficulty of breathing , distention and ponderosity of his hypochondriums and loss of appetite plainly demonstrated . ii. the symptom that chiefly insested , is called melancholly , which is a delirium without rage or fever , arising from a melancholly phantasm . iii. the remote causes of this malady are fear , terrors and grief , occasioned by misfortunes , which had long troubled and disordered the spirits in their motion : to which an ill diet mainly contributed . for thereby crudities were bred in the bowels of the lower belly ; thence obstructions in the spleen and neighbouring parts . the faculty of the spleen was weaken'd , so that not able to do its office in chymification , and breeding matter unfit for convenient fermentation of the humors , it left many feculent , acid , sour , thick and crude humors , which not able to pass the small vessels , got together in a large quantity in the left hypochondrium about the spleen , which occasioned that troublesom ponderosity ; accompanied with wind and roarings ; for that while nature endeavours the concoction of that acid matter , which she cannot well accomplish , those acid humors receive some fermentation , which begets that great quantity of wind , which not finding an easie exit , occasions those rumblings , and distensions of the parts . this thicker , acid and sharp matter being carried to the heart , causes palpitation , while the heart endeavours to expel that sharp pricking matter from it . and in regard that melancholly juice is not equally troublesom to all the parts of the heart ; thence it happens that the palpitation does not always continue , but comes by intervals . the same juice being expelled from the right ventricle of the heart to the lungs , when it comes to fill the small branches of the arterious veins , and veiny artery , as not being able to pass them without great difficulty , fills the breast with many vapors , and causes difficulty of respiration . but being carried through the arteries with the vital blood to the brain , it disorders the motion of the animal spirits , renders them more impure , and alters them by a specific and bad mistemper . thence those melancholly imaginations , by which the operations of the mind and ratiocination are disturbed , which occasions a delirium accompanyed with fear and sadness . iv. but because that melancholly humor is not generated at first in the head , but ascends from the hypochondriums , especially the left , to the head ; hence this melancholy is not particular to any part , but sympathetic , and therefore from the name of the place , where the nourishment of the distemper lyes , is called hypochondriac . v. this melancholly delirium is hard to be cured , and not void of danger . . because the causes of it are mischievous and remote , in regard they occasion the generation and accumulation of that feculent melancholly matter in the hypochondriums . . because that feculent matter is obstinate and not easily tam'd by medicaments , and infects the animal spirits with a peculiar evil temper . . because the cure requiring a longer time , the question is , whether the patient will take so much physic or no. . because the continued ascent of the melancholly humor to the brain , the distemper instead of being sympathetic , may turn to be the peculiar passion of that part. . because those melancholly humors are troublesom to the membranes of the brain and nerves , through their occult and manifest qualities , their acrimony and sourness , &c. whence the fear is , least their copious afflux to the brain should cause convulsions , epilepses , &c. . because this delirium is not accompanied with laughter , but with a sad and serious musing . yet while there is strength and a willingness to take physic , there is some hopes of cure. vi. in the method of cure , the containing cause is first to be discussed , and the ill temper of the animal spirit to be removed as also that the antecedent cause , or melancholly humor in the hypocondriums , be atteuated , digested and evacuated , and a new generation and accumulation of it prevented , that obstructions be removed , and that the brain , spleen and other bowels be corroborated . vii . milder medicaments , not very hot will be most convenient ; least the matter being agitated by stronger and very hot medicines be carried in too great a quantity to the heart and brain . viii . first loosen the belly with this glyster . ℞ . emollient decoction ℥ x. choice hiera p●…cra , diacatholicon an . ℥ j. s. oyl of camomile ℥ j. s. salt ʒ j. mix them for a glyster . the next day but one , or the third day , give him this purge . ℞ . leaves of senna ℥ s. white agaric , anise-seed , an . ʒ j. ginger ℈ j. decoction of barly q. s. make an infusion , then add to the straining confect . hamech ʒ ij . hiera picra ʒ j. for a potion . ix . now because people thus affected have their veins swelled , with a palpitation of the heart sometimes , and that their strength is in good condition , after purging , blood-letting will not be amiss in the arm ; or if the hemorhoid veins appear , leeches may be properly applied . x. this done let the patient drink three or four times a day , a draught of this apozem . ℞ . root of polipody of the oak ℥ j. eringos , cammoch , rind of the roots of capers , tamarisch , an . ℥ s. herbs , borage , roman-wormwood , strawberry-leaves , all the dandelions , ceterach , germander , water trefoile an . m. j. march violet leaves and baum an m. s. citron and orange-peels an ℥ s. damask prunes vij . currants ℥ ij . steel ty'd in a little knot ℥ j. anise-seed ʒ iij. common water q. s. make an apozem . of lb j. s. xi . after he has used this apozem four days , let him take the pu●…ge aforesaid again , and then return to his apozem ; and so continue this method for some time , and if he be bound while he takes his glister , let him be loosened with the foregoing glister ; now and then the apozem may be made purging by adding . ℞ . leaves of senna ℥ ij . root of black-hellebore ʒ ij . indian mirobalans ʒ vj. anise-seed ℥ s. and let him drink ℥ iiij . every morning . if he find himself nauseous and inclining to vomit , this vomitory may be given him . ℞ . conserve of leaves of asarabacca ʒ x. decoction of radishes ℥ iij. oxymel scyllitic with agric ℥ s. vomitious wine ʒ iij. xii . in the mean time that he takes these things , let him also for the strengthening of his head and bowels , take of these tablets several times in the day . ℞ . specier . diambrae ʒj . dianthos , aromatic . rosatum , an . ℈ j. powder of the yellow of citron-rina ℈ j. s. sugar dissolved in betony-water ℥ ij . for tablets . or let him sometimes take a small quantity of this conditement . ℞ . specier . diambrae ʒ j. conserve of borage , baum , rosemary-flowers , pale roses an . ʒ iij. syrup of citron rind , q. s. xiii . let him keep in a good and pleasant air , and avoid loanliness ; converse with merry company , and be merry himself . let him abstain from all meats of hard digestion and ill nourishment , especially salted and smoaked food . let him avoid bottled and windy drink , and let his salads and sauces be such as attenuate and open , and promote concoction , but not very hot . history . v. of madness . a young gentlewoman about twenty eight years of age , lusty , perspicacious , melancholy , musing and thoughtful , but using an ill diet , and sometimes liable to obstructions in her hypochondriums ; finding her self to be slighted by her parents , a long time concealed her greif , and publickly shewed her self chearful , but spent the nights without sleep , in morosness , tears and sighs . at length she was taken with a pain in her head , accompany'd with a slight fever , disorderly but continual : within a few days her pain leaving her she appeared to be light headed , for she that was before reserved of her speech , grew to be very talkative of a suddain ; so that at length she began to talk not only all day but all night long . however for the first two or three days , though she talked much yet what she said was all sence and rational enough ; but after that she fell to raving and non-sence ; then her fever ceased ; but still she never slept ; this delirium within a few days increased to that degree , that she grew sullen , angry , run about the chamber , made a noise , and grew so out-ragious , that she laid violent hands upon all that came near her , talked obscenely , and tore her cloaths : so that she was forced to be held down in her bed , nevertheless she was strong , had her evacuations duly , and an indifferent good stomach , nor was she very thirsty ; neither was she much sensible of the bitter cold , frosty , winter-season , though she had hardly any cloaths upon her ; but was always warm . i. that the brain of this woman was terribly affected , appears by her continued madness , accompanied with want of sleep , boldness , immodesty and anger , and that her heart and the rest of her body suffered , was plain from her extraordinary heat . ii. this delirium is called madness , and is a continued commotion of the mind with an enraged boldness , arising from the heat of the spirits . iii. the chiefest of all the evident causes , was her grief to be so slighted by her parents , which though she dissemblingly suppressed at first , nevertheless in a young person , melancholy of her self , and by reason of her disorderly diet , abounding with choleric and melancholy humors , and so liable to diseases , it might easily produce a raging delirium . for that slight , sometimes moved her to anger , while the choler boiled that was mixed with her melancholly humors , sometimes to sadness , the melancholly humors being moved , and overcoming the choleric , and through that disorderly strife and effervescency of the choler with the melancholy , the whole mass of blood boiled , which occasioned a slight putrefaction , which begot a slight disorderly fever accompanied with the head-ach , caused by the sharp choloric ▪ and melancholy vapors , carried up together to the head. but at length that effervescency of choler and blood , being vanquished by the abundance and quality of the melancholy humor , the fever went off ; and the animal spirits were heated also , by the hot melancholy humors , predominant in the body and the head , and set a boiling by the foregoing effervescency of the choler ; and were so rapidly and disorderly moved , that they caused a delirium , first more ge●… , while the spirits were not so much heated and agitated ; then violent with anger , immodesty and rage , by reason the sharp heat of the animal spirits was augmented ; so that being now too much attenuated , and become more eager , they are more rapidly moved , and more disorderly and violently agitated . iv. now because not only the animal , but the vital , spirits are possessed with that heat , as also the whole mass of the blood , hence it comes to pass that the whole body becomes so heated , that they are not cool'd by the cold of the external air , but always re mains hot . v. yet there is no fever , because that violent fervor of the blood and spirits , though it be great and sharp , yet there is neither putrefaction nor inflammation , because it consists more in salt then sulphury particles . vi. this malady is difficult to cure , partly , because the most noble bowels are affected ; partly because the cause lyes in a depraved , obstinate and copious humor . lastly , because the patient being mad , will not be rul'd , nor suffer the administration of proper medicines . however the longer it is delay'd , the more difficult the cure will be . vii . the primary indications relating to the cure are these . . to prepare and evacuate the melancholly humor abounding in the body , and to extinguish the heat both of that , as of the blood and spirits . . to prevent the new generation of the same humor and fervor . . to coroborate the bowels , especially the heart ▪ brain , liver and spleen . and this is to be done by diet , chyrurgery and pharmacy viii . the chamber wherein the patient lyes must be gloomy , where he or she must be kept by strong men or women ; or else their arms must be bound with broad swaths , that they may do no harm to themselves nor others . they are to be visited by very few , whose company they loved in the time of health . they must be kept in a temperate air. their diet must be moistning and moderately cooling , rather moist then dry . their drink ▪ ptisans or small ale. they must be kept quiet with good words , and provoked to sleep as much as may be , and all evacuations of nature in both sexes , must proceed naturally ; while art supplys the disorders of nature . ix . though the enraged patient refuses all medicaments , yet fair words must be try'd , and this draught obtruded instead of drink : ℞ . leaves of senna ℥ s. anise-seed ʒ j. decoction of barly q. s. infuse them according to art : then to the straining add ▪ confect . hamech ʒ iij. extract of hellebore ℈ j. mix them for a draught . x. after purgation blood-letting is requisite , not once but often in the hands , feet , forehead ▪ arms , and other convenient places , and a good quantity of blood to be taken away , according to the strength of the patient . and the patient is to be well guarded from loosening the bindings of the fillets after stopping the blood. xi . between every blood-letting , purge the patient then with a draught before mentioned , or powder of dia-senna , or confect . hamech alone . or if these be refused , make use of codiniac , or rob of red currants , to every ounce of which , add grains twenty four ; and of this mixture give six or seven drams , as you find it works . or if the party love currants , boil them in the decoction of senna-leaves , or roots of black hellebore , till they ●…row plump , then take them out and let them dry , in a place exposed to the wind , that they may not seem to have been boiled , and give them to eat . xii . you may try either by fair words or by fraud , to make her drink now and then in a day , a draught of this apozem . ℞ . roots of polypody of the oak , succory an . ℥ j rind of caper-roots , tamarisch . an . ℥ s. herbs , dodder , venus-hair , lettice , dandelion with the whole , sorrel , ceterach , borage , bugloss an . m. j. cordial flowers an . one little handful , citron and orange peels an . ʒiij , fruit of tamarinds ℥ j. common-water q. s. boil them for an . apozem of lb j. s. if you steep in this apozem , leaves of senna ℥ j. s. root of black heleboreʒ ij . anise-seedʒ ij . by that means it will become a purging apozem , which if the patient likes may be often administered . xiii . let this conditement be also offered upon occasion . ℞ . conserve of violets , pale roses , rob of red currants , candied citron-peel an . ʒ iij. pulp of tamarinds ʒ vj. syrup of violets q. s. xiv . because such a patient chiefly requires sleep ; toward evening giv●… an amygdalate , wherein put an ounce of syrup of popies , or a little more , or three grains of opiate laudanum ; but this not above once or twice in a week , or one or two heads in the boiling the aforesaid apozem , or by adding to the aforesaid conditement one or two drams of nicholas's rest : or by anointing the temples and forehead with oyl of popies or populeon oyntment . but give not these soporifics too often , too long , nor too strong . xv. in the mean time , the hair being shaved off , let the head be fomented for an hour or two in the morning , with this fomentation luke-warm . ℞ . herbs , betony , vervain , marjoram , plantain an . m j. lettice m iiij . flowers of roses , melilot , dill , camomil , an . m j. hemp and coriander-seed an . ℥ s. common-water q. s. after fomentation keep the head well covered from the cold air. but this fomentation will not be proper before the body be well purged , and some blood be taken away . xvi . when the distemper begins to asswage , it will not be amiss to clap alive hen cut in two upon the head , or the lungs of a new kill'd sheep or calf newly killed . xvii . some applaud the clapping of medicines to the feet , as also pidgeons slit , or tenches slit , or else leaves of coleworts and rue , with sowre ferment salt and vinegar , and so bruised into the form of a past , and bound to the soles of their feet , which if they do no good , yet do no harm , and therefore in this case may safely be made use of ; for the satisfaction of such as desire it . history . vi. of the disease call'd coma , both somnulent and wakeful . a person about forty years of age , somewhat of a phlegmatic constitution , was wont to be troubl'd twice or thrice a year with catarrhs falling upon his teeth or lungs , which sometimes seized him with a slight pain in his head , sometimes without any at all ; at length in autumn , he felt a distensive and heavy pain in the hinder part of his head , such as used to precede his catarrh , but then no catarrh ensued ; however this pain increasing and being accompany'd with a giddiness , after purgation and blood-letting by the advice of a physitian , and other proper remedies applied , the pain abated , so that the patient went abroad again ; but venturing too soon into the cold air , when he found the pain together with the giddiness encrease again , he was forced to take his bed , and of a suddain was perceived to rave . the pain still more and more augmenting , the second day , standing by his bed side , he fell down , not being able to rise , but by those in the room was put to bed again , where in a short time he fell into such a deep sleep , that nothing but violent pulling and pinching him would wake him , and then he only opened his eyes a little , but spoke nothing , and fell asleep again . the third day there was no rowsing him ; but when this profound sleep had continued about four days he began to wake , however then he spoke but little , and that after a wild and raving manner ; thus he lived eight days . afterwards he had a continual inclination to sleep , with his eyes winking , but could not sleep , and muttered many things idly to himself ; sometimes lying still , when he was thought to be asleep , of a suddain he would endeavour to leap out of his bed and to do something or other ; but was so weak that he could not . in this inclination to sleep with a continued delirium he remained eight or ten days ; afterwards he could not sleep at all , neither had he any inclination to sleep for a fortnight together ; in the mean time the delirium abated every day ; so that within that time , he became sound of his mind and recovering his strength was restored by his physitians to his former health , during the whole course of his distemper he had no fever . his appetite was good even in his profound sleep ; for though when he waked he asked for nothing , yet he took whatever was given him and digested it well . by his wild answers it appear'd , that not only imagination and reason , but his memory was weakned . the question is , what sort of disease this man was troubled with , and with what remedies it was to be cur'd ? i. that the brain of this person was affected , and thence his principal and external senses were also troubled , is plain by the relation . ii. that profound sleep , which at first oppressed him was a somnulent coma , which is a deep sleep arising from the benumedness of the common sense . but that heavy inclination to sleep , which followed after , yet with an inability to sleep , was a wakeful coma , which is a heavy propensity to sleep , with an impotency so to do , by reason of the obstruction or compression of the vessels in the ventricles of the brain , and a disorderly motion of the spirits disturbing the mind . iii. the antecedent cause of this malady was a copious generation of flegm in the lower parts ; which being carried to the brain , and collected in the ventricles of it , constitutes the containing cause . for that same flegm not being able to fall down to the lower parts , as is usual , but being there detained , with its quantity distends the vessels ; whence first a distending and oppressive pain ; afterward that flegm being more encreased , in some manner compressed the choroid-fold , together with the wonderful net , hence the vital spirits not suffi●…ng to supply the want of animal spirits to perform the offices of the principal and external senses , the patient , motion ceasing , fell down , not being able to rise again ; and then the external senses ceasing , a deep sleep ensued . at length by the help of nature and medicines that obstruction of the choroid-fold being somewhat open'd , and the vital spirits let loose to encrease the animal , which were not yet plentiful enough , besides that they moved disorderly through obstructed passages , hence the mind became disturbed ; for that though more spirits then before flowed forth to the organs of the senses , yet they were not sufficient to perform the whole duty ; which caused that great inclination to sleep ; which however was still disturbed by the continual disturbance of the mind ; so that though the patient were willing to sleep he could not , but as it were wak'd sleeping , with continual deliriums . lastly the obstruction being wholly opened , and the spirits having gain'd free passage , yet very few vapors ascending to the brain by reason of the extream emptiness of the body , to stay them their due time in the brain , hence followed continual watchings , which abated as more vapors ascended to the brain upon digestion of more nourishment . there was no fever , because no putrefaction of humors molested the heart . iv. a somnulent or waking coma , is a most dangerous disease , which kills many , especially if the profound sleep extend it self beyond the fourth day : in regard the most noble bowel the brain is most grievously affected . for that obstruction and compression endangers the choroid-fold for two reasons : either because the coma for want of animal spirits may turn to an apoplexy ; or because the hot vital spirits , not being able to get through their wonted passages , may cause an inflammation in the membranes of the brain , and then a phrensie would ensue . v. the principal curative indications are to draw back and evacuate the containing matter at the beginning , and so to open the obstruction ; then to take away the antecedent cause ; and hinder a new collection of flegm . vi. because a man in that profound sleep can swallow nothing . glysters must be administred at least once a day . hard frictions and dolorific ligatures of the extream parts must be made use of : blood must be taken from the arm. cupping-glasses both without and with scarification , must be applied to the shoulders , back and neck . the patient also must often be waked with jogging and pinching , i●… it be possible ; and that the containing matter may be shaken off and expelled , this sternutory is to be blown up into the nostrils , ever now and then : ℞ . root of white hellebore , ℈ j. pellitory , ℈ s. leaves of marjoram , ℈ j. pepper , castoreum , an . gr . v. for a powder . vii . his sleep abating ; give him these pills . ℞ . mass of pill cochiae , ℈ j. extract of catholicum , ℈ s. for five pills . or if he cannot swallow them , give him one dram of powder of diaturbith , or diacarthamum in a little small ale. or a purging draught , prepared with leaves of senna , agaric and jallop-roots or the like . viii . the body being sufficiently purged , this apozem , or such like may be prescribed . ℞ . root of acorus , ʒvj . of elecampane , fennel , an . ℥ s. of galangal , ʒij . herbs , marjoram , rosemary , betony , baum , calaminth , an . m. j. sage , flowers of st●…chas , an . m. s. iuniper-berries , ʒvj . of lawrel , ʒij . cleansed raisins , ℥ ij . vvater , q. s. boil them , and make an apozem of 〈◊〉 . j. s. to which may be added syrup of stoechas , ℥ ij . or iij. let him drink of this decoction , three or four times a day . in the mean time let him continue the use of his sternutory . ix . if he cannot take his apozem , let him now and then take a quantity of this conditement . ℞ . specier . diambrae ʒ j. s. conserve of baum , flowers of sage , betony , rosemary , an ʒ s. syrup of stoechas q. s. for a conditement . x. also let the following quilt be laid upon his head. ℞ . leaves of marjoram , rosemary , flowers of lavender , melilot , an . ℈ iiij . benjamin , nutmeg , cloves , an . ℈ j. to be grosly powdered for a quilt . then anoint his temples and the top of his head with this liniment ; r. oyls of rosemary , marjoram , nutmegs , an . ℈ j. martiate oyntment ʒij . and let him wear this a good while after the cure. xi . let his diet be sparing , meats of good juice , and easie of digestion , seasoned with rosemary , marjoram , and other cephalics . when he wakes continually amygdalates are proper : for they yield good nourishments and provoke sleep : and all natural evacuations must duly proceed . history vii . of the lethargy . a person , threescore years of age , of a flegmatic constitution , having all the autumn being careless of his diet , feeding greedily upon fruit , lettice , cowcumbers , melons and such like , for some days perceived a weariness of his whole body , with a great inclination to sleep . then he was taken with a slight continued fever , which toward night growing worse , seemed like a quotidian . this fever was presently accompany'd with a very great drowsiness , so that he could not be kept from sleeping and which was so profound , that he heard not the standers by , though they bawled out and made never so loud a noise ; being at length rowsed out of his sleep not without great difficulty and hawling and pulling , he looked upon the standers-by , but answered very little to their questions ; and that , very little to the purpose ; not knowing that he had been asleep : if they gave him a chamber-pot ; he forgot to make water ; and so with his mouth and his eyes shut he fell asleep again ; his pulse was strong , but slow and at distant intervals ; and toward night unequal and somewhat swifter , his urine was muddy , with a very thick flegmatic sediment . i. that the head and whole body of this patient were affected , appears from the profound sleep , which oppressed the one , and the continued fever and lassitude that seized the other . ii. that heavy drowsiness which seiz'd our patient , is called a lethargy , which is an insatiable propensity to sleep with a gentle fever and molestation of the principal faculties . iii. the remote cause of this malady was cooling and bad dyet , which generating a great quantity of flegmatic humors in a flegmatic body , made the antecedent cause . iv. which flegmatic humors being carried in great quantity to the brain , and affecting it with a cold mistemper ; partly putrifying in the larger vessels , and inflam'd in the heart , and thence dispeirsed through the whole body , and through the carotides arteries to the brain , constitute the containing cause of the sleep and fever . v. for when those crude humors already inflam'd in the heart come through the carotides arteries to the choroid-fold , whose small arteries by reason of the cold temper of the brain , ( are narrower then usually , ) and partly through their own thickness , partly through the narrowness of those passages slowly pass through the choroid fold , they are there thickened still more and more , by the cold constitution of the brain , and their passage becomes more obstructed ; so that for that reason the animal spirits growing fewer , and but ill supplyed , and consequently not sufficing to officiate in their dutys , hence follows a cessation in the organs of those senses : by which means when no objects can be carry'd to the principal senses they cease too , when a profound drowsiness out of which when the patient is roused , the principal senses appear damnified , for want of spirits , and their disorderly motion through obstructed passages . vi. this disease is dangerous . . because the brain is dangerously affected . . by reason of the fever which affects the whole body . . because the patient was old , and unable to conquer such a malady for want of natural heat and strength ; but because he had some strength remaining , there was hopes of cure. vii . in the cure , the flegmatic matter abounding in the whole body is to be evacuated , drawn back from the head , and deriv'd to the lower parts . the cold distemper of the head to be remov'd , the head to be corroborated , and the matter therein contain'd to be dissolv'd and drawn away . viii . after a glyster , dolorific ligatures , and hard frictions of the thighs are very proper , if frequently used . blood-letting at such an age is not so convenient ; therefore cupping-glasses both with and without scarification are to be apply'd to the shoulders , neck and back . but no repelling cold medicines are to be used in this case . ix . so soon as the patient can be wak'd let him have this apozem given him . ℞ . white agaric , ʒj . leaves of senna , ℥ s. anise-seed , ʒj . ginger , ℈ j. decoctions of barley , q. s. infuse them , then add to the straining ele. diaphenicon ʒiij . if the body be bound it must be loosen'd with glysters . x. the body being well purg'd , let him take every foot a draught of this apozem . ℞ . roots of aromatic reed , elecampane , fennel , stone-parsly , an . ℥ s. herbs , betony , venus hair , century lesser , dandelion , an . m. j. rosemary , marjoram , hyssop , flowers of stoechas , camomil , an . m. s. iuniper-berries , ʒvj . anise-seeds , ℈ j. s. citron and orange-peels , an . ℥ s. water q. s. make an apozem of lb j. s. to which add syrup of stoechas ℥ ij . or iij. xi . after he has taken this apozem , let him purge as before or if he like pills better , let him take ℈ ij or iij of cochia pills , or ʒj . of diaturbith or diacarthamum powder'd and dissolv'd in barley-water . xii . after this second purgation , let him return to his apozem , to which you may then add several diuretics as roots of dodder , asparagus , eryngos ; and herbs as stone parsley , strawberry leaves and the like . castoreum also may be properly mix'd in this apozem ; or else five or six grains given him in a little oxymel of squills . xiii . while these things are a doing let the matter be specially evacuated out of his head ; the head be corroborated with topics , and the remaining matter there discuss'd . evacuation is performed by errhins of equal parts of roots of beets and leaves of marjoram : and by snuf blowing into his nostrils the following sternutory . ℞ . root of white hellebore ℈ j. of pellitory , and leaves ●…f marjoram , an . ℈ s. black pepper , gr . v. castoreum , benjamin , an . gr . iiij . to corroborate the brain anoint the top of the head and temples with this liniment : and then cover the head with the following quilt . ℞ . oyls of amber , rosemary , marjoram , an . ℈ ij . martiate oyntment , ʒij . castoreum , powdered , ℈ s. for a liniment . ℞ . leaves of marjoram , m. j. of rosemary , sage , and flowers of melilot , an . one little handful , cloves , nutmegs , an . ℈ j. castoreum , ℈ s. beat these into a gross powder for a quilt . xiv . let him have a good air , a light room , moderately warm , and perfumed with castor , peny-royal , rosemary , sage , thime , marjoram , baum , &c. let his food be easie of digestion , condited with rosemary , betony , marjoram , hyssop and the like . let him avoid milk , pulse and fruit , garlic , onions , mustard , radishes , &c. let his drink be barley-water , with majoram , hyssop , rosemary and the like boil'd in it , sweetened with a little hydromel or honey , and a●…omatiz'd with saffron . let him sleep as little as may be : and make his natural evacuations come forth in due order . history . viii . of the profound sleep call'd carus . a stout young man having fallen from a high place upon his head , was seized with a deep sleep ; being put by his friends , who thought him drunk , into his bed ; he continued so for two days . there was no wound appeared in his head , which was defended by a good strong cap ; only in the top of his head there was a contusion , not very big ; his pulse beat well ; nor did he shew any signs that his heart was affected ; he breathed freely ▪ if he were prickt , he shrunk up the prickt member ; in the mean time no noise , nor pulling him by the hair nor other means would wake him . i. how far this patients head was affected , the profound sleep sufficiently shew'd . ii. this sleep is called carus , which is a profound sleep , with an injury to the animal actions . iii. 't is no apoplexy because the person breaths freely ; nor lethargy , because there is no fever : and the patient cannot be waked ; wherein it differs from coma since the patients in that distemper are often waked , and move their limbs from one place to another . iv. the cause of this is a depression of the upper skull , and the bones of the bregm●… caused by the fall , by which the brain being depressed the brain is hindered in its motion , which injures all the animal actions . besides that the choroid-fold being obstructed by the compression , hinders the passage of the vital spirits to the brain , and consequently the generation of animal , to supply the wast of spirits in the organs of the senses ; into which the animal spirits having not a free influx by reason of that compression , the actions of the parts fail , and thence that deep sleep . v. this carus is very dangerous , and threatens an apoplexy , if not taken care of in time . vi. the cure consists , in raising the depressed skull . . in corroborating the wakened brain . . in taken care of the whole body to prevent the flux of many humors to the head ; or any other disease from breeding at that time in the body . vii . therefore a glister given , take eight or nine ounces of blood out of the arm. then proceed to denudation , and if need require , perforation of the brain . viii . the same day the glister is given , and the vein opened toward the ●…kull , in the place where the contusion ●…ppears , must be laid bare with a cross●…ike incision made in the fleshy parts : the next morning raise the bone with ●…roper instruments . but for fear least ●…y that violent contusion , some little veins should be broken in the hard meninx , which may have poured forth any blood between the meninx and the cranium , which corrupting there , should af●…erward be the cause of unexpected death , the safest way would be to perforate the skull in the firm part next the depressed part ; to give ●…he extravasated blood an easie exit , and for the more easie raising of the depressed skull . ix . the skull being raised and the wound stopt according to art , let this fomentation be clapt warm about his head , still shifting it as it grows cold . ℞ . betony m. iiij . marjoram , rosemary , vervain , fennel , leaves of lawrel , baum , thime , rue , flowers of stoechas , camomil , melilot , an . m. j. common water q. s. boil them according to art , adding toward the end white-wine lb j. make a fomentation of 〈◊〉 iij. x. anoint his fore-head with this liniment . ℞ . oyls of amber , rosemary , marjoram distilled an . ℈ j. castoreum pulverised gr . ix . martiate unguent ʒ ij . xi . the patient being rous'd from his sleep , which uses to happen , after the raising of his skull , give him this purging draught . ℞ . leaves of senna ʒ iij. rubarb ʒ j. s. white agaric ʒ s. anise-seed ʒ j. decoction of barley q. s. infuse them : then add to the straining , elect. diaprunum solutive ʒ iij. xii . the body being purged , let him drink twice or thrice a day a draught of this apozem . ℞ . succory root ℥ j. s. of fennel and acorus an . ℥ s. herbs , betony , dandelion , borage , baum , rue , an . m. j. rosemary , marjoram , flowers of stoechas an . m. j. orange and citron peels an . ℥ s. currants ℥ ij . water q. s. for an apozem of lb j. s. xiii . instead of the apozem , he may now and then take a small quantity of this or such like conditement . ℞ . specier . diambrae ʒ j. roots of acorus condited , candied orange-peels , con●…erve of anthos and pale roses an . ℥ s. syrup of stoechas q. s. xiv . if he be bound at any time in his body , let him be loosened with glisters . or else take the following mixture , and hang it up in a little bag , in a pint and a half of small al●… , and give him a draught or two every morning . ℞ . leaves of senna ℥ j. s. rubarb ʒ ij . root of iallop ʒ j. anise . ʒ ij . leaves of marjoram , carduus benedict . an . m. s. xv. keep him in a good temperate clear air : let his meats be of easie digestion ; and spa●…ing at first . his drink small ; his exercises moderate : little sleep at first especially . but let his natural evacuations duly proceed , either spontaneously or provoked by art. history ix . of a catalepsis . a young maid , her evacuations being obstructed , and frequently liable to uterine suffocations , being taken of a suddain , remained void of sence , and in that posture as she taken waxed cold , keeping her eyes open and fixed but seeing nothing ; if the standers●…y moved her arm upwards or downward or side-ways , it remained as they laid it ; if they set her upon her feet she stood ; if they moved her body forwards , she put out her foot , if they turned her head on one side , so it stood all this while she breathed freely ; when this fit had lasted an hour , she came to her self , but remembered nothing of what had happened . two days after she was taken with another fit , which went off of it self . i. that the seat of this distemper was in the head , the terrible molestation of the animal actions declare ; as the uterine suffocation shewed the distemper of the womb. ii. this affection is called a catalepsis , and is a sudden , and very great molestation of the animal actions , with a cold rhuminess of the whole body ; in which distemper the patient keeps that posture of body , wherein they were when first taken . iii. the brain of this woman was affected , not the whole , but in that part where the common sense lies , and that by a vitious humor or vapor , translated thither from the womb. iv. the antecedent cause , is a vitious and viscous humor , or thick vapor , generated or collected in the womb , and thence conveighed to the head through blind channels , which adhering to the common sensory , and parts adjoyning , and involving them of a sudden , hinders the determination of the spirits from the common sensory , and so constitutes the containing cause of this catalepsis . v. now because the whole brain is not affected , but that sufficient spirits are generated therein , whose influx into the nerves is not hindred by any compression or obstruction of the beginning of the nerves , hence it comes to pass , that those spirits flowing into the parts designed , when the common sensory is already possessed of a sudden by that vitious humor , or thick vapor , are not determined to other parts , but copiously flow to those parts to which they were determined , just before the catalepsis . which is the reason that the several parts remain in that posture , wherein they were before the fit , and that the eyes , arms and thighs remain as it were fixed . vi. now the reason why the patient stands , being set upon her legs , and why her members being moved this way or that , remain in the same situation , is this , because the situation of the muscles being changed , the influx of the spirits is also changed , and the pores before open , through which the spirits flowed , are shut ; but others which were shut before , are opened ; so that the spirits which copiously flowed before into these , the situation being altered , flows into those muscles , into which they still also flow , till the situation be altered . vii . respiration is performed after the same manner as in those that sleep , and remains unhurt ; partly , because of the remarkable largeness and broadness of the pores , and the mainly necessary use of the respiratory nerves ; partly , because of the customary and continual determination to the respiratory nerves . viii . the fit ceases upon the discussing or dissipation of that humor or vapor which possesses the common sensory . and the fit returns when any vapor or humor of the same nature suddenly takes possession again of the same common sensory . ix . this distemper is very dangerous , because the most noble part is affected , and because those vitious humors or vapors are not easily dispiers'd . but in this patient there was great hopes of cure , in regard the malady was not generated in the brain , but arose from another place . besides that , the fits being short , we thence judge the common sensory to be seized , not so much by a tough and viscous humor , as by a thick vapor , which is more easily attenuated and dispelled . however , in regard this thick vapor may condense into a tough humor , to the hazard of a more durable catalepsis , and loss of life it self , therefore the cure is not to be delay'd . x. the method of curing , is , . to discuss that thick humor or vapor , possessing the common sensory . . to purge the womb , and remove the obstructions of it , and prevent a new generation of that depraved humor . . to prevent the assent of that humor or vapor to the head. . to strengthen the head , that it may no more admit of those humors or vapors , but may be able forthwith to dissipa●… and expel them . xi . in the fit , let this sternutory be blown up into the nostrils , that the expulsive faculty being provoked , the vapor or humor may thereby be violently removed . ℞ . root of white hellebore ℈ j. s. pellitory , leaves of marjoram , flowers af lilly of the valley , an . ℈ s. black pepper corns n o vii . castoreum gr . iiij . then anoint the nostrils , temples and top of the head with this liniment , and put a little cotton dipped in it into the ears . ℞ . oil of thyme , rosemary , sage , caroways , castoreum , amber , an . ℈ s. martiate oyntment ʒj . then let this little bag be hung about the neck . ℞ . castor , assa fetida , camphor , an . ℈ j. s. sow them into a thin silk bag. and in the mean time , omit not the giving of a strong glister . xii . if after all this , the fit remain , apply cupping glasses , with and without scarrification to the necks , scapulas and shoulders , with dolorific ligatures , and painful frictions of the thighs and feet . then lēt this little bag boil a little while in wine , and then squeez'd , be laid warm upon the top of the head. ℞ . flowers of rosemary , marjoram , thyme , calamint , flowers of camomil and stoechas , an . m. s. seeds of cummin , caroways , lovage , an . ʒj . s. lawrel-berry , nutmegs , an . ʒj . for a little bag. xiii . the fit being gone off , give this purging draught . ℞ . leaves of senna ℥ s. white agaric ʒj . seed of lovage ℈ ij . decoction of barley q. s. infuse them , and add to the straining elect. hiera picra ʒij . xiv . the body being thus purged , open a vein in the ancle , and take away six or eight ounces of blood. xv. then let the patient drink three or four times a day , a draught of this apozem . ℞ . roots of fennel , valerian , dittany , aromatic reed , male pyony , an . ℥ s. herbs , marjoram , nipp , calamint , rue , peniroyal , water trefoil , baum , an . m. j. flowers of camomil , melilot , stoechas an . m. s. seeds of lovage and wild carrots , an . ʒij . iuniper berries ʒvj . water q. s. for an apozem of lbj. s. xvi . these medicaments are to be often repeated , as occasion requires . and as for the regular course of living , let the air be temperate and pure , perfumed sometimes with rosemary , baum , thyme , rue , lovage , castor , and the like . the diet of good juice and easie digestion , as such as corroborates the brain and womb. the drink small , and without setling . sleep and exercise moderate ; and let all the patients evacuations be regular , and in due time , either spontaneous , or procured by art. history x. of giddiness . a woman , of thirty years of age , fat and lusty , of a flegmatic constitution , having many times been troubled , so soon as winter was over , with a heavy pain in her head , and noise in her ears , at length , in the spring time , was taken with a giddiness that often went and came ; first more mild , then more vehement , at what time , she thought all things turned round , so that sometimes she could hardly stand upright , but fell down , unable to rise , till the giddiness ceased ; which presently returned , if she looked upon wheels that ran round , flame or smoak ascending upward ; upon any rapid stream , or from any precipice . her appetite and digestion were good ; her evacuations were regular and in season , and all the bowels of the middle and lower belly seemed to be in a good condition . i. certain it is , that the seat of this affection was in the brain , in regard that annoyance of the sight did not proceed from any fault of the sight , or of the medinum , or the object . ii. this malady , by the physicians is called vertigo or giddiness . and is a deception of the sight , which makes that visible objects seem to turn round , arising from a kind of whirl-pit motion of the animal spirits in the brain . iii. the remote cause is the external motion , refrigerating the brain , and streightning the passages of it , appointed for the evacuating of excrements ; so that flegm abounding in the body , and copiously collected in the ventricles of the brain , constitutes the containing cause . iv. by those flegmatic humors , the ventricles are first distended ; thence the heavy pain . this flegm augmenting , stops up the passages of the brain , through which the spirits ought to pass , partly by repletion , partly by compression ; so that the spirits missing their direct passage , and lighting upon the obstructed passage , gets thorough in a circular motion , as water falling with violence , if it meet a dam in its way , recoils three or four times in circles , before it run by . v. these whirling spirits thus circularly carried to the seat of the mind , intermixing with the images of visible things , which are carried to the same mind , are offered to the common sensory with the same circular motion , and so occasion that fallacy of sight ; by which all visible objects seem to be whirled about in the same manner as the images of visible things . vi. but this same whirling of the spirits does not last , partly , because the narrowness of the passages of the brain is sometimes more , sometimes less ; partly , because the spirits are sometimes thicker , and sometimes thinner , and pass through sometimes with more , sometimes less violence ; which is the reason the vertigo comes by fits : for in the motion of the body , the spirits are moved with more violence , and in greater abundance , which if they cannot pass freely and directly through the ordinary passages of the brain , but light here and there upon the obstructed passages , causes the fit , whether they be thin or thick . for the repulse of the obstruction puts them into a circumgyration ; and the plenty and violent rushing of the thin spirits makes them they cannot pass ; but the thick are stoped by reason of their thickness ; and therefore drunkards , and young people that abound with thin spirits , are as much liable to giddiness , as old men , whose spirits are thicker . but the giddiness of old men is more frequent , and lasts longer , because of their more abounding flegm ; longer , and more frequently streightens the passages of the choroid-fold . therefore the vertigo seldom happens when the body is in motion , and is generally abated and cured by rest . vii . but because there are not enough of those whirling spirits that make their way through the passages of the brain ; besides that , their ●…ircumrotation hinders them from entring in sufficient quantity into the nerves : this was the reason that this patient , for want of animal spirits in the muscles , often fell to the ground , without being able to rise before the vertigos ceasing , the animal spirits flowed more copiously again into the muscles . viii . then the fit returns again upon the sight of wheels turning round , precipices , &c. because the images of those things being carried to the inner parts with that same whirling and unequal motion affects the animal spirits with the same circular and unequal motion . upon the sight of precipices , the vertigo returns ; in regard the sight of them striking a terror into the beholder , the affright streightens the passages , and by that means , puts a sudden stop upon the spirits , which being forced forward by those that come behind , because they have not a free passage , are agitated by the repulse of the obstruction , and forced into a circular motion . ix . this malady is hard to be cured , and many times turns to an epilepsie , or apoplexie , or some other grievous distemper of the brain , and therefore the cure of it is not to be delay'd . x. the cure consists in removing the primary , antecedent and continuing cause , and corroboration of the brain . xi . first , therefore let her be purged with these pills . ℞ . mass of pill . cochiae ℈ j. extract of catholicon ℈ s. diagridion gr . ij . syrup of stoechas a little . for vij . pills . xii . though not much good can be expected from blood-letting , yet least the blood should fly up to the head in too great a quantity , it may be taken from the arm , or if it happen in the time of her monthly customs , out of a vein of the foot. let the vein be opened , the patient lying in bed , and let her not see her own blood. xiii . then let her drink three or four times a day , a draught of this apozem . ℞ . root of acorus ℥ j. elecampane , fennel , an . ℥ s. herbs . betony , marjoram , rosemary , calaminth , ●…hyme , an . m. j. sage , leaves of lawrel , flowers of stoechas , an . ms. seeds of anise , fennel , caroways , an . ʒj . s. cleansed raisins ℥ ij . water q. s. boil them according to art , adding toward the end white-wine lb s. make an apozem of about lbj. s. sometimes , instead of the apozem , she may take a small quantity of this apozem . ℞ . specier . diambrae ʒj . sweet diamosch ℈ j. candied root of acorus , conserve of flowers of sage , anthos , baum , an . ℥ s. syrup of stoechas q. s. xiv . in the mean time , let her use this masticatory . ℞ . root of pellitory , elecampane , an . ʒj . herbs , marjoram , hyssop , an . ʒs . black pepper ℈ s. mastich ʒv . reduce these into a powder , and then make them into trochischs with a little turpentine and wax . xv. let her temples , nostrils and top of her head be anointed twice a day with this oyl . ℞ . oyl of nutmegs distilled ʒj . oyls of rosemary , amber , marjoram , an . ℈ s. she may also wear the following quilt upon her head for some months . ℞ . leaves of rosemary , melilot , sage , flowers of melilot , an . one little handful , nutmeg ℈ ij . cloves ℈ j. benjamin ℈ s. beat them grossly for a quilt . xvi . let her have a warm room and good air. let her feed sparing , and let her food be easie of digestion , not flatulent , and seasoned with hot cephalics , and carminative seeds . her drink must be small , wherein , if a little bag of marjoram , rosemary , and a little cinnamon be hung , 't will be so much the better . moderate sleep and exercise is best , when the giddiness is off ; but let her rest in the time of the fit. keep her body soluble , and take care that all evacuations be regular and natural . history xi . of the night-mare . a woman of fifty years of age , in good plight , fleshy , strong and plethoric , sometimes troubled with the head-ach , and catarrhs falling upon her breast in the winter ; the last winter , molested with no catarrhs , but very sore in the day-time , but in the night-time , when she was composing her self to sleep , sometimes she believed the devil lay upon her and held her down , sometimes that she was choaked by some great dog or thief lying upon her breast , so that she could hardly speak or breath , and when she endeavoured to throw off the burthen , she was not able to stir her members . and while she was in that strife , sometimes with great difficulty she awoke of her self , sometimes her husband hearing her make a doleful inarticulat voice , waked her himself ; at what time she was forced to sit up in her bed to fetch her breath ; sometimes the same fit returned twice in a night , upon her going again to rest. i. the brain of this woman was primarily affected , especially in the hinder ventricle of the brain , near the spinal pith , for the muscles of the parts seated below the head , are agrieved , which appears by her difficulty of breathing , and the hindered motion of her breast , thighs and arms. hence the heart is affected with the lungs . ii. this affection is called incubus , or the night-mare , which is an intercepting of the motion of the voice and respiration , with a false dream of something lying ponderous upon the breast , the free influx of the spirits to the nerves being obstructed . iii. the antecedent cause of this malady , is an over-redundancy of blood in the whole body , whence many vapors are carried to the head , and there detained by the winter-cold , streightning the pores , and thickning those vapors , and narrowing the passage to the beginning of the spinal marrow , which hinders a sufficient passage of the animal spirits to the nerves ; and this constitutes the containing cause . iv. for while the passages of the nerves are compressed by the more thick vapors , detained about the lower part of the brain ; at the entrance of the marrow into the spine , sufficient animal spirts do not flow into the lower parts , which causes the motion of the muscles to fail . now , because the motion of the muscles , for the most part ceases in time of sleep , except the respiratory muscles , therefore the failing of their motion is first perceived , by reason of the extraordinary trouble that arises for want of necessary respiration . now the patient in her sleep growing sensible of that streightness , but not understanding the cause in that condition , believes her self to be overlay'd by some demon , thief , or other ponderous body , being neither able to move her breast , nor to breath . then endeavouring to shake off that troublesome weight , as apprehensive of some ensuing suffocation , but not being able to move the rest of her members , she believes them under the same pressure . upon which , when she tries to call out for assistance , but because of the streightness of her respiration , she is not able to speak distinctly , she makes an inarticulate noise with great difficulty . in this strugling she continues , till the animal spirits , detained at the lower part of the brain , by the compression of the spinal marrow , and there collected in a greater quantity , at length forced by the continual flux of spirits from the heart , violently make their way through the pith into the nerves and muscles , and restore motion to the parts . then the patient moves her body and wakes , and by that motion those thick vapors are dissipated , and being awake , she is forced to take breath , to repair the loss which she suffered for want of respiration . but because there is yet a larger quantity of these vapors still remaining in the head , hence it comes to pass , that if she fall asleep again , especially if she lye upon her back , the same evil returns , in regard those thick vapors settle more easily toward the hinder part of the head near the marrow . v. now that they are vapors , and not humors , is plain from hence , that the malady is so soon mastered , which could not be done so suddenly were they humors , which would rather cause an apoplexie , or some other more dangerous evil , that they are thick , and not thin vapors , appears from hence , because the thin vapors would pass more easily through the pores , though narrower , which the thick cannot do , which requires motion of the body to dissipate them ; which motion ceasing in sleep , they stick to the place and streighten the pores of the nerves . but if any cold ill temper of the brain happen at the same time , those vapors are easily condensed into humors by that cold , which if detained in the head , cause heaviness , the coma , apoplexy , and the like . if they flow from the head to the lower parts , they breed catarrs , with which our patient was wont to be troubled in the winter-time . vi. this malady is dangerous , least the collected vapors being condensed in the head , should breed a coma , apoplexy , or the like . vii . it consists in removing the antecedent , principal and containing cause , and the corroboration of the brain . viii . to purge away the antecedent cause , or the great quantity of humors , let the body be purged with pill . cochiae , powder of diaturbith , or this potion . ℞ . leaves of senna ʒiij . white agaric , rhubarb , an . ʒj . s. anise-seeds ℈ ij . white ginger ℈ s. decoction of barley q. s. infuse them , and to the straining , add elect. diaphaenicon ʒij . ix . then because she is plethoric , take away ℥ viij . or ix . of blood from her arm. x. after blood-letting , let her take every morning a draught of this apozem . ℞ . root of calamus aromaticus , fennel , stone-parsley , capers , an . ʒvj . herbs , betony , marjoram , dodder , succory , borage , sorrel , an . m. j. flowers of stoechas m. s. iuniper berries ℥ s. blew currants ℥ ij . water q. s. boil them according to art , adding toward the end rubarb , white agaric , an . ʒij anise-seed ℥ s. cinnamon ℈ j. s. make an apozem of lb. s. xi . to expel the containing cause , errhinas snuft up into the nostrils , or a sneezing powder of root of white hellebore , pellitory , leaves of marjoram , and flowers of lilly of the valley , greatly conduce . xii . to corroborate the brain , let her take a small quantity of this conditement . ℞ . specier . diambr . aromatic . rosat . an . ℈ ij . conserve of flowers of betony , sage , anthos , candied root of acorns , an . ℥ s. syrup of stoechas q. s. xiii . to the same purpose let her wear such a quilt as this upon her head. ℞ . leaves of rosemary , marjoram , thyme , flowers of lavender , an . ʒj . nutmegs ℈ ij . cloves ℈ j. benjamin ℈ s. beat them into a gross powder . xiv . keep her in a pure and moderate hot air. let her diet be sparing , but of good juice and easie digestion . let her suppers be more moderate then her dinners . her drink must be small , her exercise moderate , and so must her sleep be , and let her be careful of sleeping upon her back . lastly , a sedate mind , and a soluble body are of great moment in this case . history xii . of the apoplexy . a strong man , about forty years of age , both a great feeder and drinker , complained of a heavy pain in his head for two months together , but took no care of himself , but followed on his usual course of drinking fore-noons and after-noons ; but at length , one morning waking in his chamber , after he had muttered out three or four inarticulate words , he fell of a sudden void of sense or motion , only that he breathed , and had a strong pulse . i. that this man's head was terribly afflicted , the cessation of the animal functions sufficiently declared . ii. this affection is called an apoplexy , which is a sudden privation of all the animal functions , except the act of respiration . iii. it is plain that it was no lethargy , syncope , sleepy coma , catalepsis , or epilepsie , because the patient , without any fever , lay almost immoveable , insensible , nor could be waked by any means ▪ having all his members languid , only with a strong pulse , and a heavy respiration , which are no simptoms of the foresaid diseases . iv. the brain is affected about the beginning of the pith , which is the original of all the nerves , then besieged by a flegmatic humor . v. the remote cause was continual gluttony and drunkenness , by which the brain in a long time was extreamly weakned , and the many crude and flegmatic humors generated therein , and collected together in the ventricles , made the antecedent cause , which afterward setling at the original of the nerves , constituted the containing cause . vi. the animal spirits being hindred by those humors , contracting the pores of the beginning of the nerves , presently all the animal functions cease , and the patient becomes void of sense and motion , except respiration ; because the spirits still flow thither by reason of the largeness of the pores of the respiratory nerves . but the distemper lasting , together with the flegmatic obstruction or compression , the influx of the spirits into them is also stop'd , which causes the respiration also to fail , and thence a heaving and ratling in the throat . vii . the pulse beats well , because the blood sent from the right ventricle of the heart to the lungs , is sufficiently , as yet , refrigerated ; but if the disease continue , the pulse will also fail , because the blood of the right ventricle of the heart , is not sufficiently ventilated and cool'd , so that little blood comes to the left ventricle , which weakens the motion of the heart . viii . this disease is very dangerous ; yet because it is but in the beginning , and respiration is not yet come to ratling , and for that there is a strong natural heat remaining in the patient , there is some hope of cure , though not without some fear of a palsie that will ensue the cure. ix . the method of cure , the removal of the flegmatic humors , obstructing the beginning of the nerves ; to prevent a new generation and collection of them , and to corroborate the brain . x. let the body be moderately moved , let the hairs be plucked , and laborious rubings and ligatures of the arms and thighs . this glister may be also administred . ℞ . wormwood , rue , pellitory of the wall , mercury , hyssop , beets , lesser centaury , an . m. j. leaves of senna ℥ j. celocynth ty'd in a bag ʒj . anise-seed ʒv . water q. s. boil them according to art. ℞ . of the straining ℥ x. elect. hiera picra , diaphoenicon , an . ℥ j. salt ℈ iiij . for a glister . or instead thereof , this suppository . ℞ . specierum hierae ʒj . trochises , alhanhal ℈ s. salt gemma ℈ j. honey ℈ vj. make a suppository , and at the end of it , fasten gr . iiij . of diagridium . xi . after he has taken this glister , bleed him moderately in the arm ; then apply cupping-glasses with and without scarification to his neck , shoulders , scapulas and legs . xii . let this sneezing powder be also blown up into the nostrils . ℞ . roots of white hellebore ℈ j. pellitory of spain ℈ s. leaves of marjoram ℈ j. black pepper , castoreum , an . gr . v. for a powder . xiii . outwardly , let this little bag be applied warm to his head. ℞ . salt m. j. s. sea-sand mij . seeds of cummin , fennel , lovage , an . ʒij . cloves ʒj . s. heat them in a dry stone pot , put them in a linnen bag , and apply them warm to the head. xiv . let the nostrils , temples and top of the head be anointed with this liniment . ℞ . o●…ls of castor , lavender , rosemary , amber , an . ℈ j. martiate oyntment ʒj . xv. when the patient begins to come to himself , give him now and then a spoonful of this water . ℞ . water of tylet flowers , lilly of the valleys , aqua vitae of matthiolus , syrup of stoechas , an . ℥ j. xvi . let him then be purged with pill . cochiae , extract of catholicon , elect. diaphenicon or hiera picra , powder of diaturbith , or the infusion of such kind of flegm-purging ingredients . xvii . after purgation , let him take this apozem . ℞ . roots of sweet cane , fennel , an . ʒvj . galangal ℥ iij. marjoram , betony , rosemary , rue , calamint , hyssop , an . m. j. flowers of stoechas m. s. cordial flowers , an . one little handful , iuniper berries ʒvj . seeds of anise , fennel , an ▪ ʒij . water and hydromel , equal par●…s . make an apozem of lbj. s. of which , let him take four or five ounces thrice a day , with a small quantity of this conditement . ℞ . specier . diambre ℈ iiij . sweet diamosch ʒs . roots of sweet cane candied , conserves of betony , anthos and flowers of sage , syrup of staechas , q. s. xviii . let this quilt be laid also upon his head. ℞ . leaves of marjoram m. j. rosemary , and flowers of lavender , an . two small handfuls , cloves , nutmegs , an . ℈ jj . benjamin ℈ j. beat them into a gross powder , and quilt them into red silk . xix . an air moderately hot and dry , either by art or nature , is most proper for this distemper . meats of good nourishment and easie of digestion , condited with rosemary , marjoram , creeping thyme , sage , betony , baum , hyssop , the carminative seeds , and spices , &c. small drink , and sometimes a little hypocrass , short sleeps , moderate exercise , and orderly evacuations . history xiii . of the palsey and trembling . a virgin , twenty five years of age , of a flegmatic constitution , having for a long time ●…ed upon sallads , cucumbers and raw fruit , afterwards complaining of heavy dozing pains in her head , at length , fell apoplectic to the ground , without motion or sense , except respiration . the physician who was sent for , had brought her to this pass , that after six hours she opened her eyes again , and after twenty hours , was fully restored to her senses , and spoke ; but all the left-side of her body below the head , remain'd immoveable , with a very dull sense of feeling . yet her monthly customs observed their periods , though not so copious . i. that affection which remained , after the weak apoplexy went off , is called a palsie , which is a privation of voluntary motion or sense , or both , in one or several parts of the body . ii. the part affected is the spinal pith , chiefly about the beginning of it ; where the one half part of it being compressed or obstructed by the flegmatic humor , expelled from the brain , disturbs the use of all those nerves proceeding from that side , and by consequence of the muscles . iii. the remote cause is disorderly diet , and the too much use of cold things , whence many flegmatic humors being generated in a flegmatic body , cause an oppressive pain in the head , which is the antecedent cause , which also afterwards obstructing the original of the marrow of the brain , and afterwards cast off by one half , but still obstructing the other , constitute the containing cause . iv. thus the motion of the left-side was taken away , because that half of the pith being obstructed , the animal spirits could not enter into that half of the pith , nor the nerves proceeding from it , which causes a cessation of the actions of the instruments of voluntary motion , or the muscles on that side . but the sense is not quite lost , but remains very dull , because that several spirits pass through the contracted pores of the pith , sufficient for motion , yet not anew to impart sense to the feeling parts . v. this malady is hard to be cured , by reason of the detension of a viscous and tenacious humor in a cold part ; but youth and strength of body promise hopes of recovery . vi. the method of cure requires the attenuation and dissipation of the obstructing humor . . to prevent the afflux of any more . . to take away the antecedent cause . . to cortoborate the parts affected . vii . for evacuation of the flegmatic humor , give these pills . ℞ . mass of pill . cochiae ʒs . extract of catholicon ℈ s. with a little syrup of stoechas , make up vij . pills . instead of them may be given powder of diaturbith or diacarthamumʒj . or a draught of an insusion of leaves of senna , root of jalap , agaric . these purges are to be repeated by intervals . viii . blood-letting is not proper in this case . ix . to corroborate the nervous part of the body , and prevent the generation of flegmatick humors , let him take this apozem . ℞ . root of acorns , fennel , an . ʒvj . florence orice ʒiij . betony , ground-pine , marjoram , rosemary , calamint , thime , an . m. j. flowers of stoechas m. s. seeds of fennel , caroways , bishops-weed , an . ʒj . s. water and wine equal parts , boil them to a pint and a half , and to the straining add syrup of stoechas ℥ iij. for an apozem . of which , let the patient take four ounces three or four times a day , with a small quantity of this conditement . ℞ . specier . diambr . diamosch dulcis , an . ℈ iiij . conserve of flowers of sage , anthos , root of acorns candied , an . ʒv . syrup of stoechas q. s. x. the use of paralitic and apoplectic waters will be very proper in this case ; of which there are several to be found among the prescriptions of physicians . xi . if the disease will not submit to these remedies , let him take every morning five ounces of the following decoction , and sweat in his bed , according to his strength . ℞ . lig. guaiacum ℥ iiij . sassafras , sarsaperil , an . ℥ ij . water lbvij . macerate these twenty four hours ; then boil them , adding toward the end roots of acorns , valerian , butter-bur , fennel , an . ʒvj . galangale , licorice sli●…'d , an . ʒij . herbs , betony miij . ground-ivy , m. ij . thyme , marjoram , rosemary , flowers of stoechas , an . m. j. sage ms. iuniper-berries ℥ j. boil them to lb. iij. xii . for corroboration of the head , prepare this quilt . ℞ . flowers of rosemary , marjoram , thyme , flowers of lavender , melilot , an ▪ one small handful , cloves , nutmegs , an . ℈ ij . for a quilt . xiii . while these things are doing , let the spine of the back be well chafed with hot cloaths , especially in the neck about the head , and then fomented with a fomentation of hot cephalics boiled in wine ; or else anoint the neck with this liniment warm . ℞ . oyl of foxes , spike , rue , goose and cats-grease , an . ʒvj . oyl of turpentine ℥ s. oil of peter , rosemary , amber , an . ℈ ij . powder of castoreum ℈ iiij . after unction and friction , lay on this plaister . ℞ . pul , castoreum ʒij . benjamin ʒj . galbanum , opoponax dissolved in spirit of wine . emplaster of betony , lawrel-berries , and melilot , an . ʒvj . mix them according to art. xiv . this disease requires a hot , dry and pure air. meats of good juice and easie digestion , calefying and attenuating . for drink , hydromel or wine , imbib'd with rosemary , marjoram , betony , cardamum , &c. now and then a draught of hypocrass , or a spoonful of juniper-wine , or anthoswine , or aquae vite of matthiolus will not be improper ; avoid long sleeps and repletion , and let natures evacuations be regular and due . history xiii . of trembling . a man , fifty years of age , struck with a great and sudden terror , immediately fell down , fixing his eyes upon ▪ the standers by , but not able to speak : soon after recovering his spirits , he talked well enough , but rose up with a trembling over his whole body . from that time , when he moved his limbs , the trembling still remained , which as his body drew cold , was more violent , as he grew warm , abated . i. trembling is a deprivation of the voluntary motion of the limbs , by which they are agitated with a contrary motion , in a continued vicissitude . ii. the antecedent cause is a flegmatic humor contained in the brain , which being stirred by the great sudden and disorderly commotion of the spirits proceeding from the terror , and cast off to the pith of the spine , constitutes the containing cause . iii. for the humor in that place contracting the pores of the pith , prevents the free influx of the animal spirits through the marrow into the nerves and muscles . so that not being sufficient to perfect the voluntary motion , it happens that the limbs are moved forward by a voluntary motion , but are depressed by their own weight , so that both together cause a trembling motion . iv. this trembling is more vehement in the body , when cold ; less violent when the body is warm : because the pores are more contracted by the cold , and more dilated by the heat . which causes a freer or less open passage to the animal spirits , and consequently a more or less vehement trembling . v ▪ this trembling is not a little dangerous , for it may turn to a palsey , or may be accompanied with an apoplexy , a carus , or a lethargy . vi. the cure is the same as of the palsey . history . xiv . of a convulsion . a maid , about thirty years of age , received a wound in her right-arm , which laid a nerve bare , but unhurt . however she lay in a cold place , and by reason of her poverty , not well guarded against the cold , and besides an unskilful chyrurgeon , having stopped the blood , put a tent into the wound dipped in egyptiaeum and the apostles oyntment , which caused a most painful and vehement convulsion in her arm ; which soon after was accompanied with a convulsion of the thigh on the same side , and of her arm and thigh on the other side , which lasted sometimes half a quarter , sometimes an hour , sometimes half an hour , intermitting and returning . she was in such pain , that many times it made her talk idly . i. the nerves and muscles of this patient were affected , as appeared by the motion not spontaneous , and that still more encrease ; and her head was grieved , as appeared by the delirium . ii. this simptom is called a convulsion , which is a continued and unvoluntary contraction of the nerves and muscles toward their beginning . iii. the remote cause was the wound received , which laid the wound bare . the next cause was the sharp and biting oyntment , provoking the nerve , and the cold air no less troublesome to it . iv. which vellication of the nerve being communicated to the nerve , and perceived by the mind , presently more copious spirits were determined to the place affected for its relief , which distending in breadth the nerve and muscle belonging to it , but contracting it in length , caused the convulsion . by the pain of this convulsion , the head being troubled , sends the animal spirits disorderly to these or other lower parts , and so contracting them in the same manner , the contraction happens not only in the wounded , but in other parts likewise ; and from this great disturbance of the brain and animal spirits happens a delirium . v. this is a dangerous malady ; for besides the nerves and muscles , the noble bowel is distmpered . therefore , says hippocrates , a convulsion ensuing a wound is very dangerous . but the youth and strength of the patient promises great hopes of cure , besides that , the convulsion proceeds from an external cause that may be removed . vi. the method of cure consists in keeping the patient warm , and in a warm place , in removing the sharp and biting oyntment , and washing the wound with barley-water boiled with hyssop , and a little honey dissolved in it ; then put a tent into it dipped in this oyntment . ℞ . the yolk of an egg , n ● j. honey , turpentine , an . ʒiij . spirit of wine ʒij . then lay on emplaster of betony or melilot . vii . the parts afflicted , and especially the wounded arm , are to be fomented with this fomentation . ℞ . marjoram , rosemary , betony , calamint , hyssop , basil , an . m. j. flowers of dill m. ij . of chamomil , melilot , an . m. j. s. seeds of cumin ℥ j. of lovage ʒiij . of dill ℥ s. white-wine q. s. boil them to lbiij . viii . after fomentation , strongly cha●…e the parts affected with this liniment warm . ℞ . martiate oyntment , oyl of ireos , oyl of foxes , earth-worms and spike , an . ℥ j. oyl of castor ℥ s. ix . in the mean time , after a glister given , let the parties take a draught of this apozem to strengthen the brain and nerves . ℞ . root of sweet cane , fennel , male piony , an . ʒvj . herbs , of majoram , rue , betony , rosemary , baum , basil , calamint , an . m. j. flowers of stoechas m. s. fennel seed ʒij . raisins cleansed ℥ ij . water q. s. boil them to lbj . s. then mix water of tilet flowers , syrup of stoechas , an . ℥ iij. x. now and then let her take a small quantity of this conditment . ℞ . species diambra ℈ iiij . candied root of sweet cane , conserve of flowers of sage , betony , anthos , an . ℥ s. syrup of stoechas , q. s. xi . lastly , clap such a quilted cap upon her head. ℞ . leaves of marjoram m. s. of rosemary , betony , flowers of dill , melilot , an . two little handfuls , nutmegs ʒj . benjamin ʒs . beat them into a gross powder for a quilted cap. xii . the convulsion ceasing , the body must be purged with an infusion of leaves of senna , rubarb , agaric , &c. or with cochiae or golden pills , diaphenicon , or diaturbith , with rubarb . and then return to the use of the foresaid apozem and conditement . xiii . her diet must be easie of digestion , condited with marjoram , hyssop , rosemary , betony , sage , anise-seed , fennel-seed , and the like . let her sleep long , and take her rest as much as may be . and be sure the body evacuate regularly . history . xv. of the epilepsie . a boy of eight years of age , indifferent lusty , no care being had of his diet , first became sad , and the winter being past , often complain'd of a grievous head-ach . in march , as he was at play , he fell down of a sudden , quite senseless , writh'd his eyes , and clutch'd his two thumbs hard in his fists . that fit soon went off ; but the next day it returned much more vehement , attended with manifest convulsions of the body . from that time the fits returned twice , thrice , and four times a week , with more terrible convulsions . but in the summer they were much gentler , and not so frequent . but the autumn following , especially near winter , the fits took him very often , and very violent , and that too of a sudden without any warning , with horrid convulsions and foming at the mouth . and at last , the i continuance and violence of the distemper had so disordered the animal functions , that the child was become sottish . i. that the boys brain was affected , was plain by the distress of the animal functions . ii. this distemper is called an epilepsie , which is a convulsion of the whole body , not perpetual , with which the party taken falls to the ground , with an intercepting of the senses and functions of the mind , rising from a peculiar malignant and acrimonious matter . iii. bad diet contributes much to the breeding of this disease ( as the greedy devouring of bad and raw fruit ) which heaps up crude and flegmatic humors in a flegmatic body ; and these filling the brain , first caused the head-ach ; then through their long stay in the brain , obtaining a certain peculiar pravity and acrimony , constitute the containing cause of the epilepsis . iv. from this depraved and acrimonious humor exhale sharp and malignant vapors , which as often as they twitch and bite the beginning of the nerves , about the heat of the common sensory , so often they cause the fit. for while nature endeavors to shake off that troublesom acrimony from the sensible parts , it happens that as the spirits flow in greater or less quantity into them , they contract and relax alternately , and move the rest of the nerves and muscles of the body after the same manner ; whence those short and frequent convulsions . v. now because this malignant and sharp humor chiefly and oftenest afflicts the small diminutive nerves , near the seat of the common sensory , hence it comes to pass , that the fit so suddainly seizes . for so soon as those little nerves feel that acrimony , nature endeavors to shake it off . and because that endeavor is made , and begins near the common sensory ; therefore there is a stop put upon the functions of the senses and mind . for in regard the pine kernel is presently affected , and for that the influx of the animal spirits through the nerves sometimes contracted , sometimes relaxed , can never be regular , hence it happens that the organs of the senses become defective in their functions , and by reason of that disorderly influx of the spirits into the nerves and muscles , the patient presently falls . vi. the fits are milder and not so frequent in summer . for that the pores of the whole body are more open , by reason of the external heat , so that there is a greater dissipation of the humors ; and considering the time of the year less flegm is bred and heaped up in the brain . therefore in autumn and winter they are most frequent and violent , because of the greater abundance of flegm then bred , and less easie to be dissipated through the pores then contracted with cold ; besides the vapors exhaling from it , are more abundant and acrimonious . vii . the foam at the mouth proceeds from hence ; for that those flegmatic humors expelled from the brain into the jaws and lungs , by that vehement agitation , by reason that respiration is hindered , grows hot in those places , and being mixed with the air , unequally and difficultly passing to and fro , by vehement respiration are forced all frothy into the mouth . viii . the fit lasts , till that malignant and sharp vapor be altogether discussed ; and returns again when the depraved matter , stirred anew , sends forth the same vapors to the original of the nerves . the fit is more or less vehement , and does less hurt to the principal functions , according to the quantity and quality of the evil matter . ix . now because this ill and acrimonious humor is bred in the brain , and because the fits were frequent and vehement , and the disease of nine months standing , therefore the cure was difficult , but the strength and age of the patient gave great hopes of cure. for being but a child , the very change of youth out of one age into another many times effects the cure , as hippocrates testifies . x. the cure is to be performed either in the fit , or when the fit is gone off . in the fit , castor , green rue , oyl of marjoram , amber , nutmegs and the like are to be held to the nostrils . xi . when the fit is past , the original causes are to be taken away , the antecedent cause to be removed , the depraved quality of the containing cause to be removed , and the whole brain to be corroborated . xii . let the body be gently purged with two drams of heira picra or diaphaenicon ; or with one scruple and a half of powder of diacarthamum ; or an ounce of purging blew currans . xiii . then let him drink twice or thrice a day a draught of this decoction . ℞ . roots of male piony , misletoe , sassafras-wood an . ʒvj . of calamus aromatic . valerian an . ℥ . s. herbs , marjoram , rue , calamit . , rosmary , vervan , laurel-leaves , flowers of stoechas an . m j. iuniper-berries ℥ s. seeds of anise , wild carrots , fennel an . ʒ j. seed of male piony ʒ iij. raisins cleased ℥ ij . water q. s. boil them to an apozem of lb j. s. before he drinks this , let him take a small quantity of the following conditement . ℞ . spicier . diambr . ʒ j. s. roots of sweet cane candied , conserves of anthos , flowers of sage , betony , an . ℥ s. syrup of stoechas q. s. xiv . sometimes instead of the apozem , he may take a spoonful of this mixture . ℞ . epileptic water of langius ℥ iij. water of lime-tree flowers , of the lilly of the valleys an . ℥ j. syrup of stoechas ℥ j. s. xv. upon his head let him wear this quilted cap. ℞ . leaves of marjarom , rosemary , thime , flowers of lavender and red roses an . two small handfulls . cloves , benjamin an . ℈ j. beat them into a gross powder . xvi . let the patient be kept in a warm air ; his food must be meats of easie digestion condited with marjoram , baum , rosemary and other cephalics . his drink must be small ; his sleep and exercise moderate ; and his evacuations regular . raw fruit , garlick , onyons and swines flesh , and all other meats of hard digestion and ill juice are nought . history . xvi . of a catarrh . a man of forty years of age , of a cold constitution , and one that had long used a cooling and moistning diet , was troubled first with a heavy pain in his head , with a proclivity to sleep . afterwards he was troubl'd with a vehement cough , sometimes with deafness , noise in his ears , pains in his neck , teeth , shoulders , and other parts , sometimes a most terrible cough took him , not without some difficulty of breathing and danger of suffocation , sometimes he had nauseousness , and was molested with troublesome belchings and pains in his stomach ; under his lower jaw rose flegmatic tumors , which fell and vanished soon after ; his nostrils were more then usually dry and he spit little . he complained also that he felt a continual chilness in the top of his head ; and that his hair was not so moist as it used to be . i. here is one molested with a catarrh , which is a preter natural defluxion of humors from the head to the lower parts . ii. the remote cause of this distemper was a cold raw and flegmatic nourishment , which over-cool'd and weakened the bowels serving to concoction , and bred a great quantity of excrementitious flegm , which was the anteceding cause of the distemper : and which being colected , and accumulated in the brain , over-cool'd it , and thence fell down upon the lower parts . iii. this flegm augmented in the brain , because it had not heat enough to concoct and dissipate so cold and thick a humor ; besides that the passages to the nostrils and palate were obstructed . iv. this obstruction happens in the inner parts of the head by reason of the viscosity of the humors stuffing up the narrow passages for the evacuation of those excrements . therefore not able to pass the regular way , they flow to the inner parts of the ear , where they cause noises , deafness and pain ; sometimes to the larinx and lungs , which causes vehement coughing and danger of suffocation ; sometimes to the stomach and other parts , where they breed several maladies . in the exterior parts this obstruction happens , by reason the pores in the top of the head , are filled with humors contracted by the external cold : and that cold continuing in those refrigerated parts , causes that chilness complained of by the patient . and this cold not only hinders the passage of the vapors , but condenses them under the pericranium , into a serous and flegmatic humor , which being ill concocted becomes salt and sharp . which for want of dissipation falls down upon the teeth , neck , shoulders , &c. and causes those pains complained of . v. that the ordinary passages were obstructed is apparent from the driness of the patients nostrils and hair , and because he spit so little . vi. this affection is not a little dangerous , in regard the symptoms that attend it may bring a man into a consumption ; and breed occult and dangerous apostems in the inner parts . vii . in the method of the cure , the body must be purged twice or thrice with pill . chochiae , powder of diaturbith or diacarthamum , or such a draught as this . ℞ . leaves of senna ʒiij . white agaric . ʒ j. s. anise-seed ʒ j. choice cinnamon white ginger an . ℈ s. decoction of barley q. s. infuse them , then add to the straining elect. hiera picra ʒ j. diaphoenicon ʒ ij . viii . then the brain is to be dried and strengthened with the following apozem . ℞ . roots of acorus fennel , an . ʒ vj ▪ galangal ʒ iij. herbs , marjoram , betony , thime , rosemary , baum , calamint , an . m. j. laurel-leaves , flowers of stoechados an . m. s. seeds of anise , fennel an . ʒ ij . laurel-berrys ʒ s. water and wine equal parts , boyl them to an apozem of lbj . s. of which let him take three or four draughts a day . ix . noon and night after meals let him take a small quantity of this conditement . ℞ . specier . diambr , diamosch , diagalanga , an . ʒ s. conserve of anthos , red roses , an . ʒvj . candv'd roots of acorus , ʒiij . syrup of stoechas , q. s. x. while he follows this course , masticatories and errhines may be used ; and the taking of tobacco is very beneficial . xi . decoctions of guaiacum , sassafras and sassaparil prepared with hot and drying cephalics to provoke sweat now and then are of great use . xii . this quilt may be made for the patient to lay upon his head. ℞ . leaves of rosemary , marjarom , thime , flowers of lavender an . two small hand fuls , mastic , frankincense an . ʒ j. cloves , nutmegs an . ℈ j. for a quilt . to anoint the temples and top of the head , which is every day to be done use this liniment . ℞ . oyls of rosemary , amber , marjoram an . ℈ j. oyl of nutmegs pressed ℈ ij . martiate oyntment ʒ ij . xiii . if notwithstanding all this , the catarrh continue , make an issue in one arm or in the neck . xiv . let him keep in a moderately warm air ; observe a good diet , roasted rather then boil'd , condited with spices and hot cephalics , avoid radishes , mustard , garlic , onions , which raise and fill the head with vapors ▪ his drink must be sparing , but strong ; moderate sleep and moderate exercise . history xvii . of an opthalmy . a person about thirty years of age , abounding with hot and choleric blood , having heated himself the last winter at an extraordinary compotation of strong wine , and then exposing himself in a bitter cold night to the extremity of the weather , presently felt a sharp pain in his eyes , with a burning heat ; the next day a very great redness appeared in the white of his eye , with a manifest swelling of the little veins . he could not endure the light , so that he sat continually with his eyes shut , sharp tears flowed from his eyes , which when he opened his sight appeared to be very dim . i. here the part affected was the eye , in which the annate tunicle or the conjunctive tunicle , was chiefly aggreived , the other parts of the eye , only by accident . ii. this disease the physitians call an opthalmy , or blear-eyedness , which is an inflammation of the annate or white tunicle , accompanied with redness , heat , pain and tears . iii. the antecedent cause of this disease , was an abundance of hot blood through the whole body , which being violently stirred by the extraordinary heat caused by the wine , and suddainly detained by the original cause or the outward extream cold , and overflowing the conjunctive tunicle , constitutes the containing cause . iv. for the blood being moved more rapidly through the arteries and veins by reason of the extraordinary heat of the wine , was thickned of a suddain by the external cold received into the eye ; so that it could not pass so speedily through those little veins , as it was sent from the heart , which caus'd the veins of the tunicle to swell , and distended the tunicle it self ; and the stay of the blood corrupting it , and causing it to wax hot and sharp , produced the inflammation . v. the pain was occasioned partly by the distention of the tunicle ; partly by the acrimony of the humors corroding the tunicle . vi. he could not endure the light , partly because the pain was exasperated by admission of the external air ; partly because the eyes being opened the animal spirits presently flow into it , as they are determined for the benefit of seeing , and distend the eye , which destension augments the pain , for the avoiding of which the patient keeps his eyes shut , to avoid the distension of the part. vii . now in regard the sight proceeds from the copious influx of the spirits into the eye , and because the tunicle cannot endure that distension , hence the eyes being open , the sight grows dim ; in regard that the fewer the spirits are , the duller the sight is . viii . the tears issue forth , chiefly upon opening the eye , by reason that the caruncle in the larger corner of the eye , that lies upon the hole in the nose , is twitched and contracted in each eye by the neighbouring inflammation : especially if any injury of the air accompany it , and by reason of that painful contraction does not exactly cover the lachrymal point , so that the hole being loose and open , the tears flow forth in greater abundance . and they are sharp by reason of the salt mixt with the serous humor , and seem to be much sharper then they are , by reason of the exquisite sense of the tunicle , which is now already molested . ix . this opthalmy threatens great danger to the eye , in regard that by reason of the winter cold , the discussion of the humors flowing into the annate tunicle is the more difficult , and the longer stay of it may hazard the corrosion and exulceration of the annate and the horny tunicle , and so produce a white spot , a scar , or some such blemish in the sight . x. in the cure , the antecedent cause is to be removed , as being that which nourishes the containing ; and the original cause is to be removed , that the containing one may be the better discussed . xi . the body is first to be purged with one dram of pill . cochiae or half an ounce of diaprunum , electuary solutive , adding a few grains of diagridium : or else such a draught . ℞ . rhubarb ʒ j. s. leaves of senna ʒ iij. tartar ʒ j. anise-seed ʒ j. decoction of barley q. s. infuse them , and then add to the straining solutive diaprunum electuary ʒ iij. xii . the body being purged , open a vein in the arm , and take away eight or ten ounces of blood. then purge again , and if need be bleed again . xiii . to divert the excrementitious humors from the brain to the eyes , cupping-glasses may be applied to the neck and shoulders ; or a vesicatory behind the ears . which if they prove not sufficiently effectual , make a seaton in the neck , or apply an actual or potential cautery to the arm or neck . xiv . to asswage the pain , drop into the eye the blood of the wing-feathers plucked from young chickens , or womens milk newly milked from the breast ; or the muscilage of the seeds of flea-wort , and quinces extracted with rose-water ; or the yolk of an egg boiled to a hardness , or else the following cataplasm laid upon the eye . ℞ . pulp of an apple roasted ℥ j. s. crum of new white-bread ℥ iij. saffron powdred ℈ j. s. new milk and rose-water equal parts . make them into a cataplasm . xv. the pain being somewhat asswaged , this collyrium may be dropped into the eye . ℞ . sarcocol fed with milk ʒ j. tragacanth . ʒ s. muscilage of the seed of quinces q. s. xvi . for discussion of the humor contained in the tunicle , foment the eye with a spung dipt in the following fomentation warm . ℞ . herbs , althea , fennel , flowers of camomil , melilot , an . m. j. water q. s. boil them to eight ounces ; then add rose-water ℥ iij. xvii . after fomentation lay on the cataplasm again , or else drop the following collyrium into the eye . ℞ ▪ alloes washed in fennel-water ℈ j. sarcocol steeped in milk ʒ j. saffron gr . vij . eyebright and fennel-water an . ℥ j. xviii . let him keep in a temperate and clear air , free from dust and wind and smoak ; let him avoid too much light , and wear a green p●…ece of silk before his eye . his diet must be sparing and of easie digestion , condited with fenel , eyebright , succory , borage , &c. his drink must be small . let him avoid radishes , onions , cabbiges , beans , lentils , olives , &c. the longer he sleeps and the less exercise he uses , the better : and let him keep his body open . history . xviii . of the pin and web , and bloodshot . a boy about twelve years of age of a cold constitution , above five months since perceived a dimness in both his eyes , so that at first he thought he saw gnats and straws fly before his eyes . afterwards he seemed to look through a thick mist ; and so his sight began to fail more and more ; so that he saw men after a fashion , but could not distinguish faces ; nay he could hardly distinguish a horse from a cow. in the apple of his eye appeared a white spot , covering the christaline humor , which yielded to the finger if lay'd upon it . i. this affection of the eye is by the physitians called suffusio or the pin and web , which is an obstruction ▪ of the hole of the uve●…us tunicle , caused by a humor preternaturally gathered and staying between the horny tunicle and the sight of the eye , and hindring the sight ▪ ii. this humor in this patient was flegmatic , as appeared by the white colour in the apple of the eye : where it was collected by reason of the cold temper of the eye , not so able to concoct their nourishment , but that some few thick vapors exhale from the uveous tuncle , which are condensed into a thick humor by the external cold , in the space between the chrystalline humor , lying upon the uveous hole , and the horny tunicle , and mixed with the watry humor , and swim at the top in viscous and thick particles . iii. this humor being thinner and less in quantity at the beginning , did not hinder the ingress of the beams into the christalline humor altogether , but only the thicker particles of it , prevented all the beams from entring in , which made the patient think at first that gnats and straws hovered before his eyes ; which however were only the thicker particles of the said humor ; but the humor afterwards becoming more plentiful and thicker , then the sight lookt as it were through a cloud ; and as that thickness of the humor increased , the sight waxed dimmer and dimmer . iv. the cure of this evil is very difficult , because the humor covering the apple of the eye , is now very much condensed ; and therefore the danger is , least hardning into a little skin it should produce blindness . but there is hopes of cure while the sight remains , and for that the humor giving way to the finger appears as yet not to be fixed . v. in the cure the body must be purged with pill . lucis , golden pills or chochiae : diaphoenicon , hiera picra , diacarthamum , or any draught composed of agaric , turbith , iallap , senna or the like . vi. for the discussion of the cold humors , let the patient sweat twice a week with treacle , mithridate , decoction of sassaparil , china , and sassafras . in the middle between whiles let him take decoctions of marjoram , rosemary , eyebright , fennel , betony , rue , and the like : as also cephalic conditements of conserves of anthos , flowers of sage , eyebright , betony , &c. vii . to strengthen the head , let him make use of cephalic quilts . the excrementitious humors are to be diverted from the eye , and carry'd otherways off by visicatories applied behind the ears , or an issue in the arm or neck . viii . after these things topics may be applied to the eyes ; and first such a decoction is to be prepared . ℞ . roots of radishes ℥ ij . valerian ℥ j. rue , fennel , eyebright , lovage , marjoram , leaves of laurel an . m. j. flowers of camomil m. ij . seeds of fennel , caroways an . ʒ ij . water q. s. boil them to lb j. s. while it is boyling let the patient sit with his eye over the steam of the decoction : afterwards with a soft spunge dipped in the same decoction luke-warm , let him frequently and long foment his eye , and observe this course for three weeks together . ix . let him then drop this collyrium into his eyes . ℞ . iuice of the bigger celandine , rue , fennel , hony-water an . ℥ s. when he has used this for some time , let him make it stronger by adding to it , the gaul of a patridge , and of a pike one dram , and afterward one dram and a half ▪ x. his diet must be moderate hot , attenuating and discussing . his sleep and exercise moderate , and an open body . xi . if these avail not the suffusion must be taken from the eye by the help of a needle . of bloodshot . a plethoric young man playing in a tennis-court by misfortune , a ball strook him in the left eye : his eye upon this aked to that degree that he could not hold open his eye . the next day the pain ceasing , an extraordinary bloody redness was seen over his whole eye without any inflammation , and his eye-lids seemed to be infected with the same redness . but his sight was no way damnified . i. this malady of the eye is called a suggillation or bloodshot , being a pouring forth of the blood without the vessels into the tunicles over the eyes and eye-lids . ii. this blood flowed out of the small vessels of the annate tunicle and the eye-lids , broken and opened by the stroak of the ball. for the horny tunicle was not hurt as appeared by the soundness of the sight which was no way damnified . iii. there is no danger in this affection if it be taken in time , before the extravasated blood putrifie and inflame . iv. first the body is to be purged , and a vein opened in the arm. then drop womans milk into the eye , or blood squeezed out of the quills of live chickens , and foment the eyes frequently with this fomentation . ℞ . willow-leaves , plantain , flowers of camomil , melilot an . m. j boil them in water , q. s. add to the straining rose-water ℥ j. s. v. when there is no fear of a larger efflux of blood , let the fomentation be only discussive . history xix . of blindness . a person of forty years of age , strong , but given to his belly , after he had complained for sometime of a slight giddiness with a troublesome heaviness , at length his sight in two days time was so decay'd , that he could hardly see , no not so much as the light , but became absolutely blind ; and yet his eyes did not seem to ail any thing . the patient for some time was very temperate , but his blindness still continued , though his heaviness and vertigo went off : and the rest of his body was well . i. this malady is called caecitas or blindness , which is a deprivation of the sight . ii. the antecedent cause of this distemper is flegm collected in the ventricles of the brain , which flowing thence to the optic nerves , and obstructing them , hinders the influx of the animal spirits to the eye and the preception of visible objects . iii. this flegm was generated out of the crude and flegmatic vapors and humors arising from too much gutling , and there thickned through the colder temper of the part. iv. by the same crude vapors carried through the carotides to the choroid-fold , and obstructing the narrow passages of it , that first whirling passage of the humors , and consequently the vertigo was caused ; which was accompanied with a great heaviness caused by the thick and viscous humors , which nature endeavors to evacuate through the sieve-like bone. v. in the mean time the eyes look very well , because there is no mistemper no●… vicious conformation in them , and because the sight fails only for want of animal spirits , caused by obstruction of the optic nerves . vi. these nerves are obstructed only at their beginning by the said flegmatic humor which somewhat insinuated it self into the broader pores of the begininng of the pith. vii . the patient was afterwards freed from his vertigo and murr , because he abstained from his usual gormondizing : which produced in a strong body a better concoction of the crudities , which abated the anteceding cause , and consumed the containing cause . viii . but the blindness remained , because the crude humor , fixed in the pores of the nerves , as well in regard of their own viscosity as the narrowness in the pores of the nerves , could neither be discussed nor consumed . and though it be no longer supplied by the anteceding cause , yet in respect of it self and the part to which it adheres , may remain and cause the obstruction . ix . this blindness is very difficult to be cured : because the humor sticking in the optic nerves is not easily discussed . but because the distemper is of no long continuance , there is some hopes of cure. x. in the cure , first the body is to be purged with these pills . ℞ . mass of pill . lucis , cochiae an . ʒ s. with a little syrup of stoechas . make nine pills . instead of which may be given ʒ j. of powder of diaturbith with rheon , or rubarb . xi . the next day take away a little blood out of the arm ; and two or three days after purge again . xii . after that let him drink three times a day a draught of this apozem . ℞ . roots of acorus , valerian , fennel , elecampane an . ℥ s. betony , eyebright , creeping-time , marjoram , rosemary , laurel-leaves an . m. j. flowers of camomil , stoechas an . m. s. seeds of fennel , caroways an . ʒ ij . iuniper-berries ℥ s. raisins cleansed ℥ ij . water q. s. boil them for an apozem of lb j. s. after this is drank off , it may be made purging by adding , ℞ . leaves of senna ʒ . j. s. rubarb , white agaric an . ʒ ij . aniseed ʒ iij. cinamon ʒ j. this let the patient drink not above once aday . xiii . the body being sufficiently purged , this errhine may be coveniently put up into his nose . ℞ . iuice of marjoram , fennel an . ℥ s. of beets ʒ j. s. xiv . for diversion , apply cupping-glasses to the back and scapulas ; visicatories may be also applied behind the ears , or a seaton or issue made in the neck . xv. to dissipate the remainders contained in the brain of the optic nerves , and for the corroboration of the head , foment the eyes , forehead , top of the head and temples with this fomentation . ℞ . fennel , marjoram , rue , rosmary , betony , eyebright , flowers of camomil , melilot , stoechas an . m. j. seeds of anise , caroways , lovage an . ʒij . water q. s. boil them to 〈◊〉 ij . for a fomentation . xvi . after fomentation lay on a quilt of hot attenuating cephalics ; and into his ears put little tents dipped in oyl of fennel . xvii . this done drop into the eye such colliryums as these . ℞ . iuice of fennel ℥ j. celandine and rue an . ℥ s. which may be made sharper by adding juice of wild radish three drams . xviii . let his diet be food of easie digestion , condited with marjoram , fennel , betony , rosemary , eyebright , fennel , anise-seed and the like ; shunning mustard , garlic , onions and the like . his drink small and clear . let his sleep and exercise be moderate , and let him keep his body open . history xx. of thickness of hearing and noise in the ears . a woman about thirty six years of age , of a flegmatic constitution , the winter before had been often troubled with catarrhs ; from which however she was quite freed about the beginning of feburary . but then for some few days she complained of a slight heavy pain in her head ; which in a short time went off ; upon which ensued a very great noise in her ears , with such a thickness of hearing that she could hardly hear the loudest bawling in her ears ; which thickness of hearing and noise continued for near three months together . otherwise she was well in health , and her monthly customs came kindly down . i. in this patient the instrument of hearing was affected in the lower part. ii. the malady was twosold , thickness of hearing and noise in the ears . the one is defect and difficulty of hearing , wherein only loud noises moved by the external objects are heard , soft speaking is not at all perceived by the sense of hearing . this is a troublesom sound between the eares themselves , excited by no external object . iii. the cause of the thickness of hearing is a flegmatic humor lying toward the inner parts of each ear , and hindring a sufficient influx of the animal spirits to the inner parts of the ear partly by compressing the acustic nerve ; partly by hindring the free motion of the tympanum . for hence it comes to pass , that gentle noises hardly move the obstructed tympanum , and the air included within it ; so that the motion by them made for want of spirits is not perceived , and consequently not communicated to the common sensory . but loud sounds more strongly move the tympanum and the air included within it , but yet the motion for want of spirits , and by reason of the narrowness of the acustic nerve is perceived no otherwise then only as sleightly communicated to the common sensory . iv. the noise or singing in the ears , is caused by the vital spirits passing the inner little arteries of the ears , and with their motion moving also the neighbouring air included within the inner part of the ear. which motion , when it cannot be freely made by reason of the containing place , being narrowed by the flegm which lyes toward the inner parts of the ear : hence it is that the moved air continually strikes against the tympanum , and being repercussed by that , offers it self to the common sensory , like a singing or ringing noise . v. these symptoms continued three months , because the next cause was fomented by the flegmatic temperature of the whole body . . because the flegm sticking in that affected part is hard to be discussed . vi. the fear is least these maladies may turn to absolute deafness . for that the flegmatic humor may encrease , and upon the dissipation of the thinner parts , thicken to that degree , that no remedies will be able to attenuate and discuss it . but if the cure be undertaken in time there is some hopes , because there is no distensive pain , neither is the hearing quite lost . vii . the body therefore must be purged twice or thrice a week with cochiae pills or golden pills , powder of diaturbith , electuary of hiera or diaturbith ; or infusions of agaric , diaturbith , iallop , or other phlegmagogues . viii . to abate the flegm of the whole body , decoctions of sassafras , sassaperil and guaiacum are most proper , to which add hot cephalics at the end of the decoction . the humors in the ventricles of the brain must be evacuated by masticatories , errhines and sneezing . and to corroborate the brain , proper apozems and cephalic conditements must be prescribed . ix . to disupate the remainders in the head and parts affected , a fomentation of hot and discussing fomentations will be requisite , as betony , sage , rosemary , marjoram , calamint , thime , &c. the head being often fomented with a large sponge dipt therein . after which a quilt of the same cephalics will be no less proper . x. afterwards to attenuate and dissipate the flegmatic humors contained in the organ of sense , some such decoction as this may be prepared . ℞ . root of wild radish ℥ iij. thime , betony , hyssop , marjoram , rosemary , creeping thime , lawrel-leaves , flowers of camomil , melilot an . m s. seeds of caroways , cummin , lovage , fenne●… , an . ℥ s. water q. s. boyl them according to art. while they are boiling he may receive into his ear the steam of the decoction through a pipe placed in the cover of the pot , then let the ears be fomented with sponges dipt in the said decoction : and after fomentation put into the ears , two tents dipt in the oil of anise-seeds , fennel or caroways . xi . this cataplasm also laid upon the ears in the night time between two linnen cloaths may prove very effectual . ℞ . marjoram , sage , flowers of camomil , melilot . an . m. j seeds of nasturtium , cummin , fennel an . ʒ j. s. reduce them to powder , and to the powder , add onions roasted under the embers no. ij . one midling turnep roasted , flower of fengreek-seed ℥ j. water q. s. let them boil a little while , and adding oyl of dill , of bitter almonds an . ℥ j. make a cataplasm . xii . in the day time instead of this cataplasm , let him lay warm to both ears this little ▪ bag. ℞ . marjoram m. j. rosemary , flowers of camomil an . m. s. seeds of cummin , fennel , caroways , lovage an . ℈ ij . cut and beat these and put them into a silken bag. xiii . if the use of these remedies afford no ease , then make issues in the neck and arms , to divert the flegmatic matter from the ears through other passages . xiv . beware of places exposed much to the wind , especially the north. his diet must be easie of digestion , condited with marjoram , lawrel-leaves , creeping thyme , rosemary , betony , carminative seeds , or seeds against wind , nutmeg , &c. his drink small . all meats that fill the head with vapors must be avoided . moderate sleep and exercise , and a soluble belly . history . xxi . of bleeding at the nose , the murr , and loss of smelling . a man about forty years of age , indifferent strong , and abounding with blood , sometimes drinking over hard was for sometime troubled with sharp and salt catarrhs falling down partly to his nostrils , partly to his lungs and chaps , which brought upon him a violent cough , insomuch , that while he was once coughing very vehemently his nose fell a bleeding , nor could the bleeding be stopt for some hours : but that being stopped , and some remedies given him for his cold and the catarrh , within two days his cough ceased ; but then the bleeding returned by intervals , especially if the patient stirred more then ordinary , and that in such abundance , that his life was in danger . i. the malady is bleeding at the nose . ii. the antecedent cause is twofold . . redundancy of blood. . a sharp humor collected in the head. iii. the blood abounding in the whole body being vehemently forced upward in great quantity by the violent cough , and distending and opening the veins and arteries of the nose , in respect of it self , becomes the containing cause . iv. now the blood was copiously , forced upward by the cough , because the descending trunk of the aorta arteria was compressed and streightned by the forcible contraction of the muscles of the breast and abdomen , so that much less blood could be thrust forward through it from the heart , which therefore was forced in greater quantity to the head , through the ascending part of the said artery , and so it distends all the veins and arteries of the head. v. now that distending plenty opens some vessels in the nostrils sooner than in any other parts of the head , because they are there seated in a moist and tender part , and cloathed with only a very soft and tender skin . vi. but because sharp and salt catarrhs preceded , certain it is , that not only their distension , but corrosion opened some vessels in the nostrils . otherwise had they been opened only by distension , the bleeding had not so often returned ; which now returns , because the solution being made by corrosion , could not be so soon consolidated . vii . if the patient never so little overwalked or stirred himself , the bleeding returned , because that motion heated , and more rapidly moved the blood , which therefore flowing hotter , and in greater quantity to the nostrils , could not be held in by the extremities of the vessels not yet well consolidated ; so that it forces its way out again . viii . this returning bleeding is somewhat dangerous , for fear too much loss of blood should turn to a syncope , or that thereby the liver should be over-cold and weakned , and thence a cachexy or dropsie ensue . ix . in the cure , blood-letting in the right-arm is first to be done , and a moderate quantity of blood to be taken away , with respect to the strength of the person . the belly is to be loosned with rubarb mixed with tamarinds , or a glister . x. in the time of bleeding , clap cold water or oxymel to the neck and testicles , and cupping-glasses , with much flame to the legs and feet . xi . tye to the fore-head a lock of tow , with this mixture . ℞ . bole armoniac , terra sigillata , dragons blood , red coral , an . ʒj . volatile flower ʒij . white of one egg , a little strong vinegar . mix them . xii . into the nostrils blow this powder . ℞ . trochischs of seal'd earth , blood-stone , an . ʒj . frankinscence , red coral , dragons blood. an . ℈ j. or else make long tents , and being moistned in the white of an egg , rowl them in this powder , and so put them up into the nostrils . or mix the same powder with the white of an egg like an oyntment , and dip the tents therein before you thrust them up . xiii . simples also may be put up into the nostrils , as green horstail or shave grass , or pimpernel or plantain bruis'd , or hogs or asses dung , and such like , which are found by experience to have wrought great cures . xiv . nor are those things to be neglected that benefit by an occult quality ; to which purpose the patient may wear the following amulet about his neck . ℞ . powder of a dry'd toad ʒij . blood-stone ʒj . s. trochischs of seal'd earth , moss of human skulls , an . ʒj . red coral ʒs . cobwebs ℈ j. reduce them into powder , and then make them into a paste , with muscilage of tragacanth , or the white of an egg , to be form'd into a slat cake , and sowed up in a silk bag , and hanged about the patients neck . xv. while these things are doing , give him sometimes a draught of this decoction . ℞ . roots of tormentil , greater consound , snake-weed , an . ʒvj . knotgrass , pimpernel , plantain , shepherds purse , sanicle , purslain , an . m. j. red roses m. s. white poppy seed ʒv . seeds of quinces and lettice , an . ʒj . s. raisins of the sun ℥ ij . water q. s. boil them into an apozem of lbj . s. to which add syrup of quinces and sowre pomegranates , an . ℥ j. s. xvi . now and then let him take a small quantity of this conditement . ℞ . trochischs of seal'd earth ℈ ij . pulp of quinces , conserve of red roses , an . ʒvj . syrup of poppy , rheas q. s. xvii . if these things will not stay the bleeding , clap a cupping-glass with much flame to both hypochondriums , without scarification . or else give him fourteen grains of the mass of pill . de cynoglossa , or hounds-tongue , reduced into three pills . or else this amygdalate . ℞ . sweet almonds peel'd ℥ j. the four greater cold seeds ʒj . white poppy seed ʒiij . decoction of barley q. s. make an emulsion of lb s. to which add syrup of poppy ʒj . s. sugar q. s. mix them for two doses . xviii . avoid a cold and dry air , and a very light being . observe a cooling and thickning diet , and drink small drink . abstain from exercise , nor cover the body too hot , sleep long , and keep the belly soluble . history x. of the pose or murr , and loss of smelling . a gentleman , about thirty years of age , was wont to snuff up powder of tobacco into his nostrils , which caused him to sneeze . at length , being taken with the pose or murr , yet he continued his powder of tobacco , which he took three or four times a day , which made him void a great quantity of flegmatic humors , through his nostrils and palate ; however , his murr encreased to that degree , that he quite lost his sense of smelling . and then his sneezing brought away little or no matter . i. this gentleman lost his smell by reason of that pose , which is a cold and flegmatic distillation from the ventricles of the brain , and falling into the ethmoides bone , and the membranes belonging to it . ii. this flegmatic matter , by reason of the gentlemans frequent sneezing and contractions of the membranes of the brain , and consequently the streightnings of the pores , and detentions of the vapors was copiously collected in the ventricles of the brain , and expelled down to the ethmoides bone. the diminutive holes of which , when it was not able to pass , it so obstructed , that no odor could come to the inner parts of the nostrils , which caused the loss of the smell . iii. because this pose which hinders the smell continued long , the cure proves the more difficult . iv. after due evacuation of the body , care is to be taken of the head , which is to be corroborated with hot cephalics given in apozems , conditements , powders , &c. the better to attenuate and discuss the vapors , ascending thither . v. to open the pores , frictions of the head , and fomentations , with hot and opening cephalic decoctions . after which , put on a dry quilt of the same cephalics upon the head of the party . vi. put up into the nostrils , such things as are proper to cut and attenuate thick humors , as ●…amphire , vinegar of squills , and root of wild radish bruised . vii . let him continue the use of these things for some time , which if they prove ineffectual , the only way will be to make an issue in the neck . viii . let his food and drink be condited and intermixed with hot cephalics , and let him feed sparingly . let his sleep and exercise be moderate , and let him be sure to keep his body open . history xxii . of the tooth-ach . a young lad , about fifteen years of age , of a flegmatic temper , having , after hard exercise , exposed himself bare-headed to the cold air and the wind , was taken with a most terrible pain in his teeth , upon the left-side , which extended it self to the innermost and upper parts of the head. there was no swelling in the gums of the the out-side of the cheek , no redness or inflammation ; only out of one of his hollow grinders he felt a certain serous , salt , sharp humor distil as cold as ice . i. this malady is by the physicians called odontalgia , or the tooth-ach . ii. the anteceding cause was flegmatic and cold humors gathered in the body , which by the heat of exercise being attenuated into vapors , and carried to the head , and there not only detained by the external cold shutting up the pores , but also being condensed into a scrous , sa●…t and sharp liquor , and not able to pass through the passages appointed for the evacuation of the excrements of the brain , fell upon the jaw-teeth on the left-side , and there caused a most cruel pain . iii. that this is a salt , serous , cold humor , the patient himself finds by the taste of the drops that distil out of his teeth into his mouth . iv. the pain proceeds from hence , because the little nerve inserted into the cavity of each grinding tooth , together with the periostium that surrounds every cavity , is corroded by the sharp humor , and vexed by the extraordinary cold of it . v. the pain extends it self upward to the inner parts of the head , because the little nerves of the teeth , inserted in the cavities , are branches of the third and sixth pair . no wonder then that those nerves being grieved , carry the pain to the inner parts of the head ; besides that , 't is very probable that that same sharp and salt humor falls down to the teeth all the whole length of those nerves , through the holes of the cranium , from whence those nerves issue forth , and so not only the particles which are inserted into the roots of the teeth , but the whole nerves from the cranium to the teeth , are infested with that humor . vi. there was no tumor in the outer part of the jaw , because the humor which caused the flux , did not abound in quantity , but was only sharp , and very little . nor was there any swelling in the gums , because the humor did not stay therein , but issued out from the hollow grinding teeth . vii . neither was there any redness or inflammation in the gums or jaw ; for though the humor were sharp , yet it was actually and potentially cold , so that it could not breed any inflammation or hot distemper . viii . this pain is not to be contemned , for that being so terrible as it is , and causing continual want of sleep , and commotion of the humors and spirits , it may produce deliriums , convulsions , and continual fevers . ix . in the cure , the anteceding cause is to be taken away , then the containing and the original is to be removed , the pain to be asswaged , and the head to be corroborated . x. let the body be purged with one dram of powder of diaturbith , or diacarthamum , or with these pills . ℞ . mass of pill . cochiae , golden pills , an . ℈ j. diagridion gr . iiij . with syrup of stoechas , make up vij . pills . xi . to evacuate the humor contained in the ventricles of the brain , make use of this errhine . ℞ . iuice of mercury , marjoram , an . ℥ s. of beets ʒj . s. or else instead of this , take the following sternutory . ℞ . roots of pellitory , white hellebore , leaves of marjoram , an . ℈ j. black pepper gr . v. for a powder . xii . to strengthen the head , open the pores , and dissipate the cold humor , prepare this quilt . ℞ . leaves of rosemary , marjoram , sage , an . m. s. flowers of lavender , melilot , red roses , an one small handful ; nutmegs , cloves , an . ℈ j. frankincense , mastich , an . ʒj . beat them into a gross powder for a silken cap. xiii . also lay this plaister upon both temples . ℞ . frankincense , mastich , an . ℈ j. sagapen , tacamahacca , an . ℈ j. s. mix them and spread them upon black silk . nor will it be amiss to make use of conditements and cephalic apozems of marjoram , rosemary , sage , betony , conserves of anthos , sage , &c. tobacco also taken in a pipe is an excellent remedy . xiv . let the patient also frequently wash his mouth with this decoction warm . ℞ . root of sharp pointed dock ℥ j. male piony ℥ s. marjoram , sage , hyssop , thyme , betony ; rosemary , an . m. j. fennel and aniseseed , an . ʒij . wine q. s. boil them to lb j. xv. after he has washed his mouth , let him put into the hollow of the tooth with a little cotton , one drop of oyl of basil or cloves . in extremity of pain , a little spirit of wine may be held in the mouth to the teeth affected . but this is not to be done often , for fear of hurting the lungs . xvi . to divert the humor , apply a vesicatory behind the ear , or in the neck , and keep it open for some time . xvii . these remedies not availing in extremity of pain , give the patient toward evening three grains of opiate laudanum in a pill , or thirteen grains of the mass of cynogloss pills , or two or three scruples of philonium romanum . xviii . let his diet be condited with hot cephalics , avoiding all salt , sharp and acid diet , that fill the head with vapors . let his drink be small : let him sleep long , exercise moderately , and keep his body open . history . xxiii . of those tumors in the mouth called aphtae . a woman of about thirty years of age was taken with a continued fever , accompanied with an extraordinary faintness ; yet without any vehement heat or great thirst , which in two days had brought her extreamly low . her pulse beat slow and unequal : her urine was like that of a man in perfect health . so that she complained of no excessive pain in any part , but of an extraordinary weakness of her whole body , which was such that she could not sit upright in her bed. the fourth day , she perceived a difficulty to swallow , so that her drink would not go down her throat and gullet without pain , trouble and impediment . at the same time her palate , gums , tongue and chaps were full of little white pustles without number . her taste was also so far gone , that she relished nothing that she eat . i. this woman was seized with a malignant fever , accompanied with aphtae , which are certain exulcerations in the upper part of the mouth , with an extraordinary heat . ii. the anteceding cause were putrid humors , sharp and malignant , contained in the body , which being attenuated by the feverish heat , and carried through the arteries and occult passages to the mouth , and causing an exulceration therein , constitute the next cause . iii. that these pustles proceed from a certain malignant putrid humor , is plain from the putrid malignant fever , preceding and joyned with them . the malignity of which , appeared by the faintness and decay of strength which the patient endured , whereas a fever seems to shew no such manifest causes of so much weakness . then again , that it was a flegmatic humor , appeared by the lesser heat of the fever , and the whiteness of the pustles . iv. this humor , attenuated by the fever , and coming sharp to the mouth , exulcerated the inner , rather than the other parts , as the palate , tongue , gums , &c. because they are cloathed with only a thin and soft pellicle , which are easily exulcerated by sharp and putrid humors , whereas the former parts more easily resist the corruption . v. now because that pellicle which covers the inner parts of the mouth , extends it self through the jaws and gullet to the stomach . hence also the gullet was beset with the same pustles , which caused that difficulty of swallowing , and painful going down of the drink . vi. her taste was lost , because the inner pellicle of the mouth , into which the gustatory nerves are inserted , and by means of which , the taste happens , was so full of those little ulcers , that the gustable objects could not come to it . besides that , the tongue being grieved by the ulcers , and infected with bad humors , could not well judge of savors . vii . these pustles are more a sign , than a cause of danger . for they indicate a malignant and dangerous fever , upon the cure of which , their cure depends . viii . the body therefore being well purged , and blood being taken away , and other convenient remedies administred , the mouth of the patient must be gargarized with this decoction . ℞ . barley cleansed , roots of snakeweed , tormentil , an . ℥ s. licorice sliced ʒiij . plantain , purslain , knot-grass , oak-leaves , an . m. j. flowers of mallows , red roses , pomegranates , an . m. s. water q. s. make a decoction to lb j. add syrup of mulberries and dianucum , an . ℥ j. s. mix them for a gargle . ix . after she has well gargled her mouth , let her lick and wash the inside of her mouth with this syrup . ℞ . syrup of quinces , sowre pomegranates and dry roses , an . ℥ j. x. if the pain grow sharper , let her hold new milk in her mouth , or rather whey , and change it often . then let her lick syrup of quinces , or dry roses alone , and rowl her tongue about her mouth , especially when the pustles are broken . xi . let her diet be refrigerating , and such as resists putrefaction ; her drink small , or else ptisans , and let her be sure to keep her body soluble . history ii. of the aphtae pustles . an infant of two months old , when the mothers milk failed , was put to a nurse of a choleric temper , but otherwise healthy and abounding with blood and milk. after the infant had suckt this woman eight days it began to vomit up curdled milk mixed with choleric and flegmatic humors , slept unquietly , and voided much yellow and green excrement . at last , the mouth of it was full of white pustles , so that through pain it could suck no longer , though it seemed very desirous of the breast . in the mean time there was no manifest fever nor alteration of the pulse . i. the cause of these pustles was the nurses serous , hot and sharp milk , which the weak stomach of the infant could not well concoct , but bred much choler ; from which sharp vapors ascending to the mouth , exulcerated the tender pellicles of the inner part of the mouth . ii. that there was a great quantity of choler , was apparent from the yellow and green colour of the excrements . iii. the milk was curdled in the stomach by reason of the acrimony of the choler , and the crudities there bred . it was vomited up curdled , because nature being oppress'd with that and other crude humors , and provoked by the acrimony , endeavoured as much as it could , to cast of that molestation by vomiting . iv. there was no fever , because the choler was not yet corrupted , nor was carried to the vena cava , but as yet was voided sufficiently upwards and downwards . v. the infant could suck no longer , because the pain of the pustles was exasperated by sucking . but it desired the breast to allay the heat of the mouth , with the moisture of the milk. vi. these aphties newly come , and without a fever , are easily cured ; but being delayed , there may be danger of a more deep and fatal exulceration , and that a flux of the belly and fever will ensue upon corruption of the choler . vii . in the cure , the nurse is chiefly to be considered , who by reason of her choleric constitution , breeds sharper milk than the infant is able to concoct . then the infant it self is to be considered . viii . therefore the nurse is to be purged more than once or twice with choler-purging medicaments ; next to be let blood. and some refrigerating apozem to be given her of succory , endive , lettice , borage , sorrel , tamarinds , the four greater cold seeds and the like . also steep three drams of rhubarb ty'd up in a linnen rag in a pint of small ale , and let her drink it twice or thrice a week , which will not only purge her , but the child . ix . let her meat be condited with barley cleansed , endive , lettice , asparagus , pom●…citrons , cherries , red currants , &c. let her forbear onions , radishes , mustard , spices , and all hot things , as honey and sugar . her drink must also be small , avoiding wine , mead , and all hot and windy drinks . x. wash the infants mouth often with syrup of mulberries and quinces ; or of dry roses , or sower pomegranates , &c. also give it in a spoon some thin broth or panada wherein currans have been boiled till they break , with a little sugar . xi . if these things avail not , the nurse must be changed , and one more proper for the constitution of the infant must be sought out . history xxiv . of the tumor breeding under the tongue called ranula . a woman about thirty years of age , accustomed to feed upon a flegmatic diet , complained of a great impediment in her speech ; otherwise every way healthy . under her tongue appeared a soft , loose ▪ indolent tumor , of the same colour with the membranes under the tongue , full of blackish veins , manifestly distinguished at the string of the tongue into the right and left part , on both sides about the bigness of a nutmeg , and rising in height above the teeth , and by filling the mouth , forcing up the tongue to the palate , and so not only hindring the speech , but incommoding the act of swallowing . this tumor , at first no bigger than a tare , grew bigger and bigger every day ; so that in three or four weeks it swelled to the bigness aforesaid ; and the patient , not without reason , was afraid of a suffocation . i. this disease , by the greeks is called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , by the latins , ranula ; either because it somewhat resembles a frog ; or rather because they that are troubled with it ▪ instead of speaking , are forced to croak like frogs . ii. this ranula is a soft and loose tumor gathered under the tongue , and divided at the bridle of the tongue into a right and left part. iii. the extremities of the salival channels lying hid under the tongue , are affected in this distemper , which , together with the membrane of the tongue that rests upon them , are distended by the spittle or thicker slime , and hence become so big . iv. now why they swell'd in this woman more now than at other times , was because of the cooling aliments to which she had long accustomed her self , which had bred a more copious crude and viscous flegm , which partly falling upon the salival channels , and not being able to pass the pores of the frogresembling kernels , augmented within them , and distending them with it abundance , formed a soft swelling , as it were cohering into two bladders , and distinguished by the bridle of the tongue . v. without doubt this tumor was not a little augmented , because the extream pores of those channels and kernels were also obstructed by some external cause , as washing the mouth with cold water , or astringent meats and drinks , by which means the spittle had not free passage . vi. the humor was soft and loose , by reason of the humor contained therein . indolent , because it lies in a moist part ; where , by reason of the small quantity of nerves which it receives , the feeling is very obtuse . it is of the same colour with the rest of the membranes , because there is no inflammation to dye it of another colour : and it was augmented in a small time , because the passage of the salival slime was obstructed . vii . the danger of this distemper is not great , if taken in time ; otherwise there may be some fear of a suffocation . viii . such a patient must be purged every fifth or sixth day with pill . cochiae or golden pills , diaphoenicon , hiera picra , diacarthamum , infusion of agaric , or any other flegm purging medicine . ix . to abate the quantity of flegm , and hinder the generation of it , between the days of purging , apozems of the roots of elecampane , acorus , calamint , fennel , thyme , rosemary , marjoram , hyssop , wind-expelling seeds , &c. and conditments and powders of the same to strengthen the bowels . x. and at the same time topics may be applied to cut and attenuate the viscous humor , and open the pores of the salival channels . xi . the patient also may wash her mouth with this decoction . ℞ . hyssop , calamint , marjoram , flowers of camomil , an . m. j. anise and fennel-seed ʒiij . white-wine q. s. boil them to lbj . to the straining add syrup of hore-hound and hyssop , an . ʒvj . xii . after washing , let the ranulae be rubbed with this powder . ℞ . dry hyssop , common salt , an . ʒij . calamint , and root of elecampane , an . ʒj . for a powder . xiii . if these things will not discuss the tumor , it must be chyrurgions work to cut the tumor athwart with a deep incision , and bring out the matter therein contained , and then to wash the mouth with the aforesaid water or some other astringent , wherein you may mix a little allum . xiv . if after consolidation of the wound , the tumor return again , then make a cross-like incision upon the superficies , without hurting the inner membrane , and separating the upper pellicle that lies upon it , lay bare the whole vesicle on both sides the bridle of the tongue , and cut it out as deep as may be , and then close up the wound . otherwise you may take away the vesicle by a potential or actual cautery . neither is there any danger of any damage to the mouth , though the salival channels be stopped up by this cure ; for experience tells us , that the spittle finds other channels and passages for the moistning the mouth . the diet is the same as in other flegmatic diseases . now because i do here assert a new cause of the ranulae , and another part to be affected , than other physicians do , and mention also the salival channels ▪ i think it necessary to tell what those channels are . these channels were unknown , till of late found out in england by doctor wharton and glisson , and last winter publickly shown at the anatomy theatre at leyden , by doctor iohn ab horn. the substance of them is much like the veins , but stronger . they are two in number , and so wide in a man , as to admit an ordinary bodkin . they rise with a broad beginning from the great and remarkable kernel , above the middle tendon , seated between the flesh of the digastric muscle . and hence carried upward about the middle of the cheek , they abscond themselves between two small kernels there seated , which when they have past , they are carried with a streight channel along the nerve of the seventh pair , which they cut like a st. andrews cross , and so somewhat toward the fore-parts , near the bridle of the tongue , they terminate and open into two peculiar kernels , covered with a thin and porous little membrane , which are seated under the tongue , near the frog-like . veins , between the flesh that joyns the tongue to the neighbouring parts , and the kernels that lye under the bottom of the tongue . their office is to powre the sal●… moisture into the frog-like kernels , which in them is contained as in a sponge , and emptied into the mouth through the broad pores of the membrane that covers them , for the moistning of the tongue and mouth . history xxv . of the hydrocephalus , or watry tumor of the head. a little boy , about a year and a halfold , having been weaned six months , and by his parents , that were very poor , fed with raw wh●…y , fruit and other bad nourishment , nor keeping his head sufficiently warm in the winter , within a short time had the hairy part of his head and fore-head swelled out to his very eyes . which tumor , in a months space , increased to that degree , that his head was as big as a mans head , and yet his face was not swelled ; the tumor was soft and white , and the deep prints of the finger might for some time be seen in it . the child eat and drank indifferent well , he had no fever , but was sleepy , and moved the members of his whole body but dully and faintly . his nostrils were drier than usual , and he spit but little . he was loose , and voided much urine . i. this childs disease , by the physicians is called hydrocephalus , which is a swelling of the head caused by a collection of serous humors . ii. this serous and flegmatic humor is collected within the cranium , and lies hid under the skin , which is discerned by the touch ; there being only a soft tumor . iii. that it is a serous and flegmatic humor , appears by the white colour of the skin , and copious , because it yields to compression without pain . iv. the anteceding cause are cold and most humors in the whole body , which being raised beyond the cranium , and condensed under the skin , constitute the containing cause . v. these humors are generated , partly through bad diet , partly through the cold and moist constitution of the body ; which weakens the concoctions of the bowels , and causes the breeding of many flegmatic and serous humors , which being carried to the head , are there attenuated into thick vapors , and gathered together till they come to a copious body . vi. these humors cannot be evacuated through the nostrils and palate , because their thickness has obstructed those passages . nor can they pass through the streightned pores of the skin , as being streightned by the external cold , so that new humors increasing every day , and none being evacuated , thence hapned such a swelling in a months space . vii . however the child fed , because his stomach was not yet loaded with this excrementitious flegm , as being copiously evacuated downwards by urine and stool . viii . he had no fever , because the humors were not putrified , nor was there any malignity or excess of heat . ix . he was sleepy , because of the cold and moist temper of the brain , which renders the nerves of the sensory languid and unfit for the passage and reception of the animal spirits ; besides that , fewer animal spirits are generated , in regard the vital spirits cannot pass the streightned arteries of the choroid fold . which scarcity of animal spirits causes him also to move the members dully and languidly as he did . x. his belly was soluble , by reason of the great quantity of serous and flegmatic humors , that flow'd down to the intestines ; the thinner part of which being mixed with the blood , and separated from it in the reins , causes a greater abundance of urine . xi . this disease is dangerous in tender age that will not bear strong remedies , in regard of the ill temper of the head , the great cachexy of the whole body , and the quantity of the humor . in the cure , the serous and flegmatic humor collected in the head , is chiefly to be gently evacuated , the bowels to be strengthened , and the generation of the mistemper for the future to be prevented . xiii . first , give the child in a spoon , an ounce of laxative syrrup of succory with five or six grains of jallop in powder , or give him to eat five or six drams of solutive currans . then give him a little old treacle , and if you can let him sweat , also give him every day a little conserve of anthos , balm , or flowers of sage . xiv . this done foment his head with the following fomentation warm . ℞ . betony , rosemary , basil , thime , flowers of camomil , melilot , stoechas , an . m j. leaves of lawrel m. s. seeds of anise , fennel , cummin an . ʒ ij . white-wine q. s. boil them to 〈◊〉 ij . for a fomentation with a large spunge taking care not to let it cool . xv. the tumor being dissipated by the use of this fomentation , to remove the other distemper , anoint the head morning and evening with this oyntment hot . ℞ . oyl of camomil , alabastrin ointment an . ℥ j. oyl of nutmegs pressed ℈ iiij . powder of castor , storax , benjamin , an . ℈ j. mix them for an oyntment . xvi . after anointing , put on the following quilted cap. ℞ . leaves of rosemary , marjoram , flowers of camomil , melilot , an . m. s. benjamin , cloves , nutmeg an . ℈ j. s. beat them for a gross powder , to be sowed into a silken quilted cap. and let him wear this quilted cap for some time . xvii . in the mean time to corroborate the bowels twice or thrice a day , let him take a spoonful of this mixture . ℞ . tylet-flowers-water , lilly of the valleys an . ℥ ij . ●…innamon water ʒvj . syrup of stoechas ℥ j. or instead of this , let him now and them drink a little hydromel . and to the region of the stomach , liver and spleen , apply this liniment . ℞ . oyl of lawrel , camomil , matiate oyntment an . ℥ s. oyl of nutmegs pressed ʒ j. s. xviii . if these things avail not , in three or four the most swelled places of the head , make a small perforation in the skin , with a little lance , no wider then is usual in blood-letting , that the serum may distill by degrees through those little holes , which is to be dried up with warm rags , till it ceases to flow : then lay the afore mentioned quilt . xix . these children must have drier diet then ordinary ; as biscuit masticated . little bits of white-bread moistened in the decoction of raisins , or hen-broath and sweetened with a little cinnamon or sugar . let him have thin broths made with wheat-flowre and decoction of raisins , to which add a little wine . let him often drink almond-milk with a little cinnamon-water . let him abstain from sowre milk , whey , ale , fruit , unless now and then a baked apple or pear : let him sleep moderately , and keep his body soluble and regular in his evacuations . the cures of the chief diseases of the whole chest . with ten cases of the patients . history . i. of the pleurisie . a young gentleman of twenty four years of age , having over-heated himself in the tennis-court , and being very dry , drank a large draught of cold ale. upon this he felt a pain in the left side of his chest , which within half an hour grew so acute , that through the trouble and the intolerable pain , he could hardly breath . at the same time he had a strong fever and a dry cough , which very much exasperated the pain . but neither his faintness nor his thirst was very great . i. various parts were affected in this patient , the pleura membrane , the muscles of the misopleuron , and the heart , and consequently the whole body . ii. the diseases called the pleurisie , which is an inflammation of the pleura membrane , and the muscles of the mesopleuron , accompanied with a pricking pain in the side , difficulty of breathing and a continued fever . iii. that it is a disease appears by the pricking pain , difficulty of breathing and the continued fever ▪ that it is no inflammation of the lungs , the pricking pain declares , which never is felt in that distemper . that it is no tumor , inflammation or other pain in the spleen , appears from the sharpness of the pain above the diaphragma toward the arm-pits , and the difficulty of breathing . iv. the anteceding cause was the great quantity of blood in the body . the original causes , vehement exercises , and pouring down cold ale just after it . the containing cause is the over-large quantity of blood contained in the pleura membrane and the mesopleuron muscles , inflamed and corrupted . v. the whole body was over-heated by exercise , whence a strong and swift pul●…e of the heart , which attenuating the blood , forced it in great quantity to all the parts , which so long as it had a free return through the veins , never occasioned any trouble . but being thickened by the cold ale in the veins of the left side of the pleura , and the veins themselves thereby contracted , it came to pass that more past through the arteries then could circulate through the veins , which caused that accumulation of blood that bred that tumor in the pleura : and because the blood that flows from the heart , has its own heat , thence , with the increase of the blood the heat encreased , and thence the inflammation , which caused the putrefaction , part of which putrifying blood being carried through the intercostal veins to the hollow vein , and so to the heart , caused the continued fever , which however is only symtomatical , as only arising from the putrifaction of the inflamed part , poured fourth into the larger vessels . vi. now in regard the ribs must be dilated in respiration ; but by reason of the tumid inflammation , of the distention of the pleura membrane and mesopleuron muscles , they can hardly be dilated , thence difficulty of breathing , which is the more troublesome , because the pleura , being ended with a most acute sense can endure no farther distention . so that the patient to avoid the pain breaths slowly , which not being enough to cool the lungs , causes a drought of the chaps and mouth . vii . sharp vapors exhaling from the inflamed part , infest the neighbouring lungs , and by their vellicating the aspera , arteria cause a dry cough . viii . this disease is dangerous in regard the heart is affected , and respiration is impeded : besides the fear of an imposthume in the breast . ix . in the prosecution of the cure , blood-letting is first to be done in both arms , and the patient must bleed freely . and if the first bleeding do not relieve the patient , it is to be again repeated within an hour or two , after a third time if need require , with regard to the strength of the patient : though a small debilitation is not to be feared . x. in the mean time his belly must be mov'd with a glister . ℞ . emollient decoction ℥ x. elect. diacatholicon , diaprunum , solutive ▪ an . ℥ . j. salt ʒ j. or else infuse two drams of rubarb in barley-water , and give him to drink , the streining with one ounce of syrup of succory with rubarb , or solutive rosatum . stronger purges must be avoided . xi . he may also three or four times aday drink a draught of this apozem . ℞ . cleansed barley , roots of asparagus , grass an . ℥ j. licor●…ce sliced ℥ s. venus-hair , borage , lettice , endive , violet-leaves an . m. j. flowers of wild-poppy , violets an . p. ij . four great colder seeds an . ʒ j. s. blew currans ℥ j. water q. s. make an apozem of lb j. s. with which mix syrup of poppy rheas and violets an . ℥ j. to allay the cough let him take this looch . ℞ . syrup of wild-poppy , of venus-hair , of violets an . ℥ j. mix them for a looch . to allay the pain , and to attenuate ; discuss and concoct the blood collected in the affected part , foment the region of the affected part , with this fomentation . ℞ . mallows althea , colewort , chervile , beats , violet-leaves , flowers of camomil , elder and dill an . m. j. water q. s. make a decoction to 〈◊〉 i j. for a fomentation . of the same may be composed a cataplasm , by adding meal of lin-seed and barley , oyl of almonds and new butter . xiv . let him keep a temperate diet , and of easie digestion , cream of ptisan , chicken-broths prepared with endive and lettice , or else let him take some such amygdalate . ℞ . sweet almons blanched ℥ ij . four great colder seeds , white poppy seed an . ʒj s. decoction of barley q. s. make an emulsion of lb j. with sugar q. s. to sweeten it gently . his ordinary drink must be ptsan : or small ale , but not sowre , or such a julep . ℞ . decoction of barley lb j. syrup of wild poppy and violets an . ℥ j. mixt them for a iulep . let him sleep long , if possible , and use no exercise . history ii. of an empyema . a person about forty years of age , being seized with a terrible pleurisie in his left side , and not having any remedies applied to him before the third day , found little ease , so that the distemper continued till after the fourteenth day , being accompany'd with a fever and other bad symptoms ; from that time forward he felt his pain and his fever much abated , only a ponderous heaviness troubled him about the ribs in the side affected . about the twentieth day the fever still continuing , though very slight , he felt a troublesome ponderosity , with a little pain , upon his diaphregma , chiefly on the left side ; and if he turned from one side to the other of a suddain , he felt a certain humor to flow down , the fluctuation of which was manifestly to be heard in the motion of his body forward . he had also a dry cough , but spit little or nothing ; he could hardly fetch his breath , especially if he lay upon his right side , he was faint and weak , easily and often sweat : he loathed victuals , and desired rather drink then meat . i this man was afflicted with an empyema , which is a collection of corruption in the cavity of his breast . ii. this disease is known by the signs preceding and present . the preceding signs are the pleurisie it self . then the pain and fever ceasing with any manifest evacuation by spittle ; whence that heaviness about the ribs in the side affected . the present signs are , the heaviness upon the diaphregma : the fluctuation of the humor upon motion of the body : and a cough to no purpose , with faintness , weakness , difficulty of breathing , and loathing of victuals . iii. the matter was not evacuated by spittle . . because the lungs of this patient did not stick close to the place affected . . because the matter in the cavity of the breast , could not enter the lungs through the pores of the membrane investing the lungs . . because perhaps the pores of this mans lungs were so narrow , as not to admit such sort of thicker humors . iv. the pain and fever abated , because the sharp matter , of the inflammation was turned to matter , and so rendred more gentle . the quantity of which matter contained within the membrane , troubled the ribs of the affected side , with its ponderosity . but upon breaking the aposthume about the twenty fifth day , the matter flowing into the cavity of the breast , molested the diaphragma , with its weight , and the fluctuation of it was easily perceived in the motion of the body . for the weight hindred the depressed diaphragma from moving freely , which caused the pain in breathing ; especially if he lay upon his right side , for that besides the diaphragma , the right lobe of the lungs is compressed by the weight of the matter lying upon the mediastinum . v. the slight cough proceeds from the vellication of the exterior tunicle of the lungs , caused by the acrimony of the corruption . but nothing is spit forth because the matter touches only the outside of the lungs , but never enters the aspera arteria . vi. the patient is faint by reason of respiration hindred ; and weak , as having been weakned by the acute preceding disease . and the stomach and liver being weakened by the same cause , thence debility of concoction and loss of appetite ; and loathing of meat ; but drink is still desired , to quench the drought of the fever . vii . this is a dangerous distemper , . because respiration is damnified . . because it follows an acute disease , that has much wasted the body already . . by reason of the difficulty to evacuate the matter out of the breast . . because if the matter stay but a short time , it will putrifie and corrupt the lungs . . physic is uncertain ; . chyrurgery dangerous . viii . therefore after a gentle evacuation of the belly , expectorating medicaments are to be made use of ; to try if the matter may be drawn away that way . ix . to which purpose let him take this apozem . ℞ . roots of elecampane ℥ j. florence orrice ʒ ij . licorice shav'd ℥ s. hyssop , white hore-hound , venus-hair , violet-leaves an . m. j. red cabbage m. ij . anise-seed ʒ ij . four greater cold seeds an . ʒ j. s. raisins cleansed ℥ iij. water q. s. make an . apozem of lb j. s. to which add syrup of horehound , hyssop , oxymel an . ℥ j. let him take three or four doses in a day . now and then also let him take a lick of the following looch . ℞ . syrup of horehound , hyssop , iujubes , an . ℥ j. saffron pulverized ℈ j. mix them for a looch . turpentine also reduced to a cream with white of an egg in barley water , and sweetned with sugar , may be very proper in this case . for though these medicaments be hot , yet the fever being small , there is more regard to be had to the cause , which being taken away the fever will soon go off . x. if these or such like medicaments , will not bring away the matter in a fortnight , there is no more to be expected from physic : so that the last remedy must be the chyrurgeons hand . xi . to that purpose the chest is to be cut through , as far as the inner cavity with a sharp pen-knife , under the arm-pit , between the fifth and sixth rib , so as not to hurt the intercostal vein , nerve or artery , nor must the hole be very large , but such as will admit a silver hollow pipe , which is presently to be put in after the incision , and so to be fastened that it may not fall out of it self . the fore-part also is to be stopt ; so that the matter may not flow out , without the chyrurgeons leave . through this pipe twice a day , half a pint or a pint of matter more or less , is to be let out according to the quantity of the matter , and the ability of the patient to endure , and then the pipe is to be stopped again . xii . when no more matter flows forth , the lung and inner cavity is sometimes to be washed with this mixture syring'd into the wound . ℞ . decoction of barley ℥ v. spirit of wine ℥ iiij . hony of roses , syrup of horehound an . ℥ j. mix them for an injection , to stay within for some hours , and then to be drawn ●…ut again through the pipe. xiii . if the continual efflux of matter shews that the ulcer within is not healed , abstergent and vulnerary decoctions must be used , and injections moderately drying and abstergent . and the pipe is to be kept in the wound , till no more matter flow forth , and then to be taken out and the wound to be closed . xiv . the patients diet must be attenuating and abstergent , as meats condited with chervil , hyssop , red cabbage , beets , fennel , almonds , raisins . his drink sweetned with sugar or hony , or hydromel . moderate sleep , and a soluble body : and let him be sure to avoid passion and anger . history . iii. of a cough . a merchant in the prime of his years , taking no care of his diet , and many times traveling in cold and hot , in fair and fowl weather , and many times ill fortified against the external air , the last autum began to be troubled with a pose , and toward winter with a terrible cough that lasted all the winter long . many times his cough was extreamly violent , especially toward the evening , for an hour together , at what time he brought up a great quantity of tough and viscous slime , which sometimes tasted saltish ; he cought very much after meals , insomuch that through the violent agitation of his stomach he brought up all he had eaten , with a great pain in his breast and abdomen . after vomiting his cough ceased ; he never spit blood ; he had no fever , however his body fell away , and his strength wasted , yet not so , but that he still went abroad about his business . somtimes he was very loose . his appetite held indifferent good , and he slept moderately well . i. the lungs of this person were chiefly affected , then the stomach and several other parts of the body suffered under the violent agitation of the cough . ii. this malady is called tusis or a cough , which is a violent forcing of the breath , caused by a swift contraction of the breast and lungs , whereby what is troublesome to the instruments of breathing is expelled by 〈◊〉 force of thein-breath'd air. iii. this malady needs no signs to discover it . iv. the anteceding cause of this distempet is a cold and flegmatic disposition of the air contracted by bad diet. the original cause was heats and colds , violent and unseasonable exercise . the containing cause is flegm in the lungs , either by defluction or collection , partly twiching them with its acrimony , partly obstructing the bronchia with its great quantity . v. cold diet and of hard digestion bred crudities and many saltish humors , which for want of concoction became acrimonious . the brain was refrigerated by the cold ●…empestous weather , and the pores of the outward head obstructed , so that the flegmatic serous vapors ascending from the lower parts , soon condensed in the ventricles of the refrigerated brain , which not being able to pass through the obstructed pores , caused first a pose . afterwards the fiercer cold of winter encreasing the quantity of those humors , they being debarr'd their usual passages , by reason of their thickness , fell upon the aspera arteria and gristles of the lungs , and hinder rispiration : and the acrimony of those humors farther molesting the pellicle of the aspera arteria and bron●…hia , enforces those parts to a violent exclusion of the provoking humors . vi. this cough had lasted long for want of care of diet , and taking remedies ; whence a frequent defluxion of catarhs to the breast , the cold of which in time much refrigerated and weakned the lungs , so that vapors rising from the lower parts , and stopping in the lungs , were easily condensed into a viscous liquor , that stopped up the channels of the lungs , and stuck like bird-lime to the sides of the bronchia , which caused that violence of coughing to shake off that tenaoious matter . vii . the cough was longer and more vehement , and threw off much more tenacious flegm , in regard the flegmatic humors , that had been gathering together all day and night , about the beginning of the day , abounded in so great a quanti●…y , that they could no longer be contained in the head , but falling down upon the lungs and tickling the bronchia not only with their acrimony provoked the cough , but more plentifully filling the bronchia contracted by the vapors condensed within them , and thence hindring respiration irritated the cough , as being that by which nature endeavoured to throw off the trouble . viii . the cough increased after meals , because the vapors being raised by the swallowed nourishment , and endued with some acrimony fell upon the lungs , and there condensed stick to the refrigerated bronchia , and tickling the sensible inner tunicle both of them , and the aspera arteria already prepared to ease provacation by the former humors , exasperate the cough ; through the violent agitation whereof and compression of the muscles of the abdomen , the stomach throws up all again ; upon which the cough ceases for a time , because there is nothing in the stomach from whence any more sharp vapors can ascend to the lungs . ix . and by reason of the same violent motion , and over frequent distension of the muscles , some pain is felt in the breast and abdomen . and that compression forcing the meat and drink unconcocted out of the stomach , causes a violent loosness and dejection of the nourishment . x. there is no fever , because there is no putrefaction of the humor , but the body is emaciated , and becomes very weak , because the violent concussion of the cough , weakens all the parts of the body ; nor are they able to receive or retain the alimentary blood flowing through the arteries , sometimes loose , sometimes compressed as they ought to do . . because that violent agitation expells the nourishment received before due concoction ; by which means all the parts of the body are deprived of their due nourishment , and consequently must be very much weakned . xi . the appetite continues , because the stomach is in good order , undisturbed by the catarrhs : the disturbance of its concoction being only accidental . xii . he sleeps moderately ; because the flegmatic humor falls not in the night from the head to the breast ; besides that the rapid motion of the animal spirits to the organs of the senses is for a while restrained by the cold and plenty of the humors ; so that the organs are at rest for a while for want of copious spirits . xiii . such a cough as this threatens great danger by reason of the saltness of the catarrhs , the acrimony whereof in some veins in the lungs may be easily corroded and broken , thence spitting of blood and exulcerations . beside that the cure is difficult , by reason the cold ill temper of the brain and lungs is of a long standing ; not easie to be removed . xiv . in the method of the cure , . the vehemency of the cough , and the acrimony of the catarrhs is to be allay'd . . the te●…acity of the spittle is to be attenuated , concocted and brought to maturation . . the cold ill temper of the lungs and head is to be amended , and the parts to be coroborated . . the falling down of the catarrhs to the lungs is to be prevented . xv. after purgation with chochi●… pills or golden pills , electuary of hiera picra or diaph●…con , &c. this apozem is to be prescribed . ℞ . roots of elecampane , acorus , florence orrice an . ℥ s. sliced licorice , barley cleansed an . ℥ vj. scabious , venus hair , white hore-hound , betony , coltsfoot an . m j. oak of jerusalem m. s. iuniper-berrys ℥ s. seeds of anise and fennel an . ʒ ij . fat figs no. ix . raisins cleansed ℥ ij . water q. s. boil them to lb j s. add to the straining syrup of stoechas , horehound , oxymel , pectoral magistral an . ℥ j. mix them for an apozem . to which you may afterwards add for the swifter consumption of the flegm sassaperil , sassafras and china-root . also the patient may make use of this looch . ℞ . syrup of hyssop , horehound , oxymel , magistral an . ℥ j. syrup of stoechas ℥ s. instead of which he may now and then take one of these tablets . ℞ . powder of the root of elecampane ℈ j. florence orice ℈ ij . licorice ʒ j. saffron gr . xiv . sugar dissolved in fennel-water ℥ ij . xvi . if after all the cough still remain , give him this bolus twice a week as he goes to bed. ℞ . philonium romanum . nicholas's rest , mithridate of damocrates an . ℈ j. mix them for a bolus . at other times let him use his apozen●… and tablets . xvii . to corroborate his head , let him wear this cap. ℞ leaves of marjoram , rosemary p ij . flowers of red roses and lavender an . p. j. nutmeg , benjamin , cloves an . ℈ ij . beat them into a gross powder for a quilt . xviii . if after all this , there be no abatement of the catarrh and cough , then to divert and evacuate the flowing humour , make an issue in the arm or rather in the neck . xix . let him keep his head and breast warm , against the injuries of the cold and moist air. let his diet be of easie digestion and good nourishment , seasoned with turneps , chervil , hyslop , marjoram , betony , baum , rice , barley cleansed , spices , raisins , sugar and such like ingredients . let his drink be middling , not stale , hydromel anchosated , or sweet wine moderately taken : and let him avoid all acid , sharp , salt and sowre things . let him be moderate in his sleep and exercise : and take care to keep his body open . history iv. of an asthma . a young man , thirty years of age , of a strong constitution , but careless of his diet , and living a sedentary life , some years ago , having overheated himself with walking , and presently opening his breast , and throwing aside his cloaths , fell a drinking cold rhenish-wine , and presently was taken with a difficulty of breathing , which made him pant and heave ; and the next day , the malady still increasing , he was in such a condition , that the third day he could not breath , unless he stood upright ; so that for fourteen days he could not lye in his bed , but was forced to sit or stand whole days and nights together ; but he was more troubled in the night than day time . after a little cough happening , which brought up a good quantity of tough and viscous flegm , his difficulty of breathing abated , and he recovered his former condition . from that time forward , he was often afflicted with the same distemper by intervals , sometimes more , sometimes fewer days together , more especially if he exposed himself to the air , when very hot , or drank cold rhenish ; and this he further observed , that when the north-wind blew , he was presently seized with this distemper , unless he had a great care of himself , and that rather in the summer and autumn , than in the winter . during this malady , his stomach was indifferent , but he could hardly eat for narrowness of the parts , and after meals his difficulty of breathing grew worse . he had a great inclination to sleep , but no sooner had he closed his eyes , but he waked with terror and faintness , so that during the fit , he could not sleep for some days and nights together . his belly and breast seemed to be distended by wind , sometimes he felt a heavy pain in his head , with a chilliness in the hinder part toward the neck . and about this time he had another terrible fit , not without danger of suffocation . he had no fever , nor complained of any pain in any other parts of the body . i. this mans distemper is an asthma , which is a difficult panting and heaving respiration ; and it was indeed the highest degree of this distemper , which we call orthophnaea , which is an extraordinary difficulty of breathing , in which the patients cannot sleep , but standing upright , becuse of the narrowness of the respiratory parts . ii. the antecedent causes of this distemper were flegmatic humors , abounding in the body . the original causes were heat and cold. the containing cause is a tough and viscous humor accumulated in the bronchia of the lungs , and fastned to them . iii. the flegmatic constitution of the whole body causes a redundancy of cold crude and flegmatic humors therein . especially in those parts , which being cold of themselves , are over-chill'd by some external cause ; so that the body being overheated by viblent exercise , the blood and humors are more swiftly moved , and many vapors excited in the lower parts , which by a sudden cold are condensed , and collected in the brain in greater quantity . but in regard the bronchia are cold of themselves , and more refrigerated by the cold of the in-breath'd air , they fasten to them like a tough bird-lime , and contracting them , cause difficulty of breathing . to which , the access of a defluxion from the brain , causes a greater contraction , consequently a greater difficulty of breathing , attended with wheezing . nor can the patient breath but standing upright , the lungs being pendulous , are most easily dilated in that posture , and the bronchia are more open in that situation . iv. the distemper is still worse toward night , because the nocturnal cold thickens the flegmatic humors , and renders them more tenacious , by which means they become more obstructive to the bronchia . v. at length , when the tenacious matter is abated and thrown off by coughing , then the obstruction of the bronchia abates , and the difficulty of breathing ceases till the condensing and falling down of new vapors . vi. which was plain , because the north-wind was so hurtful to him ; the reason of which was because that wind streightned the pores , condensed the humors and vapors , and chill'd the head and lungs . and because the body is hotter , and raises the vapors more copious in the summer , therefore the sudden chilliness of that wind more suddenly condenses and fastens them to the colder bronchia . vii . the stomach of the patient continued good , because neither the inbreathed air , nor the defluxions from the head offended the stomach . but the difficulty of breathing was worse after meals , by reason of the vapors raised by the concoction of the stomach , which ascending to the middle and upper belly , are condensed in both , and in the one fasten themselves to the bronchia . viii . he cannot sleep , because he is forced to satisfie the necessity of respiration , in the dilatation of the breast ; which failing in sleep , and consequently respiration , he is waked with terror and faintness , and compelled to wake that he may breath , and to breath with violence , that he may live . ix . the belly and breast seem to be distended by wind ; though it be not wind , but the continual and copious flux of the animal spirits , for the relief of the lungs , which distends the respiratory muscles , which makes him think they are distended with wind. x. the heavy pain in his head proceeds from the abundance of cold humors collected in his head. and thence that chilliness in the hinder part of it . xi . there was no fever , in regard that neither the blood nor humors were corrupted . nor pain in any other part , the sharp humors being all got together in the head and lungs of this patient . xii . this disease is dangerous , as threatning a suffocation , especially i●… a new defluxion fall from the head upon the lungs during the continuance of the malady . xiii . in the method of cure , to the containing cause must be removed that obstructs the lungs . . the next things required , are to hinder the defluxions of catarrhs to the lungs . . to reform the cold ill temper of the head and lungs . . to change the flegmatic disposition of the body , and abate the cold humors abounding in the whole . xiv . in the first place , let him take a common glister , or a suppository : let him use a thin diet , and sawce his meat with hyssop , sage , betony , saffron , anise , fennel , raisins and the like . xv. let him often take a spoonful of this syrrup . ℞ . syrup of hyssop , horehound , preserved ginger , and roots of candied elecampane an . ℥ s. compounded magistral oxymel ℥ j. mix them . also in the morning , and about five a clock in the afternoon , let him take one dram of this powder in a little malmsey wine , hydromel or broth. ℞ . roots of elecampane ʒj . root of florence , orrice , seed of bishops-weed , an . ʒj . benjamin , saffron , an . ℈ j. musch gr . j. white sugar candy ʒiij . to which add oyl of anise , drops iiij . or v. xvi . the fit ceasing , let him be purged once a week with cochiae or golden pills , hiera picra , or some phlegmagog infusion . blood-letting is not convenient . xvii . upon other days let him use this apozem . ℞ . root of elecampane , fennel , an . ℥ j. acorus and licorice sliced an . ʒv . marjoram , scabious , venus hair , hyssop , white horehound , savine an . m. j. iuniper berry ℥ s. anise and fennel-seed an . ʒij . s. raisins cleansed ℥ ij . water q. s. boil them to lbj. add to the straining magistral oxymel , syrup of stoechas , horehound an . ℥ j. mix them for an apozem . xviii . also let him often take a small quantity of this conditement . ℞ . specier . dianthos , diambr . an . ʒj . root of elecampane candied , conserve of flowers of sage , anthos , an . ʒv . syrup of elecampane q. s. mix them for a conditement . xix . to evacuate the flegm out of the whole body , decoctions of saffafrass and sassaperil are very proper , adding at the end some proper cephalic and pectoral ingredients to corroborate the head and lungs . also let him wear a cephalic quilt upon his head ; and lastly , let him make an issue in one arm , or in the neck . xx. if the patient mend upon the use of these medicins , for removal of the farther cause of this mischief , let him take every other day in a morning a draught of this medicated wine . ℞ . root of elecampane dry ℥ s. of florence , hyssop , ialop an . ʒj . s. hyssop , white horehound an . m. s. iuniper berries ℥ s. anise and fennel-seed , an . ʒj . s. white agaric ℈ v. lucid aloes ℈ iiij . tye them up in a bag , and hang them in four or five pound of white-wine . xxi . for preservation , let him use this bolus twice a week , for three weeks together . ℞ . venice turpentine ʒiij . white sugar ʒij . mix them for a bolus to be swallowed in a wafer moistned in malmsey wine . xxii . his diet has been already prescribed . his drink must be small , his sleep and exercise moderate , and let him be sure to keep his body soluble and regular . history . v. of the quinancy . a young man , about thirty years of age , fleshy , strong and plethoric , having overheated himself with hard labour , and being very thirsty , drank a large draught of small ale , brought him out of a cold cellar . so that not able to endure the coldness of the drink in his chaps , he was forced to take the pot from his mouth . soon after he felt a certain narrowness , with a burning in his chaps , and from thence some kind of trouble in breathing and swallowing , which still more and more increased . after seven or eight hours , a strong fever seized him , with a strong , thick and unequal pulse , and the difficulty of breathing and swallowing encreased to that degree , that he could hardly breath either sitting or standing , and his drink presently flew back out at his nostrils . his mouth was dry , with an extraordinary thrist , which because he could not swallow , no drink could allay . his tongue looked of a dark colour , and being depressed with an instrument , in the hinder part an intense redness appeared ; but no remarkable tumor was conspicuous , because it lies in a lower place . the frog-like veins were thick and tumid . his speech so obstructed , that he could hardly be heard : restless , he tumbled and tossed , and was mighty covetous of the cool air : without there was no swelling , but an unusual redness about the region of the chaps . i. this terrible distemper is called angina , or the quinancy , which is a difficulty of breathing and swallowing , proceeding from an inflammation and narrowness of the upper parts of the throat , larynx and chaps , and always accompanied with a continued fever . ii. this is no bastard quinancy swelling of the tonsilae , with redness caused by a catarrh , but a real angina , bred by a meer inflammation . iii. the anteceding cause of this malady , is redundancy of blood , which being stirred by the original causes , and copiously collected in the chaps and muscles of the larynx , and there putrifying , becomes the containing cause . but the original causes were hard labour and cold drink ; the one exciting the heat , the other chilling too soon . iv. for the body and heart being heated by hard labour , the blood was rapidly moved by the strong and thick pulsations of the heart , and swiftly pass'd through the vessels ; but the blood in the little veins about the chaps being thickned by the coldness of the cold drink , and the roots and orifices of the little veins being likewise so streightned , that the blood sent continually from the heart , was not able to circulate through those passages , which caused a detention of much blood therein ; thence proceeded the hot tumor , which streigthned the passages of respiration and swallowing , and the blood now no longer under the regulation of the heart , became inflamed and putrified , and part of it communicated to the heart , kindled a continued fever , about seven hours after , when the matter was sufficiently enflamed , and the effervescency was become grievous to nature . v. the fever made the respiration more difficult , because the boiling blood required more room , and by that means encreased the tumor and narrowness of the passages ; besides that , the feverish heat requires more respiration . vi. his dryness of mouth , and extream thirst , proceeded from the hot vapors exhaling partly from the inflamed part next the mouth ; partly from the heart and lower parts , by reason of the fever . nor can he swallow his drink , because the upper part of the ossophagus is so compressed and strengthened by the inflamed tumor , that nothing can pass that way , so that the drink is forced to find another passage back through the nostrils . vii . the intense redness that appears in the chaps proceeds from the abundance of blood in those parts , which being denied free passage through the frog-like veins , is the cause that they are swell'd too . viii . the speech is disturb'd by reason of the inflamation of the muscles of the larynx , and difficulty of breathing . ix . there was no tumor conspicuous without , because the whole inflamation lay hid about the larynx , ossophagus and chaps , nevertheless a certain redness extended it self toward the outward parts adjoyning to them . x. this is an acute and dangerous disease , which must be either speedily cured , or sudden death ensues ; for that the inflamation and tumor increasing will cause a suffocation . the fever augments the danger , for that the patient being not able to swallow any thing , the internal heat cannot be quenched by drink , nor the debility of the body be repaired by nourishment . however there is some hopes , because the inflamation does not lye altogether hid in the miscles of the larynx , but extends it self to the outward parts , where topicks may be applied ; besides that , the redness promises an eruption of the inflamation towards the outward parts , to the great benefit of the patient . xi . in the method of cure it is requisite , . to hinder the violence of the blood flowing to the parts affected . . to discuss the blood already collected therein . . to promote maturation . . to prevent suffocation by chyrurgery . xii . the first thing therefore to be done is to let blood freely in the arm. and if once letting blood will not suffice , to open a vein in the other arm , and a third time , if need require . also to draw a good quantity of blood from the frog-veins . xiii . in the mean time the body is to be kept open with emollient glisters . xiv . let the patient make frequent use of this emollient and discussing gargarism . ℞ . sliced licorite ʒiij . two turneps of an indifferent bigness , scabious , violet leaves , mallows , mercury , beets an . m. j. flowers of camomil , pale roses , an . m. s. citron peels ℥ s. water q. s. boil them to lbj. s. add to the straining syrup of dianucum ℥ ij . diamorum ℥ j. honey of roses ℥ s. mix them for a gargarism . if the tumor seem to tend to suppuration , add thereto , cleansed barley ʒj . s. leaves of althea m. j. s. figgs n o ix . xv. outwardly apply this cataplasm . ℞ . root of white lillies ʒj . s. leaves of beets , mallows , mercury , althea , flowers of camomil , an . m. j. pale roses m. s. fengreek meal ℥ j. s. the inner part of one swallows nest powdered , water q. s. boil them into the form of a poultis ; to which add oyl of camomil ℥ ij . mix them for a cataplasm . if there be any likelihood of maturation , add thereto , fat figs n o vij . or viij . meal of the root of althea , hemp-seed , pulp of cassia , oyl of lillies an . ℥ j. xvi . so soon as the patient is able to swallow , purge him gently with an infusion of rhubarb , pulp of cassia , syrup of roses solutive , or of succory with rheon . xvii . then give him this julep for drink . ℞ . decoction of barley lbj. s. syrup of diamoron , dianucum and violets an . ℥ j. oyl of sulphur , a little to give it a sharpness . mix them for a iulep . xviii . if the imposthume break , let the patient , holding his head down , spew out the purulent matter , and cleanse the ulcer with a gargarism of the decoction of barley , sweetned with sugar , honey , or syrup of horehound or hyssop , of which syrups a looch may be made . afterwards let him use a gargarism of sanicle , plantain , egrimony , cypress nuts , red roses , &c. sweetned with syrup of dry roses and pomegranates . xix . if while these things are made use of , the difficulty of breathing increase , so that a suffocation may be feared , before the matter can be discussed or brought to maturity , the last remedy is laryngotomic or incision of the larynx ; concerning which , consult casserius in his anatomical history of the voice . aquapendens in his treatise de perforatione asperae arteriae ; and sennertus's institutions , l. . p. . sect. . c. . xx. when the patient can swallow , let his diet be cream of barley , amygdalates , thin chicken and mutton broth boiled with lettice , endive , purslain , sorrel , damask prunes , &c. let his drink be small ale , refrigerating juleps and ptisans : keep his body soluble and quiet . history vi. of a peripneumony , or inflammation of the lungs . a strong young man , having overheated himself with drinking wine , after mid-night drank a pint of cold water , and so exposing himself to the cold nocturnal air , went home . presently he felt a difficulty of breathing , which every moment encreased without any acute pain in the breast . however he felt a troublesome ponderosity in the middle of his breast , toward the left-side . he had a little cough , which after molested him , and caused him to spit bloody and frothy matter , but not much . he had a great redness upon his cheeks . about three or four hours after , a strong and continued fever seized him , with an extraordinary drought and dryness of his mouth . his pulse beat strong , thick and unequal , and his head pain'd him extreamly ; and his difficulty of breathing encreased to that degree , that he was almost suffocated . i. the chief part here affected , was the lungs , especially the left lobe , as appeared by the difficulty of breathing , and the heaviness in the middle of the breast toward the left-side . by consequence also the heart and the whole body . ii. this disease is called peripneumonia , which is an inflamation of the lungs with a continued fever , difficulty of respiration , and a ponderous trouble in the breast . iii. a plethora is the antecedent cause of the disease . the next cause is greater redundancy of blood forced into the substance of the lungs , then is able to circulate . the original cause , was too much overheating , and too suddain refrigeration . iv. the wine overheated the body , thence a strong and thick pulsation of the heart , by which the blood attenuated by the heat , was rapidly forced through the arteries into the parts ; but being refrigerated by the actual coldness of the water drank , and the in-breath'd air , and not able to pass through the obstructed passages of the pulmonary veins and arteries , begets that remarkable swelling , accompanied with an inflamation ; partly through the encrease of the blood , partly by reason of its corruption and violent effervescency . v. now the bronchia or gristles of the lungs being compressed by this tumor of the lungs , the respiration becomes difficult , and that difficulty more and more encreases , because every pulse adds some blood to the tumid part. vi. then , because the lungs being swelled and distended , must needs be more heavy , thence that troublesome ponderosity is perceived in the breast , especially toward the left-side , because the inflamation possesses the sinister lobe . however , there is no great or acute pain , because there are no large nerves in the substance of the lungs , which therefore have no quick sence of feeling ; and as for the inner tunicle of the bronchia , which most acutely feels , it is hardly affected with this distemper , only the sharp heat of the putrifying blood somewhat tickling it , and the thinner particles of the blood being squeezed into it , provoke a little cough , accompanied with a little spitting of blood. vii . the cheeks are red , by reason of the spirituous blood boiling in the lungs , which insinuates it self and its vapors into the spungy substance of the cheeks ; besides that , there is a hot exhalation from the inflam'd lungs themselves , with which fierce vapors break forth out of the chaps , and lighting within the mouth into the cheeks , make them much hotter , and encrease the redness . viii . the continued fever proceeds from the blood , putrifying in the lungs , and communicated continually to the heart ; which did not appear at first , till after three hours , that the blood being encreased in quantity and heat , began to putrifie and be inflamed ; and then the mouth became dry by reason of the fervid exhalations drying the inside of the mouth . the pulse was strong and thick , by reason of the quantity and heat of the blood. unequal , because of the unequal mixture of the putrid particles , sometimes more , sometimes less communicated to the heart . ix . at the beginning of the fever , the difficulty of breathing encreased almost to suffocation , because of the greater quantity of blood forced into the heart by stronger pustles ; partly , because the blood now putrifying and boiling in the lungs , wants more room , and therefore causes a greater compression and contraction of the bronchia . x. the pain in the head is caused by the sharp humors caused by the wine excessively drank , and vellicating the membranes of the brain ; partly by the hot blood , and its sharp exhalation , forced by the motion of the heart into the same membranes , somewhat chill'd by the cold of the nocturnal air. xi . this disease is very dangerous , by reason of the difficulty of breathing , and the excess of the fever . besides that , the bowel is affected , which is next the heart , and without the use of which , it cannot subsist . xii . therefore in the method of cure , a vein is first to be opened in the arm , and a good quantity of blood to be taken away , and the same bleeding to be repeated twice or thrice , if need require , which though it weaken the party , yet it is better he should be cured weak , than die strong . xiii . in the mean time let his belly be moved with some ordinary glister , as the infusion of rhubarb , syrup of roses solutive , succhory with rheon , decoction of pruens or solutive electuary diaprunum , or some such gentle purgatives , for stronger must be avoided . xiv . to quench his thirst , give him some such julep . ℞ . decoction of barley lbj. s. syrup of poppy , rheas , of violets , pale roses , an . ℥ j. xv. this apozem may be prescribed to take of it three or four times a day . ℞ . roots of succory , colts-foot , asparagus grass , an . ℥ j. sliced licorice ℥ s. violet-leaves , endive , coltsfoot , lettice , venus hair , borage , an . m. j. flowers of poppy , rheas p. ij . four greater cold seeds an . ʒj . blew currans ℥ j. water q. s. boyl them to lbj. s. then add to the straining syrup of poppy , rheas , of violets and pale rases an . ℥ j. for an apozem . of the same syrups equally mixt with a little saffron added , may be made a looch to alleviate the cough . xvi . if the inflamation come to maturation , which will appear by the purulent spittle , and the diminution of the fever , then first let him take abstergent apozems of elecampane , horehound , hyssop , scabious , &c. also looches of syrup of venus hair , horehound , hyssop , &c. and when the ulcer is sufficiently cleansed , then come to consolidation . xvii . let the patients diet be cream of barley , chicken and mutton broth , with cleansed barley , blew currans , endive , lettice , damask pruens , and such like ingredients , boiled therein , or almond milk : for his drink , small ale , or the aforesaid julep . history vii . of spitting blood. a lusty young man accustomed to a salt , hard and sharp diet , having many times exposed himself bare headed to the cold of the winter air , and thence contracted first a terrible pose , with a heavy pain in his head , was after molested with a violent cough , caused by sharp catarrhs descending upon his breast , that brought him to spit up a great quantity of blood , and that not without some pain . at first a physitian being sent for let him blood in the arm , and took away a good quantity , which appeared cold , very thin and ill coloured , and something but very little coagulated ; the blood-letting stopped his spitting of blood for two days , but afterwards it returned again . his appetite failed him , and his strength decay'd ; but he had no fever . i. the primary malady that afflicted this man is called by the greeks 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , by the latines sanguinis sputum , or spitting of blood. ii. in general it is a symptom of excrements flowing from the lungs and the vessels belonging to it ; but the disease which follows that symptom is a solution of the continuum . iii. the part primarily affected is the lungs , with it's vessels , which appears by the cough , and the blood spit out with the cough : which comes away without pain , because of the little sence of feeling in the lungs . the pose and falling down of the catarrhs , shew the head to be affected in like manner . secundarily , and the other parts suffer nothing , but only as they are wearied by the violence of the cough , and weakened by that , and the evacuation of the blood. iv. the anteceding causes are the sharp and crude humors , descending from the head to the lungs , which vellicating the respiratory parts by their acrimony , cause a terrible cough , and by their corrosion , a solution of the continuum . the original causes are the external cold , the obstruction of the pores of the head , and what ever others that cause a collection of crude humors , or an endeavour to expel them being colected . v. disorderly diet and ill food bred a great quantity of bad and sharp humors in the body , and made the blood it self thin and sharp ; hence many sharp vapors were carry'd to the head , which wont to be evacuated through the usual passages and pores , which being stopped and contracted by the cold , the humors likewise condensed , with their viscous slime beset the spongy-bones of the nostrils , and so caused the pose , which was attended with a heavy pain in the head , while the detained humors distended the membranes of the brain ; afterwards descending to the aspera arteria and lungs they induced a violent cough , and corrosion of the vessels , upon which ensued a solution of the continuum , while the vessels were broken and opened by the violence of the cough . vi. that the blood abounded with bad and sharp humors appeared from hence , that being let out of the veins , it was thin and ill colored . vii . this spitting of blood returned again , because that when the opened vessels are emptied , there is some time required before they can be filled again : but no sooner are they swelled with more blood , but it bursts out as before . vii . now the reason why the blood stopped for two days after the blood-leting , was because by that evacuation the heart was debilitated and the pustles grew weaker , so that less blood was forced out of the right ventricle of the heart into the lungs . but after two days the heart gathering strength and filling the little vessels of the lungs with blood , the violence of the cough easily forced it out again . ix . the appetite was lost , through the continual agitation of the cough , and weakness caused by the evacuation of so much blood ; which caused a debility of the whole body and bowels together with the stomach . besides that bad diet had bred several crude humors in the stomach , which had dulled the appetite and weakened concoction . x. the decay of strength proceeded from loss of blood and the bodies being wearied by the violent agitation of the cough . xi . this disease is very dangerous . . in respect of the part affected ; since no man can want respiration . . in respect of the cause ; which is partly a corrosion , partly a rupture of the vessel . . in respect of the difficulty of the cure , which requires rest , which is not to be expected in the respiratory parts . neither can the solution be taken a part , but the flux of the catarrhs , and the cough must be cured together . therefore says , faventinus , blood being spit from the lungs with a cough , the broken vein cannot be closed but with great difficulty . for when any little vessel of the lungs is opened or broken , an ulcer follows , which brings a consumption that soon terminates in death . all the hopes of this patient consisted in his age and strength . xii . in the method of the cure , the cough is first to be allay'd . . the blood to be diverted from the lungs . . the broken vessels to be consolidated . . the descent of the catarrhs to be prevented . . the crude and sharp humors to be hindred from gathering in the head. . the deprav'd constitution of the blood and humors to be amended . xiii . after glystering , or some lenitive purge given at the mouth , blood-letting is most proper , which is to be repeated as necessity requires ; especially when the patient perceives any heaviness in the lower part of the breast , for the blood-letting hinders the repletion of the vessels of the lungs , and their being forcibly opened by the quantity of blood. xiv . to thicken the blood and the catarrh , and allay the cough , ℞ . haly's powder against the consumption ℈ ij . s. red corral prepared ℈ j. decoction of plantain , ℥ j. syrup of comfrey ℥ s. mix them to be drunk morning and evening . let him often in the day use the following looch and amigdalate . ℞ . syrup of comfrey , dry roses , coltsfoot an . ʒ vj. of poppies ʒ iij. mix them for a looch . ℞ . sweet almonds blanched ℥ ij . s. lettice seeds ℥ s. decoction of barley q. s. make an emulsion of lb j. with which mix with white sugar q. s. for an amidgdalate . xv. to divert the catarrh , make an issue in the arm or neck , and apply cupping-glasses to the scapula and back . and to prevent the collection of crude humors , let him wear a cephalic quilt , composed of ingredients to heat and corroborate the head , dry up the humors and open the pores ; and to open the passage of the nostrils , let him take some gentle sternutory . xvi . when the cough is thus removed , and the blood-spitting stopped , proceed to the farther consolidation of the corroded and broken vein . to which purpose the patient must be gently purged by intervals , to evacuate the sharp humors by degrees . in the mean time let him drink this apozem thrice a day . ℞ . barley cleansed ℥ j. roots of the greater consownd , tormentil , snake-weed , sliced licorice an . ʒ vj. sanicle , herb fluellin , winter-green , colts-foot , egrimony , ladies mantle , plantain . an . m. j. red roses m. j. heads of white poppy ℥ ij . s. the relicks of prest grapes , ℥ iij. figgs no. v. make an apozem of lb j. s. instead of this he may take the quantity of a nutmeg of this conditement , ℞ . haly's powder against a consumption ʒ j. s. coral prepared , blood-stone , harts-horn burnt an . ℈ j. s. conserve of red roses ℥ ij . syrup of comfrey q. s. xvii . his diet must be of good juice and easie digestion , and somewhat of a clamy substance , as veal , lamb , mutton , and broths of the same , ordered with barley , rice , reasons , &c. more especially goats milk. let his drink be sweet ale , not too small , let him not any way strain his voice : and for his body let him keep it so soluble , that his stools may be easie . history viii . of a consumption . a lusty young man , twenty two years of age , having for a long time lived disorderly , at first felt for some time a heavy pain in his head , which seeming to abate about winter , presently he began to be molested with a defluxion of sharp humors to the lungs , and thence with a violent cough , which brought up every day a great quantity of thick tough flegm , after he had been troubled with this cough for some months , at length he brought up blood mixed with his other spittle : and about three weeks or a month since purulent matter was observed to be mixed with his spittle , sometimes without , sometimes mixed with blood , of which he hauk'd up every day more and more . however his spittle had no ill smell ; he had also a continual slight fever , but attended with no signal symptoms , his nostrils were dryer then usually ; and out of which there came little or nothing to speak of ; he was much emaciated and very feeble . his appetite lost , or very little : and his cough frequently interrupted his sleep . i. several parts of this young mans body were affected ; the head , as appeared by the pain therein , and the catarrhs . the lungs , as appeared by cough and spittle ; and the heart , as was manifest by the fever ; and consequently the whole body was out of order . ii. this disease is called phtisis , or a consumption , which is an atrophy or wasting of the whole body , proceeding from an ulcer in the lungs , with a sleight lingring fever . iii. the remote cause of this disease was disorderly diet , which bred many sharp and viscous humors in the body ; and the going carelesly uncovered in the winter time , bred a cold ill temper in the head , which contracted and stopped the pores of it : by which means the vapors ascending from the lower parts , condensed in the brain , and for want of passage , begot a heavy pain in the head , being as yet more ponderous than acrimonious , and lodged in the less sensible ventricles of the brain . iv. the same humors with their viscosity had obstructed the usual passages of the nostrils and palate , and so finding no other way , fell down upon the lungs and aspera arteria , which caused the cough ; at what time the head-ach abated , because the condensed humors having found out a new channel , were no longer troublesom to the head. v. by the acrimony of the catarrhs some corrosion was made in the lungs ; and thence , the violence of the cough preceding , an effusion of blood mixed with the spittle , yet not very much , because none of the larger vessels were either corroded or dilacerated by the fury of the cough . suppuration and an ulcer followed the corrosion ; whence the purulent matter spit up ; which became still more and more , as the ulcer increased . however as yet it has no ill smell , because the ulcer is not come to that degree of putrefaction . vi. the sleight fever proceeded from the humors putrifying about the ulcer . for the blood forced from the right ventricle of the heart , cannot but receive some infection from the putrified humors about the ulcer , and carry it to the left ventricle , where it kindles that fever ; which is but sleight , because the putrefaction is not great . but continual , for that every time the heart dilates , something of that putrefaction falls into the left ventricle . vii . the nostrils are dry , because the flegmatic humors have found out other passages to the breast , and none come to the nostrils . viii . the patient is emaciated , because the blood is corrupted by the putrid humors continually heated in the heart , and mingled with the blood , which is thereby made unfit for nourishment , and uncapable of assimulation with the parts . ix . the appetite decays , because the stomach not being nourished with good blood , grows weak and breeds bad humors ; besides that the continual and violent agitation of the cough destroys the natural constitution of it , so that it is not sensible of that corosion which begets hunger , neither can it conveniently retain nor concoct the nourishment received . x. by what has been said , it is apparent that the disease is a consumption ; the certain signs of which are bloody and purulent spittle , a soft and lingring fever , and a wasting of the whole body . xi . this disease is very dangerous ; . because the ulcer is in such a bowel , the use of which cannot be spared . ▪ because it is in a spungy part that is not easily consolidated . . because attended with a fever that drys up the whole body . . because there is a great wast and decay of strength . . because the cure of the ulcer requires rest , whereas the lungs are always in continual motion . . because the medicaments do not come to the lungs with their full vertue but through various concoctions . . because a fever and an ulcer require different remedies . xii . the method of cure requires , . that the cold ill temper of the head be amended , the generation of cold humors , and the defluctions of cold humors , and the cough be prevented and allay'd . . that the ulcer be cured and the fever be remov'd . xiii . first , therefore the defluction of the catarrhs is to be diverted from the breast by issues in the neck or arm. the head is to be corroborated , the redounding cold humors are to be dry'd up , and the obstructed pores to be opened . to which purpose the temples and bregma are to be anointed morning and evening with oyl of rosemary , sage , amber , nutmegs , &c. let him also wear a quilted cap stuft with cephalics , for some time . ℞ . leaves of marjoram and rosemary an . ʒ j. s. flowers of rosemary , lavender , melilot an . ʒ . j. nutmegs ℈ ij . cloves , storax an . ℈ j. beat them into a gross powder for a quilt . xiv . the belly is to be gently moved with manna or syrup of roses solutive . xv. then to facilitate excretion of the spittle with such remedies as at the same time may heal the ulcer . ℞ . syrup of venus-hair , of comfrey , of dried roses an . ℥ j. mix them for a looch . or such kind of trochischs , ℞ . flower of sulphur , powder of sliced liconice an . ʒ j. root of florence orrice ℈ ij . haly's powder against a consumption ʒ iij. benjamin , saffron , an . ℈ j. white sugar ℥ v. with rose-water q. s. make them into a past for trochischs . xvi . if the cough continue very violent , add to the looches a little white syrup of poppy . moreover to allay the cough and recover strength , let him frequently take of this amygdalate . ℞ . sweet almonds blanched ℥ ij . s. four greater cold seeds an . ʒ j. seed of white poppy ʒ iij. barley water q. s. make an emulsion to lb j. to which add syrup of popies ʒ ij . sugar of roses q. s. xvii . afterwards for the more speedy closing the ulcer , use this conditement . ℞ . haly's powder against a consumption , ʒiij . old conserve of red roses ℥ j. s. syrup of comfrey , for a conditement . xviii . let his food be easie of digestion , and very nutritive , as potched eggs , veal , mutton and chicken-broath , with cleansed barley , raisins , rice , almonds , chervil , betony , and such like ingredients : also gellys of the same flesh. let him drink goats milk morning and evening warm from the udder , and not eat after it for some hours . let his drink be ptisans sweetned with sugar of roses . let him sleep long , keep his body quiet , and his belly solule . history ix . of a syncope . a man forty years of age , of a flegmatic constitution , after he had fed largly upon lettice , cowcumbers , fruit , whey , and such like diet all the summer long at length having lost his stomach became very weak with a kind of sleepiness and numness , and a syncope which often returned if any thing troubled or affrighted him : which syncope held him sometimes half an hour , sometimes longer with an extraordinary chillness of the extream parts , and much cold sweat ; so that the standers by thought him dead . coming to himself he complained of a faintness of his heart , and with an inclination to vomit voided at the mouth a great quantity of mucous flegm ; no fever nor any other pain . i. many parts in this patient were affected , and many times the whole body , but the fountains of the disease were the stomach and heart , whence all the rest proceeded . ii. the most urging malady was a thick syncope , which is a very great and headlong prostration of the strength proceeding from want of heat and vital spirits . iii. now that it was a syncope and no apoplexy is apparent from the pulse and respiration , both which cease at the very beginning ; whereas at the beginning of an apoplexy they continue for some time . iv. the remote cause of this syncope is disorderly dyet , crude and cold , which weakens the stomach , that it cannot perfect concoction ; and thence a vast quantity of viscous flegm which adhering to the upper orifice of the stomack begets in that cold and moist distemper which destroys the stomach . and because there is a great consent between the stomach and the heart by means of the nerves of the sixth conjugation , inserted into the orifices of the heart and pericardium ; hence the heart becomes no less languid , and fainting , sometimes suffers a syncope . for that flegmatic blood affords very few spirits , for want of which the strength fails , and sometimes is ruin'd altogether . v. and not only the animal , but the vital actions fail , for the vital spirits failing in the heart , the animal fail also in the brain . and the motion of the heart failing , the motion of the brain fails , which renders the body numb'd and sleepy , though the syncope be over . vi. in this syncope the patient lies like a dead man , by reason of the extraordinary prostration of the strength and vital actions . the external parts are cold , for want of hot blood from the heart . there is a cold clammy sweat , in regard the thin vapors , which otherwise used insensibly to exhale through the pores of the skin , are suddenly condensed by the sudden want of heat , and so sticking viscous to the skin , begets a cold sweat. nor is there hardly any respiration to be perceived , for that the fainting heart sends no hot blood to be cool'd in the lungs ; besides that , the motion of the heart and brain failing , few or no animal spirits are sent to the respiratory muscles . vii . the syncope ceasing , the languor of the heart remains , by reason of the great quantity of flegm contained in the stomach , which flows out at the mouth with a kind of nauseating . viii . this is a dangerous malady , as well in respect of the principal bowel affected , as in respect of the cure , in regard of the weakness of the patient . ix . the cure is as well to be begun during the syncope , as when it is over . x. during the syncope , the extream parts are to be rubbed with musk , amber , benjamin , green baum bruised , and such other odorous smells are to be held to the nostrils , either alone , or mixed with wine or spirit of wine . a little of matthiolus's aqua vitae , spirit of wine , cinnamon-water , or hippocrass is to be powered down his mouth with a spoon ; and the region of the stomach to be somented with this epitheme warmly applied . ℞ . rosemary , baum , mint , leaves of laurel an . m j. nutmegs , cinnamon , cloves an . ʒj . s. fennel seed ʒij . generous wine q. s. boil them according to art to lbj . to the straining add spirit of wine ℥ ij . for an epitheme . xi . when the syncope is past , the flegm accumulated in the stomach is gently to be removed . to which purpose let him take this bolus . ℞ . electuar . hiera picra ʒij . for a bolus . or this powder , ℞ . root of ialap , cinnamon an . ℈ j. diagridion gr . iiij . make them into powder . xiii . afterwards to strengthen the heart and stomach , and gently to purge away the flegm , this medicated wine is very proper . of which , let the patient take a draught every day , or every other day . ℞ . root of elecampane ℥ s. acorus , galangale an . ʒij . baum , marjoram , tops of wormwood , an . m. s. orange peels , iuniper berries an . m. s. fennel and anise-seed , an . ʒj . s. agaric , lucid aloes an . ʒj . choice cinnamon ʒij . s. cloves , ℈ ij . put these into a bag , to be hung in lbiiij = . of odoriferous white-wine . xiv . in the day time , let the patient now and then drink a little hippocrass or hydromel , after a little bag of cinnamon , nutmegs , ginger , cloves and grains of cardamum has been hung . or take now and then a small quantity of this conditement . ℞ . specier . diambrae , sweet diamosch , an . ʒj . s. orange-peels , roots of elecampane , ginger condited an . ℥ s. conserve of anthos ℥ v. oyl of cinnamon , and cloves an . gutt . ij . syrup of preserved ginger q. s. for a conditement . or let him use these tablets . ℞ . choice cinnamon ℈ ij . mace , cloves , white ginger an . ℈ j. specier . diambrae ʒj . sugar dissolved in odoriferous wine ℥ iij. for tablets . xv. outwardly apply this little bag to the region of the heart and stomach . ℞ . cloves , cinnamon , nutmeg , storax , benjamin , an . ℈ j. s. leaves of marjoram and rosemary , an . m. s. reduce them into a gross powder to be sowed into a little bag. lastly , that which is called the amber apple ; or storax , benjamin , grains of cardamom , cloves or other odoriferous spices somewhat bruised , and ty'd up in a thin piece of silk , or put into an ivory or silver box perforated , will be very proper to smell to . xvi . when the patient begins to recover strength , let him take a spoonful or two of this mixture . ℞ . strong rhenish-wine ℥ iiij . cinnamon-water ℥ j. matthiolus's aqua vitae ʒvj . confection of alkermes ʒj . s. perl'd sugar , q. s. to a moderate sweetness . for want of this composition , let him take a little generous wine , or spirit of wine , or matthiolus's aqua vitae . xvii . let his chamber be strewed with odoriferous herbs , as baum , thyme , marjoram , rosemary , &c. or else be perfumed with cephalic spices . his diet must be sparing , easie of digestion , and very nutritive , as the juices and gravies of chickens and partridges , gellies of mutton , veal and hens prepared with baum , rosemary , sage , roots of wild raddish , anise and fennel-seed , nutmeg , cloves , pepper , ginger , cinnamon , &c. his drink must be midling wine , hydromel or ale moderately taken , tinctured with a little wormwood . nor will it be amiss to take now and then a little wormwood-wine or hippocrass , or a spoonful of matthiolus's aqua vitae , or spirit of juniper wine , cinnamon or fennel wine . his sleep and exercise must be moderate and gentle , and his excrements must have their due and regular course . history x. of the palpitation of the heart . a lusty young man , about thirty four years of age , but somewhat scorbutic , and for a long time accustomed to salt meats dryed in the smoak , and pickled in vinegar , and other food of hard digestion , many times complained of a troublesome ponderosity in his left hypochondrion . afterwards , about three or four hours after meals , he felt a strong palpitation of his heart , accompanied with a strong pulse , very unequal , and sometimes intermitting for two or three stroaks together ; at what time he was seized with an extraordinary faintness . this palpitation lasted for half an hour , then ceased again ; after which , slight , but frequent palpitations often return'd . his appetite was indifferent , and his stomach digested well . he slept also very well , only sometimes he was troubled with frightful dreams . i. the part most manifestly affected in this patient , was the palpitation of the heart , which is a disorderly , and over vehement motion of the heart . ii. the proximate cause is a salt and sharp humor mingled with the blood , which being mixed with the chylus , concocted out of sharp and salt food , and three or four hours after meals , poured forth into the hollow vein , and sliding with it into the heart , causes a disorderly and vehement fermentation in the chyle , which is to be turned into blood. for the sharp and salt particles of the chylus , together with the veiny blood impregnated with that sharp humor , falling into the heart , too much augment the fermentation ; whence that vehement and disorderly dilatation and contraction of the heart , which causes that inequality and strong beating of the pulse . iii. now in regard there are many fixed and thicker particles mixed with the thinner particles of that salt and sharp humor , which cannot be so soon dissolved and attenuated in the heart ; therefore , while the heart is busied in the dissolution and dilatation of them , the pulse intermits for a stroke or two , whence arises the faintness , for that no spirits are forced to the parts while the pulse ceases . iv. this vehement palpitation lasts half an hour , because in that space all the chylus of one meal , or the greatest part of it , is mixt with the blood in the hollow vein , and passes through the heart , and the remainders more or less , cause those slighter palpitations afterwards . v. now the reason why that sharp humor continually flowing with the veiny blood to the heart , does not cause a continual palpitation , is , because the particles of the blood and sharp humor fermented in the heart , are many times more equal , more mitigated , and less sharp , so that such vehement effervescencies cannot be excited in the heart , especially if they fall into the ventricles by degrees , and in lesser quantity . but when the body being heated by exercise , the blood more copiously and rapidly passes through the heart with its sharp particles mixed with it , then the heat encreasing , and the sharp humors abounding , the effervescency increases , and thence the vehement palpitation , which abates upon rest , and diminution of the heat , and extraordinary motion of the blood. vi. this salt and sharp humor is bred through a particular depravity of the spleen , and emptied out of it into the liver , through the spleenic branch , where it is concocted with the sulphurous juice , and mixed in the hollow vein with the blood flowing to the heart . the vice of the spleen is a depraved and salt ill tempet , with some obstruction , causing that troublesome ponderosity . vii . the stomach still craves and digests well , because it is not affected , besides that , the same sharp humors carried with the blood through the arteries to the tunicles of it , raise a fermentation within it . viii . he sleeps well , but troubled with troublesome dreams , because that vapors ascending to the brain do cause sleep , but being somewhat sharp , they twitch the membranes of the brain , and the beginnings of the nerves , and so disordering the fancy , procure frightful dreams . ix . this disease is dangerous , because the heart is affected , and because the depraved disposition of the bowels is not so soon reformed . x. the cure aims at three things . . to correct the depravity of the spleen . . to attenuate and concoct the salt and sharp h●…mors in the brain . . to corroborate the heart . xi . first then , let the patient be three or four times purged with pill . cochiae , hiera pills , or golden pills , electuary of diaphoenicon , hiera picra , confection hamech , or infusion of senna leaves , agaric , &c. xii . afterwards let him take this apozem . ℞ . roots of elecampane , fennel , an . ℥ j. of capers , tamarisch , an . ℥ s. germander , dodder , fumitory , borage , motherwort , water trefoil , an . m. j. baum m. ij . citron rind , iuniper berries , an . ʒv . fennel-seed ʒiij . blew currans ℥ ij . water and wine equal parts . boil them to an apozem of lbj. s. xiii . after he has taken this , let him drink every morning a draught of this medicated wine . ℞ roots of acorus , elecampane an . ℥ j. of capers and tamarisch an . ʒij water tresoil , germander , an . m. s orange-peels , ℥ s. iuniper berries ʒvj . choice cinnamon ʒj . s. cloves ℈ j. fennel-seed ʒij . lucid aloes , white agaric an . ℈ iiij . make them into a bag to be sleeped in wine xiv . in the afternoon ; let him take the quantity of a nutmeg two or three times . ℞ . specier . diambrae , sweet diamosch , an . ʒj . orange-peel and root of candy'd elecampane , conserve of anthos , of flowers of sage and baum , an . ℥ s. syrup of elecampane , q. s. for a conditement . xv. let him keep a good diet upon veal , lamb , young mutton , pullets , rabbets and partridges , &c. the broths of which , must be prepar'd with rosemary , borage , baum , betony , hyssop , calamint , creeping thyme , leaves of lawrel , root of wild raddish , rinds of citron and oranges , seeds of anise and fennel , nutmeg , cinnamon , cloves , ginger , &c. also gravelly river-fish , turneps and new-laid eggs. his drink midling ale , with a little wine at meals . moderate sleep and exercise , and a soluble belly . the cures of the chief diseases of the lower belly . with the cases of the patients in three histories . history . i. of a preternatural ravening hunger . a young man , twenty eight years of age , of a healthy constitution , but somewhat mel●…ncholy , and a great lover of hard , salt , and acid diet , was sometimes seized with a very great and extraordinary hunger , so that unless he presently drank two or three draughts of strong ale or wine , and eat a piece of bread or other meat , he complained of a dimness of sight , accompanied with a slight vertigo , and presently became so weak , that not being able to stand , he fell into a swoon . from which , when he recovered , and had refreshed himself with bread and wine , he continued free from that excessive hunger for some days . this distemper suddenly came upon him , sometimes in the morning when he was fasting ; sometimes an hour after meals , before his stomach was well emptied , without any nauseousness or vomiting . i. the stomach of this man was affected in the upper part of the stomach : and the disease is called bulinus ; which is a preternatural and insatiable hunger seizing a man on a suddain with weakness and swooning . ii. the remote cause was a melancholly disposition of the body , and such a dyet as somewhat vitiated the concoction of the spleen ; which bred many sharp and acid humors in the body ill concocted by the spleen , which being carried to the ventricles , and adhering to the upper part of it near the stomach , twich'd it after a peculiar manner , and by means of a certain acid distemper and constriction caused an extraordinary hunger . iii. the swooning follows together with a notorious weakness , because of the great consent between the stomach , the heart and the brain , by means of the vagous nerves , which are inserted into the stomach , and upper part of the ventricle , with infinite little branches ; which being ill affected about the stomach , by sympathy , the heart and brain are affected . now the brain being affected , presently the animal spirits were disturbed , which caused the dimness of sight , and the vertigo . the same disorderly and sparing influx was the occasion of the weakness and faintness of the heart , which is the reason it makes lesser vital spirits , and sends a lesser quantity of arterious blood to the heart . iv. now whether a few hours after meals or fasting , t is all one ; for at whatever time that subacid juice flows into the ventricle , and knaws the upper part of it , that vehement hunger seizes . v. the patient is so corroborated with strong ale or generous wine , and the distemper is presently mitigated , because such sort of liquor refreshes both animal and vital spirits , and washes off , nay sometimes concocts and digests the acid humor sticking to the tunicles of the ventricle , and breaks the sowre force of it , till there be a sufficient quantity of the same humor collected again to make the same vellication . vi. the danger of this distemper is , least the patient should be seized at any time with this raving hunger , where meat and drink are not to be had , and so should be carry'd off in a swooning fit. vii . therefore a person thus affected ought never to travel without a sufficient provision of strong wine and food along with him ; that he may have his weapons ready to resist the suddain invasion of his enemy . viii . moreover let him be gently purged with electuary of hier a piora , cochia or ruffi . pills , avoiding strong purgations : or if he be easie to vomit , let him take a vomit of asarabacca . ix . to strengthen the ventricle and spleen , and mend concoction , let him take this apozem . ℞ . roots of elecampane , tamarisch , capers an . ʒ vj. galangal ℥ s. germander , dodder , agrimony , ceterach , baum an . m. j. leaves of lawrel , m. s. orange peels ℥ s. iuniper-berries ʒ vj. fennel-seed ʒ ij . s. blew currans ℥ j. s. water and wine equal paris . make an apozem of lb j. s. to the same purpose also , let him take this conditement . ℞ . specier diambrae , abbots diarrhodon an ʒ j. elecampane roots and orange peels candy'd , conserve of anthos and flowers of sage an . ℥ s. syrup of elecampane q. s. for a conditement . x. let his dyet be of good and easie nourishment and digestion . mutton ; lamb , veal , pullets and river-fish , the broaths of which must be prepared with rosemary , betony , anise and fennel-seed , nutmegs , cloves , wild carrots , &c. let his drink be clear ale , and middling wine . moderate exercise and sleep . history . ii. of a canine appetite . a maid about thirty years of age , of a melancholy and somewhat pensive disposition , accustomed to salt , acid , sowre , smoaked meats of hard digestion , for a whole year was troubled with an insatiable hunger without swooning . all manner of victuals she devoured most greedily , but drank moderately after it ; when her belly was full , her hunger never ceased , but was somewhat abated . after eating she flung up all again , which in a short time became so sowre in her stomach , that the sowre smell offended the standers by ; and the maid her self confess'd that they came up sharper then juice of limons . after that evacuation she fell to again , and then again brought up what she had eaten : and day and night she would have done nothing but eat and vomit , had not her poverty enjoyned her a most troublesome and tedious abstinence , in the mean time however she grew very lean. i. this distemper is called canina appetentia , or a cane or dog-like appetite , which is an unsatiable hunger without swooning proceeding from an acid ill temper of the inferior stomach : wherein the nourishment so greedily devoured is presently cast up again , and then other nourishment devoured without any abatement of hunger . ii. it differs from a bulimia , for that there is a prostration of the strength without vomiting ; but many times with swooning ; in the other there is vomiting without any signal weakning of the body . iii. the ventricle of this maid was affected , especially in the lower part. iv. the containing cause is an acid and viscous humor bred through the defect of the spleen , and infused in the ventricle , which vellicating the ventricle with it's acidity , causes an insatiable appetite after all sorts of nourishment to appease that vellication . which nourishment being infected by the humors with the same acidity , causes the vellication to be more troublesome ; upon which great plenty of spirits being determined to the inferior fibres of the ventricle , causes a contraction of the lower tunicles of the ventricle , and so by the help of the muscles of the abdomen , a strong expulsion of the nourishment received : which not being able to dissolve or eject the acid humor , still firmly impacted in the tunicles of the ventricle , which is rather fomented by the spleen , it happens that the same raging hunger still continues after vomiting . v. there is no swooning in this case , because there is no great consent between the lower part of the ventricle and the heart and brain . vi. because this raging hunger accompany'd with vomiting , hinders due nutrition , and atrophy and wast of the natural strength is to be feared . vii . in the cure the body is osten to be purged with aloes , hiera picra , infusion of agaric , and other bitter things , and two or three vomits with leaves of asarabacca . viii . then such things are to be prescrib'd , which corroborate and cleanse the ventricle and spleen , and promote concoction by consuming the acid crudities , such as are prescribed against the bulimia ; and the same dyet must be observed . history . iii. of difficult concoction of the ventricle . a certain person forty years of age , accustomed to salt , smoaked , acid meats , and of hard digestion , after he had struggled with a quartain intermitting ague for eight months , at length being freed from that , slowly recovered strength because his ventricle difficultly digested the nourishment which it received : for that after meals he was troubled with a great distention in the region of the ventricles , and hypochondriums ; which was eased sometimes by sending forth violent and loud belches ; and the fewer of those he sent forth , the more he was troubled . sometimes he did not belch at all ; and then he felt his meat to fluctuate in his stomach , and the next day he threw it up raw and unconcocted , with some relief of his trouble ; and so he remained free as long as his stomach was empty : but after feeding the same molestation returned ▪ his urine was thick and pale , with a copious sediment , thick and palish . no fever could be perceived ; but his pulse was weak and unequal , and his natural strength decay'd . i. here the ventricles , which performs the first concoction and chylification was infected ; which occasioned a difficult concection of the nourishment by the greeks called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , proceeding from a cold ill temper of the ventricle and chylifying bowels . ii. ehe proximate cause of this evil , is the unaptness of the ferment , to promote fermentaceous concoction in the ventricle , by reason the subacid and saltish particles of it are less fixed , and not reduced to that fluxibility and tenuity , as to penetrate the particles of the aliments , stir up the spirits latent therein , and separate them from the thicker mass . iii. that defect of the ferment is contracted through the depraved and over-cold disposition of the chylifying bowels , the liver , spleen and sweet-bread ; for which reason they do not sufficiently concoct the ferment which is to be prepared , nor reduce it to a due fluxibility and tenuity ; but make it over-fix'd and crude ; which being communicated to the whole body begets crudities , . in the blood , which is therefore difficultly and unequally dilated in the heart , so that few and those thicker both vital and animal spirits are generated , whence a decay of strength and dejection of the mind . . in the salival kernels of the chaps , and others of the head , where the fermentaceous falival juice being bred raw , and so falling into the stomach , becomes unfit to make a due fermentation of the nourishment . and the same is to be said of all the other sermentaceous juices flowing through the choler-receiving and pancreatic-channel into the duodenum , and thence in good part ascending to the ventricle to promote concoction . which is the reason they make no fermentation , so that the nourishment fluctuates in the stomach , and is vomited up raw . or else they only cause a flatulent dilatation of the aliments , whence a great distention of the ventricle , the occasion of those loud belches , by reason of the viscosity of the crude matter therein contained . iv. the deprav'd disposition of the chylifying bowels was contracted by disorderly diet , and the long use of meats thick , sharp and hard to be digested ; out of which an unconcocted chylus , and out of that a crude and not easily dilated blood was generated , which being carry'd to the chyllfying bowels could not be master'd conveniently by them , and so by degrees they became debilitated and vitiously disposed . v. by reason of an ill concocted chylus , and the crude humors collected and bred in the ventricle , it acquir'd a cold ill temper , which render'd it unable to perform its duty , by bringing the sermentaceous matter sticking to its tunicles , to any farther perfection . vi. a great part of the flegmatic humors abounding in the blood passes through the reins , hence the urine becomes pale and thick , and the sediment like it . vii . there is no feyer , because no putrefaction , nor excessive sulphureous effervescency . viii . this is a dangerous disease , because it threatens an utter decay of the natural strength for want of nourishment . ix . in the cure , the body is to be often purged with hiera picra , diaphaenicon , cochiae pills , infusion of agaric and the like . x. then this apozem is to be prescribed , of which he is to take three or four times aday . ℞ . roots of elecampane , calamus aromatic an . ℥ j. roots of zedoary and tamarischs an . ℥ s. germander , dodder , baum an m. j. leaves of lawrel , marjoram an . m s. iuniper-berries , orange-peels an . ℥ s. anise and fennel seed an . ʒ ij . raisins cleansed ℥ ij . water and wine equal parts . make an apozem of lb j s. xi . the stomach and other bowels are to be corroborated with some such conditement . ℞ . ginger condited , candied elecampane root , candied orange-peel , conserve of anthos and flowers of sage an . ℥ s. oyl of iuniper ℈ j. of anife , gut . viij . oyl of cinnamon and cloves an . gut . j. or ij . syrup of elecampane q. s. for a conditement . xii . if after this the distemper do not abate , give the ensuing vomit . ℞ . leaves of green asarabacca ʒ iiij . rhaddish water ℥ ij . squeeze out the iuice according to art ; then add , vomitive wine ʒ jij. oxymel of squils ℥ s. xiii . then prepare a medicated wine , of which let him drink a draught every morning , between whiles taking a small quantity of the foresaid conditement . ℞ . roots of elecampane ℥ s. of zedoary ʒ ij . germander , marjoram , cardu●…s benedict . an . m. s. orange-peels and iuniper-berries an . ʒ iij. anise and fenel seed an . ʒ j. cloves , cinnamon an . ℈ ij . lucid aloes ℈ iiij . hang them in a bag in 〈◊〉 iiij . of white-wine . xiv . forbear pork , pickled and smoaked meats , but observe a diet of good juice and easie concoction prepared with horse radish-root , majoram , rosemary , sage , lawrel-leaves anise and fennel-seeds , pepper , cloves and spices . let his drink be middle ale and wine , and sometimes after meals , let him take a spoonful of spirit of wine , or matthiolus's aqua vitae . let him sleep and exercise moderately , and let him sometime anoint the region of the ventricle and hypocondriums with oyl of nutmegs , and cover it with the skin of a vulture or wild cat : and let the excrements of his body be duly and regularly evacuated . history iv. of a hypochondriacal passion , with a nauseating and vomiting . a young man in the flower of his age accustomed to hard , salt and acid food , living an idle life , for a long time nauseating some sorts of nourishments , sometimes had no stomach , sometimes had too much , but with difficulty retained and digested the aliment received , with rumbling distention and pain in his stomach , and many times was cruelly griped in his guts , and all the lower part of this belly with an extraordinary rumbling . but these evils were for some time abated by the copious breaking of wind upward and downward . sometime a saltish liquor was wont to void it self at his mouth , with an extraordinary nauseating and a slight vomiting , especially in the morning , though it many times happened at other times of the day , and upon that evacuation he was somewhat better . but about a month since all these ill accidents began to grow worse . for his vomiting was often and violent , so that he threw up whatever he swallowed with a great force ; which though they had not been long in his stomach , yet they came up very acid , and which was more to be admired , sometimes after dinner he brought up two or three ounces of a transparent liquor only , as he said himself , saltish and sowrish . yet he retained both his meat and drink , and after that liquor was come up , retained and digested them very well ; when he did not vomit , the gripings and rumblings of his belly were more troublesome . he had no fever but was thoughtful and sad ; several scorbutic spots appeared also upon his skin , and his body waxed lean . i. here several parts were ill affected , chiefly the stomach , guts and sweetbread . ii. this disease is called a hypocondriacal affection , which is an acid ill temper of the sweet-bread , ventricle , intestines and parts a●…joyning . iii. the primary cause proceeds from a saltish and acid ill temper of the sweet-bread , contracted by irrigular diet , by which the pancreatic juice became too salt and acid , and that at one time more then another , according to the nature of the aliments received into the stomach . iv. this juice flowing out of the sweet-bread into the duodenum , and ascending good part of it into the ventricle , corrupts the ferment of it , and so causes bad concoction ▪ but if it fall into the stomach infected with any stinking and depraved quality , then it causes loss of appetite and nauseating , and sometimes vomiting . but if it flow in over acid , then it begets outragious hunger . v. from this vitious concoction and fermentation arise distensions , pains , rumblings , and much wind , which being belched upward , in some measure abates the distention . vi. but if that vitious juice fall altogether down to the intestines , then the deco●…tion is better , the nauseating less ; however a vitious effervescency excited in the guts , from whence wind , rumblings , roarings , pains and distensions of the intestines . vii . the liquor flowing out at the mouth with a nauseousness is the pancreatic juice carried up to the head , and through nauseousness ejected out at the mouth together with the salival liquor . viii . which pancreatic juice growing afterwards more sharp and deprav'd , and more violently twinging the stomach , causes a frequent and violent vomit . which if it happen after meals to break forth through those aliments into the upper part of the stomach , as it causes a great nauseousness alone , is vomited up alone , the aliments remaining in the stomach , where they are well digested , that vitious ferment being evacuated . ix . there is no fever because no putrefaction . x. he is thoughtful and sad , for that by reason of the acid humors mixed with the blood , the many animal spirits are generated somewhat thicker in the brain , so that they do not pass so chearfully and orderly through the narrow pores of the brain , which makes the patient thoughtful and musingly melancholly . xi . the body is emaciated , because the first concoction is not well performed , which infects the blood with a scorbutic quality , that renders it more unapt for nutrition . xii . this disease is dangerous for fear of an absolute atrophy , and consumption of the natural strength . xiii . therefore in the cure let the patient be purged once in eight days , with an infusion of senna , agaric , &c. adding thereto a little electuar of hiera picra or diaprunum : or with chochia pills , extract of catholicon , powder of diaturbith and the like . blood-letting signifies little in this case where there is no fever . xiv . if his inclination to vomit continue , give him some such vomitory . ℞ . fresh leaves of asarabacca ʒ iij s. radish-water an . ℥ ij . squeez out the iuice , then add antinomiate wine ʒ iij. oxymel of squills ℥ s. xv. let him take three times a day some convenient apozem , like this that follows . ℞ . roots of tamarisch , capers , polypody of the oak , elecampane an . ʒ vj. germander m. j. s. baum , betony , borage , dodder an . m. j. leaves of lawrel , water trefoyl an . m. s. orange-peels ʒ vj. anise and fennel-seed an . ʒ j. s ▪ raisins cleansed ℥ ij . water q. s. make an . apozem to lb j. s. xvi . between whiles let him take a small quantity of this conditement . ℞ . roots of elecampane , orange-peels condited , conserve of borage , baum , flowers of sage an . ℥ s. oyl of anise drops xij . syrup of elecampane q. s. xvii . in a great distention of the maw and intestines , with faintness and pain , such a bolus will be very proper . ℞ . treacle ʒ j. crabs eys prepared ℈ j. oyl of annise drops iiij . mix them for a bolus . xviii . instead of his apozem sometimes in a morning fasting , give him a dose of this powder in ale or broth. ℞ . crabs-eyes prepared ʒ ij . red coral prepared ʒ s. amber prepared ʒ s. make a powder to be divided into four doses . xix . let his diet be of good and easily digested nourishment , avoiding all dry'd , smoak'd , acid , sowre , rank and crude victuals . let his drink be sound stale ale , and small wine but not acid . let him sleep and exercise moderately , and evacuate duly and regularly . an index of matter contained in the treatises of the small-pox & measles and the cures and disputations following . ague tertian , , ague bastard , , , st. anthonie's-fire . apoplexy appetite lost , apthae , , arabian's opinion of the causes of the small pox. an asthma , , the author rejects the opinions of all the physicians concerning the small-pox , avicins opinion concerning the causes of the small-pox . b. b●…thing in the small-pox dangerous , belly-bound , blear ey'dness whether contagious , bleeding at the nose , , , blindness , bloodletting , when to be admitted in the small-pox . , bloodshot eyes , to break the pox more speedily , , b. breath stinking . a burning , burstness of the guts , . with a gangrene , c. camphire debilitates venery , . a. b. a canine apetite , carus , catalepsis , a catarrh , chimical dissolutions of little use , , a. chyrurgical helps for the small-pox , cinnamon water , the use of it in the small-pox , cholic , , coma , a disease so called , ill consequences of catching of cold in the small-pox , , a. b. concoction difficult , a consumption , , , convulsions epileptic , convulsion , coverlets red , contribute to expel the small-pox . a cough . . cupping-glasses improper . cure of the measles . . a d. deafness . the diagnostic signs of the small-pox . diagnostic signs of the measles . . b diaphoretics for the small-pox . diarrhea . duncan liddel defends the opinion of the arabians . what di●… convenient in the small-pox . a disentery . , , , a dysury . e. emplasters hurtful . empyema . epilepsie . epileptic convulsions , vid. swoonings . epithemes hurtful . evacuations monthly , dangerous in the small-pox . . a. b expuls●…oes , the several sorts . external parts , how to cure . . a. exulcerations , how to cure them . . a. eyes , how to preserve . eye-lid seized by the small-pox , how to cure . eye-lids closed by a wound . f. face swell'd with a fall. fever malignant . , , tertian intermitting . female purgations suppressed . . . fernelius of the small-pox . figs , the use of them in the small-pox . . b the vertues of them . . a fissure of the skull . fomentations hurtful . french-pox . g. gallic fever . gargles . . b gentilis of the small-pox ▪ giddiness . a gonorrhea . gout in the knee . gou●… . h. head-ach . , , , hickup . several histories of the small-pox , , , , , , &c , and measles . hoarsness . house-swallows . a hurt upon the shin . the hydrocephalus . hypochondriachal passion . hysterical suffocation . i. imagination , the strength of it . inflammation of the lungs . , internal bowels may be seized by the small-pox . . a internal parts , how to ●…re . . b the itch. , itching in the measles , how to prevent . . a k. kidneys pain'd . kings-evil . l. lethargy . what lotions to be rejected . . a m. madness . of the measles in general . of the measles in specie . . a melancholy , . hypochondriac . mercurialis of the small-pox . milkie , which the best for a consumption . . b milk in a virgins breast . mortification of the legs and thighs by cold. the murr . , n. nature to be observed in the cure of the small-pox . . a. b nephritic passion , . pains . , the night-mare . noise in the ears . o. an ophthalmy . , oyls hurtful . p. pain extream under the breast-bone . palpitation of the heart . palsie . , perforation with a b●…dkin dangerous . . b pestilential ●…ever . pharmacutic remedies . a phrensie . pin and web. pitting , to prevent . . a pits , to take them away . . b the pleurisie . the pose . , of the small-pox in general . of the small-pox in specie . the causes of the small-pox . the preservative physic. the prognostic signs of the small-pox . prognostic signs of the measles . . b purgatives , whether proper or no. purging , violent . purples . . a. b. q. quick-silver good for the worms . quinancy . r. the ranula . a red spots , how to take them away . . a remedies not to be changed when truly applied . . b s. saffron , the use of it in the small-pox . a scald . scars , to prevent . . a s●…iatica . scurvy , . when first known . secondines suppressed . sennertus of the small-pox . sheeps-dung expells the measles . small-pox may sometimes scize the same person twice or thrice . small-pox and measles both together . smelling lost . , sower things hurtful in the small-pox . . b spitting of blood. , , spleen obstructed , , stomach decayed , . fowled . stone . strength of imagination . . a sudorificks , how to be used in the small-pox . . a superfetation . suppression of the courses . swelling in the fore-head by a fall. swoonings dangerous , unless the pox appear presently . . a a syncope . t. of the therapeutics cure. thunder-strook . timorous people must avoid coming near those that are sick of the small-pox . . a topicks , when useless , a. when useful . . a toothach . , , trembling . tumors in the mouth . , v. virgins milk proper to take off the red unseemly colour . . a vomiting , . with pain in the stomach . urine suppressed , uterine suffocation . , finis . notes, typically marginal, from the original text notes for div a -e definition of anatomy subject . different consideration of the body . generally . difference of shape . difference of stature . very tall people . dwarfs . difference of colour . particular consideration of the body . definition of a part . what continuity is . what a function is . what vse 〈◊〉 . things that make up the whole . where the humors & spirits be parts of the body . actions proceed from solids . solids 〈◊〉 not without the humors . division ▪ the 〈◊〉 . spermatic , sanguine , and mixt. dissimilar parts . organical parts . parts not organic . principal parts . subservient parts . noble . ignoble . the uppermost venter or cavity . the middle venter . the lowermost venter . limbs . a division of the work. nomina . the lower venter . epigastrium . the region of the navel . hypogastrium . the share . perinaeum . loyns . buttocks . abdomen . the containing parts . cuticle . sometimes double . original . the use. the skin . it s substance . the difference . whether the instrument of feeling ? the temper . the figure . motion . nourishment and vessels . the pores . hair. colour . the use. fat. the substance . the efficient causes fat kern●… , 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 th●… the temperament . whether it has any peculiar membrane ? the fatty membrane . whether any part of the body . colour . the plenty of it . a●…eps or suet. the 〈◊〉 pannicle . situation . connexion . colour . zas's absurd opinion of the vse . the membrane of the muscles . the bones . muscles . oblique descending . the linea alba. obliquely ascending . musculi recti . the pyramidal muscles . their office . transverse muscles . the action of the muscles of the abdomen . the peritonaeum . it s duplicity . its vessels . the caul . the description . it s substance and connexion . its vessels . it s interweaving . the gladules . corpora adiposa . it s situation . the bigness . the weight . it s vse . the stomach . definition . membranes . fibres . the inner tunicle . temperament . the number . figure . situati●… . the bigness . the bottom . the stomach . the pylorus . the vessels . its nerves . its arteries . its veins . vas breve . it carrys nothing from the spleen to the ventricle . the triangular space . it is moveable . wounds of the stomach m●…tal . a rare observation . that stones grow in the ventricle . it s action . the chyle . the manner of concoction . fermentation twofold . the manner of fermentation . the force of fermentation . the reason of chylification . the colour of the chyle . whether it may be red . what i●… hunger . whether from sucking . whether from an acid iuice . whether from the iuices of the arteries . a story . the tru●… cause . an objection . canine appe●…ite the ferment . what is the chylifying heat . the manner of chylification . the time for chylification . fat things abate hunger . the 〈…〉 diments and 〈◊〉 of 〈◊〉 . the order of chyli●…ication . the order of meats ; an objection . whether choler be generated in the stomach . a to wi●… that serous or lymphatick iuice , of which choler , by means of the fermentum in the gall. bladder i●… bred . see more hereof in ▪ synopsis medicinae , l ▪ . c. . sect. . § . ad . salmon . * this is to be understood 〈◊〉 the 〈◊〉 before ●…pressed , 〈◊〉 we have hinted i●… the m●…rgin of the former p●…ragraph , salmon . whether part of the chylus be carried to the spleen ? * how true this passage is , i leave to those who have read what i have formerly ●…it in my synophs medicinae l . c. . sect . . § . ad : but besides what we have there spoken we have had several i●…cterical patients , in whom none of this has bin true , but their stools have bin as numerous as before , and in some more numerous , and in most of them of as good a colour as formerly : moreover , i have near a hundred times seen the excrements chylous , white , and sometimes like clay , void of all manner of reddish or yellowish colour , & yet the person not only free from the yellow iaundice , but also in good health . salmon . whether the chylus enters the gastric veins . ●…he use of 〈◊〉 chylus . a second ●…igression . whether a●… parts are 〈◊〉 by the chylus . the 〈◊〉 . whether they d●… 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 to the r●…king the chyle . the length . the reason of the length . their circumference their substance and tunicles . whether they have an attractive force . nerves and arteries . veins . the milly vessels . temperament . their 〈◊〉 . their motion . an observation . . . the division . the thin gut. the duodenum . the substance . situation . the jejunum . situation and bigness the ilium gut. situation and bigness . the thick guts . the blind gut. connexion . the use. situatir . it s ligament . connexion . bauhinus's valves . the use. the intestinum rectum ▪ the bigness . connexion . the fundament . haemorrhoid veins . arteries . nerves . situati●… and vse . the division . membranes . bigness ●… shape . ●…ts rise . it s kernels . the use of the kernels . observ. 〈◊〉 ▪ observ. 〈◊〉 ▪ observ. . the opinion of riolanus . its nerves . its arteries . it●… veins . milkie vessels . the definition and situation . shape . connexion . it s substance . it s colour . it s bigness . it s weight . its nerves arteries . veins . lymphatic vessels . the exit of the chanel . whether the chanel be an artery . the office of the sweetbread a digression . the use of the sweet-bread iuice . the generation of the panoreatic iuice . the effervescency of the choler , 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 . ] the name . the description . the original . how they pass the glandules . their valves . their use. a proof . the impulsive cause . whether 〈◊〉 chylus ●…e attracted . the description . the great lymphatic chanel . the discoverers . the receptacle of the chyle . the receptacle of the lympha . the number . the shape . the bigness . the wi●…ness . ductus chyliferus of the breast . two chanels . two or more receptacles of the chyle . the insertion . its valves . the way to discover it . lewis de bill's circle . the vse . the ascent of the chylus . the impulsive cause . whether the whole chylus ascend to the subclavial . whether the whole chylus ascend through the mesaraic veins to the liver ? the definition . the discoverers . the names . the substance . their number . colour and shape . their valves . bils's error . their situation . their rise . from the lungs . their insertion into several parts . their insertion inthe veins . bils's error . whether the lympha be the same with the chylous iuice ; the ●…tation . what sort of liquor the lympha is ? whether water . whether a vapour of the blood. whether the lymphatis vessels are veins . whether composed of animal spirits and acids . whether alimentary . what sort of liquor it is . whether the serum . the difference between the lympha and the serum . the impulsive cause . the cause of the dropsie call'd ascites . . observation . . observation . lobes . bigness . substance . as to the truth of this hypothesis , see our synopsis medicinae , lib. . cap. . sect. . §. . ad . where we have , by indubitable reason , strong arguments , and matter of fact , prov'd that there is no choler or b●…le separated from the blood in the liver . salmon . whether the liver may be call'd a bowel . colour of the liver . the temperament . it s membrane . the ligaments . it s 〈◊〉 . its arteries . the veins . the choler vessels . the lymphatic vessels . the intermixture of the vessels . the passage of the ●…lood out of the porta into the cava . glisson's memorable experiment . the office of the liver . whether it be a streiner . the true office . none wounded in the liver escape . worms and stones in the liver . * i once saw the liver of a great drinker of canary , which when it was cut in two with the knife , abounded with many thousands of worms ; and above a quart of small living worms were taken from it : this man usually drank two , three , or four quarts of canary in a day , and that for some years together , by reason whereof he grew fat , and dyed suddenly without any premonitory sickness : indeed the whole substance of the liver was nothing but worms . salmon . the liver sometimes joyned with the lungs . a history . another rarity , where no liver or spleen could be found . two passages in the right and hollow part of the liver . * rather a kind of lymphatic iuice , f●…r in the place above-cited of synop. sis medicinae , it is there demonstratively proved , that there is 〈◊〉 such thing in nature , as the separation of gall from the 〈◊〉 ; but a kind of lymphatic iuice , which by the fermentum of the gall-bladder is changed into gall. salmon . the gall-bladder . situation . membranes . it s fibres . two sorts of vessels . the division . the bottom . stones sometimes found in it . observation . * i have twice in my life seen patients afflicted with a green iaundice : the one i cured ; the other dyed , being given over by other physicians , as uncurable . the patient whom i cured , was all over of a yellowish green : he which dyed was of a dark or deep green . the cause or reason for this distemper is rendred in our synopsis medicinae , lib. . cap. s. sect. . § . ad . to which i refer you . salmon . the neck . whether any valves in it . * this is something of the doctrine which we have maintained in the places aforecited of our synopsis medicinae ; which thing is worthy the serious consideration of all the sons of art : and it is without doubt , the same kind of iuice , which being conveyed to other parts ( as the amygdalae , maxillary glandules , womens breasts , piss-bladders , pancreas , seminal vessels , and pores of the skin , ) by the fermentum of the same parts is converted into the humor proper to the same ; ( as spittle , milk , urine , and iuice , seed , and sweat. ) salmon . the way of the choler to the bladder . ‖ that is , the serous or lymphaphatic iuice , which by the fermentum of the bladder , as aforesaid , is changed into the choleric humor , for several and various intentions of nature . salmon . the vse . the bilary porus. the valves . whether two sorts of choler . differences of choler . * or rather iuice , for the generating of choler , as aforesaid . salmon . the way of the choler into the bilary porus . sylvius his opinion . the choler is taken from the substance of the liver . the ductus cholidochus . it is for the most part solitary . its valves . glisson would have it to be a sphincter muscle . an objection ●…swer'd . an unusual constitution . a white gall-bladder . an argument for the passage of choler through the bilary pore . whether the choler ●…ows continually . the unu●…ual chanel . a digression . * that is to say the iuice generating choler more specially , because the same iuice cannot be brought from other remote parts at the same time . salmon . what choler is . a that is to say , the said iuice is prepared and fitted in the liver for separation , to be received into the gall-bladder , and there by the fermentum inherent , to be perfected , and made that choleric iuice , which is bitter , and so sent into the iejunum . salmon . the m●…ion of c●…ler . whether choler be generated in 〈◊〉 par●… . the place generating choler , depends upon the inner tunicle of the gall-bladder , & the choler residing therein . a new opinion . * this opinion of sylvius comes very near the truth , if it be considered as to the particles or matter of which choler is generated : but as to the ways and passages leading that matter to the proper place , i am very confident he is wide from the mark ▪ for the passages out of the liver into the gall-bladder ( whi●… are indeed strainers ) ▪ are evident in many persons to the 〈◊〉 eyes ; but with a microscope , they appear famous . so 〈◊〉 deny them , a man must absolutely deny his senses . salmon . * i beg the diversion of the author in believing of this , since the contrary can be prov'd by ocular demonstration . salmon . the insertion of the hepatic artery into the branches of the porus uncertain . whether choler be only separated and not generated . * this assertion of the learned author agrees with truth it self , and with what we have before ( in several places ) declared concerning this matter , and without doubt in this sense he is always to be understood , when he speaks at any time of the separation of choler from the blood in the liver , viz. that it is a certain substance intended for choler , but not choler it self : the which substance or iuice is neither yellow nor bitter , nor choler , nor contains any choler till it is transmitted thereinto by the proper ferment of the part. salmon . colour and tast. variety of colours from variety of humors , confirm'd by observation . whether the choler ascend to the liver through the porus. the use of the choler . it s chief vse is for fermentation . the names . unusual situation . the number . the connexion . * not many months ago i had a child under my cure who had a spleen so large , that it covered almost the whole abdomen , and reached down to the left groin : it was so apparent , that it might outwardly be felt , being above nine inches in length , and about seven inches in breadth . the child died , and was opened ; by which we were confirmed in the extravagancy of this bowel . salmon . the bigness . lean people most subject to 〈◊〉 spleens . small spleens . the shape . 〈◊〉 colour . membraces . various lymphatic vessels , form'd like a kind of net. it is furnish'd with fibres . its vessels . its arteries . its veins . highmore denies the great number of the veins . its valves . it s a●… ▪ moses . the vas breve . internal haemorrhoid v●… no chylus goes to the spleen . its nerves whether they carry any alimentary liquor ? wherefore the spleen is not so quick of feeling . the substance . whether ●… be li●… 〈◊〉 substance of the 〈◊〉 ver . whether it be bloody . little glandules in the spleen . unusual things found in the spleen . the temper of the spleen . the action . whether it separate melancholy from the chylus . whether it make blood. whether it prepare blood for the ●…eart . whether it 〈◊〉 the 〈◊〉 part of the blood . whether it nourish the nerves . whether the seat of the soul. an experiment of malpigius the true action of the spleen . whether a man may live with his spleen cut out . the former opinion re●…ed by reason . by experience . the spleen ▪ not of so great vse in a dog as in a man. it is a most necessary bowel for life . a dig●…sion . the ●…ons of the three ●…els . the ferment of bread●… , 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 operates . n●…te this 〈◊〉 , viz. 〈◊〉 honey 〈◊〉 the ferment . chyle and 〈◊〉 fer●… in 〈◊〉 same 〈◊〉 . the liver causes the ferment . the matter of the ferment . preparation of the ferment . yest , or the ferment of beer . generation of choler . choler slides down the ductus cholidochus into the jejunum . why the jejunum is empty . how 〈◊〉 choler 〈◊〉 com●… 〈◊〉 sharp . the farther progress of the fermentation . 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 of 〈◊〉 blood. the original of ferment . blood is made of the chylus in the heart . another ferment in the spleen . fer●… 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 degrees 〈◊〉 be 〈◊〉 . the true office of the liver , spleen , 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 to 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 . 〈…〉 . the first matter of the ferment prepared in the spleen . the rise of diseases from the spleen . in a weak spleen the acid iuice is not enough concocted . the said ferment too thin & full of spirits causes other diseases . the spleen vitiated begets many evils . the functions of the liver are apparent from the diseases that proceed from it . diseases arising from the spleen . the cause of anasarca . the liver scirrhous . ferment in the birth . conclusion . the ●… derac . twee●… live●… splee●… of rum rei●… the give cessa thin flux to 〈◊〉 bloo●… whether it be an alimentary iuice . the emunctories twofold . the external evacuatories . the external evacuatories of the serum . whether any difference between the serum , sweat and urine . the reins ▪ two in number . their place the situation . the bigness . the figure . their membranes . the vesse the emulgent artery . the emulgent vein . the left emulgent vein higher and longer than the right . the dispersing of the vessels through the kidneys . ▪ the pelvis . the papillary caruncles . the substance of the reins . the superficies smooth in men , rough in children . the discoveries of malpigius the use of the reins . the first digression . how the separation of the serum is made . whe●… 〈◊〉 the k●…nels ? * this 〈◊〉 be much doubted whether that which after ●…sing , when the internal hea●… of it is vanished , appear to be matter , slimy flegm , or other very thick humours , came so thick out of the reins , or that gravel or sand should be sent out of the blood i●… that largeness : i think , yea know the contrary ; and that ●…ose so thick humours , matter , or flegm , are as thin as the rest of the urine from the internal heat of the parts ; after the same manner as it happens in gelly-broths , which while very hot , will be liquid and fluid , but having lost their heat , become thicker : the 〈◊〉 happens in the reins , but with this difference , that the glutino●… substance is less in proportion to the quantity of urine , than it is in gellies , and therefore being ●…old cannot be so thick and 〈◊〉 : so sand or gravel , while in the blood , is no such thing , but a 〈◊〉 paste or tartar , which after hardens in that form . salmon . observ. . observ. . observ. . the thing farther considered . the thing considered in solids . annot. ad c. . de substan . fac . natural . serm. . tract . . c. . ●… . . sympos . prob. . other passages supposed leading to the bladder . the milkie vessels to the bladder and womb. bartholine's opinion , that there is some other and shorter way . clemens niloe his opinion . the opinion of bernard swalve in this m●…r . whether there be a consent between the kidneys . second digression . whether the kidneys 〈◊〉 blood. another action . refutation . that no sp●…cifick vessels are extended from the reins to the testicles . whether wounds in the kidneys be mortal . a plexure of nerves between the two kidneys . the names . situation . the number . substance . the figure bigness . tunicle . concavity ; wharton's observation . artery from the emulgent , nerves from the ramus thoracicus . use of these glandules not well known . definition . source . number . the substance . bigness . situation . definition . situation . membranes . the figure . bigness . its concavities . it s holes . its vessels ▪ it s division . the bottom . the neck . its valves . see table . & . preamble . the privities . genitals . the genital parts of men. the spermatic vessels . spermatic arteries . whether the arteries m●…y be wanting . spermatic veins carry the blood to the vena cava . valves . the progress of the spermatic vessels . the way they make . the error of the anatomists . the fold representing the form of the tendrils of a vine . hernia varicosa . hernia carnosa . de graef's opinion . no anastomoses . the office of the vessels . the stones . their number . situation . shape and ●…igness . their substance . the seed-bearing vessels extended to a great length . vessels . distribution of the vessels . the use and office of the stones . a question , how the separation of various particles from the blood are made ? * how nature performs this operation we have demonstratively shewn in our synopsis medicinae , lib. . cap. . sect. . §. . ad . to which i shall refer you . salmon . lymphatic●… vessels observed in the testicles . the tunicle called albugineous . the vaginal tunicle . the muscles . the ●…od , call'd scrotum . signs of health . the seed flows from the testicles through the deferent vessels . the parastatae . the beginning . the progress . their substance . the function . vasa deferentia . other opinions . * that is to say , the lymphatic matter , 〈◊〉 or a●…eous iuice , call it by what name you please , which is separated from the blood , and sent by the vasa spermatica into the testicles , is there by their own proper fermentum converted into seed , as we have formerly declared concerning the generation of other iuices destinated to particular ends according to the nature of the parts and necessities enforcing the same . as our author even in this place declares in so many words , to wit , that it is done by a specific fermentation of humour in some specific part or bowel , without which it could not be made : the reason of which he renders immediately , for that the said bowels , when weak or enfeebled , are not then able to prepare those new iuices . salmon . their progress . seminal vessels . their substance . bigness . situation . number . their cavities . whether any valve . the cause of the gonorrhea . the prostates . the bigness their vessels . their liquor . the passage of this liquor . how they may be discerned . it s muscle . the form of the prostatae . they are indu'd with an acute sense . their use. whether a threefold seed . two questions . the action of the stones . reasons against the former objections . by what power seed is generated . whether males are begot by the right stone , females by the left . the yard . the names wheth●…r a living creature . situation , figure , and bigness . it s subs●…nce . the urethra . the largeness . it s vse . the nervous bodies . their rise . the vessels of the nervous bodies . the glans . figure and colour . substance . the foreskin . the bridle . praeputium . the vessels of the yard , and first the arteries . the veins . the nerves . muscles . erection of the yard . it s office. whether any generation without the immission of the yard . the parts adjoyning . a prooemial discourse . the division . the preparing vessels . spermatic arteries two . spermatic veins . nerves . lymphatic vessels . the spermatic vessels adhere to the testicles . the first discoverer of these ovaries . their number . weight & magnitude . * by this account it appears that the testicles of a man weigh but three drams : however whether they may be accounted as the more general weight or magnitude in all men , i will not determine . this i can tell , that in two men opened , neither of which were extraordinary great or large persons , a testicle of the one weighed six drams , and of the other five drams : so that i believe there is a great diversity , ●…s to the weight of them , in all mankind . salmon . situation . their figure . the tunicle . difference from mens t●…icles . their substance . preternatural things in womens stones . eggs. the membranes of eggs. eggs in all sorts of creatures . the matter of eggs. ovaries . various errors of the coming of the seed to the womb. the true way of the seed and the eggs. the tubes . what the tubes are . their membranes . the figure of the tubes . the vessels . whether they have valves . whether distinguished into cells . length . how the eggs come from the testicles to the womb. a difficulty concerning the wind-eggs in women . the opinion of wind-eggs confirm'd . the reason of the relaxation of the tubes . births conceiv'd and form'd in the tubes . this whole business demonstrated at the theatre in amsterdam . how the substance of the ovary becomes spungy and open . three things to be consider'd in womens eggs. whence the pleasure of copulation ▪ whether women may be castrated , and have their stones cut out ? another sort of castration . the w●… . it s 〈◊〉 . it s substan●… . it s membrane . the space between the membranes . the bigness it s weight . it s shape . it s hollowness . the horns . 〈◊〉 connexion . it s ligamenis . the opinions of soranus and aretaeus about the falling down of the womb , refuted . whether the womb can fall . whether the womb be inverted in the fall . the other pair of ligaments whence they proceed . its vessels . arteries . veins . the cause of the flowers . what is the uterine ferment . aristotle's opinion . whether from the redundant blood ? nerves . it s office. 〈…〉 whether it forms the birth . whether the birth may be form'd out of the womb . the motion of the womb . what ascends or rises up in sits of the mother , is not the womb . whether hysterical effects arise from the sweet-bread iuice ? nothing to be concluded from scents concerning the motion of the womb. why stinking smells are profitable . why sweet smells are hurtful . the motion of the womb in women with child . it s motion in falling down . a child born , the mother being dead . the parts of the womb enumerated . the bottom . it s cavity . the n●… . whether the yard reach the orifice of the w●… . the sheath . the largeness . the vessels of the sheath . the arteries . the veins . its nerves . lymphatic vessels . the neck of the bladder . the net-resembling fold . the use of the vagina . the reason of that use . a thin nervous membrane call'd hymen . hymen sometimes not perforated , but like a sive . whether hymen or no ? whether the want of the hymen be a sign of virginity lost . the myrtle form'd little pieces of flesh. their vse . the womans privities . the outward part of the womb , or vulva . the bigness . the lips. the mount of venus . of what they are composed ▪ a slight motion in the lips. the nymphs . their substance . their vessels . their use. an observation . the cleft of the privity . the clitoris . it s sulstance . the tentigo . its muscles . its arteries and other vessels . its nerves . a bonie clitoris . the exit of the vrinary passage . the neck of the bladder . the prostates of women . the orifice may be dilated . the bigness . its irregularities . hermaphrodites . whether the seed pass thorough the clitoris . 〈◊〉 . whether the genitals of men and women differ in nothing but in situation . the instruments of generation differ in each sex , being compar'd . whether women may be chang'd into men ▪ observations . no woman ever chang'd her sex. the womb in empty women . in women with child . the swelling of the breasts . the straitning of the orifice . the situation of the guts . the situation of the stones . the condition of the neck . the relaxation of the orifice . bigness of the vessels . the reason why the vasa sanguifera are so much dilated in women with child . the name . 〈◊〉 . what the matter of it ? the opin●… of the ancients . the ancients say it is made of the iuice falling from the brain and spinal marrow . the opinion of modern authors . opposed by some english physicians without reason . clement niloe's opinion erroneous . barbatus of padua his opinion . the true matter of the seed . the blood constitutes the first mass of seed . that the animal spirits contribute to the making of the seed . salt the chief co●…position in the seed . the proof . when the seed is well made . the reason of the gonorrhea simplex . how the matters composing the seed flow together . an obj●…ion answered . a difficulty . two parts of the seed . thick and spirituous parts mixed and clotted together compose the mass of the seed . where the efficient principle is wanting , the seed is unfruitful . an objection answered . of the spirituous part. the opinion of hippocrates concerning the spirituous p●…t of the seed . of aristotle . what is the spirituous part. it is a body . it is produced out of a body . 〈◊〉 aptitude . the nature of the spirituous part. where the idea of all the parts is contained . ideas whence and what they are ? the properties of the singular particles not separated , meet in every particle and display themselves in the formation . how t●…ss spirit comes to the stones ? how these parts are generated out of the seed , which the parents wanted before generation . how idea's imagined are imprinted in the seed . another question to be answered . whether children can pr●…create . whence the likeness of features of the womans seed . whether women have any seed or 〈◊〉 that women have seed . * to these reasons may be added one more , taken from maids who have been seised with the furor uterinus , and have dyed of the same . in whom ( being opened ) the testicles of one , or both , have been found extraordinarily swell'd beyond their natural bigness ; and authors report that some pounds of the seminal matter has been taken out of the testicles of one who died of that distemper . i have seen several who have had that disease , of which two of them dyed by the force of the malady . i desired them both to be opened , which was done . and in both , the testicles were extreamly swell'd . in the first , the right testicle as bigg as twice a mans fist doubled , and being opened , there was near ●… pint of seminal matter which ran and was squeezed out of it . in the other , the right testicle in like manner was tumified and is big again as the former , and as black as soot , stinking extreamly , so that the surgeon judged it a gangreen . salmon . womens testicles were made for absulute necessity . what this necessity is . a comparison between the womb and the earth . why a woman does not conceive every time she is lain with . the male seed is that without which there can be no generation . whether the womans seed be the cause of formation . it follows not that the womans seed affords any power to form the birth . three other more weighty arguments . the male seed does not proceed into act unless there be a fit ferment mixed with it . the answer to the former arguments . to the first argument . answer to the second argument . answer to the third argument . another 〈◊〉 . an answer there●…o . * gen. . the opinion of consentinus and deusingius confuted . the opinion of swammerdam refuted . whether the seed of women be a matter necessary for generation . the seed of the woman contains in it self no forming power . the opinion of hippocrates . the opinion of veslingius . harvey's opinion . at what age the seed is generated . the growth of the body , whence . why children do not generate seed . 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 why gelded animals grow fat . an observation in gelt deer . in gelt persons or beasts , the spirits become less sharp and subtle , and so less fit for animal actions . why fat people less fit for venery . why in a plethory the body becomes unweildy , weak , slothful , drowsy , sleepy , &c. conception . where it is made . the orifice of the womb must be closed after conception . whether the seed of both sexes concurs . aristotle's opinion about the menstruous blood exploded . the dete●…sion of the seed . the colliquation of the seed . in the small bubble only is the forming of the embryo . delineation performed solely by the seed . aristotle's errour in affirming that all the parts are form'd not out of the seed , but out of the blood. there can be no blood before the organ that makes the blood is form'd . it is a peculiar and appropriated 〈◊〉 that is requisite for the embryo . how the residue of the mans seed enters the bubble . a twosold 〈◊〉 of 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 . the blood bred in the heart cleaves to the small fibres of the parts : first of the heart , then of the liver , lungs , kidneys , stomach , muscles , &c. the heart acts , sanguifies , and beats first of all . how the embryo is nourished . whether the seed 〈◊〉 ou●… 〈◊〉 after 〈◊〉 . harvey's opinion that the seed flows out again . deusingius his opinion . harvey deluded both himself and deusingius . harvey's experiments examin'd ; first , that the seed might fall out , and so no conception . that harvey's experiments prove not what he labours to maintain . the seed , after conception , flows not out of the womb . th●… f●…tus is form'd of the seed , and nourish'd by the same . the birth is form'd in the bubble . the time of formation . first history . the second history . the third . the fourth . the vanity of some men who pretend to shew dry'd abortments , since scarce any thing can be discern'd before the fortieth day . the birth not form'd of the whole mass of seed . first observation concerning the bubbl●… of riolanus . the discourse concerning the bubble illustrates the proposition . the second observation of riolanus . the third observation . the fourth observation . the colliquated matter & bubble proceeds both from the man and womans seed . in one birth , but one only bubble . in what order the parts are form'd . all the parts form'd together . an objection here answered . whether the brain in the embryo makes animal spirits and performs animal actions . whether the child in the womb sleeps and wakes ? another 〈◊〉 . what is the architectonic vertue ? what the architectonic power i●… ? various opinions about it . the opinion of the platonists plotinus makes a distinction between the architectonic vertue and the platonic soul of the world. opinions concerning this plastic vertue . whence the seed has its soul. an objection , that the forms of animated being are indivisible , answered . how aristotle and his followers are to be understood . whether that soul which forms the birth , be in the man's seed only , or in the womans also . the opinion of parisanus . ●…hether 〈◊〉 soul be rational . see also bartholinus's anatomic controversies upon the same subject . the soul not ex traduce . that the soul is not rational . the rational soul not present when the parts were first delineated . * this savours too much of calvin's doctrine , for the usual doctrines of original sin are made the great foundation of that horrible proposition concerning reprobation , the consequences of which reproach god with injustice , they charge god foolishly , and deny his goodness and his wisdom in many instances . for ( as a learned divine of the church of england says ) . if god decrees us to be born sinners , then he makes us to be sinners ; and then where is his goodness ? . if god damns any for that , he damns us for what we could not help , and for what himself did ; and then where is his iustice ? . if god sentence us to that damnation , which he cannot in justice inflict ; where is his wisdom ? . if god for the sin of adam , brings upon us a necessity of sinning ; where is our liberty , and why is a law imposed against sin ? . if god does cast infants into hell for the sin of others , and yet did not condemn devils but for their own sin ; where is his love to mankind ? . if god cause the damnation of so many millions of persons , who are no sinners on their own stock , and yet swears , that he desireth not the death of a sinner ; where then is his mercy , and where his truth ? . if god has given us a nature by derivation which is wholly corrupted ; then how can it be that all which god made is good ? where then is his providence and power , and where the glory of the creation ? but since god is all goodness , and iustice , and wisdom , and love , and that he governs all things and all men wisely and holily , and that he gives us a wise law ; and binds that law on us by promises and threatnings ; i think there is reason to assert these things to the glory of the divine majesty . thus far that excellent person . salmon . the corporeal soul makes conclusions , and acts after its own manner , but far inferior to the rational soul. the matter illustrated from holy scripture . an answer to such as object that there cannot be two souls in man. the sensitive soul , what ? the architectonic or vegetative soul subsists in a man with the rational soul. the seat of the vegetable soul , where ? whether in some parts more than in others ? willis not congruous in this matter to reason . what the vegetative soul is ? this soul is the vivific spirit produced out of corporeal matter . the opinion of regius . willis's opinion . willis refated . willis his explanation of this soul. the authors animadversions . the form of the soul is different from the matter it inhabits . willis his little diminutive soul. willis his absurdity . the affections or passions of the soul. whether the soul be nourish'd . what this life or soul is , the philosophers ignorant . the uterine liver . the definition . it s original . when the umbilical vessels begin to grow . harvey's observations of the beginning of the placenta in 〈◊〉 abortive . whether coagulated blood ? aquapendeat's opinion . the number of placenta's . it s substance . it s colour . shape and bigness . the superficies . the ingress of the navel . its vessels . whether any anastomoses between the vessels of the womb and cheese-cake . wharton's opinion . whether any veins and arteries in the 〈◊〉 ? whether any nerves in the cheescake ? the place of adhesion . the opinions of the ancients . opinion . the name deriv'd . what the cotyledons are . in what creatures to be seen . cotyledons in brutes . the use of the placenta in women . the placenta supplies the office of some other bowels . why the placenta sticks to the womb. an objection . the blood flows from the womb into the uterine liver . a watery milky juice flows from the womb to the amnion . secundines . the chorion . the urinary membrane . amnios . the caul on the head. the con●…tion of the membranes in twins . the reason thereof , and of monstrous births . the original of these membranes . their true original . alantoides . what it is . i●…s origi●…al . situation . it s vse . it s shape and bigness . whether any allantois in women ? a milkie liquor within the amnion . the filth sticking to the birth . what the liquor in the amnion 〈◊〉 . 〈◊〉 i●… b●… 〈◊〉 . w●… s●… . whether any steam . it is an alimentary humour . what sort of liquor it is . whether it proceed from 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 hoboken's opinion . a difficulty concerning the milkie uterine vessels and the umbilicals . vanhorn observ'd milkie branches descend towards the great artery , &c. curveus hi●… mistake . the passage of the iuice . ent's opinion confuted . that this milky iuice does not come from the breasts . the opinion of veslingius touching the use of this iuice . the amnios , urinary membrane and chorion stick close one to another . the opi●…ion of riolanus . the urin●…ceous humour sep●…rated from the liquor of the amnios in brutes , where it is collected i●… the alantois . what the serous humour is ? the mistake of deusingius . the mistake of riolanus . the name . the na●…el , what it is ? it s situ●…tion . its vessels . the umbilical vein . the use. its valves . the error of cour●…eus . the umbilical vein in brutes . the umbilical arteries . these arteries hard to be found in the embryo for the first months : yet form'd and grow together . the use. the motion of the blood through the navel . no anastomoses . no union of the umbilical veins with the arteries . the umbilical vessels do not rise from the uterines . whether form'd before the heart . how these vessels p●… through the membranes . dorsal roots . the urachus , or urinary vessel . it is pervious in large brute animals . how it is observed in mankind . why it is not conspicuous without the abdomen . observation . the urine flows from the birth through the urachus . bartholin in an error . the opinion of courveus . the opinion of maurocordatus . the pipe of the navel-string . some few nerves . knots like little bladders full of a whitish iuice . predictions from thence . the cutting of the navel-string . when cut to be left of a just length . the nourishment of the birth in the womb. first digression . the birth is nourished by the mouth and navel . nourish●…nt by apposition . nutrition by the mouth and navel . the proof of nou●…ishment by apposition . proof of nourishment at the mouth . observation . an argument from sucking . confirm'd by hippocrates . with what matter it was nourished at mouth . taken in by degrees and swallo●…ed , not forc'd . a question . the proof of nutrition by the umbilical blood. it is carryed in the same manner in a chicken . riolanus deceived . whether tapping i●… a dropsie , may not more safely be done in the navel it self . in what the difference consists . variety in the whole . difference in the head. difference in the breast . difference in the lower belly . difference in the ioynts . how the birth is contained in the womb. the inversion of the birth . change of situation . the opinion of fernelius . digression . how long the birth remains in the womb. children born within the sixth month. children born in the fifth month. they cannot live that are born in the eighth month , according to hippocrates . the reason of the variety in the time of delivery . paulus zachias . learned men too much deceived by old womens tales . error in womens reckonings . what happens near the time of delivery . the cause of expulsion . a natural birth . unnatural . nature expels the birth out of the womb through the uterine sheath . something 's admirable to be observed . the cause of the 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 of the 〈◊〉 . not the narrowness of the place . not the corruption of nourishment . not defect of nourishment . whether abundance of excrements . the true cause . a similitude . the 〈◊〉 of refreshment and respiration is the cause of calcitration . the opi●…on of harvey , and two questions . harvey's other question . that birth may live a while without respiration . an objection . all in an error , who write of respiration and crying in the womb. the cause of 〈◊〉 and dead births . notes for div a -e the breast . the strusture of it . the figure . the largeness of it . it s division . containing parts . the proper . the contained parts . their place . the names . the bigness . a consideration of the bigness . their number . their situation . the shape and colour . glandules . a large glandule . the teat . where the milky chanels terminate . the exquisite sense of the teat . it s colour . it s bigness . the areola . vessels . nerves . arteries . veins . 〈◊〉 , lymphaticks . lymphatick vessels . the milky vessels ▪ whether the chylus be carryed through the arteries to the breasts . the office. first digression . milk , what . the matter of milk. whether out of menstruous blood. absurdities from the former opinions . whether out of alimentary blood. an objection . why the veins swell in the breast . whether made of crude blood whether out of the arterious & nervous blood. whether out of the serum . whether out of fat. the chyle is the matter of milk. how the chylus is chang'd into milk. the milky iuice made more perfect . why the milk fails in effusions of the blood. why women that give suck want their courses . mesue's story . whether the animal spirits be the matter of milk. a notable question . the true cause . an observation . why the milk increases the fourth day after child-birth . a question . why the breasts are dry'd up upon weaning . what drives the chylus to the breasts in beasts . see l. . c. , . what is that something analogous to the rational soul. whether analogon be the same with the rational soul. the said analogon is the more excellent spirit . an objection refuted . the refutation . the names . 't is a muscle . the substance . the membranes . the site and connexion . the holes . vessels . it s motion whether the situation of it be natural or animal . the pleura . the names it s duplicity . the little fibres . holes . its vessels . it s original . the mediastinum . it s cavity . its vessels . it s use. the kernel under the canel-bone or thymus . lactes . its vessels ▪ it s iuice . lymphatic vessels . it s original . its membranes . it s connexion . its vessels . the liquor of the pericardium . it s use. wh●… such it is i●… diseased bodies . the cause of the difference in quantity . the plenty of it does not cause palpitation of the heart . the names . it is a principal part. the fuel of heat . it s si●…ation . it s substance . it s fibres . whether the heart be a muscle . it s figure . it s bigness . its coats . it s fat. its hairs . it s 〈◊〉 ▪ coronary arteries . coronary veins . nerves . the opinion of descartes . the use of the animal spirits in the heart . the dignity of the heart . wounds of the heart mortal . a rare observation . . whether the heart is mov'd by the animal spirits . whether mov'd by the dilatation of the blood. whether 〈◊〉 part ly by the ●…ation of the blood , and partly by the animal spirits . whether ●…ov'd by ●…n ethere●…l matter . whether mov'd by the spirit of the blood. whether mov'd by the lungs . the true cause of the heart's motion . why the heart of an eel taken out of the body beats . digression ▪ dilatation . when the cavities are bro●… ▪ est . vicious motions . the vse of the pulse . circulation of the blood. first proof from the plenty of blood. the second proof from the situation of the valves . the third proof from ligature in blood-letting . the manner of circulation . riolanus his manner the common manner . the true manner of circulation . the cause of inflammations . the vse of circulation . whether the chylus and the serum circulate . the cause of vterine fluxes . the parts of the heart . the little ears . their number . their substance . the superficies . their cavity . colour . motion . their vse . the ventricles . unnatural things bred in the ventricles . vessels . the right ventricle . the hollow vein . the treble-pointed valves . the pulmonaery artery . sigmoid valves . the left ventricle . the pulmonary vein . the mitral v●…ves the aorta . the half-moon valves . the bone of the heart the motion of the blood in the birth . double unions of the vessels . the oval hole . it s 〈◊〉 the other union . the use of the right ventricle ▪ the oval hole is abolish'd in children , when born . the channel also closes up . the opinions of the ancients concerning the seat of the soul in the heart . the office of the heart . glisson's new opinion . the reply to glisson's opinion . whether any vivific spirit be in the blood. a simili●… . the names . it s definition . it s substance . its iuices . a doubt . double spirits . vital spirit . whether this spirit be different from the blood. the heas of the blood. the temper of the blood. the quantity and quality of the spirits various . an error concerning the spirits . an error concerning air. the original of the principles of the blood. the chylus passing thro' the heart , ceases to be chylus . whether the whole chylus be chang'd into blood. the proof of the former opinion . it s refutation . w●… 〈◊〉 part of the chylus may not be mix●…d with the blood. whence the red colour proceeds . how the parts are nourish'd by the blood. the diversity of figures . the nourishment from the blood twofold . the degrees of nutrition . four things necessary to nutrition . growth . stay of growth . decay . whether old men grow shorter . two doubts of the four humors of the blood. flegm . blood. choler . melancholy . the four humors are always in the blood. whence the temperaments of the body proceed . phlegmatic temperament . 〈◊〉 . 〈◊〉 . 〈◊〉 . whether 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 and spirits 〈◊〉 . the use of the blood. what blood nourishes . charleton's contrary opinion . his arguments . the refutation . whether the lympha be nutritive . malpigius ●…is observations a●…out refrigerated blood . the differences of the blood. the definition . it s bigness . it s substance . preternatural things in the lungs . observation . the cloathing membrane the colour the colour in a child before it is born . the division . their division into little lobes the connexion . observation . several observations . the vessels . the rough a●…tery . the pulmonary vein and artery . whether the blood passes only through the anastomoses . the bronchial artery . lymphatic vessels . nerves . office. respiration what ! it s end. what kills people that are strangled . cause of swooning in stoves . the necessity of respiration . how the blood is cool'd . charleton's error . the new opinion of alexander maurocordatus . whether the lungs wheel about the blood. malpigius his opinion . thruston his opinion . the conclusion . the secondary use of the lungs . the motion is passive . contrary opinions . the refutation . whether the lungs be mov'd by the head. the manner of respiration . what sort of action it is . it is an animal action . an objection . whether a man might live without respiration . stories of of such as have liv'd long with out breathing . the reason of what has been said . it s definition . it s situation . it s division . bronchia . bigness . substance . the rings . division . figure . vessels . it s bulk . substance . gristles . the scutiformis . the annular . the guttal . the epiglottis . muscles . common ones . hypothyroides . the proper muscles . the hinder cricoartaenoides . the lateral cricoartaenoides . thyro-artaenoides . the ninth muscle . the muscle of the epiglottis . the kernels . the tonsillae . wharton his error . parotides . the voice . a digression . it s situation . it s connexion . its vessels . it s substance . kernels . it s us●… . cervix ▪ epomis . shoulders . axilla or arm-pit●… . iudgment of the strength of a man's body . notes for div a -e it s denomination . it s scituation . it s shape and bigness . the division . the desinition . the 〈◊〉 . why women have no beards . the place where they break forth ▪ their roots . the division . they are heterogeneous bodies . the form. the efficient cause . the first original . the diversity . the reason of the colours . why the hair of the head first grows grey . signs of the temper of the body . the materials of hair. the manner of its generation . whether the kernels afford matter for the hair. 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 matter of hair be a●… excrement . objections . the ●…lution . turning grey of a sudden . the reason . whether hairs be parts of the body ▪ an observation . whether store of hair contribute strength to the body . the skin . fat. fleshy pannicle . the pericranium ▪ the periostium . bones . dura meninx . it s holes . its vessels . it s duplicature . the 〈◊〉 or scy the. the cavities . torcular hierophili : the use of the cavities . whether any small pipes in the hollownesses . tenuis meninx . the fells of the 〈◊〉 . the brain . whether the brain be a bowel or a real kernel ? the formation of it . the division of the name . the bigness . whether immoderate venery diminishes the brain ? whether men or women have most brains ? the shape . the substance ▪ the colour and softness . the fibers the cortex , and pith , or marrow . how the matter of the animal spirit is separated from the brain . whether the shell be separable from the marrow ▪ the temper of the brain . its arteries . whether the arteries enter the substance of the brain . the veins . the anastomoses of the vessels . its nerves it s division . it s motion . whether the brain move by its own proper motion ? the necessity of the said motion . what organ it is . the seat of the animal faculties . the pr●…minency of the brain . snakes taken out of the brain . the brawny body . the lucid septum . veins . ventricles . the two upper ventricles . the fornix . the choroid fold . it s rise & progress . it s use. slime or snot . the progress of the superfluous blood from the fold . rolfinch's mistake concerning the cause of a catarrh . the third ventricle . the buttocks . the testicles . the pineal kernel . sand and gravel in the kernel . the use of this kernel . the choroid fold . the cerebel . it s 〈◊〉 . it s 〈◊〉 it s substance . 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 . the vermicular processes . varolius's bridge . the cistern , where the seat of the memory . its parts . the fourth ventricle . calamus scriptorius . the long marrow . the difference between this and the marrow of the bones . it s moti●…n . it s substance . its vessels . the coverings . 〈◊〉 division . it s cavity . the coverings . the mamillary processes . their number . their original . little pipes . the channels for the flegm . their coats . the use of them . not odoratory nerves . nerves within the cranium . the seven pairs . the first pair . optic . their coats . the course or substance of the strings the pituitary kernel . its vessels . it s situation . it s substance . it s divison . it s bigness . the second pair moving the eyes . the third pair . the fourth pair serving to the taste . the fifth pair serving to the hearing . the vagous pair . the turn-again nerves ▪ the intercostal fold . the mesenteric folds . why the bowels have their nerves from the th . pair . the th . pair , moving the tongue . whether these nervs differ from others in substance and composition . the office of the brain . the action of the brain . whether generated in the cavities of the falx . whether generated in the pineal kernel . whether generated in the choroid fold . whether generated in the exterior arteries . whether generated in the substance it self of the brain . two objections . the cause of the motion of the brain . the reason of the apoplexy . the second objection answered . the definition of spirits . the opinion of glisson concerning the matter . the opinion of cartesius . the matter out of which the animal spirits are generated . whether air concurs with the matter . the separation of the spirituous salt part . the separation of the salt part from the sulphury . affinity of particles . the separation of the spirituous from the thick part . the diversity of spirits in thinness & thickness . the passage thro' the pores of the nerves . why these spirits do 〈◊〉 corrode by reason of their acrimony . the difference between the animal & vital spirits . the twofold use of these spirits . objection . what these spirits contribute to nourishment . the progress of nutrition . the parts of the face . the forehead . the muscles of the forehead . muscles of the hinder part of the head. the number . the figure . their colour . the bigness . their consent . the light of the eye . whether diseas'd eyes be contagious no inquinations issue from the eyes . two sorts of parts of the eyes . the orbits the figure and largeness . the coats . their holes a sign of the french disease . the eye-lids . the vessels muscles . the ciliar muscle . what is 〈◊〉 motion . observations taken from the eye-brows . canthi . the inner canthus . the cilia ▪ the lachrymal points . the eye-brows . ●… tears in sadness . in the murr and sneezing . in laughter . onyons mustard , &c. from pain in the eye . whenee the great quantity of tears . why men in great sadness cannot weep ? wherefore only man weeps ? the arteries . veins . muscles . their original . the innominate tunicle . the upper muscle . the humble muscle . the bibitory muscle . the indignabund . the first oblique muscle . the second oblique muscle . the trochlear . a seventh muscle in brutes . the nerves why the eyes move together ? the adnate tunicle . the reason of an ophthalmy . the innominate tunicle . ●… 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 and oxen. proper membranes . scl●…rotic . the choroides . the colours of it . the iris. the apple of the eye . the ciliar ligament . the retina . the humors of the eye . the watry 〈◊〉 . the hea●… of i●… . whether a part of the body ? whether an excrement ? the use of the watry humor . the vitreous humor . the vitreous tunicle . it s use . the crystalline humor . the cobweb tuni cle . the use of the crystalline humor . whether parts of the body ? whether these humors are sensible ? the action of the eye . definition of sight . the organ of hearing . their number . their magnitude and figure . helix . anthelix . tragus . antitragus . alvearium . concha . indications . the parts of the ear. the gristle . the muscles . the vessels . the parotid glands . the inner organ of hearing . the auditory passage . ear-wax . the bee-hive . the membrane of the drum. it s rise . it s connexion . the string . it s 〈◊〉 . it 's muscles . the use of the membrane . the tympanum or ▪ drum. the four little bones by whom discover'd . the hammer . the anvil . the stirrup . the orbicular bone. the passage from the tympanum to the iaws . an observation . the holes . the oval-window . the round window . the labyrinth . the cochlea . the innate-air . ve●…ls . nerve●… . use. the definition . whether hearing be an action ? so●… ▪ the generation of sound . differences of sound . the organ of smelling . the description of the nose . figure and bigness . it s skin . bones . spungy bones . the use of the spongy bones . filling of the nose . gristles . muscles . the nostrils . the inner membrane vessels conveighing blood. lymphatics . nerves . the definition of smelling . scent . whether smells are substances ▪ the efficient cause of smells . difference of odors . the organ of smelling whether by the nerves . whether by the papillary process . whether in the membranes . the true organ of smelling . the medium of smelling . the manner of smelling : smelling is only in breathing creatures . why a scent is grateful or ingrateful . the chee●…s . the apple of the face . the bucca . the lips. pro labiae . mentum or the chin. the substance of the lips. the vessels . the use. the mouth the use. common muscles . the square muscle . the buccinator . muscles proper to the lips. the muscles of the lower iaw . the temple muscle . the digastric . the first mansory . the second mansory . the external wing-like . the gums . the palate it s use : the uvula it s use. the 〈◊〉 . the use. the hyoides-bone . muscles . the shape . it s substance . the exterior membrane . the se●…undary use. the glutinous substance . the paplike-body . fibers . the motion of the tongue . no kernel . the connexion . its vessels . nerves . the epigloits . the tonsils . its muscles . genioglossum . ceratoglossum . myloglossum . the little kernels . the spittle channels under the tongue . substance and bigness . situation and original . the froggdistemper . stenonis's ducts . their original . a physical observation . other salival vessels . des cartes his opinion . the true original of the saliva . the 〈◊〉 of spittle . the qualities of spittle . it s strange composition . it s use. the difference between the saliva and sputum . the action of the tongue . definition of taste . distinction between taste and feeling . no medium of taste the organ of taste . whether in the flesh of the tongue ? whether in the membranes or nerves ? whether in the kernels ? whether in the nervous teats ? the manner of perception of savors . various opinions about savors . what savor is ? whence the asperities come ? the sapi●… asperities . difference of savors . savor from salt. 〈◊〉 . savor i●… communicated by humidity . how the species of savors are caus'd ? what the agitation signifies . diversity of the pores alters the savor . imagination 〈◊〉 the 〈◊〉 . notes for div a -e the proportion between the limbs . the hands . the definition of the hand . the arm. the arm-pit . the axillary glands the elbow . the hands . the wrist . meta carpium . vola & palma . the mounts . the lines . the figures . the nails . the foot. the thigh . ischion . the groin . the leg. the foot. notes for div a -e definition . composition . laurentius's error . muscles are twofold . the head. the insertion of the nerve . the belly of the muscle . the tendo . it s definition . whether all muscles have tendons . whether a similar part ? the use. whether the motion of the muscles be voluntary ? whether the heart be a muscle ? the action of the muscle . relaxation 〈◊〉 action . the tonic motion . no difference between contraction and tension . the action is performed by fibres . the difference of operation . determination of the spirus . des cartes his opinion . the spleny muscles . the complex pair . the small and thick pair . the bigger streight pair . the lesser streight pair . the upper oblique pair . the lower oblique pair . the mastoides pair . the inner streight pair . the movers of the parts in the head. the long muscles . the scalen-muscle . the transversal muscle . the spinati muscles . the number of the muscles of the neck . the pectoral muscl●… . the triangular humeral muscle . the aniscalptor muscle . the bigger round muscle . the lesser round muscle . the infra spinatus . the supra spinatus . the subscapular muscle . the perforate muscle . the serratus minor . the trapezius ▪ the rhomboides . the bigger and round muscle . the levator . the diaphragma . the intercostal muscles . the vessel . of the intercostals . the action of the intercostals . the subclavius . the serratus major . the upper serratus posticus . the lower serratus posticus . the sacrolumbus . the triangular . the quadrati muscles . the longest muscles ▪ the sacred muscles . the semi-spinati . the muscles of the abdomen . the muscles of the elbow . the biceps . the brachiaeus . the 〈◊〉 ▪ the short. the external brachiaeus . the aconaeus . the round muscle . the quadratus . the longer supinator . the shorter . the palmary muscle . the inner cubitaeus . the inner radiaeus . the external cubitaeus . the sub lime muscle . the profound muscle . the channel of the tendons . the lumbricals . the extenders . the common extenders . the proper . the extender of the fore-finger . the extender of little-finger . the interossei . the adductor of the fore-finger . the adductor of the little-finger . the extenders of the thumb . the benders of the thumb . the adductors of the thumb . the abductors . the lumbar muscle . the inner iliacus . the pectineus . the larger glutaeus . the middle glutaeus . the lesser glutaeus . the triceps adductor . the quadrigemini . the obturatores : the longest the slender . the seminervous . the semimembranous . the two-headed . the membranous . the long . the streight . the internal vast . the external vast . the crureus . the poplitaeus . the tibilis anti●…us . the peronaeus anticus . the gastrocnemius . the soleus . the plantaris . the tibialis posticus . the peronaeus posticus . the third peronaeus . the long tensor . the short tensor . the long bender . the short bender . the lumbrical . the interossei . the abductor of the little toe . the flexor of the great toe . the extensor . the abductor . the abductor major . the abductor minor. the vestigium . definition . the names . original . their nourishment . the office . the differences . the number . their original . their action . difference . notes for div a -e desinition . the arte●…ious blood , what it is ? whether they attract air ? whether they dissipate vapors ? the substance . the outer tunicle . the inner tunicle . fibres . the third tunicle . the fourth tunicle . the breeding of an aneurisma . the substance . their nutriment . the bigness . their number . situation . the differences . their progression . the pulse . whether a a pulsific faculty in in the arteries ? the cause of the pulse in the arteries . the substance . it 's rise . the subclavial branches . the upper intercostal . the mamary artery . the cervical . the muscula . the axillary and humerary the upper pectoral . the lower pectoral . the scapulary . the arteries of the arm and hand . the carotid arteries the outer branch of the carotid . the innermost branch . the rete mirabile . the plexus choroides . the lower intercostals . the phrenic . the coeliac . the right gastric . the right epiplois . the intestinal . the right gastro epiplois . the hepaticks . the splenic . the coronary stomachic . the left gastric . the hinder epiplois . the left epiplois . the vas breve arteriorum , and the left gastro-epiplois . the mesenteric artery . the inner hemorrhoidal . the emulgent artery . the spermatic . the lumbars . the upper muscula . the iliaca . and sacra arteria . the inferior muscula . the hypogastric 〈◊〉 external hemorrhoidal . the umbilical . the epigastrick . the pudenda . the crural artery . the exterior or crural muscula . the inner . the poplitea . the sural the exterior tibiaean . the hinder tibiaean . the lowermost hinder tibiaean . the arteries of the feet . notes for div a -e the definition . the substance . its tunicles . sense . the improper coat . it s nourishment . why the veins 〈◊〉 not beat ? valves . the bigness . the difference . the number . their original . the vena porta . it s rise . the umbilical vein . the suspensory . the double cystics . the right gastric . the splenic branch . the mesenteric vein . the splenic veins . the left epiplois . the left gastro-epiplois . the short veiny vessel . the lesser gastric . the greater . the right and hinder epiplois , and pancreatic veins . the meseraic veins . the internal hemorrhoidal . the other right epiplois . the intestinal . the use of the vena porta . the first opinion . the second opinion . the third opinion . the fourth opinion . the fifth opinion . the true use of the vena porta . the hollow vein . the situation . the phrenic or diaphragmatic . the pneumonic . the coronary of the heart . the azygos . the upper intercostal ▪ the upper intercostal . the mammary . the mediastinum . the cervical . the lower muscula . the upper muscula . the iugular . the vena frontis , vena puppis , and the ranariae . the axillary veins . the scapular veins . the cephaelic vein . the salvatella . the basilic . the upper thoracy . the lower . the median or common vein . the veins of the liver the adiposa . the emulgent . the spermatic or seminal . the lumbary . the iliacs . the upper muscula and the sacra . the lower iliaca . the middle muscula . the hypogastric . the external haemorrhoidais . the epigastric . the pudenda . the lower muscula . the crural vein . the saphaena . the lesser ischias . the muscula . the poplitea . the sural . the larger ischias . notes for div a -e the definition . it s substance . whether hollow ? the substance is threefold . their nourishment . whether they conveigh the nutritious iuice ? glisson's opinion . wharton and charlton's opinion . malpigius his opinion . the nourishment of the nerves . their bigness . their original . their passage out of the pith. softness and hard●…ess . the use. why they be instruments of sense a motion . whether the sensory and motory nerves are different ? while motion lasts there is always sence . observations . the error of philosophers . 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 by the spirits . whether sense be made by the little fibres of the nerves . the determination of the spirits by the nerves . the difference of the nerves . the numbers of the nerves . the coats of the nerves . the plexus retiformis . notes for div a -e the name . desinition . generation . marrow . the vessels . the efficient cause . the time of their formation . their use. the difference . their substance . callus . cavities . a prominence . apophysis . epiphysis . whether bones have sense ? the number . the qualities . symphisis . syneurosis . synchondrosis . sysarcosis . articulation . diarthrosis . enarthrosis . arthrodia . ginglymus . synarthrosis . suture . harmonia . gomphosis . skeleton . the cranium . the face . the figure of the skull . the substance . the thickness . the tables . the diplo●… . the sutures . sutures are twofold . the real . the illegitimate . the coronal . the lambdoidal . the sagittal . the illegitimate sutures . the squ●…moides . the four commissures . the common commissures . the use of the commissures . whether there can be a contra-fissure . the skull . the proper bones . the common bones . the iaw bones . the cavities . the holes . the fossae . the fore-head bone. the cell of the fore-head bone. the use of the cell . the processes . the furrow . the holes . the bones of the bregma . their figure . substance . the use of gaping . the furrows . the bone of the occiput . shape . substance . cavities . processes . hol●… . the bones of the temples . sh●…pe . cavities . the styloides . the mamillary processes . the os jugal . the wedg-like bone. the situation . the substance . its processes . whether the saddle be perforated . the cavities . holes . the sieve-like bone. the cocks-comb . the spungy bones . their vse . the upper iaw . it s substance . its vessels . it s figure . processes . cavity . holes . the desinition . whether they be bones ? their substance . vessels . their principles . the folliculus . the bony part . the time of cutting . the shedding . a controversie about shedding the teeth . the dentes sapientiae . continual growth . the order . 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 number . the incisorii . the canini . the grinders . their use . the spine . the substance . the figure . the holes the proceses . connexio●… . number . the vertebres of the neck . atlas . dentata . the vertebres of the back . their figure . greatness . processes . the vertebres of the loy●…s . the bone lus. the os sacrum . the coccyx bones . the ribs . their number . their substance . figure . greatness . cutting for an empy●…ma . articulation . the true ribs . the spurious ribs . their use. the substance . its parts . the cartilagious mucronata . the scrobicle cordis . the clavicles . number . substance . figure . connexion . the use. the scapula . the processes . their construction . the os ile●…on . the os coxendicis . the os pubis . whether the share-bone parts ? how the birth gets out of the pelvis ? the shoulder-bone . the elbow . the ulna . the radius . their vse . their connexion . the carpus . the articulation . the metacarps . the fingers . the thigh . the head of the thigh . an observation . the sesamina poplitis . the patella . the leg. the tibia . the mallectus internus . the fibula . the malleolus externus . the tarsus . the talus the calx . the os naviculare . the os cuboides . the metatarsus . the bones of the toes . their situation . bigness . number . the number of all the bones . the general difference . in the head . in the breast . the constitution of the bones of the head. of the arms and hands . of the legs and feet . the definition . their names . parts . substance . colour . connexion . use. whether they be parts of the body ? the ma●…ner of their growth . notes for div a -e definition . substance . their vse . definition . substance . nourishment . figure . their rise ▪ vse . the ligaments of the head. of the upper iaw . of the o●… hyoides and the tongue . the ligaments of the vertebres . of the ribs . of the sternon . of the os ilion . of the os sacrum . of the os pubis . the ligaments . of the wrist . of the metacarpium . the ligaments of the thigh . the luxation of the hip. of the tibia . of the tibula . of the feet of the talus . of the pedion . of the metapedion of the toes . the anatomy of humane bodies with figures drawn after the life by some of the best masters in europe and curiously engraven in one hundred and fourteen copper plates : illustrated with large explications containing many new anatomical discoveries and chirurgical observations : to which is added an introduction explaining the animal œconomy : with a copious index / by william cowper. cowper, william, - . approx. kb of xml-encoded text transcribed from -bit group-iv tiff page images. text creation partnership, ann arbor, mi ; oxford (uk) : - (eebo-tcp phase ). a wing c estc r ocm this keyboarded and encoded edition of the work described above is co-owned by the 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(eebo-tcp ; phase , no. a ) transcribed from: (early english books online ; image set ) images scanned from microfilm: (early english books, - ; : ) the anatomy of humane bodies with figures drawn after the life by some of the best masters in europe and curiously engraven in one hundred and fourteen copper plates : illustrated with large explications containing many new anatomical discoveries and chirurgical observations : to which is added an introduction explaining the animal œconomy : with a copious index / by william cowper. cowper, william, - . [ ] p., leaves of plates (some folded) : ill., port. printed at the theater for sam. smith and benj. walford ... london, oxford : . added t.p. engraved. reproduction of original in british library. created by converting tcp files to tei p using tcp tei.xsl, tei @ oxford. re-processed by university of nebraska-lincoln and northwestern, with changes to facilitate morpho-syntactic tagging. gap elements of known extent have been transformed into placeholder characters or elements to simplify the filling in of gaps by user contributors. eebo-tcp is a partnership between the universities of michigan and oxford and the publisher proquest to create accurately transcribed and encoded texts based on the image sets published by proquest via their early english books online (eebo) database (http://eebo.chadwyck.com). the general aim of eebo-tcp is to encode one copy (usually the first edition) of every monographic english-language title published between and available in eebo. eebo-tcp aimed to produce large quantities of textual data within the usual project restraints of time and funding, and therefore chose to create diplomatic transcriptions (as opposed to critical editions) with light-touch, mainly structural encoding based on the text encoding initiative (http://www.tei-c.org). the eebo-tcp project was divided into two phases. the , texts created during phase of the project have been released into the public domain as of january . anyone can now take and use these texts for their own purposes, but we respectfully request that due credit and attribution is given to their original source. users should be aware of the process of creating the tcp texts, and therefore of any assumptions that can be made about the data. text selection was based on the new cambridge bibliography of english literature (ncbel). if an author (or for an anonymous work, the title) appears in ncbel, then their works are eligible for inclusion. selection was intended to range over a wide variety of subject areas, to reflect the true nature of the print record of the period. in general, first editions of a works in english were prioritized, although there are a number of works in other languages, notably latin and welsh, included and sometimes a second or later edition of a work was chosen if there was a compelling reason to do so. image sets were sent to external keying companies for transcription and basic encoding. quality assurance was then carried out by editorial teams in oxford and michigan. % (or pages, whichever is the greater) of each text was proofread for accuracy and those which did not meet qa standards were returned to the keyers to be redone. after proofreading, the encoding was enhanced and/or corrected and characters marked as illegible were corrected where possible up to a limit of instances per text. any remaining illegibles were encoded as <gap>s. understanding these processes should make clear that, while the overall quality of tcp data is very good, some errors will remain and some readable characters will be marked as illegible. users should bear in mind that in all likelihood such instances will never have been looked at by a tcp editor. the texts were encoded and linked to page images in accordance with level of the tei in libraries guidelines. copies of the texts have been issued variously as sgml (tcp schema; ascii text with mnemonic sdata character entities); displayable xml (tcp schema; characters represented either as utf- unicode or text strings within braces); or lossless xml (tei p , characters represented either as utf- unicode or tei g elements). keying and markup guidelines are available at the text creation partnership web site . eng human anatomy -- atlases. human anatomy -- early works to . - tcp assigned for keying and markup - spi global keyed and coded from proquest page images - mona logarbo sampled and proofread - mona logarbo text and markup reviewed and edited - pfs batch review (qc) and xml conversion gulielmus cowper chyrurgus portrait ● closterman pinxit i. smith fecit the anatomy of humane bodies by will m. cowper surgeon . the anatomy of humane bodies , with figures drawn after the life by some of the best masters in europe , and curiously engraven in one hundred and fourteen copper plates , illustrated with large explications , containing many new anatomical discoveries , and chirurgical observations : to which is added an introduction explaining the animal oeconomy . with a copious index . by william cowper . oxford printed at the theater . for sam . smith and benj. walford , printers to the royal society . at the princes arms in st paul's church yard , london mdcxcviii . to the right honorable charles mountague , first lord of the treasury ; chancellor of the exchequer ; one of the lords of his majesty's most honorable privy-council ; and president of the royal-society , &c. sir , having heard from those persons who have often the happiness of waiting on you , how easie an access you give to all , i have presum'd to ask the honor of being admitted into your presence . if this address may be thought too forward , it will be some excuse , to have it known , that i was justly afraid of being prevented by those numbers of men , eminent in all faculties and professions , who are preparing to make the same attempt upon you. the peace , which his most sacred majesty has with the greatest glory brought home to us , as much as it owes to the influence of your particular counsels , will be very far from allowing you any share of that rest , which it affords to all europe besides : believe me , sir , the men of letters knowing now , that your thoughts are no longer taken up by the war , are all ready to break in upon you with their offerings ; they look on you as their declar'd patron and protector ; they have upon this prospect recover'd their spirits , and enlarg'd their hopes ; and some of them have gone so far , as to think they find you born for their advancement , under that very star , which was never before observ'd to shine out in all its lustre , but only at the birth of the roman mecaenas , and the french richlieu and colbert . every art and science pretends a right to approach you , because every one of 'em is familiarly known to you : anatomy has this also in particular to alledge for it self , that , having receiv'd its chief improvements and advantages from our own country-men , it may be accounted of english growth ; which the world will agree , is the most effectual thing that can be said of it , to recommend it to your protection , who lay the honor and interest of england so near your heart , and whose love for your country , is not to be out-done , but by the love your country returns you. the favor of great ministers to the learned , is a subject that takes up but little room in our british annals . it has been thought to be the defect of some former reigns , famous in all other respects ; and was reserv'd , we believe , to compleat the glories of this. my lord treasurer burleigh was a better servant to queen elizabeth , than patron to the muses : but were spenser , who had the misfortune of being born a hundred years too soon , alive at this time , we have instances sufficient to convince us , that his applications would meet with no repulse . mr. stepny , mr. prior , mr. congreve , and many more , are as much distinguish'd by your favor , as by their own merits ; the world at last being satisfied , that polite learning in good hands , is so far from excluding business , that it gives a grace to it ; and that a genius truly great , will , which way soever it is directed , exert its force and maintain its rank . you will please to bear this freedom , sir , in a person who as little capable as he is himself of making a right iudgment of men , yet living in a place , where he is ever surrounded on all sides with your praises , may have leave to remember what he so often hears from the knowing and iudicious , and to repeat a character , that comes warranted to him , by the most allow'd authorities . the truest mark of worth , sir , is to be valued there , where one is most known . the people of westminster , who were acquainted with the first parts of your life , and have had the longest experience of your virtues , own openly their just esteem of you , by placing in you the trust of representing them in parliament . 't is there , in the midst of those that choose you , that your excellent conduct of publick affairs is still supplying them , and all the world , with fresh matter of applause and admiration : but they had never more reason to be satisfied with their choice , than on that glorious day , when right was done to your merit , by the testimony of the nation in a vote of the house of commons ; where it was resolv'd , that it is the opinion of this house , that the honorable charles mountague esquire , chancellor of the exchequer , for his good services to this government , do's deserve his majesty's favor . a vote , that carries more honor in it , than all the titles and patents of modern heraldry , than all the inscriptions of ancient greece or rome . what has ever happen'd like this to any of our ancestors , in all the course of our records and histories ? who besides , has receiv'd so solemn , so noble , and so publick a panegyrick from the vocie of his country ; pronounc'd within those walls , where the tongue is left to its liberty , and no man oblig'd to speak otherwise than he thinks ? 't is , without doubt , the first wish an english-man would make , thus to deserve , and possess the united favor of prince and people ; and this degree of happiness has been granted to you alone : the next is , to have a place in the good opinion of him that is so universally valued ; and this is the utmost ambition of sir , your most humble and most obedient servant william cowper the introduction explaining the animal oeconomy . the contemplation of humane bodies is doubtless one of the most diverting and noble amusements , in which a philosophical mind can employ it self . the structure , contrivance , and disposition of the parts are astonishing , and we can hardly desire more plain and convincing proofs of the wisdom and providence of the author of nature , than what may be deduc'd from this source . how surpizing are the discoveries which the happy industry of the present age has made in the animal world : the doctrine of the circulation of the blood ; the vnity of the veins and arteries ; the origin and distribution of the chyle and lympha ; the ovaria in females ; the embriunculi in the masculine seed , are equally certain and amazing ; besides a multitude of other curious observations we daily make by the help of microscopes , mercurial injections , and such like methods . these are sufficient motives to induce all inquisitive persons , and lovers of natural history , to the study of anatomy ; but all professors of medicine are more immediately concern'd to be acquainted with it ; this being little less than the basis and foundation of their art. without a due knowledge of the animal mechanism , i doubt all our attempts to explain the multiform appearance of animal bodies , will be vain and ineffectual , and our ideas of the causes of diseases and their symptoms , as extravagant and absurd as those of the chinese and indians ; nay i am afraid the whole art of physick will be little better than empirical . but if the knowledge of our bodies do's so much conduce to advance true philosophy and medicine ; it is not less required in the practice of surgery : in this case it seems not meerly convenient , but absolutely necessary ; i mean so far as concerns the external parts , since the artist here , do's not as in the former instances , acquiesce in contemplating his subject , and the manner how it is affected ; but is often oblig'd to perform some difficult , and perhaps hazardous operation on it . for my part i cannot forbear wondring at the confidence of ignorant men , who dare attack a humane body , make incisions , apply causticks actual and potential ; without a due knowledge of the site , position , dependance , and other necessary considerations of the parts concern'd . the fatal consequences of these bold practices are frequently felt , an instance or two of which , are accidentally shewn , tab. . fig. . tab. . fig. . i must confess frequent seeing and assisting at chirurgical operations may dispose men to perform the like again , when circumstances in all points shall agree ; but without a competent , if not accurate knowledge of anatomy , and actual administration of dissection , such persons must be a long time spectators , before they can arrive at a tolerable pretence to a general practice : and therefore as i cannot but deplore the profound and universal ignorance which prevails , so i would candidly recommend it to most of the surgeons in this vast and populous city , to apply themselves with more industry than they have hitherto done , to so useful a part of their art ; who would soon then be convinc'd this was no dishonour to themselves , and cease to reproach others who have spent some of their vacant hours in these exercises . but this is foreign to my purpose , and therefore i shall address my self to the business now before me , which is to present the reader with a brief and general plan of the animal oeconomy , as an introduction to the following tables . all the functions of an animate body may be well enough divided into natural and animal ; by natural , i mean all which terminate in the body , and conduce to the preservation of the individual or propagation of the species ; by animal , i understand such , in which the soul is concern'd , which in regard of the body to which it is united , are passive or active ; the first is sense ; the latter voluntary motion . for the more orderly distribution of the whole , we shall first treat of the former , leaving the animal functions to succeed ; and here we shall follow the process of nature ; beginning with the first reception of the aliment in the mouth , and pursuing it thence thro' its several stages . after the aliment is taken into the mouth , ( for the more commodious doing of which , the dentes incisorii are often employ'd ) it here suffers comminution , and is mixt with saliva , which is previous to the second preparation , it receives in the stomach . this operation is call'd mastication , and is perform'd by the lower jaw , variously mov'd by its proper muscles , and assisted by the tongue , cheeks , and lips ; which last , still apply the less divided parts of the mass , to the dentes molares , for it 's due comminution ; while all the neighbouring muscles in their several actions , compress the parotid , maxillary , sublingual salivary glands , and those of the lips , cheeks , &c. and force them to discharge their contents to mix with the masticated aliment , now ready for deglutition . the aliment after it has undergone this alteration , do's not descend into the stomach by its own weight , but is convey'd thither by the joint action of the muscles of the tongue , os hyoides , fauces , and oesophagus ; all which conspire in deglutition , by raising and dilating the gula , and protruding the meat into it . the whole action do's very much resemble the pouring corn into a sack , and is done in the manner i shall just now describe . the root of the tongue being deprest by means of its muscular fibres , its tip and sides are applied in a semicircular manner , to the insides of the whole range of teeth of the upper jaw or gums , when these happen to be wanting ; and the whole in this position is drawn upwards , by the musculi styloglossi and stylohyoidei , tab. . fig. . tab. . fig. . at the same time the fauces are rais'd by the musculi stylopharyngaei , which by their oblique position , ( as is noted app. fig. . ) draw open their mouth , and dilate that cavity . now two thirds at least of the upper surface of the tongue , being applied to the roof of the mouth , and drawn as we have now describ'd , upwards , and inwards ; the epiglottis is deprest in such manner , that the aliment is protruded over it ( as on a bridge ) into the dilated cavity of the fauces , and thence by the contraction of the musculus pterygopharyngaeus and oesophagaeus , app. fig. . it is deprest into the gulae , which helps its descent into the stomach , by the action of its muscular fibres . we must not omit to observe here , that in the instant the aliment passes thro' the isthmus of the throat , the gargareon is drawn upwards and backwards , by the musculi sphaenostaphylini , ( exprest append. fig. . ) and the foramina narium by this means occluded , while the epiglottis below covers the rimula , as was above noted ; and by this means the matter in its passage is hindred from reverting by the nose , or descending into the wind-pipe ; the first happens when the gargareon is wanting , whether by venerial exulcerations or otherwise ; or intumified and inflamed as in the small pox , and cannot yield to this motion . we may likewise note , that the musculus mylohyoideus ( t. . f. . ) in its action does press the sublingual and maxillary glands , and force them to discharge their secreted liquors , by the papillae , situated at the fraenum or ligament of the tongue ; and that the muscles which contract the fauces , have the same effect on the tonsills and other glands of that part ; all which liquors , discharged from the mouths of their excretory channels , do facilitate the passage thro' the gula , and serve to compose the stomachick menstruum ; of which further in the next paragraph . after the aliment , thus alter'd by comminution and admistion with the saliva , is received into the stomach , we proceed next to consider , how its second preparation is perform'd . the great agent in digestion is the stomachick juice , secreted from the blood by numerous glands in this part , and discharged into its cavity , in conjunction with the spittle . this is that which acts promptly upon the meat lodg'd in the capacity of the stomach , and from the mixture of these two juices , is compounded a proper menstruum , by which the parts of the aliment are dissolved , and receive their first transmutation within the body . in this action , which is a dissolution of the texture of the alimentary mass , the aerial parts included in its pores , now escape from their former prisons , and being rarified , distend the whole body of the stomach ; and this i take to be the true reason why most men have less appetite at some distance of time , viz. when this intumescence is made , than immediately after they cease from eating : from the same cause arise frequent eructations , great inflation from divers meats , such as old pease , cabbage , roots , herbs , and other vegetables , which very much disturb decay'd debilitated stomachs . i am apt to suspect the stomachick menstruum may excite an intestine motion of the particles of the mass in digestion ; which yet i do not think fit to call fermentation , fearing so bold a term may mislead us into a false idea of a greater conflict than really happens . the intumescence or dilatation of the stomach has two effects : first to compress the gall bladder and pancreas , and oblige their ductus excretorii to spue out their contents into the duodenum ; next to retard the refluent blood , and by this means dispose the muscular fibres of the ventricle to a contraction . the reason of this last hint will appear by what we have offer'd concerning muscular motion , in the introduction to our myotomia reformata . for the cause of hunger which is an observable phaenomenon belonging to this part , i conceive it to be an irritation of the stomach , arising from a copious quantity of this menstruum , when it wants matter to act upon . this conjecture seems more probable , since it is natural to discharge the spittle out of the mouth which comes into it at that time , rather than suffer it to descend into the stomach ; and we may perpetually observe a depraved appetite does follow a vitiation of the saliva , as in scorbutick habits , salivations by mercurial medicines , and such like cases . when the mass is sufficiently prepar'd and reduced to a pultaceous consistence , the stomach by the help of its muscular fibres contracts it self , and expels its contents thro' the pylorus into the duodenum ; where the digested mass is mixed with the bile and pancreatick juice , ( forced to discharge it self here as was just now described ) which volatilize , subtiliate , and separate the more fluid and fine parts of the aliment , from the more impure and gross , and here it is that chylification is first made perfect . now the bile abounding with lixivial salt , is apt to intangle with the grosser parts of the chylaceous mass , and its saline quality not only cleanses the cavities of the guts from the mucus , excreted by their glands ( app. fig. . ) ( to smear their inmost coat , and defend the ostia of the lacteal vessels from being injured by extraneous bodies , which may happen to pass that way ) but stimulates the intestines in their peristaltick motion . the peristaltick or wormlike motion of the guts being thus accelerated by the acrimony of the bile , the contents of the intestines are carried on , and the thinner and more fluid parts , fitted for the pores of the lacteal vessels , is absorbed by them , and the thicker move on more slowly , till by the many stops they meet with in the connivent valves , all the chyle is at length absorbed , and the remains being meerly excrementitious , are only fit to be excluded by stool . this vermicular motion of the guts , is perform'd by the alternate contraction of their longitudinal and transverse fibres , ( app. fig. . . ) which at the same time convey the digested mass thro' the intestinal tube , and express the chyle into the orifices of the lacteal vessels adapted to receive it ; whose progress from the intestines , till it is discharged into the mass of blood , next presents it self to our consideration : by the reciprocal action of these differing fibres , and the apposition of the connivent valves ( tab. . fig. . ) the chyle is forced into the lacteal vessels , tab. ib. fig. . ) and hence it is we cannot make any fluid pass from the cavity of the guts into the same vessels , when the peristaltick motion ceases . a farther use of the contraction of these muscular fibres , is to accelerate the chyle in its progress , till the lympha derived from the arteries of the guts joyn with it , which is done before it leaves the external surface of the intestines ; by this addition the chyle is diluted and assisted in its progress towards the mesenterick glands ; in the cells of which it is a second time mixed with a juice or lymphatick liquor there secreted from the arteries , and so carried on to the vasa lactea secundi generis . these vessels resembling pipes , convey the chyle from hence , all emptying themselves into the common receptacle or cistern ; the happy discovery of which , we owe to the observation of mons. pecquet : it is here the lympha returned from the inferior limbs and adjacent parts , is mixed with the chyle , ( app. fig. . ) which not only serves to dilute , but promotes its ascent thro' the thoracick duct , ( fig. ib. ) to the lest subclavian vein , ( fig. ib. ) where this channel empties its contents into the main current of the blood. if we consider in this duct , its several divisions and inosculations , ( resembling the veins of the testicles ) its numerous valves looking from below upwards , its advantageous situation between the great artery and vertebrae of the back , together with the ducts discharging their refluent lympha from the lungs , and the other neighbouring parts , we shall find all conduce to demonstrate the utmost art of nature , used in furthering the steep and perpendicular ascent of the chyle ; which beautiful order is represented app. fig. . and cannot but equally create in us delight and admiration . having traced this animal juice to its reception into the blood , with which it is at last circulated and assimulated , we shall proceed to the blood it self , whose circular motion , the various artifices of nature for adjusting the proportions and other subordinate contrivances ; the manner and cause of the contraction of the heart and arteries , respiration , with the whole theory of the lympha and glandular secretion in the order of nature , follow . the refluent blood in the upper and lower trunk of the vena cava meeting in the right auricle of the heart , is thence expelled by its contraction into the right ventricle , when the heart is in its diastole ; but by its systole or contraction , it is thence driven into the arteria pulmonaris , from whose capillary vessels it passes into the extremities of the vena pulmonaris , and thence returning , is discharged into the left auricle and ventricle of the heart : from whence it is again by the systole driven into the aorta , by whose branches it is convey'd thro' the whole system of the body : but when it arrives in the capillary arteries , it do's not stop there , but passes into the like capillary veins , and from thence into the greater branches , next into the trunk of the vena cava , and so into the right ventricle again . in the mean time the three tricuspid valves in the right ( tab. . fig. . ) and the two mitral valves ( tab. ead . fig. . ) in the left ventricle of the heart , oppose its return into the vena cava and vena pulmonaris ; and the semilunary valves of the arteria pulmonaris ( tab. ead . fig. . ) and aorta , ( tab. ib. fig. . ) prevent its reflux into the ventricles . the structure and position of which membranes , are sufficient alone to lead all observing men into a compleat knowledge of its motion and progress . the circular motion of the blood was first explain'd , and the whole demonstrated in a treatise expresly writ upon that subject , and published in the year . by our learned and ingenious dr. harvey ; to omit all disputes here how far this was known to cesalpinus , columbus , servetus , or any of the anatomists or virtuoso's of the last age. but the manner how this animal liquor is transmitted from the arteries to the veins , has remained hitherto a secret , and afforded matter of controversie . some pretend this is done by some blind imperceptible meatus in the carnous parts , and perplex themselves to give irrational and chimerical accounts , which we shall not here lose time to enumerate or refute . but the late great improvement of microscopes has put an end to all these uncertain conjectures , by discovering to our naked eye , that the veins and arteries are but one continued inflected tube , and the blood passes from one to the other in an uninterrupted current ; which unity of the blood-vessels by a parity of reason , we infer extends to the whole system , and will hardly be questioned by those who consider the prompt passage of mercury , and other injected liquors from the arteries to the veins , or see the globules of blood passing these angustia , and reverting with incredible rapidity in the fins of fishes ; ( app. f. , . ) which curious discovery ought not to be reputed the least advancement which this part of natural history has receiv'd . the great engine which sets all this motion on foot , is the heart , ( tab. . fig. . ) by whose repeated elastick contraction , the blood is driven to the remotest parts thro' the arterial system , ( app. fig. . ) and forced to continue its motion back thro' the venous channels . this elastick force is primarily seated in its own muscular fibres , whose spiral contortion ( tab. . fig. , . ) is very well described by dr. lower in his book de corde ; but the pendulous position and the fibres , which compose its great arteries , i. e. the pulmonaris and aorta , assist very much ; and the heart taken out of the body and held up by the arteries , will continue the least gentle motion imprest on it for a considerable time , which effect can only be ascribed to the elasticity of the arterial trunks by which it is suspended . the heart is the immediate instrument , but what is the vis motrix which forces its fibres to a contraction , is a far greater difficulty , and one of the most abstruse , inscrutable mysteries of nature . it is in this respect our bodies differ from artificial machines ; the former having in themselves a perpetual principle of motion , which the latter by no invention of men can arrive at . in my opinion the heart of an animal bears a great analogy to the pendulums of those artificial automata , clocks and watches , whilst its motion is perform'd like that of other muscles , the blood doing the office of a pondus . the observation of the curious mons. peyer in parergo septimo , seems to favour this opinion ; who tells us , he has with pleasure seen the heart renew its contraction , by blowing into the thoracick duct , when the parts have began to grow stiff after death . the like motion of the heart i have more than once observ'd to be restor'd , by blowing into the veins of a dog , and pouring warm water on it , or applying the palm of the hand not long after its cessation . besides the quantity , doubtless the quality of the blood has a share , since all distempers which alter the mass , at the same time create a hurry and disorder in its motion . to explain the action of the blood in this case , and the influence it has over the motion of the heart , we must consider its nature , constituent parts , and the alterations it is disposed to receive . this animal fluid consists of two parts , serous and globular . the distinction of these parts of the blood is evident to the naked eye , after its stagnation in any vessel , but is clearly evinced by the microscope in its circulation thro' the tails and fins of fishes , and other transparent parts , in the same manner as is represented appendix fig. , . where the globules seem to swim in the serum in this state of mixture . now the blood being in this manner a heterogeneous liquor , compos'd of particles of various magnitude and figure , must be subject to an intestine motion ; but the great rapidity of its current thro' the arteries , and the angustiae in the extremities of the blood-vessels , not admitting any retrograde motion to be there made , it is deferr'd till it arrives in the great veins , where its progress is retarded , and the room more spatious , and the intestine motion there commences , which arises to a greater or less height , as the blood is more or less charged with incongruous parts . the alteration which the blood by this means receives , has no inconsiderable share in the heart's contraction ; and tho it be not the prime efficient cause , yet we cannot deny but that it is partial and incitative , as appears in fevers and several other distempers , where the whole mass is accelerated , and the pulse more frequent . besides all these causes , the brain by its nervous trunks sent to this part , which are very thick and tense , yet lie very loose , contributes much to this action . and here we may observe , not only these of the heart , but the whole system of nerves which serve the viscera in the thorax and lower belly , have their propagines very numerous and tense , notwithstanding which , they lie loose or free in their progress from the brain to their respective parts ; both which concur in disposing them to receive and retain all impressions from their extremities : this faculty beginning to exert it self even while the foetus is in vtero , grows familiar and natural , and from this early habit and practice of the infant , they after perform their duty sleeping or waking , without the least advertence ; but this by the by . and now if what has been noted , shall be thought sufficient to give ground to hope future enquiries may discover more adequate causes of this great phaenomenon , we have obtained our desire , and shall leave these hints to be improv'd by men of more industry and leasure . before we leave this subject , we must not omit to remark some observable artifices of nature , for the better carrying on the circulation . the first is the valves placed in the several divarications of the veins , between their capillar extremities and larger trunks : these are membranes proceeding from the inner coat of the vessels , in the form of a crescent or c. which was the ancient greek sigma , and are generally double , with their concavity looking towards the heart , and readily give way to the current of the blood thither , as is represented : ( tab. . f. . ) but if by its weight , or any other cause , the blood should revert , they oppose it , and being distended , prevent its return from the great trunks of veins to the lesser , and at the same time hinder the superincumbing blood from pressing on the inferior ; concerning which consult tab. . fig. . another considerable artifice in nature , is the conveying great quantities of refluent blood from several parts of the trunk by particular channels , instead of discharging it by the next and most immediate passage into the neighbouring current . dr. lower has well observ'd , that the heart is not placed in the center of the body , but inclines to its upper part , which position is necessary to drive the blood in its systole to the head , with more force then is required to make it descend to the feet , to which its own weight and fluidity do's not a little conduce . now the heart being seated so near the upper part , as that two parts in three of the whole fabrick , appear to be below it , there must be a like inequality of blood sent to the inferior parts , to that which ascends to the superior . and this we see confirm'd by comparing the diameter of the blood-vessels descending with the ascending , the former being much larger then the latter . this great disproportion of blood in the upper system to that of the lower , seems to threaten a great disturbance in the animal order , but is prevented by the provident care of the author of nature , in the manner we are now about to describe . the intercostal arteries app. f. . which arise from the lower system , are accompanied with veins ( that return the blood they exported ) which do not enter into the next large trunk according to the ordinary process of nature in other parts ; but are all united into one channel ( and sometimes two ) which ascends by the side of the aorta , and empties it self into the descending trunk of the vena cava , there discharging all its refluent blood ; which had it been inserted into the ascending trunk , it must have added so great a weight , that the blood could not have past up to the heart , which it now easily do's . beside these , the mammary veins likewise empty themselves into the subclavian , so that all the blood arising from the parietes of the thorax , the back and its muscles , as well as those of the scapulae , returns again to the heart , by the upper trunk of the vena cava , tho' it was sent thither from the lower trunk of the arteria magna . another contrivance of this nature is observable in the vena porta , which receives the blood from the stomach , omentum , spleen , pancreas , guts and mesentery , sent thither by the coeliack and mesenterick arteries , which large quantity had it enter'd into the vena cava , immediately below the liver or kidneys , its weight so far beneath the diaphragm , must have hindred its ascent ; wherefore the vena porta ( not unlike the azygos of the thorax before noted ) carries up all the blood by another channel , and discharges it into the extremities of the vena cava within the liver , where it is diluted and propell'd by the refluent blood from the splenick vein , and afterwards assisted in its ascent , by the contraction of the diaphragm . here i cannot forbear making a digression , and presenting my conjectures of the use and office of the spleen , since it ministers in this part of the animal oeconomy . the arteria splenica is not only very large in proportion to the magnitude of the spleen , but has a remarkable tortuous passage to it , ( tab. . f. . ) whence we may conceive as the quantity of blood sent to the spleen is very great , so it s impetus is very much abated : next the communications between the extremities of its arteries and veins are very large , as appears by the prompt exit , which water pour'd into one finds by the other , and the inflation of the veins which is easily made by blowing into the arteries , when the whole spleen and its veins become distended with it . the lymphe-ducts of the spleen we have observ'd , ( tab. . fig. . ) to arise from the vesiculae at the extremities of its veins , and discharge their contents into the neighbouring lymphatick glands , whence it is sent into the receptacule of the chyle : its nerves are distributed thro' its whole substance , and serve to preserve its tone and regulate the separation of its lympha and nutritive juice . but the most exact scrutiny of anatomists could never yet discover any excretory-duct arising from this viscus ; and indeed the patent communication of its vessels seems a convincing proof , that no such excretory-duct can exist but must appear very plain . besides it seems extravagant and unbecoming the wonderful providence of nature , to separate any particular juice in the arteries here to be instantly refunded into the veins , and we can hardly conceive the blood can suffer any alteration , in a place where the transit from the one to the other , is so ample . after these considerations premis'd , if the problem be propos'd , what can be the design of the great architect of our bodies , in the fabrication of so large and remarkable a part , without any fluid secreted in it , besides its own nutritive juice and lympha ? i believe our hypothesis will enable us to give a sufficient reply to this seeming invincible difficulty , with which learned men have exceedingly perplex'd themselves . i conceive then the spleen is design'd by nature , as a diverticle to receive a large proportion of blood to be refunded by its veins into the porta , and promote the reflux of the blood imported thither from the stomach , guts , pancreas , mesentery , &c. by whose slow progress thro' the innumerable glands of those parts , it returns thick and unfit for motion : and this seems but necessary that a new quantity of blood , charg'd with a copious serum , should be infunded into this refluent liquor before it arrives at the liver , to dispose it to pass the extremities of the vena cava , and add a fresh impetus to its languid motion caus'd by its long and tortutous progress . this i take to be the use and office of the spleen , and seems to have all the circumstances the laws of mechanism require for this purpose . the novelty of which opinion will ( i hope ) be no prejudice to its reception in the minds of candid and impartial men. having thus represented the circulation ; the order of nature leads us to respiration , which serves in conveying the blood from the right to the left ventricle of the heart , and impregnates it with parts proper for its further elaborations . respiration or breathing is a double action , i. e. inspiration or receiving of air into the lungs ; and expiration or expelling it again : the whole is done by means of widening and straitning the cavity of the thorax , in which the lungs are contain'd . how the cavity of the thorax may be enlarged and contracted , we may easily conceive , if we consider the order of its bony parietes , ( tab. , and . ) and observe the oblique descending position of the ribs from the vertebrae of the back , with their cartilaginous connection to the os pectoris , and the position and action of the diaphragm , as is explained tab. . whence it appears when the ribs are drawn up , and the superior convex surface of the diaphragm deprest towards a plain , the included space must necessarily be enlarged ; and on the contrary very much straitned when the ribs are drawn down , and the upper surface of the diaphragm convex towards the lungs , as it is represented in the last mention'd table . the elevation and depression of the ribs is perform'd by the proper and common muscles of the thorax : the first have their rise and termination confined to the parts composing its parietes : the other , notwithstanding their relation to other parts , yet chiefly respect this : of the common muscles some are principal , immediately moving this , together with those parts from which they are derived : others are auxiliary , which by moving the contiguous bodies , contribute to the better performing the grand motion : thus the elevation of the shoulder-blades is required in violent respirations , without which the musculi serrati ( tab. . ) ( which spring from the scapulae ) ( tab. . v. w. ) could not act ; hence it happens that respiration is interrupted when the arms are in action , by reason the scapulae at that time engage all their muscles ( especially the serrati t. . ) to render them stable ; and the extension of the vertebrae of the neck becomes necessary , to the end the musculi scaleni ( tab. . b b. ) may raise the upper ribs . the proper muscles of the thorax are the intercostales externi and interni , ( tab. . fig. . ) the triangulares , ( tab. and fig. ead . ) the serrati superiores and inferiores postici , tab. . the principal common muscles , are the scaleni , ( tab. . ) the subclavii , tab. . the serrati majores & minores antici , ( tab. ead . ) and the sacrolumbales , ( tab. . ) the auxiliary muscles are such as raise the scapulae , and draw them backwards , and those which extend the whole spine . the cavity of the thorax being dilated in the manner above mention'd , the ambient air necessarily rushes thro' the aspera arteria and bronchia , into the vesiculae of the lungs , whereby their whole substance becomes distended ; and this we call inspiration . in expiration , the air contain'd in the vesiculae of the lungs , is excluded ; in this action the lungs are not meerly passive as in the former , but the elasticity of the ligaments of their bronchia , draw their small cartilages over each other , and conduce to the expulsion of the air contain'd in their vesiculae . this alternate diastole and systole of the lungs and thorax , bears an analogy to a pair of bellows , whose two boards being drawn from each other , the ambient air necessarily rushes in between them , and fills the internal space enlarg'd by the deduction of their sides ; which air is again expell'd from thence , by approaching them towards each other . the inducements the author of nature had to frame this pulmonary organ , are many ; by this the aerial particles pass to the mass of blood , which rarifie , subtilize and render it fit for those elaborations it afterwards undergoes : by these the tenacious serum of the blood is attenuated , and the whole mass rendred fit for motion ; the effects of which are evident in those rhumatick asthmas and other cases , which oblige some to leave this town for a clearer air. the lungs are the intermediate passage between the two ventricles of the heart , whereby the whole mass of blood passes thro' their large blood-vessels in an equal rapidity and quantity , with that of all other parts of the body besides , and do by this means discharge the blood of a great quantity of its serum , by halitus in expiration ; wherefore the accurate dr. tyson reckons them among the number of glands . this alternate action in which respiration consists , is necessary , to the end the blood may pass the lungs , whose vesiculae , if they were constantly distended by the inspired air , the extremities of the pulmonick blood-vessels would be comprest ; and on the contrary , if these vesiculae were collaps'd ( as after expiration ) their blood-vessels would be consequently corrugated ; but by this vicissitude they become permeable , and the blood easily passes their extremities . we have traced the aliment from its first reception till it is elaborated into blood , and pursued in its motion and circulation thro' its several channels . we ought next to take a view of the several liquors or fluids separated from it in its tour. all animal juices except the chyle are separated from the arterial blood , which common material in its percolation in the brain and nerves , yield the contents of their fibres ; in the glands of the mouth and throat , the saliva ; in the mammae , the milk ; in the kidneys , the urine ; in the testes , sperm ; ( not to name the sweat , mucilage of the joints , &c. ) and thro' the universal body , a copious quantity of lympha ; which is not applied to any distinct use in the animal oeconomy , but is all discharg'd into the great cystern or receptacle of the chyle and subclavian vein , and so refunded into the refluent blood. the doctrine of secretions is the last and only remaining part of those natural functions , which are directed to the preservation and subsisting of the individual . for the nature and properties of these liquors , their use and office , and the peculiar structure adapted for the percolation of one , and excluding the rest ; we must remit the reader to the description of the organs themselves , contenting our selves here with the theory of the origin of the lympha , and secretion in general . the knowledge of this animal-liquor call'd lympha , and the ducts which convey it , is owing to the industry and searches of this present age. but whether rudbeck , bartholine or our countrey-man dr. iolive ought to carry the honour of the discovery , i shall not pretend to decide . but the rise , course , and other particular circumstances needful to inform us of their use , and the design of nature in the fabrication of these ducts , has not been hitherto , at least fully , demonstrated . some have pretended to derive these ducts from the nerves , others from the membranes or tendinous parts of the muscles ; but these are impertinencies scarce worth a serious refutation . the diligent melpighius in his epistle to the royal-socíety , is follicitous in enquiring whether they are not excretory-ducts to export the juice secreted in the conglobate glands , since there is none of these glands so inconsiderable to be found which has not its lymphe-ducts belonging to it , as well as its nerves and blood-vessels . after several observations premis'd , he concludes they arise in exceeding minute , and scarce perceptible sirculi , from the lesser glands , which afterwards are united to those arising from other glands , forming greater trunks , and so proceed till they empty themselves into the common cystern of the chyle . i shall not repeat the reasons or experiments of that curious gentleman to sustain his opinion , which mainly amounts to this , that in pursuing these ducts , we cannot by the most exact scrutiny , or any art yet known , trace them further . but we must crave leave to differ from him in this point , and perhaps the reasons we shall offer , will be sufficient to justifie our dissent , and give a more clear and satisfactory account of the first source of this fluid . the glands i must confess have a great concern in preparing the lympha , insomuch that no lymphe-duct can absolve its course without touching on them ; and their necessity appears yet further , while we see other lymphe-ducts , ( when the main trunk passes by , ) yet emit several lateral branches which insert themselves into these glands , and after being remitted from thence , are rejoin'd to the former trunk ( app. fig. . ) besides these lymphe-ducts which enter the glands , are frequently divided into several branches ; which make their exit again divided , and after approaching each other , join into one current , ib. fig. . but however important the glands may be , i think they are far enough from being their source . the glands of the mesentery have their lacteals which import , and others which export the chyle from them . we shall find the case of these vessels to be entirely parallel ; every lymphatick gland we have yet been able to discover having both species of ducts , the one to import , the other to export the lympha from them ; whence it is probable the lesser not differing from the greater in structure , but magnitude only , they serve to transmit the lympha , and not give it its first rise : this will be still more evident , if we consider the great communication between the blood-vessels and these ducts . the first origination and extremities of these lymphe-ducts , are too subtile and fine to be discern'd by the eye , even assisted by the microscope , and must give room for suspition and conjecture . the arteries and veins , we have above demonstrated , are but one continuous reflected tube : for the truth of this assertion , in the transparent parts of animals ( app. fig. , . ) we have the evidence of our senses ; and that the same continuity is kept thro' the whole system of the body , no rational man who will please to reflect on the uniformity of nature , can with any pretence of reason doubt . now as these vessels communicate with each other , and admit a prompt passage of air , tincted liquors , mercury , &c. from each to other , so by some experiments we find they have with the excretory-ducts , and vice-versa , those liquors which we can convey into the excretory-ducts after death , will pass from them into the blood-vessels and lymphe-ducts , which experiment i have remark'd ( tab. . fig. . ) as an objection to those who suppose valves in the beginning of the excretory-ducts . from these demonstrative and convincing experiments , we may conceive the true origin of the lymphe-ducts , is from the extremities of the blood-vessels ; and their office to carry back the superfluous serum , which is more copious in the arteries , than is perhaps convenient in the veins , where the progress of the blood is slower , and the quantity much greater . this rise of the lympha is still more clear , * if we consider in some states or habits of body , when the crasis of the blood is deprav'd , some parts of it pass this way , and the lympha is ting'd by it ; as it happens by injecting water by the arteries after death , when part of the blood still remains in its vessels , you will see the lymphe-ducts fill'd with a bloody water . this origination of the lymphe-ducts from the extremities of the blood-vessels , we don't take to be altogether immediately from their sides , as we do that of the secretory tubes , ( app. fig. . ) but that they have a double origin , the one from the extremities of the arteries , and the other from the cells or tubes which contain the nourishment of the parts they arise from : by this means not only the superabundant serum of the blood in the arteries , is carried off before it arrives in the veins , but the superfluous nutritive juice also , is return'd with the lympha . in those parts where we find the passage of the blood between the arteries and veins very patent , as in the spleen and penis , the lymphe-ducts arise from their vesiculae ; as has been observ'd in the former by the accurate nuck , and by my self in the latter . the like origin of these ducts may be observ'd from the spermatick veins of the testes and ovaria , in which the blood returns very little divested of its serosity , to the end its globular parts may the better ascend in those veins , with a less proportion of serum . these ducts empty themselves into the vesiculae of their glands , as is represented ( app. fig. , . ) from whence the exporting ducts arise , and carry the lympha on to the next gland or thoracick-duct , ( app. fig. . ) and so to the subclavian vein . thus we find the motion of the lympha , chyle and nutritive juice , is propell'd by means of the systole of the heart , by which all the secretions of the animal fluids , are in like manner carried on . in the seventh figure of our appendix we have exprest the secretory tubes arising from the venous , as well as the arterious part of the sanguineous channel before its inflection ; because we find there is a transit from the veins into these vessels ; yet in my opinion most of them arise from the artery , where it commences to grow conical , where the sides of the vessel thro' the efforts made by the parts of the blood propell'd , receive a more direct pressure than in their cylindrical extremities , and the particles adapted to their pores , are driven into the tubes deriv'd from them . by this scheme , the origin of the lympha , and the manner of secretion , is well enough explain'd . but why the saliva is separated in the parotid maxillary and sublingual glands , the bile in those of the liver , the urine by the kidneys , &c. must be deduc'd from their peculiar structure ; the magnitude , figure of their pores , and various disposition of their arteries , having a mighty share in these operations . thus we may observe the arteries of the testes , have a long and flexuous progress , and contrary to the ordinary method of nature , are smaller at their originations from the aorta , than in their trunks after a farther descent , as we have noted ( tab. . ) all which conduce to abate the impetus of the blood , before it arrives in the testes . on the other hand the current of the blood to the kidneys , ( by the largeness , short and streight course of the emulgents , and their vicinity to the left ventricle of the heart , ) is very rapid , which discharges a great quantity of urine , soon after the use of chalybeat waters , or other plentiful drinking , whilst it is infinitely more slow in the salival glands , pancreas , liver , &c. we shall not here recite any further particulars , hoping the reader will peruse our tables and discourse of the several organs . having done with our doctrine of the first order of natural functions , we proceed to the second , or those which serve for the propagation of the species ; which naturally divides its self into two parts , ( viz. ) generation , and accretion , or what concerns the foetus in its formation , and by what means and steps it 's carried on to an adult state. since animal bodies are transient and temporary , the author of nature has endued them with the power of propagation , and a set of proper organs to continue their species , and furnish a constant supply of new individuals . from the difference of which organs of generation arises the difference of sexes . all animals have been divided into viviparous and oviparous , till dr. harvey remov'd the distinction , by demonstrating all living creatures to derive their original from eggs , with this difference only ; in one the foetus is perfected within , and in the other without the mothers body . this doctrine of that great man has since been fully evinc'd by the repeated dissections , observations , and experiments of later anatomists : no species of fowls , fishes and quadrupedes are found to want them : the foetus being sometimes found in the passage between the ovarium and vterus , ●ad the alveoli deserted by them , are sufficiently discernable in all animals after impregnation ; so that the existence of these cannot be doubted , or that there is a perfect conformity between the pullus in ovo , and the foetus in the womb. but here we must distinguish the essential and constituent parts , from those which are only alimentary and accessory . it is the cicatricula alone in the eggs of fowls , in which reside the rudiments of the foetus , whilst the vitellus and albumen prepare and supply its nourishment ; both bearing an exact analogy to the lobes and plantula seminalis in vegetable seeds . the seminal vesicula or ovum found in the testes of women , &c. agrees in every respect with the cicatricula , and the other parts are unnecessary , because the foetus is nourish'd by aliment supplied from the mothers body . since the discovery of these eggs , the ancient doctrine that the foetus was form'd from the commistion of the male and female seed , has been by all rejected , and that liquour which has been taken by all preceding ages for seed in the latter , is found to be only a mucous matter , secreted from the glands of the vagina , ( tab. . f. . c. ) and discharg'd without the body ; which in mares , cows , and many other animals is in much greater quantity , than is possible to be contain'd in their testes . tho' generation ex ovo may be justly reputed among the modern improvements of anatomy , yet this did not altogether escape the notice of the sagacious hippocrates , who in his book de natura pueri , informs us , the embryo after conception is included in a membrane , exactly resembling an egg without its shell , and describes the rudiments of the vmbilicus and placenta , with its plexus of blood-vessels , and the pellucid liquor of the amnios after the same manner as represented ( tab. . fig. . ) this accurate observation , he acquaints us he made from an abortion artificially procur'd within six days after conception , to preserve the reputation of an incontinent wench ; which remarkable passage ( not ordinarily taken notice of ) was shewn me by my very ingenious friend dr. fern. much of the same age or something more , and agreeing with the description of hippocrates , are the secundines which the learned dr. hannes keeps among his other anatomical collections . upon the invention of these ova , de graaf and others , who have successfully employ'd themselves in their enquiries on this subject , began to erect an opinion , that the female only furnish'd the matter of the foetus , and the male serv'd to actuate it by its prolifick influence . this opinion , which derogates much from the dignity of the male-sex , prevail'd till mons. leeuwenhoeck by the help of his exquisite microscope , in which he has been well pursued by mr. melling , detected innumerable small animals in the masculine sperm , and by this noble discovery , at once remov'd that difficulty , and added much to the theory of generation : in his letter to the royal-society , he acquaints them he had observ'd incredible numbers of these animalcula in the testicles of froggs , so slender , as not to exceed the thousandth part of a single hair , with a head proportionably larger than the rest of their body , all variously moving to and fro ; that he had found the same in the testicles of all animals , which he had inspected ; and in another , he gives them an account , that in the spawn of a cabeliaw he had found them to be still lesser , and more than ten thousand swimming about in a portion of seed , not exceeding a grain of sand ; and pretending to find by a formal computation all the animals contain'd in the lactes of this fish , to exceed more than ten times the number of men on the surface of the earth . foecundation he esteems to proceed from one of these numerous animalcula , after ejection , striking thro' the pores or perforations on the sides of the ovum , and lodging it self in the cicatricula , which is dispos'd to receive and nourish it . from this surprizing discovery , it is evident that no aura seminalis , or influx of active spirituous matter do's delineate the foetus ; and that observation of malpighius illustrated , that before impregnation , no vestigia of the pullus could be found , and yet in some few hours after , it is distinct and visible . having thus taken a short prospect of the materials , we must proceed to the order and progress of generation , from the inchoation , till the perfection of the foetus in the womb , and its exclusion , and thence till its full growth , or dimensions prescrib'd by nature to the species . the arteriae spermaticae in men bring the blood to the testes , in whose convolutions , it is prepar'd and carry'd by the vasa deferentia to the vesiculae seminales , where it is lodg'd till in the time of coition , it is injected into the vagina vteri . the manner of the erection of the penis in applying it to the transverse ligament of the ossa pubis , by the musculi erigentes and the constriction of the corpus cavernosum vrethrae , by the musculi acceleratores , to stop the refluent blood , and inflate the bulb and cavernous bodies , i shall wave repeating , having amply describ'd this artifice , in the appendix to my myotomia reformata . the semen injected into the vagina of the woman , is convey'd to the ovaria , thro' the womb it self and the falloppian tubes ; which , in the time of coition , by means of their reticular structure , are inflated and strictly embrace them . we have describ'd the manner how the foliated expansions of the left falloppian tube , embrace the ovarium on that side , and are distended by the refluent blood from the vagina , whose veins being comprest by the penis in coition , all , or the greatest part of its blood , passes up by the spermatick veins , ( which inosculate with the hypogastrick ) and the distended tubes are incurvated by the broad ligaments of the vterus , and the fundus vteri being distended also , and at the same time the external air pent out by the penis , a free passage is left for the semen to the ovarium . this i prefer as a more compendious way of conveying it , than either thro' the whole mass of blood , which must in my opinion too much alter it , or thro' the porous substance of the vterus , as others would have us believe . nor can i conceive why any man should scruple to think these small animals may pass some pore in the external membranes , as they do in froggs , fish , &c. where the ovula are ejected out of the female , before they are impregnated by the male , rather than suppose they should pass by the spermatick arteries to the ovarium , after several circulations thro' the whole system of the body . the immediate and direct passage of the semen is very much confirm'd , by comparing the appearances of these uterine parts in fowl , especially hens . one , or sometimes more of these ova happening to be foecundated at a time , are distended and break the pedunculi , by which they are affix'd , and leaving their folliculi , pass into the falloppian tube , which resembling the ovi-ducts in birds , receive and convey them to the fundus vteri . the manner how they are carry'd on is not less mechanical , than most other operations in the animal oeconomy ; for as the turgescence of the penis first remits in its extremity , so do's this exactly after the same manner , and by consequence drives the ovum contain'd in it to the fundus of the womb. after the ovum is arriv'd here , it fluctuates about some time without being fix'd , and receives nourishment by apposition only , till at length some of its vessels begin to germinate , and afterwards inosculate with those of the vterus . the arteries of the ovum protruding themselves into the veins of the vterus , and the veins vice-versa into the arteries , from which mutual intertexture of the vessels , the placenta is compos'd . by intervention of the placenta and umbilical vessels , the foetus receives blood from the mother , and a common circulation is continu'd , the particulars of which , and the difference of its course from the circulation after the birth , is describ'd in the explication of the following tables . the aliment for nutrition of the foetus , seems to be a sort of chylous juice separated by the glands of the placenta , and reposited in the capacity of the amnios ( tab. , . ) which grows considerable for its quantity in the second and third month , and the foetus begins to take it in at its mouth , for some time before its birth , whence it is convey'd to the stomach and intestines , and part passes into chyle and blood-vessels , according to the ordinary method of nature in an adult ; the remainder composing the excrement we find in the intestines of the foetus , and sometimes floating in the liquor of the amnios . besides which , the mammill● of recent-born infants of both sexes , contain a serous milky liquor , which is discharg'd into the liquor of the amnios . after the foetus has lain nine months in the womb , it arrives at such a magnitude as makes it uneasie both for want of room and aliment . besides the excrements voided from its anus foul the contents of the amnios , and molest the foetus , which by its frequent and strenuous struglings , shakes the placenta , and breaks the slender vessels , which connect it to the vterus ; from the conspiring of which circumstances , parturition must necessarily follow . after the secundines are remov'd , and the infant first opens its mouth , the ambient air rushes into the lungs , and distends the vesiculae aereoe , which afterwards remain in some measure inflated , because the extremity of the bronchia which open into them , are much less than the vesiculae themselves , and some part of the air will still continue in them ; whence they gain a greater specifick lightness , and swim in water . the pulmonick blood-vessels which before the birth lay collaps'd , have their trunks and ramifications extended , and admit the blood to pass thro' them ; the foramen ovale , and canalis arteriosus not lying in a direct line to the propulsion of the blood ; these passages in tract of time , become obliterated , and all the blood from the right ventricle of the heart , passes thro' the lungs , before it can arrive at the left. these alterations of the oeconomy happen after the foetus is brought into the world , and expos'd to the external air. having seen how the infant is generated and usher'd into the world , with the alterations which attend its birth , we must consider next by what means nutrition and accretion are effected , or the steps by which it proceeds insensibly from such small beginnings , to its due size and dimensions . it is certain , that the bodies of animals are nothing else than a vascular compages , and all their parts exist in the foecundated ovum , which by the accession of new matter , are only distended and become visible . from which consideration we may infer , that the augmentation of the body is made by a simple extension of all the tubes , vessels and cells ; which when they will no longer recede to admit the nutritious particles , to be lodg'd in the interstices of the fibres which compose their parietes , and there remain no more ostiola in the sides of their vessels , by which the fluids can open a passage , the body is arriv'd at the utmost limits of its growth . this tenseness and contiguity of the fibres which refuses to admit more of the nutritious parts , is that which determines the magnitude of animals , and the same hypothesis will serve to explicate the differing sizes of individuals of the same species . in this manner the bones arrive at their full dimensions , and then preserve their stability and figure , whose accretion and other accidents arising from its vitiation , are very well explain'd by dr. havers in his osteologia . but besides the gradual increase and formation of the tubes and vessels , there is a necessity for a supply of fluids to maintain a plenitude , with a constant reparation of the blood and humours to prevent the collapse : thus in an atrophy , the great emaciation and apparent loss of the substance , proceeds from a want of proper fluids to preserve the arteries , veins , lymphe-ducts , &c. and other channels of the body in their due distention . i must confess a corrosive salt in some deprav'd crases of the blood , may consume the stable and organick parts , as in the spina ventosa , and such like cases , where the bones sometimes ( as i have seen in one of the fingers ) are wholly dissolv'd , while the external teguments have not been injur'd ; but in this case , contrary to the other , the loss is irreparable . hence appears the necessary distinction between accretion and nutrition , the first being an accession to the organical parts , by new matter intruding into the interstices of their fibres , and there remaining ; and the latter only a supply of a proper pabulum to the fluids , to preserve them in a due temper and proportion . the first being fix'd and permanent , and scarce alter'd once in the term of a man's life , and the last in a perpetual succession and flux ; which therefore requires the superfluous part of the succus nutritius , not retain'd in the proper tubes and cells to be infunded into the lymphe-ducts , by which it is again return'd to the general mass ; the manner of which we may conceive by fig. . of the appendix . from the natural , we pass to the animal functions : that the brain and nervous system are the common medium of sense and motion is uncontested ; but the manner how the impressions are convey'd from the external organs to the sedes animae , and vice-versa from thence to the organ , and how a material substance can affect and be affected by an immaterial , is obscure and scarce to be conceiv'd . wherefore waving all precarious hypotheses , i shall confine my self to the description of such phaenomena as are matters of fact , and undeniable , and leave the reader at liberty to erect what system he pleases . the seat of sense is the brain , whose nervous dispensations are the intermediate bodies between it and the organs , on which the external objects act . when the impression is made by the object , and receiv'd into the organ of sense , it is convey'd from thence with the same type or character , by an agitation of its nervous expansions and their continued trunks , to the common sensory : this is common to men and brutes , and is by des cartes made the first degree of sensation : the second is the perception of the soul attending that motion , which immediately follows the former degree , by reason of the intimate connexion of the soul to the sensorium commune . the third comprehends all those judgments which we form by the occasion of those motions : hence it follows , all corporeal objects are only perceivable by us , in as much as they affect the nerves expanded , in such and such organs . this is the general idea of sensation so far as can be explain'd without engaging in particular schemes . before we enter on the consideration of the external senses , we shall offer a short account of the structure of the brain and nerves in general . the cerebrum , ( tab. . fig. . ) cerebellum and medulla spinalis ( tab. and fig. ib. ) are evidently compos'd of two parts : the first which appears on the surface of the cerebrum and cerebellum is of a cineritious colour , and is call'd the cortical and glandulous part ; the other or internal is whiter and harder , and is call'd the medullary , callose , and fibrous part : this order is inverted in the spinal marrow , where the external part is callose and white , and it 's internal , soft and cineritious . the cineritious or cortical part of the cerebrum is remarkable in those turnings and windings which are deeply divided by the pia mater within the body of the cerebrum ( tab. . fig. . c. ) from whence it appears to have a very large surface . the like contrivance is observable in the cerebellum ; the outward appearance of the sulci of which differ from those of the cerebrum , and are ranged in parallel lines according to its length , as exprest tab. . fig. . besides the cineritious part of the cerebrum plac'd on its surface , it has still other cineritious bodies or protuberances added to its corpus callosum ; as the corpora striata , ( app. fig. . ΔΔ . ) nates and testes . ( tab. . fig. . ) in a horizontal section of the cerebrum , its cortical and medullary parts appear , as represented app. fig. . in a transverse section of the cerebellum , an arboreous disposition of the latter appear within the former ( tab. . fig. . ) the cineritious colour of the cortical parts of the brain arises from the number and contortion of its proper blood-vessels , which pass according to the length of the fibres in the callose and white part. in viewing the surface of the cortical parts , it appears compos'd of a vast number of small glands of a deprest oval figure , from each of which spring the medullary fibres , which compose the callose or white part ; all which make the centrum ovale of vieussens ( app. fig. . n n. ) before they compose the crura medullae oblongatae , ( app. fig. . b b. ) in this progress , the medullary fibres of the cerebrum , give originals to the olfactory and optick nerves : at the conjunction of the crura , the third pair of nerves arise , app. fig. , , : soon after the annular process or pons varolii , ( which partly arisies from the cerebellum ) ( app. fig. . s s ) is join'd with the crura . in this part of the conjunction of the medullary parts of the cerebrum with the several processes of the cerebellum , the fourth , fifth , sixth and seventh pair of nerves arise : and at the beginning of the medulla oblongata , ( whence spring the eighth and ninth pair of nerves , ) there is a compleat union of all the medullary parts of the cerebrum and cerebellum ; where a cineritious part may be seen in its middle , as appears app. fig. . d d. this inversion of the order of the callose and cineritious parts , is kept thro' the whole medulla spinalis . from what has been above observ'd , it appears , the surfaces of the cortical parts of the cerebrum and cerebellum are much larger than those of their medullary , consequently each gland which helps to compose them , must be larger in its diameter than the medullary fibre , which arises from it . this consideration will lead us still farther ; for since it 's plain , the surfaces of the medullary parts of the brain and cerebellum , are much larger than they are afterwards in the medulla oblongata , therefore the fibres which compose them , must necessarily be thicker in their diameters , at each gland , than they are afterwards in their progress to the beginnings of the nerves , where they are considerably contracted , and frame the apex of a cone . here we must not omit to take notice , that all those medullary fibres inservient to motion in general , and the organs of tasting and touching , are very much contracted at the beginnings of their nerves , without the body of the brain and medulla spinalis ; and on the other hand , all those medullary fibres employ'd in the organs of seeing , hearing and smelling are contracted , or have the apices of their cones within the body of the brain : thus the nervous fibres concern'd in motion in general , and such as are mov'd by the contact of gross objects , are lessen'd between their originals and several divarications , extra cerebrum ; but those affected by the mediation of light and air , within the brain . the utmost i could yet observe in viewing the nervous fibrillae with a microscope ( whether composing the corpus callosum of the brain , or the bodies of the nerves themselves ) is , that they are form'd of a reticulated compages of fibres ; which in the latter appear globular ; but in the former or corpus callosum ( by reason of the irregular section , or expanding a thin divided transparent part of it on the object-plate of the microscope ) it appears reticulated , and the interstices of its rete of various angles . this structure of the nervous system , seems to plead against those hypotheses of the animal functions , founded on the motions of the spirits or fluids , deriv'd immediately from the brain , and transmitted by the nervous channels . we shall here only present the reader with an anatomical plan of the organs of the external senses , and shew how objects may be imprest on them and convey'd to the sensorium commune , and leave him to contemplate on the elegant fabrick of the brain , whose particular contrivances have hitherto escap'd the discovery of the most sagacious enquirers . the five external senses , are so many differing species of perception from the applications of bodies to their several organs ; either immediate , as in feeling and tasting ; or thro' a proper medium , as in smelling , hearing and seeing . the sense of feeling is extended thro' the whole body , except some few parts , as the bones , cartilages , &c. but chiefly resides in the true skin , whose structure , so far as it relates to this sense , is as follows . the cuticula , ( tab. . fig. , , . ) ( which is a common covering to the whole surface of the skin ) being remov'd , certain papillary protuberances discover themselves , which view'd with a microscope ( tab. . fig. . ) appear made up of many roundish sudoriferous glands , with a vast number of nervous fibrillae expanded on their surface : this uneven papillary surface is necessary , to the end those fibrillae may be the more expanded and apply'd to tangible objects ; so that the figure , modification and other manifest qualities may be discern'd , and the impressions convey'd to the common sensory , by the mediation of their nerves . since the extremities of the fingers and thumbs are ( for many reasons ) necessary parts to be endued with an exquisite sense of feeling ; therefore the order of these papillae are there converted to a contorted series , which appear like so many rugae under the cuticula , as is represented in the last mention'd table , fig. . the cuticula here , as well as in other parts of the skin , is a necessary medium between the object and the organ ; but when it grows very thick , as in some laborious mechanicks , it becomes an impediment . from the vast number of these nervous filaments , any solution of continuity of the skin it self , is more painful , than most of its subjacent parts . the fabrication of the tongue , its papillary surface , and the manner of its application to objects , bears a great similitude to that of the skin now describ'd , in so much that some have reckond the sense of tasting a species of tactus . the structure of this part , as well as its coverings and papillary bodies , are represented tab. . where fig. . shews the external membrane , in which the papillary bodies lying under it , appear variously figur'd , some conical , others round , and others with their extremities forked . in some animals these papillae are externally large , and their extremities cartilaginous and horny , but in humane tongues it is far otherwise ; the outward membrane here being very soft , the papillae numerous and small , and appearing villous to the naked eye . this membrane being rais'd ( after sufficient boyling the tongue ) the next which offers , is more spongy , softer and full of blood-vessels , tab. ib. fig. , . this is perforated by the many nervous papillae , immediately plac'd under it : ( tab. ib. fig. . ) the tops of which are afterwards receiv'd in the vaginulae of the external membrane . these papillae cleave to the fleshy fibres of the tongue , and are of various sizes and figures as above noted . in the interstices of these papillae are plac'd divers salival glands , the excretory tubes of which , discharge themselves by certain apertures ; ( tab. ib. fig. . g g. ) whereby the villous covering of the tongue is moisten'd , and the saporiferous particles are readily admitted to the corpora papillaria , whose nervous expansions ( on their surface , like those of the cutis ) transmit the several impressions ( made by objects of various figures ) to the common sensory , by the mediation of the par quintum . thus the structure of the external parts of the tongue , agree with that of the skin , with this difference , the former being cloth'd ( in humane bodies ) with a very thin soft membrane , and its papillae very numerous , less and more extruded or longer ; whereas the papillae cutis , are larger , shorter , and cover'd with a more dense membrane or cuticula . hence the tongue appears to be an exquisite organ of tactus . however the sense of taste principally resides in the tongue , yet we must refer the organs of smelling hither , since experience shews us the former sense cannot be compleat , where the latter is deficient . the external organ of smelling is not confin'd within the cavities of the nostrils , but is compos'd of a very large glandulous nervous membrane , in like manner extended within the cavities of the ossa frontis ( tab. . fig. . ib. tab. . fig. . ) fourth pair of bones of the upper-jaw , ( tab. . fig. . e. ) and in that part of the os sphenoides composing the sella turcica , ( tab. . fig. . ) all which open into the foramina narium . besides these cavities , the nostrils are furnish'd with divers ossa spongiosa , describ'd , tab. . fig. . h. on which the same membrane is expanded . this membrane is in a great measure compos'd of the extremities of the olfactory nerves , and is the organ of this sense , which receives the impression made by the odoriferous effluvia , whether in inspiration , as in the proper action of smelling ; or expiration , as in tasting , which happens in mastication or deglutition of the aliment . what we have hinted concerning the complication of tasting with smelling , will in some manner be evinc'd , if we reflect on that common practice of holding the nose to avoid nauseous tasts : and when the foramina narium are partly obstructed , ( as after taking cold ) how little we distinguish the proper tasts of some things , especially such as are odoriferous . the organs of the fourth external sense , are the two ears , by which the various sounds imprest on the ambient air , are represented to the common sensory . the external ear or auricula ( tab. . fig. . ) is compos'd of a cartilage cover'd with the cuticula and cutis ; whose many contorted foldings , are fitted for the reception of the external undulating air , and transmitting it to the meatus auditorius . the winding progress of the meatus seems purposely contriv'd , to prevent some inconveniences which might arise , from the violent irruption of the air thro' too direct a passage to the membrana tympani , plac'd at the farther end of it : ( ap. fig. . e. ) for the same intent , the cerumen or ear-wax , seems to be separated by the numerous glands in the membrane of the meatus , to infringe its motion . the air which thus passes the meatus , shakes the membrana tympani more or less , according to the various impressions made on it ab extra : the long process of the malleus ( app. fig. . ) which is contiguous to this membrane , is necessarily mov'd , consequently the incus which is articulated with the malleus , ( app. fig. . h , i. ) and the stapes , which is articulated with the incus , by the mediation of the os orbiculare , ( app. fig. . h i. ) are all successively mov'd by each other : nor could any tremulous motions be imprest on the membrana tympani by the external air , if the cavity of the tympanum it self had no aperture , by which its contain'd air could fluctuate , no more than a drum it self would sound if there were no holes in its sides . for this reason a passage from the palate to the tympanum is form'd , ( vid. app. fig. . n n. ) by this curious artifice the various sounds arising from the vibrations of the external air , are modifi'd , and articulately represented to the auditory nerve , expanded within the winding cavities of the labyrinth or three semicircular ducts and cochlea ( app. fig. , . ) by means of the stapes , whose basis immediately covers the foramen ovale or entrance to those cavities , where the aer insitus or congenitus , is said to reside . this air tho' call'd innate , must arise from that contain'd in the tympanum , and necessarily has a communication with it , else we cannot see how the vibrations made by the stapes , should be communicated to these contorted channels . nor can it be suppos'd , the basis of the stapes has any loose membranous connexion to the margin of the foramen ovale ( which it must have , to keep out the air contain'd in the tympanum ; ) or that the stapes adequately closes that foramen : both which would meet with equal impediments from the grosser air in the tympanum , pressing on the basis of the stapes , and hindring its elevation . the small muscles which move the malleus , and that of the stapes , like the heart , diaphragm and muscles concern'd in respiration , do their office inadvertently , and are useful herein , as we have represented them in app. fig. , , . this structure of the auricula and parts within the tympanum , prepare the impressions made in the external air , and represent them to the expansions of the auditory nerve ; not unlike the membranes and humours of the eye , refracting the rays of light in passing to the tunica retina in the eye , which falls next under our consideration . as the air is the vehicle of the objects to the two former organs , so the light is to this . the nature and properties of light , the magnitude , figure or motion of luminous particles , as well as the shape or conformation of those parts , which affect the organs of the other senses , we omit as more proper for the disputes of the schools than an anatomical discourse , confining our theory of vision to the structure of the parts . in the fabrication of these organs , the eye-lids or palpebrae ( tab. . fig. , , , , . ) are none of the least remarkable . the upper is elevated and deprest by two muscles , the external of which is circular and call'd orbicularis . ( tab. . fig. . ) this draws the upper eye-lid down ; the internal is straight ( tab. . fig. . ) and pulls it up . by this contrivance the eye is not only defended from extraneous bodies , but the discharge of the lachrimal humour is accelerated by the several ducts , into the internal part of the palpebrae next the bulb of the eye , vid. tab. . fig. . the eye it self is spherical and mov'd by its proper muscles , represented in the last mention'd tab. fig. , , , . its membranes , humours , and the parts which compose it being exprest tab. ib. fig. , , , , , , , , , , , , . we shall here only take notice of its structure , so far as relates to its action , and describe the plan made by a section thro' the axis of vision , which will conduce to the right apprehending the manner , how objects are represented in the sensorium commune . a a , the tunica cornea , whose external surface is a little more convex than the bulb of the eye it self . b b , the tunica sclerotica or dura . c c , parts of the tunica adnata or conjunctiva , which are continu'd to the internal parts of the palpebrae . d d , the choroeides , the fore-part of which is call'd vvea ; its blood-vessels appear very beautiful , when injected with mercury , and seem to compose divers glandulous bodies . e e , the retina or expansions of the optick nerve , on which objects are depicted . f f , the iris which lies loose or floating in the aqueous humour . g g , the ligamentum ciliare . h , the aqueous humour . i , the chrystalline . k , the vitreous humour . l , part of the optick nerve . the tunica cornea receives the various rays of light proceeding from all points of the object , collects and transmits them thro' the foramen of the vvea , or pupill , refracting the diverging rays on each side toward the perpendicular . the chrystalline humour receives the rays first infracted in the cornea , and beginning to diverge again in the aqueous humour , and refracts them a second time ; so that all the rays proceeding from the same point of the object , by passing thro' . this dense medium , do converge again , and terminate in the same point on the retina . from this refraction or direction of the rays of light , to a point , distinct pictures or images of visible objects are represented on the retina , as the figures of external bodies in passing thro' a single convex glass on a paper on the wall of a dark chamber , the whole will be better conceiv'd by the following figure , which represents the same section of the eye , as the former with the luminous rays passing thro' . thus the rays in passing thro' the cornea and humours of the eyes , are inverted , and the image of the object is so depicted on the concave of the retina . how this inversion is reduc'd in the sensorium commune to a right perception , may be accounted for in our proper knowledge of things , in the same manner , as we know when we hold a stick in each hand cross each other , that the stick in the right touches such an object , and that in the left another : thus vision being made by the rayes of light proceeding from the object , and making due and various motions of the nervous fibres of the retina , which are communicated to the common sensory by the optick nerves with the same type and character ; we may reckon this sensation to be not altogether unlike that of tactus . the last of the animal functions which we should here speak of , is muscular motion , but having already publish'd my thoughts conerning that phaenomenon in my myotomia reformata , i shall not trouble the reader here with a repetition , since no experiment , nor observation ( besides that mention'd in tab. . fig. . concerning the fleshy fibres ) has since occur'd , which should add to those conjectures , or favour any other . to the reader . the fate of authors , when they appear on the publick stage of the world , is extreamly uncertain ; good or ill success , reputation or ' disgrace frequently depend more on the humor and prejudice of the reader , than the merit of the performance . this hard fortune of all writers has made it dangerous for any book to venture abroad , without some harangue or apology before it , to bespeak a favourable treatment . for my part , i have no excuse to offer for not complying with this reasonable custom ; but wholly resign my cause to all well-wishers , to the advancement of anatomy , the proper iudges of this matter ; whose candor and indulgence , i doubt not , will be a better protection , from the defects that shall be discover'd in this work , than any reasons i shall be able to alledge in my defence . this volume contains a general description of the fabrick of humane bodies , after the manner of a commentary on the tables , which represent their several organs . the present and last age , have been industrious in making discoveries in the animal machine , by detecting the structure of the heart , and artifice of the circulation , the origin and course of the lymphe-ducts , the several salival glands and their channels , the texture of the bones , and medullary cells , the mucilaginous glands of the ioints , the organs and process of generation , the organs of the external senses , in reforming the myology , ( an essay on the last of these , with some remarks on the structure and erection of the penis , i some time since publish'd , ) all which the reader will find in the following descriptions , with my own observations and conjectures , which in many places differ from the general receiv'd opinions . besides the history of the natural structure , i have thro' the whole series of the work , inserted some phaenomena , i have found in dissecting morbid bodies , and such practical instructions , as i hope will be useful in many cases , to the chirurgical operator . the whole is dispos'd in this order : in the first hundred and five tables , after a prospect of the body , with the teguments , hair , &c. the parts of the head , neck , brain , medulla spinalis follow , and so proceeds to those of the breast , back , loins , lower-belly , uterus with the foetus and its adjuncts ; next the muscles of the limbs , and lastly the osteology . these figures were drawn after the life , by the masterly painter g. de lairess , and engrav'd by no less a hand , and represent the parts of humane bodies far beyond any exstant ; and were some time since publish'd by dr. bidloo , now professor of anatomy in the university of leyden . i shall take the liberty here to acquaint the reader , that in these tables i have added above seven-hundred references , all which are letter'd with a pen in the several figures ; among which it is hardly possible , but mistakes may occur in some places , ( by those who have inserted them ) which i hope will not be imputed to my inadvertence . the parts which in many places had their nomenclature barely annex'd , are here copiously describ'd ; to which , as i before noted , are added such observations of the male conformation and vitiated structure , as may illustrate the pathology or history of diseases , their symptoms and causes ; i have likewise interspers'd several remarks on the usual method of chirurgical operations , with directions for performing them in a more exact and successful manner ; and lastly given an account of several cases and accidents rarely occurring , and not ( at least commonly ) observ'd by authors . the appendix is partly a supplement to the preceding tables , and partly a correction of such things as are not well exprest ; for instance , the two first tables present a prospect or general view of the whole body , both on the fore and back-side , denuded of its teguments , and clear'd from its fat ; where the external muscles with their tendons , fasciculi and series of fibres , appear on the surface . these are not drawn by invention , but are touch'd on after an original cast from the life in plaister of paris , which i have now by me . the third table contains a system of the arteries dissected from a foetus , with their several trunks and ramifications , delineated from the life , which i have also by me injected with vvax ; how much this differs from that describ'd ( tab. . ) may be soon discover'd . in two other figures of the same table , are the prospects of the extremities of the veins and arteries , as they appear in the transparent finns of a grigg and flounder , view'd thro' a microscope . here the method of circulation , the continuity of the venous and arterious channels , the globuli passing them in an uninterrupted current , is demonstrated . in another figure is exprest our conjecture of the rise of those ducts , which export the lympha and redundant nutriment . in the fourth table , the receptaculum chyli is represented , fill'd with mercury , with the various course of the chyle-vessels and lymphe-ducts , their communicant branches , the lumbal glands , the triple-division of the receptacle , hitherto unobserv'd , at least not delineated . in the remaining tables ( i fear the tedious enumeration of particulars may tire the reader 's patience ) are the organs of hearing , with the meatus à palato ad aurem , and that from the inner ear to the external meatus ; the foramina of the tonsils which evacuate the pituita ; the several parts of the tongue and aspera arteria ; the basis of the brain , that of the cranium ; the muscles of the face and lips , several of which are not describ'd , and the rest erroneously . in this undertaking i have been oblig'd to my learned friend dr. tancred robinson , in revising as many sheets as his leasure would give him leave . in the last place , to render the whole more useful , a copious index is added at the end ; which if the reader finds useful , he is oblig'd to return his thanks to the deserving mr. james fern the surgeon , who was at the trouble of digesting the contents of this work , into an alphabetical order , which my avocations would by no means permit me to do . — if the reader happens to discover any literal errors , of which some may be found , it is hop'd he will excuse them , upon account of the haste and distance of the press ; the practice in my profession not suffering me always to revise every minute passage . the anatomy of humane bodies . before we enter on the anatomical description of humane bodies , let us take a view of their external parts , as they appear in the living state : here we shall first briefly take notice of their most remarkable appearance in the embryo and foetus of the womb ; and thence proceed to observe the several stages of proportion from children to those of a full-grown state , and old age : to these we shall add the different proportions of men and women ; and lastly the external appearance of the muscles and other parts in divers actions . if a praeexistence of parts in an embryo was allowable , that at twenty five days after conception ( figured tab. . fig. . ) would incline us to believe the brain and whole head had a precedency , since its magnitude then exceeds the whole bulk of the rest of the parts ; but as the time of the birth advances , the head of the foetus does not commonly exceed a fourth part in its whole length . the center or middle part between the two extreams of the head and feet of an infant , is in the navel ; but that of an adult in the ossa pubis : and this proportion of dividing children into four parts , whereof the head is one , is commonly made use of by painters and sculptors , &c. a child two years old has about five heads in its whole length ; but one of four or five years , has about six ; thus measured , by dividing the whole body into so many lengths , whereof the head must be one . hence it appears , as the growth of the body advances , there is a gradual approach to the proportion of an adult of eight , nine , or ten faces in the whole length . there are many bodies in a full-grown state , which have not above four or five lengths or faces ; but those are miscarriages in nature , and therefore not subjects of our present consideration . about the fifteenth or sixteenth year , seven faces or lengths are then the proportion or measure , and the center inclines towards the upper parts of the ossa pubis ; and tho' this proportion may serve indifferently for a short well-set thick person , when the shoulders are broad , and the limbs thick , and strong ; yet if on the contrary the shoulders are somewhat narrow , and the limbs slender , it will represent a youth : and however paradoxical it may seem at first , yet an old woman , or the goddess vesta will fall under this proportion of lengths , thro' the bending forwards of the back-bones ; and tho' the limbs bear a proportion to one of eight or nine faces , yet they not being duly extended ( for want of the vigorous action of the muscles ) render the appearance of the whole figure very short . the ancients have commonly allowed eight heads to their figures , says the author of the observations on mr. du fresnoy's art of painting , made english by the incomparable mr. dryden ; but we , says he , divide the figure [ of a humane body ] into ten faces , from the crown of the head to the sole of the foot , in the following manner : n.b. that this number of faces depends on the age , as above hinted , and the quality of the persons represented . the apollo and venus de medices have more than ten faces . the first table . from the crown of the head , to the upper part of the forehead a , is the third part of a face . the face begins at the roots of the lowest hairs , which are upon the forehead ab , and ends at the bottom of the chin i. the face is divided into three proportionable parts ; the first contains the forehead ab ; the second the nose c ; and the third the mouth and chin ghi . from the chin to the pit between the two coller-bones , or upper part of the sternum , are two lengths of a nose . from the pit between the two coller-bones to the bottom of the breast , called scrobiculus cordis n , one face . from the bottom of the breasts to the navel r , one face ; the apollo has a nose more . from the navel to the pudenda s , one face ; but the apollo has half a nose more : and the upper half of the venus de medices is to the lower part of the belly , and not to the privy parts . from the genitories or pudenda , to the upper part of the knee , called the thigh w , two faces . the knee contains half a face . from the lower part of the knee to the ancle , call'd the leg , two faces . from the ancle or malleolus internus to the sole of the foot , half a face . a man , when his arms are stretched out , is from the extremity of the longest finger of his right hand to the extremity of the longest of his left , as broad as he is long . from one side of the breasts to the other below the paps m m , two faces . the bone of the arm call'd humerus is the length of two faces from its conjunction with the shoulder-blade to the elbow . here we think our author is mistaken , for if you allow two faces to that part of the arm between the shoulder and bending of the cubit , and two more from the elbow to the root of the little finger , when the fingers contain half a face , and the distance between the point of the shoulder , and pit of the throat , a whole face ; you will make five faces and half on each side or half length , which amounts to eleven faces in the whole : but if you add to this what he says afterwards , that the boxes of the elbows with the humerus , and of the humerus with the shoulder-blade , bear a proportion of half a face , when the arms are stretched out ; then the whole distance between the extremities of the two middle fingers , when the arms are so extended , will amount to eleven faces and a half ; wherefore we think the account may stand corrected thus . from the pit of the throat to the top of the shoulder or extremity of the spine of the scapula , one face ; from thence to the bending of the cubit or elbow , one face and a half ; thence again to the wrist , one face and a nose . the hand with the fingers extended contain one face : hence it follows that four faces , a nose , and half a face , is the distance between the throat pit , and extremity of the middle finger ; which upon extension of the whole arm , &c. will amount to five faces , or rather more than less . the sole of the foot , is the sixth part of the whole figure , says our author ; but the foot ought not to exceed a face , and a nose in length . as for the breadth of the limbs , no precise measure can be given , because the measures themselves are not only changeable according to the quality of the persons , but according to the movement of the muscles . a man is two lengths or faces from the point of each shoulder ; that is to say , from the upper part of the sternum between the claviculae call'd the pit of the throat , to the extremity of the spine of the scapula , call'd the top of the shoulder , one length ; and so on the other side . the breadth of the hips of a man is one length and a half ; that is , from the great trochanter of the thigh bone of one side , to that of the other : the precise places of which bones are intersected by an horizontal line drawn from the pubes to each side . k , the pomum adami , or protuberant part of the larynx , which in men is much larger than in women . l , the sternum or os pectoris appearing under the skin &c. between the two pectoral muscles . n , the scrobiculus cordis commonly call'd the pit of the stomach , under the skin , &c. precisely in this place , is the cartilago ensiformis . o p , the epigastrium . q q , that of the left side denotes the inguina ; that of the right , the ilia . r , the region of the navel . s , the penis . t t , the arms. v v , the legs . w w , the thighs . x x , the feet . y y , the shoulders . z z , the hands . δ δ the hypocondrium . ** , the hypogastrium . the second table represents the fore-part of a woman , in whom the symmetry or proportion differs from that of a man : first , that most remarkably the shoulders are narrower ; the man having two lengths or faces in the breadth of his shoulders , and one and a half in his hips ; whereas a woman on the contrary , has but one face and a half in her shoulders , and two in her hips : secondly , the claviculae or channel-bones , and muscles in general do not appear in women as in men ; whence it is , the out line of the one , as painters call it , differs very much from that of the other . nor will any action , in which a woman uses her utmost strength , occasion such swellings or risings of the muscles and other parts to appear , as they do in men ; since the great quantity of fat placed under the skins of women so cloaths their muscles , &c. as prevents any such appearance . we cannot conceive this one quantity , and more equal distribution of fat under the skins of women does intirely proceed from any peculiar qualification , either in their whole frame , or intimate structure of their parts where it is produced ; but by reason they lead a more sedentary life , and are scarce at any time accustom'd to hard labours , whereby their fatty vesiculae ( exprest tab. . fig. . , , . ) are comprest , by the frequent operations of their muscles , so as to prevent that more equal distribution , and increase of their contain'd oyl : yet on the other hand , it must be acknowleg'd , that the legs , and feet of women , and even those who walk much , do not afford those muscular appearances like those of men , which we might expect , were it not that women did suffer very much in those parts ; whether in the time of impregnation , when the uterus by its extension so presses the iliack veins , as to hinder the progress of the refluent blood , whence the whole legs become swell'd , and frequently varices of their external veins proceed ; or when the menstrua are obstructed , the legs ( thro' a plenitude of serosities in the vessels ) are incident to suffer in like manner in their outward inclosures , by reason of the unaptness of their position to discharge their refluent blood. the other remarkable parts , which differ from a man , and appear externally in a woman , are ; a a , the mammae . b , the pudendum . the third table . what has been said , in the preceding table , relating to the appearance of the external parts of a man , or woman , may indifferently serve this place ; wherefore we shall proceed to the last part of our design in these animadversions , viz. of the external appearance of the muscles , and other parts , in divers actions . if a strong person is to be represented in a vigorous action , such as hercules &c. after a suitable proportion to such a figure , and the action is design'd ; the next thing the painter , or sculptor is to consider , which are those parts , or limbs imploy'd in the chiefest force of the action ; and if the figure is standing , let him be sure one leg , and particularly its foot , be in a right line , or perpendicular to the trunk , or bulk of the body , where the center of its gravity may be plac'd in an aequilibrium : this center is determin'd by the heel ; or if the figure is on tiptoe , as it 's call'd , then the ball of the great toe is the center ; the muscles of this leg , which thus support the body , ought to be exprest more in action , or swelled in their bellies , and their tendons drawn more to an extension , than those of the other leg , which is plac'd only in order , to receive the weight of the body towards that way , to which the action inclines it : as for example , suppose hercules was with a club , or the like , striking at any thing which stood before him towards his left side ; then let his right leg be plac'd so as to support the whole weight of his body , and the left loosly touching the ground only with its toes . here the external muscles of the right leg ought to be exprest very strong , or much tumified : but those of the left , scarcely appearing more than if the whole figure was in some sedentary posture ; except , as in the case now mention'd , the foot being extended , then the muscles , which compose the calf of the leg , are in action , and appear very strong ; as it is well exprest in the right leg of that excellent figure of the ancients , the gladiator in prince borgheses's palace at rome ; of which , we have only a copy , or cast , plac'd by the canal in st. iames's park . when we say , the external muscles of the right leg , or that which supports the weight of the body , ought to be exprest very strong ; we don't mean that all those muscles should be exprest equally swell'd , or in action ; but that those chiefly concern'd in that action , or posture , that the leg is then in : as for example , if the leg , or tibia is extended , then the extending muscles , plac'd on the thigh , are most swell'd ; if it is bended , then the bending muscles , and their tendons appear most . the like may be observ'd of the whole body in general , when it is in pursuit of some vigorous action ; as appears in that figure of the gladiator last mention'd . the laocoon in the vatican garden at rome also furnishes us with an example of this muscular appearance thro' the whole ; but in the antinous , apollo , and other figures also of the ancients , in the vatican , and other places , in postures where no considerable actions are design'd , we see their muscles exprest but faintly , or scarcely appearing ; whence we can't but think the sculptors of those times were very well acquainted with these observations . tho it be granted , the ancient greeks were accustom'd to see nudities very often , nay , almost constantly ; yet the difficulty of copying these things from the life is so great , that unless they were well acquainted with such like remarks , they would fall short of nature in such performances ; since it is well known , even the life it self , when expos'd to the artist , can't continue those vigorous actions for any time ; but the muscles fall , and the parts loose their necessary appearance in action , tho' the posture is the same . hence it is , that limbs , tho' cast , or moulded from the life it self , are not strictly to be follow'd , unless the life could continue the whole spirit , or force of the action during the time , that the mould was making from it , which i am apt to think is next to an impossibility ; however it might be attempted , at least in some particular parts . wherefore a rational theory must help us , at least , to such hints , that when we see , we may know what to observe , and the reason why it appears so in the life . this is indeed a very entertaining study , which many of our modern painters and sculptors are least acquainted with . thus far , in general , relating to the muscles , &c. in the next place , let us take notice of some particular appearances of the external muscles , and other parts : first , of the musculi mastoidii ( vid. app. fig. . . . ) if either of these act , the head is turn'd to the contrary side , and the muscle , which performs the action , appears very plain under the skin , and is often well exprest both by painters and sculptors , as is represented in the neck of the figure of the first table . if the arms are lifted up , the swelling of the muscles , plac'd on the shoulders , which perform that action , call'd deltoides , ( app. fig. . . ) make the extremities of the spines of the shoulder-blades , ( app. fig. . ii . ) call'd the tops of the shoulders , appear hollow , or indented . the shoulder-blades follow the elevation of the arms , their basis ( app. ib. l , l. ) incline , at that time , obliquely downwards . if the arms are drawn down , put forwards , or pull'd backwards ; the shoulder-blades necessarily vary their positions accordingly ; all which is to be learnt by consulting the life only ; when being well acquainted with what then appears in the very action , the artist will be able to comprehend an idea , how to express it : hence it is , we seldom find the back so well exprest , as the fore-parts ; the latter not being subject to such various alterations , as the motions of the shoulder-blades cause in the former . when the cubit , or arm is bended , the two-headed muscle call'd biceps internus ( app. fig. . ) has it's belly very much rais'd ; as appears in the left arm of the figure of the first table : the like may be observ'd of the biceps externus , call'd gemellus , ( app. fig. . , . ) when the arm is extended . the right muscle of the abdomen ( app. fig. . . . ) appears very strong in rising from a decumbent posture . those parts of the great saw-muscle before , ( app. ib. , . ) which are receiv'd in the teeth , or beginnings of the oblique descending muscle ( ib. , . ) are very much swell'd , when the arm on the same side is thrust forwards ; that saw-muscle then being in action in drawing the scapula forwards also . the long extending muscles of the trunk , plac'd on each side the back-bone , ( app. fig. . ** ) act alternately in walking after this manner ; if the right leg bears the weight of the body , and the left is in translation , as on tiptoe ; the last mention'd muscles of the back on the left side , may be observ'd to be tumified about the region of the loyns ; and so on the other side . the trocanthers , or outward , and uppermost heads of the thigh-bones ( app. fig. . r , r. ) vary in their positions , in such manner , as no precise observations can explain their several appearances ; but the study after the life will soon inform the diligent observing artist . if the thigh is extended , as when the whole weight of the body rests on that side , the glutaeus , or buttock-muscle , ( app. fig. . , . ) makes a different appearance , from what offers at another time ; but if the thigh is drawn backwards , that muscle appears still more , and more tumified . when the whole leg is drawn upwards , forwards , and at the same time the foot inclin'd inwards , the upper part of the musculus sartorius ( app. fig. . . ) appears rising very strong ; in other positions of the thigh that muscle makes a furrowing appearance in its whole progress , as is exprest in the figure of the first table . if a man is on tiptoe , the extending muscles of the shank , placed on the forepart of the thigh ( app. fig. . , , . ) and those of the foot , which compose the calf of the leg , ( app. fig. . , . ) appear very strong , and the musculus peroneus primus ( app. fig. . . ) makes a considerable indentation , or furrowing at that time in its progress , on the outside of the leg. besides these remarks we could mention many more , which will soon be taken notice of by the observing artist in consulting the life ; to which he ought to apply himself , after he is well acquainted with the anatomy of the external parts ; see the first , and second figures of our appendix . a b , the hairy , or back part of the head. c , the right temple . d , the hair tied up on the occiput . e , the neck , where fontanels are usually made . f f , the shoulders . g , the back . h , the loins . i i , the buttocks . k k , the thighs . l l , the legs . m m , the arms. the fourth table . fig. . represents a portion of the cuticula or scarf-skin , rais'd from the back of the hand , and viewed with a microscope . a a , the perforations or pores , whereby the sweat is discharged . b b , the indentures or furrows . c c , the bladder like protuberances ; both these arise from the inequallity of the papillary surface of the skin it self . d d , the hairs which break forth through the cuticula . e e , the asperities or filaments , by which the cuticula is fastned to the true skin . with the assistance of the microscope , the cuticula appears composed of divers strata or beds of scales , fastned to the papillary surface of the skin ; and are so intangled with each other , as that they appear a continued pellicle or membrane when rais'd from the true skin , whether by the application of blister-plasters in living people , or scalding water , hot irons , or the like , in dead bodies : according to the number of these strata or beds of scales , the skin appears to be more , or less fair , and the person is commonly said to have a thicker or thinner skin ; tho' very frequently the jaundice and other diseases give it an ill tincture . the cuticula like the true skin is not uniform , in divers parts of it the number of its scales and their strata exceed those of others ; on the lips not above two strata appear ; on other parts more , seldom less ; in the bottoms of the feet of those who walk much , and the palms of the hands of laborious mechanicks , these strata are not only very numerous , but each scale is thickned . if you macerate the cuticle in water , after some days , its strata of scales will appear , and you may divide it into two , sometimes three , or four pellicles ; the like division of it may be also observ'd in vesicatories or blisters rais'd on living persons . fig. . a portion of the cuticula rais'd from the bottom of the foot , and view'd with the same microscope as the former ; where its remarkable thickness appears . fig. . a portion of the cuticula rais'd from the back ; in which the indentures , furrows , &c. agree with those of figure the st . the surface of the true skin of that part being exactly agreeable with that of the other ; but at the extremities of the fingers , and thumbs , the cuticle is variously wreathed and contorted , conformable to the subjacent papillary protuberances of the true skin , as appears in the following figure . fig. . the upper and inner side of the thumb drawn likewise by the assistance of the microscope . a , from the point arise b b , two lines , of a circular disposition ; c c , others which form triangles . d , other lines variously contorted or winding . the cuticle being remov'd , the cutis or skin it self appears . fig. . a portion of the skin of the arm , as it appears on its external surface to the naked eye . fig. . the external surface of the skin , when view'd with a microscope ; where its internal structure or rete of blood vessels are also exprest . a a , the papillae pyramidales ; made up of divers pyramidal roundish glands , in whose composition the nerves have a considerable share . b b , the capillaments of the little aqueous vessels placed between the papillae according to bidloo . i must confess notwithstanding all the diligence i could yet use in examining this part with the microscope , or otherwise , i have hitherto doubted of the existence of these aqueous vessels , between the cuticula and cutis ; in which some have placed the seat of that tawny tincture of the aegyptians , and that black one of the aethiopians . c c , the sudoriferous glands , which compose the papillae . d d , the sweat vessels or excretory-ducts arising from the last mentioned glands . e e , the hairs arising near the pores of the sweat vessels : besides these vessels , the skin is furnished with arteries , veins , nerves , and lympheducts ; the trunks of the two former are well exprest in this figure f f : hence it appears the skin can no more be esteem'd a similar or simple part , than any of those call'd dissimular or compounded parts . nor is there any part of the whole animal oeconomy , that can be justly esteem'd simple or not compounded ; even the blood vessels , nerves , and lympheducts are compounded parts , as shall be else where demonstrated . besides the pyramidal sudoriferous glands , which compose the papillae cutis , there are other sudoriferous glands placed on the internal surface of the skin ; the most considerable of these we find in the axillae , where they are sometimes call'd axillares , but more properly miliares , from their figure ; the axillary glands lying underneath these sudoriferous ones ; they receiving the lympha , brought into them by the lympheducts springing from the whole arm , do discharge it again into the exporting lympheducts in its way to the thoracick duct . there are other sudoriferous glands , tho' not so evident to the naked eye , under the skin of the fingers , inguina , and behind the ears : the hairy-scalp , skin of the forehead , palms of the hands , and soles of the feet are also furnished with these glands ; wherefore we shall not distinguish them with the names of the places of their situation , but choose to give them a more general denomination , either as to their office , as glandulae sudoriferae , or figure , as miliares . in the skin also are placed those bodies whence the hairs arise ; these , by some are also esteem'd glands , and call'd piliferae : these piliferous bodies or glands , are furnished at their roots with importing and exporting blood vessels , nerves , &c. the hairs being as it were their excretory ducts with this difference from those of other parts , viz. they receiving their separated juyce immediatly from the pores in the extremities of the blood vessels ; whereas the hairs , as we conceive , have their radical moisture transmitted to them by the mediation of a spongious body which absorbs it from the circumjacent parts : hence it is that the hairs grow in dead bodies , when the natural motions of the fluids cease . the hair between the light , and naked eye , appears pellucid ; but if viewed with a microscope in that position , it appears spongy , or not unlike the internal part of a cane : it seems to be compos'd of horny globular particles variously joyn'd together , and colour'd , where it hath plenty of moisture , it is commonly pendulous ; if more dry , it is curl'd . fig. , . two of the hairs of the head figur'd with a microscope : a , it s spongious body compos'd of horny globular particles . b b b , its straight and transverse stalks , which joyn its globules together . c c c , the woolly or downy part of the hair , which descends from above , and stands obliquely downwards ; whence it happens , when the ends of the hairs are not placed in their right position , the hairs are apt to intangle in combing , as it do's in those periwigs made of what they call combings . d d , the top of the hair divided : e , it s middle part : f , its root arising from the piliferous body , placed within the skin . g , a portion of the cuticle , which commonly sticks to the hair when extracted . fig. . the branches , which sometimes appear on the top of the hair by a microscope . fig. , , . the different thickness of the hairs of divers parts of the body , when view'd with the same microscope . figure the tenth , that of the groin ; the eleventh , that of the nostrils ; the twelfth figure represents the hairs of the eyelids . immediatly under the skin is placed the fat in humane bodies ; nor is it found in all parts alike ; on the forehead it is very little , under the hairy scalp less , except its hinder part , on the eyelids and penis none , nor on the muscu●us quadratus colli . fig. . a portion of the fat of the abdomen . a a , it s external membrane . b b , it s internal membrane . c c , the globules of the fat with their blood vessels passing to them , whence their oyly contents are deriv'd . . the integument or covering of the globules of fat rais'd . . the globules of fat themselves . . some of the globules divided from the rest ; in which the breaking off of their membranes , and blood vessels , are exprest : hence it appears , that the fat is a congeries or heap of membranous cells , which in the microscope appear distended with oyl : if the existence of those ductus adiposi could be demonstrated , as bidloo intimates at c c in the last describ'd figure , i should incline to think of another office of them intended in nature , than what malpigbius has assigned them , viz. to convey the oily contents of the adipose cells to some neighbouring interstices , whether of muscles , or other parts , that are on occasion mov'd , or slide on each other ; or into some remarkable cavity , as into that of the abdomen , &c. where it meets with a mucilage separated by the mucilaginous glands placed in the neighbouring membranes , and serves to make up a composition to lubricate the parts according to doctor havers's osteologia nova , pag. . fig. . the outside of the last common integument of the whole body , call'd the common membrane of the muscles ; some divide this into two membranes , and distinguish them by the names of carnosa and communis musculorum ; which we look on to be altogether needless as may appear by the following description . fig. . the inside of the membrane last described : the rise of this membrane is commonly said to be from the spines of the vertebrae of the back , because as i suppose that is the most stable part to which it 's connected : it is coextended with the skin it self , as appears in most parts , and has its corresponding foramina for the eyes , nostrils , ears , mouth , anus , and pudendum : as to its intimate structure , i have always met with concurring experiments and observations , of its being an extensible body , compos'd of divers strata or membranes , framing cells , which have divers lesser cells or loculi within them ; and in divers parts , where the loosness of the skin it self would admit , those lesser cells or loculi , are fill'd with oil , and are call'd fat ; but in other parts where either the hardness of the subjacent bone , when the skin is extended , as on the top of the skull , or the repeated quick motions , as of the eye-lids , or the structure of the part , as of the penis ; these membranous loculi are not so extended with oil , as to make an appearance of fat ; whence it is we find this membrane much thicker in those parts last mentioned , than in others ; and on the contrary , thinner and fewer strata of laminae , where its cells are partly possest with fat. this common membrane is furnished with vessels of all sorts ; nor is it confin'd to the surface of the muscles only , but insinuates in their interstitia , and helps to compose their coverings ; whence it happens that by blowing into the divided strata of the cells of this membrane , the whole body of the animal is tumified ; which is commonly practised by butchers , especially in dressing their veal . the common integuments of the whole body being demonstrated , we proceed to those particularly belonging to the head ; nor shall we omit speaking again of these hereafter , where any thing in their particular parts occurs to our observation or memory , which the succeeding figures may help us to explain . the fifth table . fig. . a a , &c. shews the internal part of the hairy scalp , as it appears after a cross section , and hanging down , when free'd from its subjacent membrane the pericranium . the thickness of the hairy scalp is not only owing to the number of its piliferous bodies , and they so much larger than those of other parts , except the chin , lips , &c. but it is also plentifully furnish'd with sudoriferous miliary glands ; both which appear in a division of the scalp : hence so many blood-vessels , and they so very large , are to be found in this part ; whence such large fluxes of blood arise in dividing the scalp in living bodies , as is commonly done to apply the trepan , &c. b b , &c. part of the pericranium , together with the frontal muscle on the left side hanging down : the pericranium like the common membrane of the muscles may be divided into divers lamellae , or membranes , as is hinted in the explanation of the preceeding table : it is plentifully furnish'd with blood-vessels which chiefly spring from the temporal and occipital arteries ; but divers of them arise from the arteries of the dura mater , which pass thro' the skull ; of which two remarkable trunks may be observ'd , one on each side the longitudinal suture , between that part call'd the sinciput and occiput , a little above the lamdoidal suture . c , part of the pericranium cleaving to its subjacent membrane the periostium . d d d , the periostium rais'd and reclin'd to the right side , where the pores of that membrane , and of the skull , for the transit of the blood-vessels , are exprest : nor is the periostium of this part truly distinct from the pericranium , but seems to be a continuation of its inferior , or internal lamellae ; the distribution of the blood-vessels being in common to both , except where they are distinguish'd by the temporal muscles , under which the periostium is plac'd , and the pericranium runs over them . e e , the os frontis , and bregmatis . f , the upper part of the temporal muscle divested of the pericranium . g , part of the coronal suture on the left side . h , the sagital suture . i , a small artery , together with a branch of a nerve passing out of the skull to the frontal muscle ; in the former an aneurism has happen'd on a sudden , and a great laughter , when all attempts in the cure thereof prov'd unsuccesful , till with a pointed actual cautery the bone was so burnt , as to cause an exfoliation of its external lamina ; the concealed bleeding artery being then not only more expos'd to a compress , but by the removal of the circumjacent bone , the neigbouring blood-vessels in its meditullium , were at liberty to confirm a cicatrice . fig. . the upper part of the brain in situ , with its membranes , the top of the skull being remov'd . a a , the dura mater covering the brain on the right side . b b , the left hemisphere of the brain cover'd with the pia mater only , where the anfractus of the brain are elegantly exprest . c c , the dura mater on the left side divided , and reclin'd laterally . d d , a faint appearance of the brain thro' the dura mater . e , the blood-vessels of the dura mater lying in its duplicature . f , that part of the dura mater , which was contiguous to the coronal suture , where divers blood-vessels pass from it to the skull , of which some pass thro' to the hairy scalp . g g , the veins of the brain lying in the duplicature of the pia mater , before they enter the longitudinal sinus ; here it is they are subject to rupture in concussions of the brain , and let out their contain'd blood between the dura and pia mater ; which case i have seen more than once , where the dura mater ought to have been divided , &c. h h , the edges of the skull . the sixth table . fig. . the upper part of the brain cover'd with the dura mater , as it appears after the top of the skull is taken off . a a , the edge of the forepart of the skull , whence the upper part was divided . b , part of the temporal muscle . c c , the dura mater covering the whole brain . d d , divers impressions on the dura mater , which adhered to the internal part of the skull , near the coronal suture ; where divers blood-vessels pass between it , and the hairy scalp . e e , the blood-vessels distended with wind. f f , the longitudinal sinus opened from near its beginning at the os crista galli , to its entrance into the two lateral sinus's , as exprest in the following figure . fig. . a a , the back part of the longitudinal sinus opened , together with the lateral one on the left side . b b , the os occipitis broken off and turn'd down . c , the os petrosum . d , the orifice of the fourth sinus , call'd torcular herophili , at the conjunction of the two lateral sinus's with the longitudinal one. e , divers transverse strong ligaments in the lateral sinus . f f , the orifices of the veins of the brain in the longitudinal sinus . g g , that part of the dura mater , which adhered to the lamdoidal suture of the skull . h , the medulla oblongata going out of the great foramen of the skull , in the os occipitis . i , the cerebellum cover'd with the dura mater . fig. . a , part of the longitudinal sinus opened . b b , &c. the veins of the brain , before they enter the sinus . c c , their orifices opening into the sinus variously ; some of them being parallel to their trunks ; other veins first pass in the duplicature of the sinus forwards , and others backwards ; by which means the progressive motion of the blood is not only assisted in some positions of the head , and it s too rapid motion prevented in others ; but a due mixture and reunion of its parts are made , after undergoing so elaborate a strainer , as that of the whole substance of the brain , especially in its cortical or glandulous part. fig. . a a , the posterior and lateral part of the brain covered with its meninges . b b , the os petrosum broken off from the cranium . c , part of the os occipitis in like manner divided from the skull . d , the inferior and tortuous part of the lateral sinus on the left side opened , in which may be observed its transverse strong ligaments , exprest fig. . e. e , the cavity in the os petrosum or specus , which receives the bulbous part of the lateral sinus at the beginning of the jugular vein . f , the trunk of the internal jugular vein . g , a probe inserted into the jugular vein by the sinus . h , the bulbous part of the lateral sinus , which was contained in the specus of the os petrosum . fig. . a a , part of the lateral sinus cut off . b b , a lacerated portion of the dura mater , which involv'd that sinus , expanded . c , the bulbous part of that sinus , which was contain'd in the specus or cavity of the os petrosum ; which is a diverticulum to the refluent blood , least it should too suddenly press into the internal jugular vein . d d d , the filaments of the dura mater broken off . e , the beginning of the internal jugular vein . as the structure of the veins of this part differ from that of others ; so also the arteries of the brain , have a peculiar organization at their entrance from the ordinary course of those of other parts , as does somewhat appear in the following figure : we have also figured this disposition of the trunks of the carotid arteries , finding them much more tortuous , than they are here represented . vid. app. fig. . , . fig. . a , the trunk of the carotid artery passing towards the brain . b c , part of its membrane borrowed of the dura mater , separated and expanded . d d , the lower part of the artery next the heart . the vertebral arteries also enter the cavity of the skull very much contorted , as appears in the third figure of our appendix , and again in the eighth figure ; where ii , shews their passing through the transverse process of the first vertebra of the neck ; k k , their trunks marching between the first vertebra and os occipitis , to the great foramen of the last named bone , through which they pass into the skull , and afterwards conjunctly make up the cervical artery . the design of these curvations in the arteries , before they enter the cavity of the skull , is to prevent too great a swiftness of the current of the blood through the whole substance of the brain , which being placed so near the heart , would also suffer by its too great pulsation ; were it not that the contorted trunks of these arteries lessened its force ; else the frequent disorderly motions of the heart , would make us as often incident to suffer great inconveniences in the brain ; yet nevertheless we are incident to suffer in some degree ; whence 't is that the passions of the mind , wherein the heart is affected so suddenly , disorders the reason . the seventh table . fig. . represents the posterior part of the brain as it appears lying on the basis of the skull , it s upper part being free'd from the dura mater . a a , the hinder lobes of the brain raised , and drawn somewhat forwards . b c , &c. the ligature , and two pieces of wood , made use of for the better supporting the brain in that position . d d , parts of divers quadruplicatures of the dura mater . e e , a division of the second process of the dura mater on the left side ; in which the cerebellum appears . f f , the cerebellum laid bare in that division . g h , the second process of the dura mater , on the right side intirely covering the upper part of the cerebellum . i i i , the edge of the os occipitis , whence the upper part of the skull is divided . k k , the common integuments of the head turned off . fig. . the inner face of the os occipitis , together with the cerebellum , &c. a a , the cerebellum inclined forwards towards the cella turcica , so that its back part , which rests on the os occipitale , comes in view . b b , the hindmost part of the medulla oblongata , in its passage out of the great foramen of the os occipitis . b , the processus vermiformis of the cerebellum . c c c , divers roots of the eighth , ninth and part of the tenth pairs of nerves . a a , the accessory nerves accompanying those of the eighth pair , at their egress . d d , &c. the crassa meninx , or dura mater . e e , &c. part of the edge of the skull . f f , the hairy scalp diffected . g , part of the pericranium raised . h , the left ear. the eighth table . fig. . is part of the dura mater , together with the falx , dri'd . a a , the falx supported , so as to shew its proper extent and figure . b b , the sinus falcis superior or longitudinalis , opened . c , the sinus falcis inferior , not distinguished in this figure . d d , &c. the orifices of veins opening into the longitudinal sinus , and trunks of other veins going to it . e , the beginning of the longitudinal sinus at the os crista galli . f f , the left lateral sinus . g g g , two parts of the quadruplicatures of the dura mater , lying between the cerebrum and cerebellum . h h , &c. the sticks , thread , and pins made use of , to support the membrane in drying it . fig. . parts of the above mentioned sinus distended with wind and dried , together with part of the dura mater . a , the longitudinal sinus . b b , the two lateral sinus's . c , the fourth sinus . d , a large vein , which empties its blood at the conjunction of the four sinus's ; which union of the sinus's , is called torcular herophili . fig. . the connection or beginning of the falx , at the os crista galli . a , the os cribrosum . b , the crista galli . c , a portion of the falx cleaving to the crista galli . fig. . part of the falx dried , and exprest somewhat bigger than the life . a , the forepart of the falx ; b , it s hindpart . c , that part of the falx where the fifth sinus passes , called sinus falcis inferior . to this lower part of the falx the pia mater firmly adheres , where divers veins pass into its lower sinus as well as its upper one ; which together with divers adnascences the falx has with the two hemispheres of the brain , ( as may be seen by freeing it from them ) the brain is kept suspended , least its superiour part should press too much on its inferiour ; which office cannot be ascribed either to the internal part of the brain , called fornix , as the former and some later anatomists pretend , or to the corpus callosum , as vieussenius will have it : a further use of the falx is by its extension between the two hemispheres of the brain , to prevent the superincumbence of the one upon the other , when we lie on either side ; and by its connection with the os crista galli , and continuation of it to the superior part of the dura mater , and its second processes , lying between the cerebrum , and cerebellum , the whole brain is kept suspended , and especially its hinder lobes , from pressing on the cerebellum . d d , divers veins of the brain before they enter the longitudinal sinus . e , the cavity of the longitudinal sinus as it appears after a transverse section of it . f f , part of the dura mater which covered the left hemisphere of the brain . g g , the superiour and external surface of the dura mater on the longitudinal sinus . fig. . the two hemispheres or upper part of the brain , together with the cerebellum , as they appear when the whole brain is taken out of the skull , and laid on its basis. a a , the two hemispheres of the brain . b b , the cerebellum covered with the dura mater . c , the processus vermiformis . d , a portion of the medulla oblongata cut off . e f , the forepart of the division of the two hemispheres of the brain , in which the falx is inserted . g g , the middle membrane of the brain according to bidloo , separated and turned to one side , which we take to be the external membrane or lamina of the pia mater . that the pia mater is composed of divers strata of membranes , not unlike the peritonaeum , does not only appear in an hydrocephalus or hydropical brain ; but in ordinary diffections we find it double , especially about the medulla oblongata , processus annularis , &c. in wounds of the pia mater , and brain , we meet with very great fungus's , even to the size of a tenis ball above the surface of the dura mater , and skull ; which may be taken off by incision without a dangerous flux of blood : an instance of which we have had more than once an opportunity of observing ; and notwithstanding these excrescences have been frequently removed , yet they have grown again , and the patient has languished , and died . vid. diemerbroeck , anatom . lib. iii. cap. v. i i i i , the pia mater remaining on the brain . k k l , the external surface of the brain composed of divers turnings and windings of its cortical part. m m , the retiform distribution of the blood vessels between the external and internal lamina of the pia mater ; the largest of these vessels on the superior and external part of the brain , are veins which discharge their blood into the longitudinal sinus , from whence they are here cut off . the ninth table . fig. . the whole brain taken out of the skull , free'd from the dura mater , and lay'd on its hemispheres , its basis being uppermost . in this figure many things are unobserv'd , and others very ill exprest , wherefore we shall add a figure of the brain in this position , more correctly drawn after the life . vid. appendix . a a , &c. the basis of the brain ; b b , &c. its division into four lobes ; c c , the foremost lobes , d d , the hindmost lobes of the brain . e , the infundibulum , very ill exprest . f f , the two white protuberances behind the infundibulum , not well exprest . g g g , the annular process , or pons varolii , and beginning of the medulla oblongata . h , the medulla oblongata cut off near its egress at the great foramen of the os occipitis . i i , part of the pia mater , where it is apparently double between the annular protuberance , and medulla oblongata . k k l l the cerebellum cover'd with the pia mater . o o , the cerebellum cover'd with the pia mater . m , a section in the cerebellum . n , the arborescent distribution of blood vessels within the cerebellum . p p superior , the trunks of the carotid arteries injected with wax , and cut off . p p inferior , the cervical artery in like manner injected with wax . nb. that the two semicircular branches , which join these two last mentioned arteries together , call'd the communicant branches , are exprest too large in this figure , or else the subject , from whence it was taken , differed very much from the ordinary course of nature ; neither of which are mentioned by bidloo . q r s , the olfactory nerves . t t , the optick nerves ; v , their conjunction ; w w , their trunks cut off at their egress from within the skull . x x , the third pair of nerves , call'd oculorum motorii . y y , the upper and forepart of the processus annularis . z z , par patheticum , or the fourth pair of nerves . a a , the fifth pair of nerves . b b , the sixth pair of nerves . nb. the seventh pair of nerves are not here exprest , tho' bidloo pretends to describe them at c c d e. c c , d , e , f , g , confused descriptions of several pairs of nerves erroneously multiply'd into divers pairs by bidloo . h h , the spinal accessory nerves . ** the beginnings of the ninth pair of nerves . i i , k k , the tenth pair of nerves , or the first of the neck . fig. . part of the brain on the basis of the skull . a a , the forepart of the brain . b , the fingers which support it , so that the following parts come in view . c , the infundibulum . d , the glandula pituitaria lying within the cella turcica . e , the membranous connection of the infundibulum to the glandula pituitaria . f , a blood vessel passing thro' the lateral part of the os cuneiforme , which bidloo has grosly mistaken for the olfactory nerves . g g g , portions of the optick nerves so divided , that parts of them remain on the basis of the skull , as well as on the brain it self . h h , the third pair of nerves , call'd motorii oculi , in situ . i i , the internal part of the basis of the skull . k k , the dura mater . fig. . the internal part of the basis of the skull , after the brain is taken out , and portions of the ten pair of nerves of the brain remaining at their egress , together with part of the dura mater . a a , &c. the edges of the divided skull in which the duploi may be seen . b b , the os crista galli . c c , the os cribriforme on both sides . d d , &c. part of the dura mater cleaving to the basis of the skull . e e , the os occipitale bared from the dura mater . f f , portions of the olfactory nerves cut off , near their egress at the os cribriforme . g g , the optick nerves in like manner cut off , before they pass the first foramina of the os sphenoides . g g , the carotid arteries also divided . h h , the third pair of nerves cut off . i i , the pituitary gland within the cella turcica , lying under the dura mater . k , the infundibulum . l l , the fourth pair of nerves , or par patheticum going out of the skull , with the third and sixth pair of nerves . m m , the fifth pair of nerves . n n , the sixth pair of nerves running under , or in the duplicature of the dura mater , at a considerable distance before they march out of the skull at the two second perforations of the os sphenoides . vid. tab. . fig. . c.d.i. o o , the seventh , or auditory nerves passing out at the ossa petrosa . nb. that o on the right side should have been placed a quarter of an inch below the m on the same side . p , the eighth pair of nerves , or par vagum going out at the second perforations of the os occipitis , with the lateral sinus's , which lead to the internal jugular veins . q q , the spinal accessory nerves passing out of the skull with the par vagum . r r , the ninth pair of nerves passing thro' the third perforations of the occipital-bone . t , the first and great foramen of the os occipitis , by which the spinal marrow passes out of the skull to the specus of the vertebrae of the back . the sinus's of the dura mater , which appear where it cleaves to the internal part of the basis of the skull , are exprest in a figure of our appendix ; where the egress of the ten pair of nerves of the brain are also represented , together with the most considerable blood-vessels , which come in , and go out from the cavity of the skull . the tenth table . fig. . the brain together with the medulla oblongata continu'd to it , when free'd from the skull , and specus or cavity of all the vertebrae of the neck , back , and loins . a a , the dura mater free'd from the brain , and somewhat expanded . a a , part of the falx . b b , part of the brain cut transverily . c , the division in its cortical part , which compose those turnings , and windings on its external surface . d d , the cortical , or cinericious part of the brain ; by some call'd the glandulous part. e e , the medullary , or white part of the brain ; by some call'd the callous , and fibrous part. f f , the hindmost part of the brain , which rested on the second process of the dura mater . f g h , the right and left ventricles of the brain open'd ; where the blood vessels of the pia mater , which line them , may be seen : f , their upper and foreparts , which are largest , and become still less , and less towards their lower , and back-parts , g. h h , the corpus callosum . i k , the roots of the fornix . l , the thalamus nervi optici of the right side ; that of the left , not being leuer'd . m , the corpus transversale of the corpus callosum . n n , parts of the corpora striata whole . o o , the nates . p p , the testes . q , the glandula pinealis , in situ . rr , the plexus coroeides compos'd of blood vessels of both kinds , lympheducts , membranes , and glands . see fig. . s s , the first process of the cerebellum , going to the nates . t , a transverse process joyning the two pathetick nerves , and last mentioned process . s , the fourth ventricle , call'd calamus scriptorius . v v , the pathetick nerves . w w , two processes of the spinal marrow which compose the sides of the fourth ventricle . x y z , the meditullium of the cerebellum appearing in an arboreous manner , after a transverse section of the cerebellum . a b , a b , &c. the dura mater , which incloses the spinall marrow , divided , and expanded . c c , &c. the pia mater as yet inclosing the medulla spinalis , but raised with a probe in its lower part , where it inverts the cauda equina . , &c. the several pairs of nerves springing from the medulla spinalis : from to the origins of the nerves of the neck ; the first of which passes out at the third perforation of the os occipitis , and ●● reckoned the tenth of the brain ; the rest march out between the vertebrae of the neck , back , loins , and perforations of the os sacrum successively ; that of fig. marching out between the sixth and seventh vertebra of the neck ; those of to are the nerves of the back : from to those of the loins ; the rest go out at the foramina of the os sacrum . fig. . a a , part of the brain boyl'd , and view'd with a microscope . b b , the membranes of the brain separated ; of which the external is the dura mater ; the two internal compose the pia mater . c d , the reticular distribution of the blood vessels near their extremities . e e , divers orders of cortical glands on the surface of the brain . f f , the tubes deriv'd from those cortical glands . g g , the lobes , or distinct clusters of glands wreathed with various angles . h h , the complicated tubes . i i , the nervous fibres deriv'd from the last mentioned tubes . fig. . part of the plexus coroeides delineated , by the help of a magnifying glass . a a , the membranous inclosures of the fasciculi of the vessels , separated . b c , the blood vessels extended with plaister of paris , and their own blood. d d , branches of lympheducts , somewhat extended with wind. e , nervous tubuli according to bidloo , which i can by no means conceive to be existent in the plexus coroeides . f f , the glands of the plexus coroeides placed irregular , of which , some are hard , and fibrous , others are vesiculous , and flaccid . fig. . a portion of the medulla oblongata cut off , and divided laterally according to its length ; exprest somwhat bigger than the life . a a , the upper part of the medulla oblongata . b b , the fore and back part. c c , the nervous fibrillae arising from the fore , and back part of the spinal marrow . d d , the inferior part of the spinal marrow cut off . e e , portions of the dura mater left , to shew its perforations for the nerves , as they pass out of the specus of the vertebrae . f f f , the plexus ganglioso●mes of the nerves at their egress from between the vertebrae : two or three of the bodies of the nerves themselves are exprest in this figure pinn'd out . fig. . a portion of the medulla spinalis , cut off about the third vertebra of the back , exprest somewhat bigger than the life . a , the upper part of the spinal marrow . b b , a portion of the continuation of the dura mater expanded . c c , the nervous fibres arising from the fore and back parts of the spinal marrow . d , the nervous fibrillae collectively passing thro' the dura mater . e , their gangliform plexus at the beginnings of the bodies of the nerves . f , a division of the spinal marrow according to its length . g , some vestigia of bloud vessels , which pass on the outside of the spinal marrow . fig. . the structure of a nerve exprest by the assistance of a microscope . a , the branch of a nerve dissected from the neck . b , the bloud vessels passing in the nervous fibrillae : these bloud vessels i had an opportunity once of discovering with my naked eye in a very small branch of the par quintum of the head , where they were fill'd with mercury , by pouring it into the carotid artery ; but in examining the same branch of the nerve with my microscope , i discovered a vast number of smaller branches of blood vessels , which did not before appear , lying still parallel with the nervous fibres , as here exprest ; tho' without doubt divers of the trunks of those blood vessels do intersect , and pass obliquely over the nervous fibres , especially near their extremities . from those blood vessels i am inclin'd to think the globular contents of the nervous fibres take their rise immediatly , and not from the brain , as it has been generally suppos'd ; since the fibres of the brain , as well as the nerves themselves do neither of them appear tubulated , or hollowed pipes according to their length ; but their cavities are frequently interrupted with divers cells , which make a globular like appearance ; and this structure of the nervous tubes is very easily demonstrated in the tunica retina of the eye by the assistance of the microscope . c c , a fasciculus of the nervous-tubes separated , and expanded . d d , the cohesion of the tubes by lateral fibres . e e , the villous extremities of the tubes as they could be delineated . what has been said above , relating to the intimate structure of the nerves , interferes very much with those hypotheses commonly propos'd concerning the animal spirits , by some call'd fluidum animale ; and that not only because their original is suppos'd to be in the brain , but that they are transfer'd from thence by the nerves so very quick to serve those offices , to which they are on such frequent occasions said to be imploy'd in : neither of which can reasonably , nay possibly , happen , from the structure of the nerves themselves : besides , if the animal spirits , or fluid were ordered to skip up and down at that rate , another visible impediment would be incident to obstruct them , at the originals of the nervous tubes from the medulla spinalis ; where those tubes are much contracted , and again expanded , and frame gangleons , as appears in this figure at e ; nor can we conceive what should give the spirits that impetus to drive them up and down in that manner ; wherefore we should rather incline to believe the contiguities of those globuli , above mentioned , are the mediums between the objects , and common sensory . there is too much of argument belongs to this subject , to be inserted in this place ; wherefore we must proceed in our present undertaking . fig. . a portion of the medulla spinalis taken out of the specus of the vertebrae of the back , together with its common integument . a a , the back part of the spinal marrow next the spines of the vertebrae . b b c , the external , or common integument ( accompanying that of the dura mater the whole length of the specus of the vertebrae ) here being partly rais'd and supported with a stylus . d , the dura mater , or first proper membrane of the spinal marrow . e e e , divers sacculi of fat lying between the proper and common membranes of the medulla spinalis . fig. . the inferior part of the first vertebrae of the thorax : a , it s spinal process , b b , its oblique descending processes , which are articulated with the ascending processes of the superior part of the second vertebra of the thorax ; c c , the transverse processes . d , the body of the vertebra . e , the great foramen of the vertebra , in which the medulla spinalis descends . f f , some fatty mucilaginous glands , which are continued thro' the inside of the whole specus of the vertebrae . the office of these glands is to separate a liquor to lubricate the membranes of the medulla spinalis , and inner part of the specus ; which liquor i have frequently found in such quantity , as to run out , in breaking up the vertebrae to discover the spinal marrow . the eleventh table . fig. . the external parts of the eye , as they appear when the eye-lids are open'd . a b , the eye-brow : b , the various disposition of its hairs in this subject . c , the great canthus of the eye next the nose . d , the lesser canthus . e , the upper eye-lid . f , the lower — g , the white of the eye cover'd with the tunica adnata or conjunctiva . h , one of the lachrimal glands plac'd in the great canthus of the eye , call'd caruncula lachrimalis , and glandula lachrimalis inferior . fig. . the eye-lids shut . a , the eye-brow , as in the former figure . c , the great canthus of the eye towards the nose . d , the lesser canthus . e , the superior palpebra . f , the inferior palpebra . fig. . a a , the skin with the musculus orbicularis palpebrarum remov'd . b , the bone of the upper part of the orbit of the eye bared . c , the great lachrimal gland involv'd with fat. d d , a faint appearance of the excretory ducts of the lacrhimal glands , by borrichius , call'd hygroophthahmicos . e e , divers little glands interpos'd between the last mention'd ducts . fig. . parts of the muscles of the eye-lids . a , part of the musculus aperiens palpebram rectus , at its implantation to the upper eye-lid : the origin of this muscle is sharp and fleshy at the profoundest part of the orbit , near the egress of the optick nerve , accompanying the rectus oculi attollens in its progress , becoming broad , thin and tendonous , as it passeth over the superior part of the bulb of the eye , to its implantation at the whole superior part of the upper eye-lid . b c , a portion of the upper part of the orbicularis palpebrarion turn'd down , it still remaining to the upper eye-lid : a description of which muscle will be inserted in the following table . fig. . fig. . the lachrimal glandules , &c. within the orbit of the eye , represented much bigger than the life . a a , the upper part of the bones of the orbit . b b c c , the superior lachrimal gland . d d d , the vasa lachrimasia , or ductus hygroopluhalmici , whose orifices open into the internal part of the palpebrae , whence the separated liquor , convey'd by the tubes , issues to moisten the palpebrae , and external part of the bulb of the eye . e e e , divers lachrimal glands interspers'd between the last mention'd ducts . f f g g , the cartilages of the cilia joyn'd together with divers membranes g. h h , the hairs of the eye-lids turn'd upwards , whose ramifications appear . i , part of the superior lachrimal gland , by bidleo call'd , glans lachrimalis . k k , the bones of the nose broken off , so that the following ducts may appear . l , the ducts , which convey the superfluous moisture of the vasa lachrimalia from between the palpebrae , and bulb of the eye , into the foramina narium : the orifices of these ducts appear in the two papillae of the upper and lower eye-lid , at the great canthus of the eye . fig. . h. and are evident to the naked eye , especially in those , who cry much , and are call'd , puncta lachrimalia : soon after these two ducts leave the great canthus of the eye , they are united into one trunk , call'd the lachrimal duct , which descends in a foramen of the second bone of the upper jaw , tab. . fig. . d. into the cavity of the nostrils . in the great canthus of the eye arise those tumours , call'd aegilopes , whose contain'd matter , when it degenerates into an abscess , frequently frames fistula's in that part ; and when the membrane , which composes the lachrimal duct , within the cavity of the bone , becomes tumified ; the passage of that duct is rendred impervious , and part of the humor imploy'd in moistning the eye-lids , is hindred in its discharge that way ; whence the cheeks become inflam'd by its running down on them ; in which latter case , besides opening the tumor largely , we must also perforate the second bone of the upper jaw or os lachrimale , into the cavity of the nose , whereby the lachrimal humor will afterwards be discharg'd : this operation is best practis'd with a pointed actual cautery , fitted with a proper cannula or director . the incision in these cases may be made according to the direction of the fibres of the musculus orbicularis palpebrarum ; and in using the actual cautery , great care must be taken to defend the palpebrae ; which we have sometimes seen expos'd to the heated cannula thro' the strugling of the patient : after this operation is thus perform'd , it is not necessary you should keep the external wound open to expect an exfoliation of the fragments of the bone thro' it ; but after three or four days , when the callosity is remov'd , and the matter discharg'd , you ought to lessen your dozils , or tents , and permit the sinus to fill with flesh , and hasten a cicatrice , and the edges of the perforated bone will pass off by the nostril , as well as that part of the bone thrust in by the cautery . nor will any great inconveniency follow if the healed up part should imposthumate again , thro' the moving of the fragments of the bone towards the external wound , if it is again open'd by incision to discharge them ; but should you keep the external wound open long , either by hard tents , or escharoticks , you will not only procure a discharge of the superfluous tears , or moisture that way ; but the perforation made in the os lachrimale will fill up , and you must be oblig'd to repeat the use of the actual cautery , or thrust a probe thro' it . i had almost forgot to tell you , that after the first incision made in the external parts , it is necessary you should pass your knife down to the very bone , and divide the trunk of a large artery , and vein , which pass that way with the lachrimal duct , least the flux of blood at the time of the operation should so cool the cautery , as to prevent its action . fig. . the bulb of the eye lying within the orbit after the superior palpebra is remov'd . a b , the tunica adnata plac'd on the forepart of the sclerotis . c , the iris , in whose center is the pupilla . d d , the lower eye-lid , in situ , together with part of the upper , dissected . e , the bone of the orbit . f , the margin of the lower eye-lid , where the hairs grow out . fig. , and . the muscles of the eye , as they appear within the orbit , when clear'd of the fat , and adjacent parts . a , the a●usculus attolens . b , ( fig. . ) musculus adducens . c , deprimens . d , abducens . e e , the internal part of the bones of the orbit . h , the tendon of the musculus obliquus superior passing thro' the trochlea k , to its insertion behind the musculus attollens . i , the external part of the bones of the orbit next the nose . k , the trochlea , or little cartilage , on which the tendon of the oblique superior muscle is reflected . x , fig. . the optick nerve . fig. . the fore-parts of the muscles of the right eye , when taken out of the orbit , and clear'd from the fat , membranes , and glands , a ; and expanded . a , attollens . b , deprimens . c , adducens , which bidloo calls abducens . d , abducens , which be in like manner mistakes , and calls adducens . e , trochlearis musculus , or obliquus superior cum trochlea . f , the trochlea cartilage , exprest in situ . fig. . k. g , the musculus obliquus inferior . h h h , the tunica adnata , together with another membranous tegument deriv'd from the tendons of the four straight muscles , mention'd by realdus columbus . lib. x. i , is scarce seen , but is plac'd in the center of the bulb , and distinguishes the pupilla . k , part of the optick nerve . fig. . the back parts of the muscles of the same eye , when taken out of the orbit , &c. a , the musculus abducens , or indignatorius . b , adducens , or bibitorius . c , obliquus inferior , or brevissimus oculi musculus . d , attollens , or superbus . e , deprimens , or humilis . f , obliquus superior , seu longissimus oculi musculus . g , the trochlea cartilage . h , a portion of the optick nerve . i , the back part of the bulb of the eye , compos'd by the tunica sclerotis . fig. . the bulb of the eye and optick nerve free'd from the muscles and their common membranes , so that the proper membranes of their surface appear . a , part of the tunica adnata , which is continued to the internal part of the palpebrae , which can by no means prevent the retraction of the eye , when any of the straight muscles act , as some anatomists conjecture . b d , the tunica sclerotis . c , the tunica cornea , circumscrib'd by the iris , in whose center is the pupilla . e , the optick nerve cover'd with a tunick deriv'd from the dura mater . fig. . a a , the sclerotis open'd , to shew the choroeide tunick immediately under it . b , the tunica chorocides . c , the cornea , iris , &c. as in the preceding figure . fig. . part of the ligamentum ciliare view'd with a microscope . a a b b , the ligamentum ciliare consisting of two sorts of fibres ; the one extended thro' its whole breadth , a a ; the other end in the mid-way b b : between these are plac'd divers lympheducts according to bidloo . this musculous contexture of the ligamentum ciliare moves the uvea , or fore-part of the tunica retina composing the iris , by which means the inner edge of the iris approaches towards the center of the pupilla , or is retracted , whereby the pupil is enlarg'd , or diminish'd according to the different radiation of light. in some animals , as cats , &c. we find a musculous structure in the iris also , for a more effectual narrowing their pupils ; which contrivance in those creatures , perhaps , is the more requisite in regard their horny tunicks have a surface not so prominent in proportion to the bulbs of their eyes , as those of other animals . fig. . the bulb of the eye together with a portion of the optick nerve , where a division of the tunica sclerotis together with the chorocides is made , to exhibit the tunica retina . a , the tunica retina . fig. . part of the optick nerve together with the tunicks of the eye , after the humors ( fig. , . ) are taken out . a , the inner surface of the tunica retina . fig. . another view of the internal and external surface of the tunicks of the eye , after the humors are discharg'd . a a , the tunica sclerosis . b , the cornea . c , part of the optick nerve . fig. . the internal and fore-part of the tunicks of the eye , when the humors are discharg'd by a transverse section thro' the bulb . a , the tunica cornea . c , the inner surface of the iris , next the ligamentum ciliare . d , the tunica retina chorocides , and sclerosis together . fig. . the inner surface of the back part of the last mention'd tunicks of the eye . a , part of the optick nerve cut off ; in which division its blood-vessels are exprest . b , the tunica sclerosis . c , the tunica retina , in situ . fig. , and . the vitreous and crystalline humors of the eye , when taken out of the tunicks . a , the crystalline humor . b , the vestigia of the ciliar ligaments on the vitreous and edge of the crystalline humor . c , the vitreous humor . fig. . a b , the crystalline humor taken out ; a , its fore-part next the aqueous humor ; b , as it appears laterally . the aqueous humor cannot easily be exprest after the life , wherefore we shall here speak of its interstice , where it is lodg'd , whereby its figure is circumscrib'd ; its forepart is convext by means of a concave fram'd by the cornea in the center , and iris in the circumference ; the back part of the aqueous humor is concave , to receive the convex surface of the crystalline humor ; it's sides are circular , conformable to the cavity of the bulb ; whence it appears the aqueous humor is circular in its circumference , convext forewards , and concave backwards , like the following figure . fig. . a , the external and fore-part of the vitreous humor . b , a concave in the vitreous humor , which receives the crystalline humor . the tunicle , which is said to inclose the vitreous humor , do's not appear , but when it is expos'd to the air ; wherefore dr. briggs supposes it to be meerly adventitious . fig. . a b , the crystalline humor dri'd ; which bidloo according to some anatomists , calls tunica aranea , or crystaloeides . fig. . a b , the vitreous humor dri'd in like manner ; leaving its supposed investing membrane only . i should in this place ( as i have hitherto , and shall hereafter in describing of parts , to which any considerable operation of surgery do's belong ) speak of the couching of cataracts ; but i am afraid i have already transgress'd the limits of my page ; wherefore i shall only tell you that in practising that operation , the puncture thro the adnata , ought to be at a greater distance from the pupilla , than authors commonly direct ; and that a round needle is to be preferr'd ; for the edges of the needle else are lyable to wound the blood-vessels of the choroeid tunick largely , and an extravasation of blood happens between that tunick , and the sclerotis ; which may be of ill consequence to the patient . the twelfth table . fig. . in this figure there is a repetition of the same letters of the alphabet ; the one on the external parts of the auricle ; the other on its muscles , and parts adjacent : the first . a a , the external margin of the outward ear , call'd helix , and capreolus , from its tortuous disposition . b b , anthelix auriculae . c , hircus auriculae , by some call'd antitragus . d e , circumscribe the concha ; d , tragus auriculae , below which is the lobus . the second . a , the musculus attollens auriculam ; which derives its partly fleshy , and membranous origin , from above the temporal muscle , and descending over it to its insertion at the superior part of the cartilage of the root of the auricle . b c c , the musculus retrahens auriculam , whose origin we have always observed with m. du verney , to be from the apophysis mastoides ; the whole muscle is here exprest much larger than it is commonly found . d d , part of the parotid gland cleaving to the outward ear : e f f , the excretory ducts arising from that gland , which compose the ductus salivalis superior . g , part of the ductus salivalis superior . fig. . exhibits the back part of the auricle , when cut off . a , the skin , &c. divided from the hairy-scalp , and free'd from the cranium . b , the internal , or back part of the ear next the skull . c , the inferior part of the auricle . d , the meatus auditorius ; e , the thickness of its cartilage . fig. . represents the ramifications of the ductus salivalis injected with wax , and free'd from the parotid gland . a , the trunk of the ductus salivalis cut off at its progress over the musculus masseter . b b c , the ramifications of the salival ductus free'd , which arise from the extremities of the arteries within the parotid gland . fig. . represents divers muscles of the face after the quadratus genae is taken off . a , this formal appearance of circular fibres about the alae nasi , i suspect to be fictitious , having never observ'd such a disposition in any subject , tho' i have purposely examined this part ; yet the like figure of them may be seen in placentinus . b , a muscle , whose position renders it capable of pulling up the ala nasi ; whence it is called elevator alae nasi ; and by casserius , pyramidalis , from its figure ; nor do we commonly find this muscle in dissection ; the fleshy fibres on this part , frequently taking the same course with those of the orbicularis palpebrarum , do pass by the ala nasi . c , the musculus elevator labii superioris proprius . dd , the orbicularis palpebrarum ; this is a thin fleshy muscle , circularly environing the eyelids , to which it is inserted , not unlike the sphincter muscles of other parts , as of the lips , and the bladder of urin : it acts in drawing the eyelids nearer each other ; which we call shutting the eyelids ; but if this muscle acts vigorously , it not only draws the eyelids close together , but forces the bulb of the eye into the orbit . galen and the ancient anatomists not discovering the musculus aperiens palpebrarum rectus , ( since found out by fallopius , ) were at a loss for assigning a proper instrument to draw up the upper eyelid ; wherefore they erroneously divided this orbicular muscle into two : the like error has been incident to some later writers , among which bidloo falls into the same mistake . e , the zygomaticus or distortor oris . f , a branch of an artery , which arises from the carotid in the neck , and passing through the inferior maxillary gland , runs over the lower jawbone , at the insertion of the masseter muscle , as it is here exprest . i have frequently met with tumors on this part , which have required incision ; in which case the dividing of this artery ought to be regarded ; wherefore i have rather chosen first to make two perforations , one on each side this artery , whether by caustick or otherwise , and then pass a ligature to comprehend the artery for some days ; and tho' i cannot advise the practice of letting the ligature divide the whole , by frequently straightening it ; yet in three or four days time the ligature will so compress the artery , that you may cut through free from any dangerous flux of blood. g , the os iugale . h , the lower jawbone made bare by the removing of the skin , and musculus quadratus colli . i , part of the carotid artery . k m n , the temporal muscle ; k n its outside ; m its inside next the cranium turned down . l , part of the parotid gland , the greater part of which gland being cut away , to exhibit the following muscle . o , the musculus masseter in situ : the origination , progress , and insertion of this , and the temporal muscle , are sufficiently exprest in this , and the following figure . fig. . exhibits the muscles of the lips , and some of those of the lower jaw . a b c , the musculus buccinator free'd from its origin at the procossus coronae of the lower jaw , ( nearer n ) and left at its insertion at the angle of the lips : here we may observe , that in this figure ( as in the life ) the fibres of this muscle run according to its length , contrary to the description bidloo , and others give of it ; through this muscle passes the ductus salivalis of the parotid gland into the mouth . d , the musculus elevator labiorum communis ; this arises from the os quartum of the upper jaw , and descends directly to its insertion under the termination of the zygomaticus ; in this figure ( as we have likewise seen it ) a fasciculus of fleshy fibres of this muscle run over the termination of the zygomaticus . e e , the elevator labii superioris proprius , and the musculus dilatator alae nasi . f , the musculus zygomaticus . g , depressor labiorum communis . h , depressor labii inferioris proprius . i , constrictor labiorum . k m n , the temporalis ; n , its implantation at the processus coronae of the lower jaw . l , part of the parotid gland . o , the masseter cut from its origin at the os iugale , and left at its insertion to the lower jaw . p q , part of the origin of the musculus pterygoideus externus in situ ; this springs from the external part of the processus pterygoides , and upper part of os sphenoeides , and runs backwards to its insertion at the neck of the processus condyloides : to discover the progress of this muscle , the processus coronae should be cut off with a chizel . r , the processus condyliformis of the lower jaw , which is here in a great part lay'd bare . s , part of the musculus digastricus of the lower jaw . the thirteenth table . fig. . the external parts of the nose , together with the tongue , fauces , gargareon , and the like , in situ . a , the back of the nose . b , the spine , c , the tip , d , the septum narium or bridge , e e , the alae nasi or sides of the nose . f f f , the cheeks divided , so that the parts within the mouth may appear . g , the tongue . h , the gargareon or uvula in situ , cover'd with the glandulous membrane of the palat. i , the tonsillae described in our appen . fig. . k k , the gums of both jaws . l l , the palat or roof of the mouth , whose glandules are exprest tab. . fig. . b c. m , the upper part of the epiglottis raised through the depressure of the tongue . we seldom see the epiglottis in looking into the mouths of living people ; but in some few i have some times seen its upper part , by very much depressing the tongue to inspect the fauces ; in such persons some ( very ignorant in anatomy ) have taken it for an excrescence , and have proposed its extraction . a mistake , equally as pernicious , has been incident to some practitioners , in supposing the foramina of the excretory ducts of the tonsillae when fill'd with a tenacious matter , ( as in cases of taking cold , as it 's call'd , &c. ) to be ulcers ; as fallopius takes notice . fig. . the outward covering of the tongue view'd with a microscope : this figure together with the d , th , th , th , th , and th , were done after the tongues of some quadrupedes , as of bulls , sheep , or the like . with the assistance of a microscope , an appearance not altogether unlike this may be found on a humane tongue ; without any horny covering like that described by bidloo in these figures , as follows . a , that part towards the tip of the tongue , b , that towards the root may be seen , arising from the membrane underneath , a sort of bodies of a toothlike form c c , &c. hard as cartilages , or the nailes ; for which reason ( says he ) i call them ungulae : betwixt these ( he further adds ) are placed certain forked bodies of the same structure : ( see fig. . ) between these two kinds of bodies , and sometimes upon them , are placed certain bladder-like pyriformal , and pellucid globuli . ( fig. . d. ) these ungulae are framed by the manifold joyning together of fibrous lamellae . ( see fig. . a. ) whose middle b , is medullary and pervious ; but the globuli are hollow like bladders : both these kinds are clotted about with a strong tensile membrane ( fig. . e. ) to which they are fastned on their sides . this membrane is supported with hairy stamina f. like the membrane immediatly under it , which subjacent membrane is perforated by the aforesaid bodies , as appears in ( fig. . ) in some of the interstices of these bodies there may certain cavities g , fig. . be discover'd ; whose bottom is very porous . the appearance of the back part of these bodies is represented in fig. . a , the broken globuli . b , the asperities of the ungulae . c , the hairy membranous covering . d , the porous apertures . the upper covering being remov'd , the second or subjacent membrane , mention'd above , comes in view . fig. . spread like a net ; the duct of whose fibres is so intricate and various , that nothing certain can be determin'd of their order ; for in a raw tongue it is glutinous , in a boyl'd one extendible ; its superiour part exprest in this figure , is whitish and thinner ; but the lower is observ'd to be thick , and more tenacious . ( see fig. . ) its perforations aa , fig. . answer to the number of the ungulae : here also may be observ'd several small vessels b , creeping along , and running to the superficies of the tongue . the edges of these perforations are made rough by small fibres and vessels of their own , as well as of the broken ungulae . the like structure may be observ'd every where in the membrane in the inside of the mouth , especially in the palat. under this net-like covering some nervous papillary plexus . fig. . a , and certain glands b are hid ; the tops of which are inseparably joyn'd to the above nam'd medullary middles of the ungulae : so that these ungulae , like little horns , cover those papillary bodies like a membrane spread over them : these papillae are tyed in several places to the carnous fibres of the tongue ; of these , some are large c ; some smaller d ; some confused and in heaps e ; others more distant , and distinct , and of different figures ; about these are placed a great many glands f , to which the vessels of the net-like covering do adhere . the same organs , tho' in a larger form , do arise out of the coverings of the lips and cheeks , as above . fig. . the musculous structure of the tongue . a a , the external order of fibres continued according to the length of the tongue , ( viz. ) from its basis to its tip ; between these are interspersed ( b b b ) divers glandules and lobes of fat , b b. c d , the second order of fibres of the tongue , which descend from the upper part towards its basis. e f , other fibres arising from the basis go to the superficies of the tongue . g h , others carried from the middle of the tongue towards the sides ; the tendinous extremities of these fibres are fastned to the coverings of the tongue : at the middle of the lower part of the tongue , are two distinct classes of fibres very intricately disposed , which contribute to those various motions the tongue is necessarily imploy'd in , whether in speaking , mastication , or the like . fig. . the structure of the gums magnifyed with a microscope . a a , part of the gums . b b , two of the foreteeth . c , the covering of the gums opened . d , the duct of the fibres . e , the glands situated between the fibres . f , part of the upper jaw broken off . the fourteenth table . fig. . divers muscles of the tongue , os hyoides , and larynx , as they appear in their proper situation , after the side of the lower-jaw is taken off . a a b b , the tongue pinn'd up b. c , the musculus styloglossus in situ ; it arising from the processus styloides is inserted to the root of the tongue immediately below the implantation of the ceratoglossus ; it draws the tongue up , and inwards , in the action of deglutition . d d , the musculus ceratoglossus , arising fleshy from the horns at the os hyoides , and is so inserted to the tongue : if this with its partner act , they draw the tongue directly into the mouth ; if one of them acts , it pulls the tongue to one side . e f g i l , the musculus genioglossus in situ ; it arising from the middle of the internal part of the lower jaw , and is implanted at the root of the tongue ; when this with its partner act , they draw the tongue forwards , and thrust it out of the mouth . h , part of the fauces contiguous to the root of the tongue . k , part of the musculus sternohyoideus . l , part of coracohyoideus . n. b. that l is inserted in two different parts of this figure ; wherefore the reader is desired to take notice that the lowermost belongs to the last reference . m , the musculus styloceratohyoideus ; its origin , progress and insertion , are so well exprest in the figure , that there needs no other description to be added ; this muscle , together with the styloglossus , and stylopharyngaeus , with their partners on the other side , act in drawing up the os hyoides , tongue , larynx , and pharynx in deglutition ; by which means the aliment when fitted for swallowing , do's not only descend into the pharynx ( which is at that time dilated ; ) but the epiglottis is in that position of the tongue by consequence deprest , and adequately covers the rimula of the larynx ; whereby , the least particle of the aliment is hindred , in its descent into the larynx , and aspera arteria ; which is a wonderful mechanism in nature ! hence 't is we can by no means expire in the action of swallowing of the aliment , without some part of it descending into the rimula of the larynx ; which is so troublesome as to cause an incessant coughing , till it 's ejected . n , the musculus mylohyoides , cut from its origination at the internal part of the lower jaw-bone , and left at its implantation to the middle and upper part of the os hyoides . o , the geniohyoides muscle in situ . p , the middle part of the lower jaw-bone , which composes the chin , broke off . q , the internal surface of the upper lip. r , the inside of the cheek . s , the gustatory nerve ; being a branch of the fifth pair of nerves of the brain , in its way to the tongue . t , the motory nerve of the tongue , springing from the ninth pair of the brain . t , a small branch of the ninth pair going to the larynx . v , the left horn of the os hyoides . w , the trunk of the carotid artery . x x , the musculus digastricus left to its origination at the processus mastoides . fig. . represents , according to bidloo , the salival ducts free'd from the inferior maxillary gland , exprest in situ , in fig. . of the following table m m. i cannot conceive this figure of the salival ducts was design'd after the life ; nor do's it express any other excretory duct which occurs to my memory ; wherefore i shall here add the description of it by bidloo . a , the twigs of the salival duct , above mention'd , injected with wax , and free'd from the glandules : b , the larger branches : c , the common duct : d , it 's orifice inclos'd with an edging . e , part of the investing membrane of the mouth cut off . see the figure of the salival ducts of the lower maxillary glands , together with the sublingual glands in our appendix . fig. . the inner face of the upper jaw , and fauces , after the lower jaw is taken off . a , the roof of the mouth , or palat. b b , the glandulous membrane of the fauces near the tonsillae . c c , divers foramina in the surface of the glandulous membrane of the mouth or palat , thro' which issues a juice separated in its glandules , exprest fig. . b , b , c , c. d e , the forepart of the palat near the dentes incisores , where the bone underneath is perforated , to transmit divers blood-vessels and nerves ; but in bulls and some animals , in this part , is a perforation thro' both the membrane of the palat , and that of the nostrils , and is a common passage between their foramina narium and mouths ; which in them is call'd fretum , and serves to convey part of the matter separated by the glands of their nostrils into their mouths . f f , a stylus put thro' the left nostril into the fauces . g , the vvula or gargareon hanging down from the palat. h , the glandulous membrane which helps to compose the back part of the fauces . i i , parts of the musculi flexores capitis . k k , parts of the longi colli . l l , the vertebrae of the neck . fig. . the inside of the membrane of the palat , as it appears when rais'd , and view'd with a microscope . a a , the tunica palatina rais'd from the bone , and pinn'd out . b c d , the glandules , and carnous fibres , which compose the membrane . e e , two dentes incisores . f , the fourth bone of the upper jaw , by some call'd os palati , whose surface is full of vestigia , where the tunica palati did adhere . fig. . the foramina narium open'd , by taking off the greater half of the fourth bone of the upper jaw , or os palati . a a b b , the pituitary or glandulous membrane , which invests the foramen of the left nostril , separated from the septum narium b. c c , the glandulous membrane extended , so as to receive a strong ( d d ) reflection of light , by means of a stylus d d , introduc'd as in fig. . the structure of this glandulous membrane is altogether agreeable to that of the palat fauces , &c. so that we need not say more of it in this place ; but that it is not only extended to all the tortuous meanders of these cavities of the nostrils , but it also invests the cavities of the cheek-bones , os sphenoides , and frontis ; all which communicate with the nostrils , where they discharge their pituita ; as shall be demonstrated in the osteological part of this work. the fifteenth table . fig. . divers muscles of the lower jaw , and os hyoides in situ , the skin , and musculus quadratus colli being remov'd . a b c , the musculus digastricus or biventer ; b , its fleshy origination from the processus mammillaris ; c , its middle tendon passing thro' the musculus styloceratohyoideus ( n ) , and an annular ligament arising from the os hyoides , to its fleshy termination a , in the lower jaw ( d ) . the middle tendon of this digastric muscle , and its partner , passing thro' two annular ligaments fixt to the os hyoides , as the ropes thro' a double pully , is a necessary contrivance in nature to render them capable of pulling the lower jaw down ; which , had their progress been direct from their originations , they could not have perform'd ; nor is there any processes , whether of the vertebrae of the neck , or neighbouring parts , that could give originations to these muscles below their insertions , as in some quadrupedes : wherefore the divine architect , in humane bodies , has plac'd this double-pully below their terminations , by which means they are made capable of performing their design'd office. hence deglutition is hindred , when these muscles are in action , they at that time preventing the ascent of the tongue , and larynx ; neither can we in the time of swallowing , draw the lower jaw down , because the center of direction is pull'd up ; wherefore we are oblig'd to keep the jaws close in that action . but in dogs , and other voracious animals , ( wherein these muscles arise from the transverse processes of the first vertebra of the neck ) these actions do not depend upon each other ; whence it is they devour their aliment so quick d , the inferior edge of the lower jaw bone made bare . e e , the musculus mylohyoideus , which derives its fleshy origin from the internal part of the lower jaw , partly under the inferior maxillary glands , and partly at the insertions of the musculus digastricus ; whence descending with a double order of fibres , here elegantly exprest , is inserted to the superior and forepart of the os hyoides . immediately under this muscle lie the glandulae sublinguales , and salival ducts of the inferior and maxillary gland ; both which are comprest by it , and their contain'd saliva driven forewards into the mouth when this muscle acts , as in deglutition , &c. f f , the musculi sternohyoidei , arising from the internal and superior part of the claviculae , and not from the sternum , as it 's vulgarly suppos'd , and are inserted to the inferior , and forepart of the os hyoides . g g , parts of the ceracohyoidei , coming from under the mastoid muscles ( ii ) . h h , parts of the sternothyroidei , which spring from the superior and internal part of the sternum , and march under the sternohyoidei to their terminations in the thyroide cartilage , as appears in the following figure . i i , the mastoidei . k , part of the masseter on the right side . l , part of the parotid gland on the same side . m m , the glandulae maxillae inferioris . n , that part of the musculus stylohyoideus , that is perforated to transmit the middle tendon of the biventral muscle of the lower jaw ; which together with an annular ligament , springing from the os hyoides , in like manner involving the last mention'd middle tendon of that muscle , do's like a pully render it capable of pulling the lower jaw down , as above noted . o , part of the internal jugular vein . p , part of the carotid artery . q , a blood-vessel cut off and ti'd . fig. . divers muscles lying under those exprest in the former figure . a a a , the lower edge of the inferior jaw-bone laid bare . b b , the musculi sternohyoidei free'd from their insertions , and left at their originations . c c c c , the coracohyoidei are a pair of digastrick muscles ; they arise fleshy from the processus coracoides scapulae , and ascend under the musculi mastoidei where they become tendinous , but growing fleshy again , are inserted at the basis of the fore-bone of the os hyoides ; this draws the os hyoides downwards , and pulls it somewhat inwards . d , part of the musculus stylohyoideus at its termination . e e , the musculus mylohyoideus ; on the right side not quite free'd from its origination ; on the left , so rais'd , as that the glandula sublingualis w , do's appear ; this bidloo calls geniohyoidei . f f , the geniohyoidei , by bidloo call'd anthereohyoidei ; they arise fleshy from the internal part of the lower jaw , which composes the chin , and are inserted to the superior , and forepart of the os hyoides : when these muscles act , the os hyoides is pull'd upwards , and forewards , and assist the genioglossi in thrusting the tongue out of the mouth . g g , the digastrick muscles of the lower jaw cut from their insertions . h h , the mastodei muscles ; that of the right side being cut from its origination and left at its insertion , that of the left remaining in situ . i , the scutiformal cartilage of the larynx , which makes what they call , the pomum adami . k , the aspera arteria or wind-pipe . l l , the glandulae thyroidaeae . m , the musculus masseter in situ . n , the musculus pterygoideus internus in situ ; it a●●es partly tendinous , and partly fleshy , from the cavity of the winglike process of the os sphenoides . tab. . fig. . k. whence it descends to its implantation at the internal and inferior part of the lower jaw-bone , opposite to the termination of the masseter : either this , or its partner acting , draws the jaw to the contrary side ; if both act , they assist the musculi temporales , and masseteres . o , part of the parotid gland . p , the musculus hyothyroideus ; it arising from the os hyoides , is inserted to the lower part of the scutiformal cartilage ; this draws the larynx upwards in an acute tone of the voice . q , the cricothyroideus . see tab. . fig. . h h. r , the sternothyroideus ending in the scutiformal cartilage . s , the internal jugular vein , whose lower part is at some distance plac'd under that part of the mastoid muscle , ( app. fig. . . ) which springs from the clavicle , which part of that muscle is most commonly contracted in those who are said to have wry necks , which the operator in that case ought to observe , least in too boldly thrusting in his knife to divide the contracted part , he also wounds this large blood-vessel , and the flux of blood prove destructive to the patient ; for tho' its flux may easily be restrain'd outwardly , yet the vein lying in so large an interstice , defended by the clavicle , and adjacent muscles , the blood will nevertheless pass out of the vessel between the muscles , and neighbouring parts . when such a mischief is done , we ought to divide the external integuments largely , and clear the part of the coagulated blood , and apply a moderate compress on the wounded vessel : an instance of which practice we had once occasion to make in a wound between the pectoral , and deltoid muscles , immediately under the clavicula , where the subclavian vein was wounded . in such like cases , how can those ignorant in anatomy , practice without fear and trembling ? t , the carotid artery . v , a large vein proceeding from the thyroide gland to the ramus subclavius . w , the glandula sublingualis lying immediately under the musculus mylohyoideus . the sixteenth table . the external muscles which move the head as they appear on the back-part ; the upper-part of the cucularis being taken off , and some muscles of the shoulder-blade , and thorax , rais'd and reclined laterally . a a , the musculus splenius in situ ; b b , &c. it s partly tendinous , and partly fleshy origination from the five or six spines of the superior vertebrae of the thorax ; the lower part of this muscle appears in most subjects distinct from its superior , and is inserted to the transverse processes of the third , fourth , and fifth vertebrae of the neck , as is exprest at e e e. c c , &c. the origination of the superior part of the splenius from the spines of the inferior vertebrae of the neck , d d its fleshy termination at the os occipitis . e e , the splenius on the left side raised , and reclined laterally ; e e e , it s three , sometimes four , tendinous terminations inserted to as many of the transverse processes of the neck : anatomists have erred in reckoning the splenii among the proper muscles of the head , since they are also implanted to the transverse processes of the vertebrae of the neck , wherefore they are to be esteemed as common to the head , and neck , so that if either of them acts , it draws the head together with the vertebrae of the neck to which it 's inserted , to that side backwards ; if they both act , they pull the head directly backwards , together with those vertebrae of the neck . f g h , &c. the complexus implicatus or tergeminus , on both sides in situ ; the left being laid bare ; h h , it s partly tendinous , and partly fleshy origin , from the transverse processes of the vertebrae of the thorax , which becomes still more fleshy in its ascent f g , and is so inserted to the os occipitis i i , immediatly under the termination of the splenius d d. f f , a part of the musculus complexus , inserted to the processus mammiformis , and is by fallopius described as a distinct muscle ; but to avoid confusion , and multiplying the number of muscles , we have hitherto look'd on it as not perfectly distinct , having in some subjects found it inseparably join'd with the other part of the complexus . either of these complexi acting , draws the head to the same side backwards ; if they both act , they draw it directly backwards . k , the serratus superior posticus , raised . l , the rhomboides in like manner raised and reclined laterally . m , the upper part of the longissimus dorsi , and sacrolumbalis . n , the musculus levator scapulae , partly appears . the seventeenth table . several muscles of the head and neck , lying under those represented in the precedent table . a , the musculus rectus major posticus dissected from its insertion at the occiput d , on the left side , and hanging down from its origination at the double spine of the second vertebra of the neck : b , the same muscle in situ , on the right side . c c e , the rectus minor posticus on the left side laid bare , and remaining in situ ; on the right side it is partly hid by the rectus major . d d , the insertions of the recti minores to the os occipitis ; they derive their originations from the back-part of the first vertebra of the neck , and not from any condyliform process of that vertebra , as bidloo discribes them ; the first vertebra of the neck , not only wanting such a process , but is constantly without any process in that part , as has been taken notice of by most , if not all anatomists . those recti minores pull the head backward on the first vertebra of the neck , and from their use may be call'd renuentes or nodders backwards , and are antagonists to a small pair of muscles in the forepart of a right position also ; to distinguish which , from these , we call them recti minores antici , and annuentes from their use , of which , we shall add a figure in our appendix . f f , the obliqui inferiores ; that of the right side remaining in situ , the left being free'd from its insertion and remaining at its origin : either of them , arises from one of the double spinal process's of the second vertebra of the neck , and after an oblique ascent , is inserted to the transverse process of the first vertebra . when either of these inferior oblique muscles acts , it draws the transverse process of the first vertebra near the spine of the second , and the head by consequence , is mov'd to the same side , and is very much assisted by the mastoideus on the contrary side , of which in the following table ; if both act , they conspire to hold the head more stable . g h , the obliqui superiores ; that of the right side remaining in situ g ; the left being cut from its implantation at the os occipitis , and left at its origin at the transverse process of the first vertebra of the neck : tho' these superior oblique muscles perform the same office with the recti majores last treated of , when the head is in an erect position in pulling it directly backwards ; yet in regard it is necessary the head should be mov'd also backwards , at the same time it is turn'd to one side ; it is an argument of a considerable council of the author of nature , to add these and the recti minores to act at that time ; since the recti majores are then so extended by that rotation of the head , that they cannot well act. i i , an asperity of the bone of the occiput , where the musculi splenii and complexi terminate . k k , the under sides of the musculi complexi , as they appear when rais'd and reclin'd laterally , the greater part of that of the right side being cut off . l , parts of the longissimus dorsi and sacrolumbales . m n , the musculus spinalis colli ; this arises fleshy from all the transverse processes of the neck , except the first and second ; and is inserted , after an oblique ascending progress , to the inferior margin of the back-part of the second vertebra of the neck , as it is here exprest on the right side : this and its partner acting , draw the vertebrae of the neck directly backwards . o o , the spines of the vertebrae of the neck . p p , the musculi interspinales ; of which , in our appendix . q , the elevator scapulae . the eighteenth table . divers muscles of the head and neck , which appear in the forepart after the lower-jaw , tongue , larynx , aspera arteria and gula are removed . a a , the musculi longi colli , which arise partly tendinous , but chiefly fleshy , from the foreparts of the five superior vertebrae of the thorax , and after a dilatation , in the middle of their progress to fleshy bellies , they are inserted , in like manner as they begin , to the foreparts of all the vertebrae of the neck : these may be called flexores colli from their use. b b , the three scaleni in situ : the first of these muscles arises fleshy from the forepart of the second , third and fourth transverse processes of the vertebrae of the neck , and descending obliquely forewards , becomes tendinous at its insertion to the first rib , the axilary nerves pass between this and the following : scalenus secundus , in like manner springs from the second , third , fourth and fifth transverse processes of the neck , and is inserted to the second and sometime third rib. scalenus tertius , arises from the same transverse processes with the former ; as also from the fifth and sixth , and is soon implanted into the first rib. i i , the mas●oidei , which arises partly tendinous and partly fleshy from the upper part of the os pectoris or sternum , and near half the clavicula m , with two and sometimes three distinct beginnings ( as in this subject k k k ) which ascend obliquely and joyn in half their progress ; composing a somewhat round , thick , fleshy muscle , and marching over the upper part of the musculus elevator scapulae , becomes broader again and tendinous , at its implantation to the back-part of the processus mammillaris , and the adjoyning part of the os occipitis , above the implantation of part of the splenius . the origin , progress , and insertion of this muscle , not being duly considered , has led anatomists into errors concerning its use : for if this muscle acts on either side , the mammillary process on the same side , is brought towards a right position with its original at the sternum , and the head is turned to the contrary side ; and this action of it is commonly well exprest by painters ; but should it more and more contract , it will draw the head to one side forewards , as we see in wry necks ( commonly so called ) where one of these muscles remains contracted ; but if they , both act together , the head is rather pulled back than forewards , by how much their insertions are rather behind the mammillary processes , than upon them ; which processes are e diametro opposite to the articulation of the head , with the first vertebra of the neck . l l , the recti interni majores antici , by some called par rectum internum colli , says bidloo ; we have elsewhere called them flexores capitis from their use : they arise partly fleshy , but chiefly tendinous from the fore-part of all the transverse processes of the vertebrae of the neck , except the first and second becoming fleshy , are inserted to the anterior appendix of the os occipitis , before the great foramen that transmits the medulla oblongata . they are imployed in bending the head forewards . m m , the claviculae . o , the uvula . p p , the bodies of the vertebrae of the neck . the nineteenth table . fig. , . one of the mammae or breasts of both sexes ; some distinguish them by their denominations , calling that of a woman fig. . mamma , and that of a man fig. . mammilla : we commonly call them the breasts ; but in woman dugs . a a , a portion of the skin rais'd and pinn'd out , to shew its inside . b b , the protuberant parts of the breasts of both sexes , in which that of the woman exceeds that of a man. c c , the papillae , or nipples ; the difference in the magnitude of which , is very conspicuous . d d , the areolae whose difference is here very well exprest between the man and the woman , as they appear to the naked eye . e e , the glandules of the mamma . f f , the plexu's of blood-vessels and lactiferous ducts lying between each glandulous protuberance . g g , divers sacculi adiposi lying on the last mentioned vessels and ducts between the mammary glandules . h h , the adipose membrane pinn'd out . fig. . the papilla and areola of a womans breast view'd with a microscope , and represented six times bigger than the life . a , the head or top of the papilla . b , its glandulous membrane . c c , the orifices of the lactiferous vessels in the top of the papilla . d d , the areola . e , it s rough membrane . the areola in virgins is of a pale colour , and somewhat hard ; in those with child and give suck , it is brown ; and in old women blackish . f , the papillary protuberances of the areola ; from each of which a hair proceeds . g g , some vestigiae of the lactiferous tubes in their progress from the mamma thro' the areola to the papilla . fig. the papilla of a womans breast in like manner exprest with the assistance of a microscope . a a , the external glandulous membrane of the papilla , separated and expanded . b b , divers glands of the papilla cleaving to its membrane . c c , the lactiferous tubes which arise from the extremities of the arteries within the mamma , in their way to their orifices in the top of the papilla , c c fig. . d d , the glands of the papilla whose sec●e●o●y ducts discharge their contents into the last mentioned lactiferous tubes . to examine the papilla or nipple , the following method may be practis'd . insert a blow-pipe into one of the largest of the lactiferous tubes on the top of the nipple c c , fig. . and after making a straight ligature on the nipple and blow-pipe , you may blow up all the lactiferous tubes of the mamma , thro' their communications with each other , before they approach the nipple figur'd by nuck adenog . curiosa , fig. . fol. . all the lactiferous tubes of the mamma being thus extended with wind ; those parts of them which help to compose the papilla ( c c ; ) together with their extremities within the glands d d , being very much extended ; make a straight ligature on the inferior part of the nipple next the breast , then cut off the nipple from the breast and dry it , and afterwards by cutting it variously , you may easily examine its structure : by these means the nipple appears to be compos'd of a double series of fibres ; the one somewhat large , the other less ; both of a net-like disposition , being full of perforations of divers forms ; the like of which is not to be found in other parts of the body , says nuck in his tract above mention'd ; to this add a vast number of blood-vessels which every where adorn the papilla : hence an account may be given how the nipples strut out , and are so extended in nurses , and on the contrary so limp in those who discontinue giving suck . i could never discover any valves in the lactiferous vessels of the mammae of women , which some describe ; tho' i have made injections of divers liquors , and sometimes mercury into them ; the like has been done by the accurate nuck , who , with what i have frequently observ'd , also takes notice that the mercury so injected passes into the blood-vessels of the mamma , especially its arteries . but our last nam'd author takes notice of divers straitnesses in the lactiferous vessels , occasion'd , as he suspects , by divers fatty hard substances compressing them , even to that degree , that if their contain'd milk becomes a little thickned , it there stops thro' the narrowness of the duct , or requiring a longer stay , it becomes so vitiated as to affect the breast variously , especially with what are commonly call'd milky tumors ; in which case an abscess succeeds , and the milky tubes break and discharge their contents with the pus . the milk by these means flowing at the ulcer , frequently proves troublesome , and hinders its cicatrice or closing , as it happen'd in the case of a patient i not long since had under my care , who at the same time was infected with the itch , in whom the milk flow'd from the ulcer for at least three months ; nor could i find any tollerable abatement of the milky flux , notwithstanding her dry diet , and drinking of a decoction of sarsa , china , guaiacum , &c. till she had taken proper remedies for the itch. the expert nuck takes notice that the lactiferous tubes , tho' very capacious in the mamma , yet are straitned at their orifices in the papilla , insomuch , that a bristle of the smallest size will not enter them : this contrivance , he adds , is very necessary , least the separated milk contain'd in the tubes should be continually apt to run out , and that it should be only so retain'd , that the nipple of the mother when suckt by the infant may easily void it : this structure is very evident in the tets of quadrupedes , especially where their pendulous position renders this contrivance very necessary ; yet when the lactiferous tubes are fill'd with milk , it is apt to run out . fig. . the inferior and internal part of the areola and basis of the papilla after dissection from the mamma . a a , the circumference of the areola next the mamma . b b , the mammary glands plac'd under the areola . c c , the lactiferous tubes in their way to the nipple . the arteries which convey blood to the mamma , are many small branches , springing from the mammary and intercostal arteries ; of these i told six , which afforded a flux of blood without pulsation in taking off a schirrous breast here i cannot omit recommending to practitioners of surgery the tying of these arteries ; the doing of which is so easie , that it is hardly possible for one tollerably acquainted with the same practice in taking off of limbs , to be at a loss in this . the trunks of these arteries arising from the mammary and intercostal arteries , are very small , as they pass between the pectoral muscle and mamma , as appears from the blood not having any pulsation as it flows from them when divided in living bodies , except the breast which was taken off is much tumified . you must not expect to ful them with wax by injecting into the aorta ; because you are oblig d to raise the sternum in order to practice that operation ; whereby you cut off their communication with the large mammary artery adjacent 〈…〉 ; nor do's wax commonly pass the intercostal arteries so far as to reach these . the veins of the mamma are numerous , and pass on the outside of the mamma under the skin only , and are very conspicuous in those who give suck , or have had children : these arise , or are continued from the extremities of the arteries and composing many large trunks which discharge their blood into the mammary and intercostal veins ; some pass up to the subclavian vein . the nerves are commonly said to arise from the thoracick nerves , and pass thro' the intercostal and pectoral muscles to the mamma : i must confess i never yet trac'd them , nor do's vieussemus figure them ; but in his xxiv . table expresses two branches u , x , arising from the sixth and seventh nerves of the neck composing one trunk , which descends and gives branches to the musculi serratus minor anticus , pectoralis , serratus major anticus , and to the coverings of those muscles : from the same nervous stock i am apt to think may also spring some branches passing to the mamma , whence those painful communications between the mamma and axilla may proceed . besides these vessels the lymphe-ducts of the mamma are also mention'd ; i must confess i never yet saw these ducts arising from the mamma , yet i can't doubt of their existence on that part , when i reflect on what use they are of in general , in the animal oeconomy , of which elsewere . the communication between the lactiferous tubes and blood-vessels , is demonstrated in the above mention'd experiment , by injecting mercury into the former , and its running out again by the later . the opinion that the chyle is transmitted to the mamma immediately from the thoracick duct is now altogether exploded , and the last mention'd experiment seems to evince the milk to be deriv'd immediately from the blood within the mamma . it is evident , the milk is not transparent like other liquors separated from the blood , as the saliva , urine , bile , &c. but by a microscope it appears compos'd of globules not unlike those of the blood , except that the globules of the blood are somewhat larger than those of milk. the twentieth table . divers muscles on the superior and fore-part of the trunk of the body . a , the musculus subclavius in situ ; when free'd from the trunk of the body and left to the clavicula ; ( see tab. . p. ) it ariseth fleshy from the inferior part of half the clavicula next its connexion to the spina scapulae , whence its fibres descend obliquely forewards , to it s partly tendinous and partly fleshy implantation at the superior part of the first rib next the sternum . the office of this subclavian muscle is to draw up the first rib , and consequently the rest in inspiration . b , part of the clavicula on the right side . c , the cartilaginous ending of the first rib at the sternum . d d , the musculus serratus major anticus in situ on the left side ; it ariseth broad and fleshy from the whole basis scapulae , tab. . g g , and running on the subscapularis tab. ib. e , becomes broader and thicker as it passes forewards to its fleshy insertions at the eight superior ribs laterally e e &c. by divers distinct portions by some called digituli ; of which , the three inferior , are indented with the musculus obliquus descendens abdominis , as is here exprest on the left side ; on the right side the serratus major anticus e f is raised . g , part of the obliquus descendens on the lest side indented with the last mentioned serratus . h , the pectoralis in situ , on the left side ; this muscle has a broad semicircular fleshy beginning ; above from near half the inferior part of the clavicula b ; below from the os pectoris l , and all the cartilaginous endings of the six superior ribs m m , and from the bony part of the seventh rib , it hath sometimes a distinct fasciculus of fleshy fibres which i have frequently seen confounded with the obliquus descendens ; hence it passeth transversely over the upper-part of the biceps cubiti , where it is made into a short and broad strong tendon inserted to the superior and external part of the os humeri , above the termination of the deltoides . i , the right pectoral muscle rais'd , where the decussation of its fibres near its insertion is well exprest : this crossing of its fibres is a contrivance in nature to render its action more vigorous ; the fibres of its upper-part descending to the lower-part of its implantation to the os humeri , and those of its lower-part ascend to the superior ; crossing each other with acute angles . this muscle is call'd adductor humeri ; when it acts , it moves the arm variously according to the operation of its several series of fibres . k , the serratus minor anticus , raised from its implantation at the bony parts of the second , third , fourth and fifth ribs , and left at its origin at the processus carocoides scapulae . l , the os pectoris or sternum . m m , the cartilaginous endings of the superior ribs connexed to the sternum . n n , the deltoides . vide tab. . xx. o o , the superior parts of the recti abdominis . vide tab. , fig. . n o , &c. p , part of the coracobrachialis . vide tab. . f. q , part of the biceps cubiti . tab. ib. . the twenty-first table . shews the sternum rais'd , and the principal organs contain'd in the thorax partly in view . a , the inner-face of the sternum or os pectoris . b b , the cartilages of the true ribs , cut from the bony extremities of the ribs , and left at their connexions to the sternum : upon these cartilages are plac'd the musculi triangulares ; which muscles arise from the inferior and internal part of the sternum , and after an oblique progress are inserted to the bony endings of the fourth , fifth , sixth , and sometimes seventh , and eight ribs . these triangular muscles scarcely appear in macilent subjects , as is exprest in this figure . c , the mediastinum free'd from the os pectoris , where , in humane bodies it appears double , being a continuation of the pleura from both sides the internal part of the thorax ; whence it descends and firmly cleaves to the pericardium , dividing the thorax into two cavities , and the right lobes of the lungs from the left : in this progress of the mediastinum it parts with one of its laminae to cover the large blood-vessels within the thorax . a triangular interstice is fram'd immediately under the sternum at the approach of the pleura , from each side as it descends to compose the mediastinum : nor is this interstice an empty space as it is commonly suppos'd , but is interwoven with various orders of fibres , framing loculi or little cells . real . columbus lib. xi . cap. iii. proposes the letting out of pus , collected in this interstice by perforating the sternum . as the fore-part of the mediastinum plainly appears a continuation of the pleura ● so its back-part is evidently a continuation of the same membrane , as it advances towards the vertebrae of the back . in dissecting a morbid body , i found the right side of the cavity of the thorax so extended with a serous humor , as its external appearance , ( especially at the cartilaginous endings of the true ribs , ) was prominent : nor would the least portion of the lungs on the same side swim in common water , but sunk to the bottom of the vessel : in this subject i could not find any part of the hydropick or serous humor in the other side of the thorax ; but the lungs on that side in no very ill state. by this , we may be assur'd that the mediastinum adequately divides the right side of the thorax from the left. the mediastinum also supports the pericardium , leaft its flaccidity impede the systole of the heart , and sustains the trunks of the nerves of the par vagum in their progress thro' the thorax . the diaphragm is also said to be suspended by the mediastinum , leaft the liver , to whose lower-side it 's connexed , should become insupportable . the mediastinum receives arteries from the mammary and intercostal branches ; it has two large veins which discharge their blood into the subclavian and neighbouring trunks : its nerves are said to spring from the eighth pair . the lymphe-ducts of the mediastinum pass towards the thymus . d d , the pericardium or capsula cordis open'd and pinn'd up . the pericardium arises from the large vessels at the basis of the heart , and seems to be compos'd of a continuation of the pleura or mediastinum . it adheres to the diaphragm below , and laterally to the mediastinum . it has blood-vessels from the diaphragm and mammary-vessels , according to the accurate ruysch in his lately publish'd epistles : the capillary extremities of these blood-vessels are very numerous , as will appear when injected with mercury . there are divers lymphe-ducts on the pericardium , which convey the lympha to the thoracick-duct . the glands , which are in the pericardium and at the basis of the heart , which separate that humor imploy'd in moistening the inside of that membrane and surface of the heart , are not to be discover'd by the naked eye in ordinary dissections ; no more than those on the inside of the peritonaeum and surface of the intestines , which afford a humor to lubricate those parts ; but when either of these parts are diseased so that those glands are affected , their existence then is demonstrable ; as appear'd in the pericardium of an infant i lately dissected , where the neighbouring parts and pericardium its self were apostumated . in the pericardiums of this subject we found two or three ounces of purulent matter in place of the serous humor ; and the external membrane of the heart so loosned , as its surface appear'd villous ; nor did any fat appear on the basis of the heart . in an adult person who died suddenly i found the pericardium somewhat thickned and no humor contain'd in it ; but in two , or three places cleaving to the heart especially near its basis , and the heart it self intirely cover'd with fat ; the use of the pericardium is to defend the heart in its systole from the neighbouring parts , and to contain a humor to moisten the external surface of the heart . e , the heart lying within the pericardium . f f , parts of the lungs on both sides the thorax in situ . g , the thymus in situ . the magnitude of the thymas varies according to the age of the body ; in a faetus two months after conception it is larger in proportion to the bulk of the body than in one of five or six months : in a faetus of nine months it almost fills the interstice which the lungs after the birth begin to take up in the upper-part of the thorax . the thymus after the birth gradually decreases , except the upper-part of the cavity in the thorax is capacious enough for its reception , as appear'd in an anatomical subject i lately dissected of thirty years of age , in whom the thymus was very large : i must confess i never yet met with a subject , tho never so old , in whom the thymus was wanting . in those bodi●● the thymus is less than ordinary , we find the subclavian glands , those of the internal jugular veins , and the glandule thyraidam larger ; as they lately appear'd in a boy of about eight years of age. in women the thymus and thyroid glands are larger than in men , but the subclavian glands are less ; by reason the claviculae in women are straight and shorter than those of men ; whence a much less interstice is frain'd for entertaining those glands . i have more than once found the lymphe-ducts fill'd with wax , which arise from the thymus , and empty themselves into the upper-part of the thoracick-duct ; by injecting that duct by the vesica chyli : see app. fig. . d. from what has been abovesaid , it appears the thymus bears a proportion to the head ; whether in the faetus or in bodies before they become adult , which we conceive , is in order to receive a proportionable quantity of lympha , deriv'd from thence : and as the subclavian glands of women are less than those of men ; so the thyroide glands and thymus are larger : hence also it appears the thymus is a lymphatick gland , and varies its magnitude according to the quantity of the lympha , that is necessarily transmitted thro' it from the superior parts ; or as the neighbouring lymphatick glands do more or less transmit their lympha to it : besides this common office of the thymus , whether in the faetus or adult ; it has another use which was first suggested to me by injecting a liquid into the thoracick-duct ; when finding it not only fill the lymphe-ducts of the thymus , but the thymus it self was extended with it : the like observation , i since found , was made by the expert anatomist dr. tyson , some time since ; whence i conceive , the thymus and its lymphe-ducts are diverticula to the chyle , when too great a quantity is pressing forewards towards the subclavian vein . i know it may be objected that the valves of the lymphe-ducts oppose this contrary course of liquours in them ; but repeated observations convince me , that not only these lymphe-ducts of the thymus , which are large and have very few if any valves , ( as appears by their being injected with wax ) but those of the loins , and their glands from whence they arise , are frequently fill'd with chyle , when no compress is made on the thoracick-duct . hence it is , a milky liquor has been commonly found in the thymus , but more frequent in that of a p●tus than i● an adult ; and that not only because the thymus and its lymphe-ducts are much larger proportionably in the former state or faetus , but the bended position of the thoracick-duct of the fetus in vter● , renders the ascent of the chyle by that duct more liable to regurgitate by the lymphe-ducts of the thymus . h h , the fore-part of the diaphragma free'd from the cartilaginous endings of the ribs , and pinn'd up . the twenty-second table . fig. . the heart with parts of the trunks of the great veins and arteries cut off . a a , the proper membrane of the heart ; a portion of which is rais'd and hangs down . b b , the left side of the heart , adorn'd with in coronary vessels . c ψ , part of the right auricle of the heart . c , the left auricle on the basis of the heart . d , the cone of the heart . e , the vena cava which conveys the refluent blood from the whole field of the body into the right auricle of the heart , when the heart i● i● systole ; whence the blood is again transmitted into the right ventricle of the heart when it is in diastole : so that when the auricles of the heart are in diastole or relaxation , they are fill'd with blood , and the heart it self is in systole or contraction , and vice versa when the heart is in diastole , the auricles are in systole . f , the arteria pulmonalis or vena arteriosa which carries the blood from the right ventricle of the heart into the lungs . g , the vena pulmonica or arteria venosa which conveys the refluent blood from the lungs into the left auricle and ventricle of the heart , not unlike the vena cava , &c. h , the arteria magna arising out of the left ventricle , which conveys the mass of blood from the heart thro' the field of the body ; from whose capillary extremities the veins are continued , as appears by a microscope in the transparent parts of living animals : see app. fig. . and . fig. . the heart divested of its external membrane and carnous fibres after boyling ; so that the disposition of the subjacent fibres may appear . the way of preparing the heart to exhibit this disposition of its fibres , may be practis'd after the following manner . the heart with portions of the trunks of the large blood-vessels being taken off ; the blood as well within its ventricles as blood-vessels being evacuated , then with tow , or pieces of rags , fill the ventricles , auricles , and large vessels on the basis of the heart ; the mouths of the large blood-vessels being stitch'd up , least their contents should be extruded by the contraction of the heart in boyling . this done , boyl it according to its bulk ; if it is the heart of an ox , &c. boyl it four or five hours ; if of a man , one or two. n. b. this figure is printed reverst . a , a sinus plac'd between both ventricles , in which a large trunk of one of the coronary arteries is convey'd . b , the cochleated or oblique descending order of fibres of the left ventricle of the heart . c , the external and oblique descending order of fibres of the right ventricle ; which decussate the former or subjacent fibres in acute angles . d , part of the arteria pulmonalis . e , the aorta . ee , the trunks of the coronary arteries . f , the right auricle . g , the left. fig. . a , the sinus above mention'd between the ventricles . b , the tortuous disposition of the fibres of the right ventricle . c , those of the left. the heart consists chiefly of divers strata of oblique descending fibres ; the external passing more straight or less contorted than the internal ; whence it happens that the external fibres are seen to decussate the internal with acute angles ; the former arising from the basis of the heart at the roots of the blood-vessels , and end in the cone ; the later arise from the same place , and terminate either in the ' parietes of the ventricles or columnae carneae fig. . g g , from which divers tenditious filaments are continued to the lower-parts of the tricuspid and mitral valves . d , the aorta divided between its origin from the heart and valves , and reclin'd to one side , hanging by its two● coronary arteries ; exprest fig. . e e. e e , the three semilunary valves of the aorta , which hinder a return of the blood into the left ventricle , when the heart is in diastole . fig. . the concourse of fibres near the cone of the heart , as they appear after a transverse section . fig. . some fasciculi of fibres of the left ventricle of the heart . a b , the two tendinous extremities of the oblique fleshy fibres , exprest fig. , . c , the fleshy parts of the fibres between the two tendons . d , the collateral fibres which appear in dividing the last mention'd fasciculi : nor are these any other than parts of the fibres of the divided fasciculus , and lay parallel to each other according to their length . the blood-vessels and nerves passing between these fibres make a reticular appearance , when divided , as here exprest . fig. . the right auricle , and part of the basis of the heart . a a , the right auricle expanded . b b b , the three tricuspid valves ; two of which , are extended by pinning out their tendons , deriv'd from the columnae carneae : see fig. . g g , fig. . a , inferior . the office of the auricles is to receive part of the refluent blood whilst the heart is in systole , and to discharge that blood again into the ventricles of the heart when it is in diastole , so that the auricles of the heart seem as diverticula to the blood in its passing into its ventricles ; else a repercussion of the blood in the veins would necessarily happen in the systole of the heart ; which would prevent the regular influx of the blood to the ventricles . fig. . the heart with its left ventricle open'd . a , the inside of the vena pulmonalis . b , the aorta in like manner open'd . c c , the septum cordis , which divides the right ventricle from the left. d , the left auricle intire which in humane bodies is very little , as appears by this figure ; and the trunk of the pulmonick vein very large . d , the trunk of the arterìa pulmonica cut off . e e , two of the three semilunary valves at the beginning of the arteria magna ; which hinder the reflux of the blood when the heart is in diastole ; in which action they are exprest , fig. . e e. f f , the two mitral valves in the pulmonick vein , which prevent the blood repassing that vessel when the heart is in systole . g g , the carneae columnae compos'd of muscular fibres , deriv'd from those of the sides of the heart , whençe divers small tendinous filaments do arise , and are faltned to the inferior limbus of the mitral valves ; by which means those valves are drawn down towards the cone of the heart , and prevent the blood from passing out again that way when the heart is in systole . i know dr. lower in his accurate book de corde , supposes that these mitral and tricuspid valves are relax'd in the systole of the heart , and by their rising up stop up the passages of the veins : but if the structure of the heart and these parts are attentively consider'd in a large animal , as in an ox , &c. it will appear reasonable to conceive that these mitral and tricuspid valves are rather drawn down than suffer extrusion upwards : nor need nature have been at any trouble in making those valves at the orifices of the veins , any otherwise than the reverse of the semilunary valves of arteries ; if as the expert dr. lower supposes they are driven up and extended like a sail with wind when the heart is in systole ; but by fastening those tendinous fibres to the lower-parts of those tricuspid and mitral valves ; which , are of a conical figure , seems to me to be an argument that they cannot suffer such extension upwards , without letting some part of the blood repass them in the systole of the heart : besides there must constantly a considerable part of the blood remain in the ventricles of the heart , if those valves are so dispos'd in its systole ; which i think the dr. himself seems no where to conceive ; but on the contrary the ventricles of the heart are with great strength adequately comprest in it's systole , for which end the insides of its ventricles are compos'd of divers fleshy columns ; between which divers intersticia necessarily result , ( that are elegantly exprest in this figure , ) by which means , the ventricles are more exactly closed in their systole , than they could have been , had they been smooth . fig. . the heart with its right ventricle open'd . a , the inside of the right auricle of the heart as it appears when open'd and pinn'd out . b , the left auricle intire . c , the coronary blood-vessels of the heart ; from these , particularly from the arteries , spring those of the auricles and large blood-vessels of the heart ; as the accurate ruysch describes them in his anatomical epistles pag. . the nerves of the heart spring from the eighth pair and intercostal nerves ; a particular description of which , may be found in dr. lower's book de corde , and vieussenius nervographia . d , part of the right ventricle of the heart open'd . e , a portion of the vena arteriosa or arteria pulmonalis divided and expanded . f f f , the three valvulae sigmoides or semilunares , which oppose the return of the blood from the lungs , by the arteria pulmonica into the heart , when it is in diastole . fig. . a a , the heart cut transversely . b , that part of it next its basis. c , that next its cone . d d , the right ventricle of the heart . e , the left — f , the septum cordis or the partition between the two ventricles of the heart . g g , a stylus put thro' the vena cava into the right ventricle of the heart . h h , another passing from the same ventricle thro' the arteria pulmonalis . i i , a stylus in the left ventricle of the heart passing out at the arteria magna ; k k , another inserted into the same ventricle , by the vena pulmonica . fig. . a , inferior , a portion of the columna carnis of one of the ventricles of the heart cut off : see fig. . g g , in situ . b , the tendinous fibres deriv'd from the fleshy column , and fastned to the inferior margin of one of the tricuspid valves . a a , superior , portions of the tricuspid valves . fig. . the coronary blood-vessels of the heart as they appear on its surface when injected , after drying the whole heart . a a , the arteries fill'd with mercury fix'd with tin. b b , the veins extended with wax . fig. . a portion of the vena pulmonalis next the basis of the heart . a a , parts of the mitral valves pinn'd out by their tendons . fig. . the inner surface of a portion of the arteria magna cut off at the basis of the heart when divided and expanded . a a a a , the three semilunary valves well exprest when pinn'd out ; one of them being cut thro' in its middle , in dividing the great artery . fig. . represents in like manner a portion of the arteria pulmonalis . a a a , the three sigmoidal or semilunary valves . the twenty-third table . fig. . represents the external coat of a vein viewed with a microscope . a b c d , the fibres extended according to the length of the vessel , where may be observed the vasa vasorum . fig. . a , the second coat of the vein , called by dr. willis , the vasculous and glandulous coat . fig. . the third or internal tunick of a vein composed of circular fibres . fig. the external coat of an artery consisting of a rete of small nerves ( a , ) blood-vessels , ( b ) and membranous expansions ( c ▪ ) on this membrane of the artery divers glandulous bodies appear composing greater and lesser clusters , d e , variously dispersed . fig. . a b , the second coat of an artery consisting of divers strata of fibres variously decussating each other , and joyned with the internal or third coat . fig. . a b c , the inner and smooth surface of the third or most internal coat of the artery ; where the foramina for the branches which arise out of it , are exprest , and its fibres extended according to its length b , c. the great trunks of the arteries do evidently appear to consist of a greater number of strata of fibres , than those of the veins ; but the farther they recede from the heart , they are both still more and more subdivided , and their trunks and capillary branches become still thinner and thinner , till their outmost extremities consist of one single transparent membrane ; chiefly composed of such tubes , as only convey their succus nutritius . and this i am apt to think may serve for the description of blood-vessels in general ; and shall farther consider the organization of the several extremities of the blood-vessels , in speaking of their particular offices relating to secretion in the several parts ; wherefore at present shall only mention , that the extremities of veins and arteries are continued channels , variously contorted and not all of them of an equal size , even in parts which are uniform or the same . vid. app. fig. . . after the blood has past the extremities of its vessels , and is in its return to the heart again by the veins ; it there meets with divers valves or stops , which prevent the weight of the blood of the inferior parts of the body , and the recoiling of it in the superior , ( when any violent motions affect the thorax , as in coughing , from pressing on the extremities of the vessels , and hindering its progressive motion . that there is a recoiling of the blood in any extraordinary motions of the thorax , in the jugular veins , may be observ'd in taking blood from thence , especially in children . hence it is the valves in those veins are necessary ; least the blood should again repass into the vessels of the brain with great violence ; which is also prevented in the contortion made in the internal jugular vein , in its specus in the basis of the skull . i must confess i never yet observed above two valves ( one opposite to the other ) in the largest vein that is furnished with valves ; however anatomists commonly mention three , and professor bidloo tells us of four and five valves , as they appear in the following figures . fig. . part of a vein extended with wind and dried , having a double valve or two valves of semilunary figures , placed opposite to each other . fig. . a a , a portion of the jugular vein blowed up and dried ; b b b , its three-fold valves . fig. . part of a vein with five valves . fig. , . a a , the portions of veins exprest in the two preceeding figures lay'd open ; b b , &c. their valves as they appear in their insides . fig. . the valves as they appear in the insides of the veins according to bidloo . fig. . two valves as they appear when taken out of the veins . fig. . the unequal distance of the valves in the veins ; the vestigia of the valves being here only exprest , as they appear when the vein is extended with wind. fig. . represents ( according to bidloo ) a system of the arteries injected with wax , and free'd from the body of an infant six months old ; which he tells us he has reserved : if so , it is a great rarity indeed ! for having more than once free'd the arteries from the body of an infant , as well as from an adult , and finding them far differing from this figure , and not much disagreeing with the descriptions and figures of vesalius and others ; i cannot look on this , but as a prodigy in nature . wherefore i shall here give you his description of it , and refer you to my appendix . fig. . where their common appearance is exprest , as i now have them injected by me , and dissected from the body of an infant . the arteria aorta ( say's bidloo ) arising from the heart , soon sends out two small coronary branches . b , in the body of the heart . it s trunk is divided on the pericordium into the ascendens c , and descendens d. the first gives branches to the parts above the heart , and is divided into the subclavii e , from which the axillares f , and internal mammary g , three or four intercostales h , and cervicales i. do arise . from the axillary artery are branches communicated to the scapula k , and to the superior parts of the thorax . when it has got between the muscles of the cubit , it is divided into two little branches ; the first of which l , goes to the wrist , thumb , and fore-finger ; the other to the three other fingers . it divides into two about the thymus , and forms the carotides m. these ascending near the wind-pipe after having sent several branches to the tongue , larynx and parts adjacent , and are divided into the external n , and internal branch o , the exterior supplies the face , lips , partly the ear and lower teeth ; the other branch serves the forehead , temples and neighbouring parts . the inward branch ascending streight through the os sphoenoides creeps under the ' dura mater , and forming various plexus's , in that part within the skull , it is cover'd with a particular coat already describ'd ; it sends out small branches near the optick nerves ; but the large trunks creep back again , sometimes united and by and by separated from each other . there are small branches convey'd to the spinal marrow , partly above and partly below the heart . from the axillarie's , and ascending and descending trunks , it derives several branches which reflected into a circle , creep through its coverings and several parts of the head. the descending trunk of the aorta d , supply's some of the intercostals , and the neighbouring muscles and parts ; there is a large trunk , also sent to the diaphragm ; under the diaphragm the branches of the viscera of the abdomen are remarkable . viz. of the stomach , . the inferior and superior meseraic branches , , , those of the omentum , or caul , , of the liver , , of the kidneys , the spermatics , and so on . about the os sacrum this trunk is divided into two branches , from which others are again deriv'd to the right gut and pudenda , some to the hips , some to the thighs and legs , as well internally , as externally . thus much concerning the principal distribution of the aorta . in the next place professor bidloo gives us the anatomy of the blood. in the anatomy of the blood chymically performed ( say's he ) it is manifest there is a water in it , which as well as it can be , is simply to be considered ) a spirit and salts both fixt and volatile . tho' by this method ( he very well say's ) some parts are very accurately discover'd ; yet doth it exceedingly destroy the appearances of some figures , which ought by no means to be alter'd ; wherefore he proposed the following figure . fig. . a , a small drop of blood inclosed in a glass tube , and its particles by the help of a microscope are represented very much magnifyed . b , the globular bladders . c , the little fibres variously turned , laid , and disposed , according to bidloo . i must confess i have frequently view'd the blood in the same manner as here exprest with a microscope , and have constantly observed its appearance as here represented : nor could i ever apprehend the blood was furnished with fibres ( so much talk'd of ) but that the fibrous appearance it has , ( when any blood-vessel is open in the mouth , or in bleeding into warm water and the like ) is owing to a coagulation of its serum , by which means its globules are entangled and frame those fibrous bodies : the streaked mass represented at d , e. ( according to bidloo ) i am apt to think proceeded from a coagulation of the serous part of the blood , by sealing the tube hermetically ; in doing which the glass must be heated . to this our author adds another way of anatomizing the blood , thus : the watery whitish liquor , which is of a different substance , being separated from the cold coagulated mass of blood , and set on the fire , thickens in a short time ; the red part which remains , ( of which the more fluid part being frequently washt away with warm water , ) appears like a grumous heap ; every particle of which resembles a globular bladder ; of which , some are transparent , others not . the rest of the mass which consists of very flexible fibres , according to bidloo , and being exposed to the air and cold , become very tough , tensile , and seem like net-work , owe that appearance to a combination of the globules variously stratified on each other . the third way ( which our author proposes ) of enquiring into the blood , is when the blood is separated from the serum or liquor it swims in , and put on a piece of paper dawb'd over with lard , is become a little dry ; after an external view of the particles , gently with the finger break off a little of the mass of blood ; in which , you will presently behold little globes of a differing frame and figure , little fibres , and streaks of the same kind . the twenty-fourth table . fig. . the fore-parts of all the viscera within the cavity of the thorax , when taken out together . a , the heart cover'd with the pericardium , and hanging to the lungs by its membranes and vessels . b b , the descending trunk of the vena cava , on the right side , and the aorta on the left. b b b , the ascending branches of the arteria magna , which make the two carotides and right subclavian branch . c , part of the mediastinum cut from the sternum . d d , the right and left anterior lobes of the lungs . e e , the two posterior lobes of the lungs . f , part of the wind-pipe . g g , portions of the nerves call'd par vagum . h , part of the gala. in freeing the lungs from the cavity of the thorax , we frequently find their outward membrane cleaving to the pleura , nor has any known inconveniencies attended such persons when living . the many phoenomena which have occurr'd to our observation in dissecting morbid bodies , in whom these parts have been diseas'd , are too numerous to be inserted in this place ; wherefore i shall only mention what i have more than once taken notice of in examining these parts , when they have not been diseas'd ( viz. ) by blowing into the blood-vessels , ( i. e. ) the vena arteriosa and arteria venosa those vessels deriv'd from the pleura , as well as those by ruysch call'd arteriae bronchales , ( corresponding to which i have frequently observ'd veins which empty themselves into the subclavian branches ; ) all which i have found to communicate with each other upon distension ; by which we may be inform'd the blood do's not enjoy such particular vessels in its circulation thro' these parts , as some have conceiv'd ; but that part of the blood which arises from the right auricle of the heart , may pass into the bronchial veins , as well as into the arteria venosa ; and on the other hand , the blood springing from the bronchial arteries , may partly pass into the left auricle of the heart by the arteria venosa , as well as by its corresponding bronchial veins before mentioned . fig. . part of one of the lobes of the lungs cut off , and a division made according to its length , so that a branching of the blood-vessels and bronchus do appear . a a , a branch of the pulmonick vein , or arteria venosa , lying on that of the bronchus . b , a branch of the bronchus . c , the pulmonick artery , or vena arteriosa , cut transversely , lying on the other side of the bronchia . fig. . another lobe of the lungs dissected as in the preceding figure . a a b b , the ramifications of the pulmonick artery accompanying those of the bronchia : see tab. . fig. . c , the external membrane of the lungs rais'd and pinn'd out to shew its blood-vessels : these vessels partly arise from the pulmonick vessels last mention'd , and partly from the arteriae and venae bronchiales , as appears from what has been above noted ; and do frequently germinate and inosculate with the intercostal veins and arteries of the pleura : the germination and inosculations of these vessels i have had frequent opportunities of observing to be in several little parcels or fasciculi , and of an inch or two in length between the lungs and pleura : they very often appear in filaments more or less divided , and i am apt to think are frequently the beginnings of those adhesions of the lungs with the pleura . fig. . a a , the bronchia or branch of the trachea made bare . b b , part of the lungs . fig. . the fore-part of the larynx , and part of the wind-pipe , together with the common muscles of the larynx , &c. a b , the musculus sternothyroideus , not well exprest ; it being here as it were continuous with the hyothyroideus c e. d , the os hyoides , or bone of the tongue reclin'd laterally . f , the upper and fore-part of the epiglottis in situ . g , the fore-part of the scutiformal cartilage . h h , the musculi cricothyroidei ; on the left side one of them hanging down at its beginning ; the other remaining in situ . these muscles spring from the fore-part of the annular cartilage , and are soon inserted to the internal , and lower part of the scutiformal cartilage . i , o , the fore-part of the cartilago annularis , made bare . fig. . the back-part of the larynx , and its muscles plac'd on it ; exprest very confusedly ; which , together with the former figure , is erroneously describ'd by bidloo . f f g k l m p q , should express the back-part of the cartilago annularis cover'd with the musculi cricoarytenoidei postici , as it 's represented in our appendix . n n , the musculus arytenoideus . o , the internal and concave part of the epiglottis , as it appears when pinn'd up . r , the posterior edge of the scutiformal cartilage of the right side . s , the membranous part of the wind-pipe next the gula. fig. . the os hyoides , or bone of the tongue , together with the fore-part of the the cartilages which compose the larynx , and part of the aspera arteria . a , the external and convex part of the cartilago scutiformis . b , the internal and concave part of the os hyoides ; which part of it necessarily comes in view in this position . c , the annular cartilage . d , the epiglottis , exprest with the internal concave part forewards , as is truly exhibited in the following figure ; which on the contrary , should have been here represented with its external and convext part , as in fig. . f. e , part of the aspera arteria , or wind-pipe . f f , the glandulae thyroideae : from what i have hitherto observ'd , these glands seem to be of the same office with the thymus : nor do's their colour or compactness distinguish them from the thymus ; if we consider , that by their situation on the wind-pipe , they are perpetually in motion , by which the motion of the blood is very much hasten'd thro' them , and the blood-vessels consequently enlarg'd , whence their colour and compactness do's arise . g g , two long processes of the thyroide cartilage , or scutiformis ty'd to the extremities of the os hyoides . fig. . the os hyoides and back part of the lar●yx . a , the external convext part of the os hyoides . this bone of the tongue appears in this preceding figure , to be compos'd of three bones ; the middle-bone a , is joyn'd to one of the extremities of the two side-bones , by a cartilaginous interposition call'd sychondrosis ; the two other extremities of these side-bones are ty'd to the extremities of the two long processes of the thyroide cartilage g g , fig. . by a ligament ; which connexion is call'd syndesinusis . b , the internal concave-part of the epiglottis next the glottis . c c , the arytenoidal cartilages cover'd with the glottis , or internal membrane of the oesophagus . d , the cricoidal cartilage cover'd with the internal membrane of the oesophagus which composes the glottis . e e , the two sides , or back-part of the thyroidal cartilage , whence the musculus oesophageus do's arise ; which muscle in a semi-circular manner invests the back-part of the oesophagus . f f , the back-parts of the thyroidal glands . g , the posterior-part of the wind-pipe where it is membranous , and receives the fore-part of the gula in its way to the stomach . having view'd the fore and back-parts of the whole larynx , we come in the next place to examine those cartilages which compose it , when separated from each other . , the external convext-part of the thyroidal cartilage . , the internal concave-part of the same cartilage : in these two figures , the two kinds of processes of the thyroidal cartilage are remarkable ; the two superior or long processes are joynd with the extremities of the os hyoides g g , fig. . the two inferior are fastned to the cricoidal cartilage laterally . , , the cricoidal cartilage ; , the fore-part ; , the back-part of this cartilage : that figure of the right hand ( towards the figure of the lungs and heart ) expresses the external , inferior , and back-part of the annular cartilage ; that of the left hand , represents the inferior , internal , and fore-part of the annular cartilage . , , , , two different views of the arytenoidal cartilages , which are articulated to the superior part of the cricoidal cartilage . the twenty-fifth table . fig. . a portion of the wind-pipe cut off . a b b , the external membrane of the wind-pipe rais'd and pinn'd out . fig. . the muscular fasciculi lying between the cartilages of the wind-pipe . fig. . the glandulous membrane of the wind-pipe , where divers clusters of glandules of a different magnitude are exprest . fig. . the internal membrane of the wind-pipe , compos'd of fibres extended according to its length ; between this internal and longitudinal order of fibres , and the cartilages , are plac'd another transverse order , which pass circularly according to the disposition of the cartilages : these internal transverse fleshy fibres are more numerous than the superior longitudinal ones : both these orders of fibres are exprest in this figure . this disposition of the fibres of the internal membrane of the wind-pipe , is very conspicuous in the wind-pipes of most quadrupedes , especially in the larger sort , as oxen , horses , &c. but chiefly , ( considering the bulk of the animal ) in a hog , in whose wind-pipe this membrane appears compos'd of strong fleshy fibres ; whence an account may not improbably be suggested , why that animal is capable of altering the tone of the voice from a base to a treble : for when these fibres contract , the channel of the wind-pipe is very much straitned , as well in its diameter as length ; whence the tone is rendred more acute . this constructure of the inward membrane of the wind-pipe , is continued to the beginning of the bronchia , where these fleshy fibres lessen and bear a proportion to the cavities of the bronchia , and are at length so thinn'd as to frame transparent membranes , which help to compose the vesiculae of the lungs . fig. . part of one of the lobes of the lungs , with the bronchia injected with wax to exhibit the lobuli . a , part of the bronchial tube cut off . b b , the lobuli , or distinct clusters of the vesiculae , partly compos'd of the extremities of the bronchia ; and partly of the blood-vessels of the lungs : these lobuli are not always of the same figure , some being round , others oval , some oblong , and others variously figur'd . c c , the interstitia of the lobuli ; which are invested with the internal lamina of the proper membrane of the lungs , here pinn'd out ; on which the blood-vessels are very conspicuous : these interstitia , or spaces between the lobuli , appear in the lungs of a foetus very plain , and do not communicate with the vesiculae of the lobuli , but are distinguish'd from them , as do's appear by blowing into these interstitia ; which may be done with a blow-pipe , after wounding the external membrane of the lungs , and you will find the interstitia of the lobuli very much distended with wind , and the vesiculae not at all inflated : nor on the contrary , will these interstitia be any ways inflated by blowing into the bronchia , tho' the vesiculae and lobuli are very much extended . d d , the branches of the pulmonick vein and artery on each side the bronchia : see fig. . a , b. fig. . part of the bronchia with divers lobuli of one of the lobes of the lungs . dr. willis who has given a figure of these lobuli , after the manner as they are here represented , says , that by filling the bronchia with a liquid , these lobuli may be separated from each other . i must confess i have more than once attempted to divide these lobuli , but could not be satisfied of their appearance like this figure : the external surface of the lobuli in the foetus appear angular , and are in a cubical manner plac'd by each other . a , the inside of the bronchia , where the holes for divers of its ramifications which pass out of it ; and the straight progress of the fibres of its internal membrane do appear . b b , the bronchia divided into lesser branches ; to which the lobuli are fastned . c c , the lobuli , which may be more or less divided , and are compos'd of the vesiculae . the vesiculae as above hinted , are fram'd by the extremities of the bronchia , and the pulmonick blood-vessels . n. b. the lobuli in this figure may be observ'd to have the extremities of the blood-vessels branch'd on them. each vesicula also has one of the extremities of the pulmonick veins and arteries branch'd on it ; and without doubt ( conformable to the extremities of the blood-vessels of other parts ) those vessels also are continued channels on the vesiculae of the lungs . here the art of nature is very extraordinary , in framing the extremities of these blood-vessels of the lungs so very small , and confining their vast number in so narrow a compass , as the body of the lungs ; for these pulmonick blood-vessels correspond to those of the whole field of the body , in constantly ' discharging the blood thro' them , as well as thro' the heart ; whilst life with perfect health is maintain'd . and notwithstanding one half of the lungs is compleatly vitiated , ( as i have more than once found in dissecting morbid bodies ) yet nevertheless the circulation of the blood has been still carried on for some time . tho' in this case respiration must not only be very quick and attended with no small difficulty on frequent occasions ; but the heart must also labour very much to drive the blood on . fig. . a portion of the external surface of the lungs cut from them , when dri'd , after inflation . a a , the external membrane . b b , the lamellae of the external membrane , which pass between the vesiculae and compose the lobuli ; between which , the interstitia necessarily result . c d , the lobuli compos'd of the vesiculae , which are here well exprest . fig. . the aspera arteria or wind-pipe , together with the bronchus or ramifications of it , free'd from the lungs . a a , the fore-part of the wind-pipe . b b , the division of the wind-pipe into two branches , and afterwards into more , call'd bronchus . c c , the larger branches of the bronchus . d d , the lesser , from whose extremities the vesiculae are pull'd off . e e , the semicircular cartilages of the wind-pipe . f g h , the cartilages of the bronchia of various figures and sizes ; some of which are circular f f ; others semicircular , triangular g ; quadrangular &c. h. these cartilages of the bronchus are not connexed to each other like those of the wind-pipe it self ; but the lower-parts of the superior receive the upper-parts of the inferior ; not unlike the crustaceous coverings of the locusts , or tail of a lobster : so that in inspiration the bronchus may be coextended with the tumified lungs ; for these ligaments between the cartilages of the bronchus have an elastick power of restitution ; not unlike that strong ligament , plac'd on the spines of the vertebrae of the necks of quadrupedes ; by which means the superior parts of the lower cartilages of the bronchus are drawn under the inferior parts of the upper , in expiration : but in inspiration the ligaments are extended , and the inferior cartilages are with-drawn from under the superior ; and to this action in expiration the longitudinal fibres of the wind-pipe ( which pass into the bronchus ) do concur to contract them . in inspiration the weight of the superincumbent air is sufficient to extend the bronchus , and consequently the lungs , when the cavity of the thorax is widen'd by the muscles which draw the bibs up . fig. . a small portion of the lungs , whose bronchial branch is fill'd with injected quick-silver . a , the bronchial branch ; on both sides of which , the pulmonick blood-vessels appear . fig. . part of the largest branches of the bronchus free'd from one of the lungs ; together with the pulmonick blood-vessels and lobes injected with wax . a a , the pulmonick vein . b b , the artery fill'd with different colour'd wax . besides freeing the bronchia , as in fig. . there is another way of demonstrating their ramifications by pouring of melted tin into them ; which may be practis'd in the following manner . cut off one side of the humane lungs at the division of the trachea b b , fig. . and with the feather end of a goose-quill so wipe the inside of the bronchia , by often thrusting it into their various ramifications , that at length it no longer comes out wet with the mucus they have in them . the insides of the bronchia being thus throughly dri'd with a feather : in like manner anoint them with linseed oyl . this done , tye the mouth of the divided trachea to a tin or iron tunnel : this tunnel must be so plac'd that the lungs may hang pendulous and free ; but least their flaccidity should too much compress the bronchia , it 's convenient to pass divers threads thro' the external parts of the lungs , and so fasten them to the floor and other convenient places , that the lungs may be extended thereby : in doing of which , be sure you do not distort the lungs from a direct pendulous position ; but that the large trunk of the bronchia remains perpendicular to the tunnel . this done , melt block-tin and pour it into the tunnel ; in doing of which , stand at some distance , least the conflict which arises from the hot metal in its meeting with the remaining moisture in the bronchus , scatters it on your hands , or face , &c. n. b. if the metal is made very hot it will so scorch the first passages of the bronchia as to contract them , and thereby obstruct the rest : nor must it want fluidity , least its passing into the smaller branches is thereby hindred . the bronchus being thus injected in the lungs ; lay them in water , nine , or ten days ▪ till they begin to putrifie ; then boyl the whole lungs off the block-tin , and you may expect to see it much fuller of branches than it 's exprest in the th figure . fig. . represents the ramifications of the bronchia in block-tin , as above describ'd . the twenty-sixth table . fig. . the upper part of the body lying in a supine posture , with the os pectoris or sternum rais'd , together with the cartilages of the ribs which are connexed to it ; so that the cavity of the thorax after its viscera are remov'd , comes in view . a a a , the cavity of the thorax invested with the pleura , whose smooth surface towards the lungs , is here seen . b b , the musculi triangulares as they arise from the inferior and internal part of the sternum , and ascend to their insertions at the bony endings of the fourth , fifth , and sixth ribs : in this view of the internal part of the sternum , the mammary blood-vessels on each side of it are conspicuous : the cartilaginous endings of the two first ribs are also remarkable , being somewhat longer than the rest . b , the ensiformal cartilage . c d , superior ) the course of the fibres of the internal intercostal muscles which appear thro' the pleura a a. c d , inferior ) the external intercostal muscles whose fibres decussate the internal like the letter x. these intercostal muscles arise from the lower edge of each superior rib , and are inserted to the upper edge of each inferior one : they are employ'd in bringing the ribs nearer each other , to enlarge the cavity of the thorax in inspiration . d d , &c , the seven superior or true ribs . e e , the saw-like endings of the serratus major anticus . f f , the diaphragm free'd from the cartilaginous endings of the ribs and ensiformal cartilage , b. f f , the musculi psoii partly in view . g , the cartilage of one of the bastard-ribs which is not joyned to the sternum . h h , the bodies of the vertebrae of the thorax . i , the vertebrae of the neck . k , the lower jaw-bone made bare . k , the musculus pterigoideus internus in situ . l l , the claviculae . m , part of the deltoides muscle . , , , , the bony endings of the third , fourth , fifth and sixth ribs , cut from the cartilages which are fastened to the sternum . fig. . see tab. . the twenty-seventh table . the skin , fat , and membranes being removed , the muscles appear on the back as follows . a a , b b , c , d d , e , f f , g , h , the musculus cucularis or trapezius on both sides in situ : either of these arises fleshy from the os occipitis , and tendinous from the ligamentum colli and points of the spines of the three lowest vertebrae of the neck , and eight superior of the thorax ; from which broad origination becoming thick and fleshy a a d d f , is so inserted to the claviculae e and tendinous h f to the spina scapulae i. these move the scapulae variously according to their directions of fibres , as upwards , backwards , and downwards . j , part of the spina scapulae . k o o , the latissimus dorsi or aniscalptor : a thin , broad tendinous origination of this is deriv'd from the spines of the seven inferior vertebrae of the thorax , and all the vertebrae of the loins , and superior of the os sacrum ; as also from the posterior part of the spine of the os ilium r , and begins to grow fleshy as it marches over the longissimus dorsi and sacrolumbus , k. and in its ascent over the ribs laterally , it has divers fasciculi of fleshy fibres arising from thence and joining with it , becomes still thicker , more fleshy , and narrower , marching over the lowest angle of the scapulae ; whence sometimes a fleshy portion of this muscle do's arise , which we have commonly found in those bodies in whom the teres minor was wanting , as it was in this subject , and is at length inserted with a short flat strong tendon to the os humeri , at the implantation of the teres major : its use is to draw the arm downwards and backwards . l l , parts of the obliqui descendentes abdominis . m , part of the deltoides on the left side . n , the infraspinalis on the right side . o o , the sacrolumbalis lying under the tendon of the latissimus dorsi on the right side . p , the basis of the right scapula . q q , the rotundi majores . r , the spine of the os ilium . s , part of the glutaeus magnus . the twenty-eighth table . the muscles of the back lying under those represented in the preceding table . a b c d , the rhomboides in situ , it arises tendinous from the spines of the two inferior vertebrae of the neck , and three or four of the superior of the thorax c ; growing fleshy in its oblique descent , it is inserted to the basis of the scapula d : it draws the scapula upwards and backwards . e , the rhomboides on the right side , remaining at its origin at the basis of the scapula . f , a portion of the rhomboides which we frequently find distinct . g , part of the elevator scapulae or musculus patientiae : this muscle has divers separate originations from the second , third , fourth and fifth transverse processes of the vertebrae of the neck composing a large fleshy muscle , which is inserted to the superior angle of the scapula . h , that part of the basis scapulae towards its superior angle . i , the serratus superior posticus arising thin and tendinous from the spines of the two inferior vertebrae of the neck , and two superior of the thorax ; and after an oblique descent over the inferior part of the splenius capitis and upper parts of the longissimus dorsi and sacrolumbalis , becomes fleshy , marching under the scapula to its insertions at the second , third , and fourth ribs . this muscle assists in drawing the ribs upwards in inspiration . k , the serratus inferior posticus : the origination of this muscle is much larger than this figure seems to represent . i have frequently taken notice of a series of tendinous fibres continued between the serratus superior and this muscle ; and its lower part in like manner continued to the spine of the os ilium , strictly embracing the sacrolumbus and dorsi longissimus ; in which it performs the office of a bandage as shall be hereafter mentioned . these inferior saw-muscles , in this figure , are free'd from their originations at the spines of the vertebrae of the thorax and loins , in raising the latissimi dorsi , exprest in the preceding table k l o o , whose tendinous originations in most subjects , do inseparably cleave to these serrati near the spines : this figure demonstrating the progress and insertion of these muscles , i shall only add ; their use is to draw the ribs downwards , and contract the thorax in expiration . l , part of the cucullaris left at its insertion to the clavicula . m , the latissimus dorsi rais'd and left hanging at its insertion on the right side ; the like is done on the left , but not letter'd . n o p q ; the longissimi dorsi ; this muscle and its companion the sacrolumbalis are insepable at their origination from the spine of the os ilium , superior part of the sacrum , and all the spines of the vertebrae of the loins ; externally it is tendinous ; internally fleshy ; in its ascent it bestows divers insertions on the transverse processes of the vertebrae of the loins ; but proceeding farther , it continues to derive tendinous originations from the spines of the lower vertebrae of the thorax , which in their progress become fleshy fibres , and terminate in the fifth , sixth and seventh spines of the thorax ; and this part of this muscle bidloo calls semispinatus : the other larger part of it , in its ascent on the thorax , divides it self after the manner of a palm-branch , into many fleshy portions which become tendinous at their insertions to the transverse processes of each vertebra of the thorax , and tubercle of the ribs , and some of the transverse processes of the vertebrae of the neck ; this muscle is not only imploy'd in keeping the trunk of the body erect and bending it backwards ; but in progression , it has also a considerable office ; for when either leg is mov'd forewards , this muscle on the same side , near its origin , may be observed to be in action ; which we suppose is necessary to render the os ilium at that time stable , to the end the thigh-bone may be more commodiously moved in its acetabulum of the coxendix . r , the sacrolumbalis which we shall describe hereafter . s , part of the glutaeus magnus . s , the spine of the os ilium . t , the splenius capitis . v , the deltoides . w , the infraspinatus . x , the teres major . y , part of the spina scapulae , above which , part of the supraspinatus may be seen . z , part of the serratus major anticus . ψ , the seventh rib made bare . the twenty-ninth table . divers muscles imploy'd in moving the back , thorax and arms. a b d e , the musculus sacrolumbalis : its origin is already describ'd in the preceding table with the dorsi longissimus , they arising inseparably : at their parting below the last rib , the fleshy part of the sacrolumbus is divided into divers parts , which become so many distinct tendons and terminate on the ribs , as may be seen on the left side of this figure : besides these fleshy and tendinous productions of this sacrolumbal muscle ; it has another order of tendinous and fleshy fibres which may be esteemed as so many distinct muscles ; they arising partly tendinous and partly fleshy from the transverse processes of the loins , and posterior prominence of the ribs , that is connexed to the transverse process's of the back , whence ascending obliquely outwards , become fleshy , and growing tendinous , do pass over three or four of the superior ribs , and join with the first describ'd tendons at their several terminations above mentioned . this disposition of the sacrolumbus is continued the whole length of the thorax , even to the fourth vertebra of the neck ; which upper part of it is call'd by diemerbroek , cervicalis descendens , and by him made a distinct muscle . c , the tendon of the last described muscle and longissimus dorsi , cut from the spines of the vertebrae of the loins . f h i k k , the longissimi dorsi ; that of the right side being free'd from the spines of the vertebrae of the back and loins . l , the spines of the vertebrae of the loins . m m , the musculus semispinatus or transversalis dorsi : the course of the fibres of this muscle agree exactly with that lying below it , called musculus sacer g ; which is exprest on the right side of the spines of the vertebrae of the loins between l m c : they are call'd transversales dorsi and lumborum , because they arise from the transverse processes of those vertebrae ; from whence they ascend obliquely and are inserted to the spines of the superior vertebrae ; which oblique ascending disposition of these fibres may be observed in this figure m m. n , part of the musculus trapezius left on the neck . o , part of the serratus superior posticus left at its insertion . p , part of the spina scapulae . q , the basis scapulae . r , musculus deltoides . s , infraspinatus . t , teres major . v w , parts of the serrati majores antici ; that of the left-side representing its progress over the subscapularis , as it arises from the internal part of the basis scapulae as is mentioned tab. . x x x , the serrati inferiores postici rais'd and left at their insertions . y , part of the obliquus descendens . z z , the spines of the ossa ilii . the thirtieth table . some of the muscles imployed in extending the back and loins , rais'd . a b c d e f g h i k , the longissimi dorsi and sacrolumbales near their originations . l , the sacrolumbalis on the left side free'd from the ribs , &c. and hanging loose from the trunk of the body . m m , those tubercles of the ribs connexed to the transverse processes of the vertebrae of the thorax made bare ; whence the other order of the tendinous and fleshy fibres of the sacrolumbal muscle ( mention'd in the precedent table ) do arise . n n , the spinal processes of the vertebrae of the back made bare . n n , their transverse processes . o o , parts of the musculi splenii capitis . p , the infraspinatus rais'd from the scapula . q , part of the rotundus major . r r , parts of the serrati majores antici on both sides . s , the upper part of the bone of the arm laid bare . t , the last or twelfth rib. v , the quadratus lumborum : it arises fleshy from the posterior part of the spine of the os ilium , and after an oblique ascending progress is so inserted to the transverse processes of the vertebrae of the loins : this not unlike the rectus abdominis , moves the vertebrae of the loins or os ilium nearer each other , as either is held most stable : so when we stand on one foot it draws the vertebrae to that side , and makes the trunk come towards a perpendicular direction of its gravity to that foot ; as appears in the figure of the first table , where the right leg sustains the weight of the whole trunk , and superior parts : but if we hang by the hands , then either of these musculi quadrati acting , draws the os ilium nearer the vertebrae of the loins . it was necessary the muscles imploy'd in extending the head , neck , back and loins should be framed strong enough not only to sustain the head and trunk in their projection forewards from the axis of the vertebrae ; but that they should move the whole spine variously , especially in bending it backwards : hence it is these muscles are not only more numerous ; but are multiform , as appears in the dorsi longissimus and sacrolumbalis ; whereas the bending muscles of the trunk and head are but one pair to each , and they of a longitudinal order of fibres only ; namely , the par rectum internum capitis , or flexores capitis , tab. . ll ; and the recti abdominis tab. . ee . the thirty-first table . represents the common integuments of the abdomen , and the external appearance of its muscles on the left side . a a a a , the skin together with the fat and membranes of the left side rais'd . b b , the fat remaining on the right side after raising the skin ; where the lobi of fat and the blood-vessels passing between them , are elegantly exprest . c d e f g , the musculus obliquus descendens in situ ; cc , it s fleshy part springing from the ribs ; d d , it s inferior tendinous part , under which the fleshy fibres of the ascendens do appear . e e , the sraight fleshy fibres of the musculus rectus , as they appear under the tendons of the descending and ascending muscles . f f , the tendinous interfections of the rectus appearing thro' the two tendons of the oblique muscles . g g , the linea semilunaris compos'd by the two tendons of the oblique muscles before they march over the rectus to the linea alba. h , the linea alba. the thirty-second table . fig. . abcdefg , the obliquus descendens , or declivis rais'd : see app. fig. . , . it arises with several partly fleshy and partly . tendinous acute productions from the lower margins of the fifth , sixth , seventh and eight ribs ; where its several separate origins lie between the indentations of the serratus major anticus ; these , for better distinction we call its former origin ; besides which , it continues to derive more heads in like manner from the ninth , tenth , eleventh , and sometimes from the extremity of the last bastard-rib ; ( vid. tab. , y. ) where it 's frequently indented with the serratus inferior posticus ( tab. ib. xx. ) as vesalius takes notice : from its former origin b b b , its oblique descending fleshy part e e , expands its self into a broad membranous tendon f f , before it marches over the rectus p p , to its insertion in the linea alba tab. . h , and os pubis g : from its latter origin , in the same manner descending , ( vid. app. fig. . . ) it ends partly tendinous in the ligamentam pubis c c , but chiefly fleshy on the superior and fore-part of the os illum . besides the offices commonly ascrib'd to this muscle in compressing the intestines and bladder , &c. either in extruding the foeces and urine in both sexes , or foetus in women ; they have still a farther use : that part of this muscle that 's interjacent between its lower origin and spine of the os ilium , tab. . y. bearing an analogy in its position to the mastordeus of the head , ( app. fig. . . ) serves for the circumrotation of the trunk upon the axis of the vertebrae ; as when we convert our bodies to the contrary side , the feet remaining stable . h h h , the cartilaginous endings of the seventh , eighth , ninth , and tenth ribs ; which , in the following table are cut off at the bony parte of the ribs and rais'd : vid. tab. . k k. k k , the musculus transversalis rais'd from the peritonaum and reclin'd laterally ; it derives a tendinous origin from the transverse processes of the vertebrae lumbares , and a fleshy one , from the cartilaginous endings of the ribs , spine of the os ilium , and ligamentum pubis ; whence it passes over the convext surface of the peritonaeum , composing a broad tendon as it marches under the rectus to its termination in the whole length of the linea alba. when this muscle and its partner act , they press the abdomen directly inwards . l m n o p , the recti abdominis ; one remaining in sat● the other being rais'd : either of these muscles derives its origin from two of the cartilages of the true , and one of bastard ribs ; and in its descent has four , sometimes five tendinous intersections o o o o ; still lessening it self below the navel , becomes tendinous , immediately above the os pubis , where it 's implanted m : this bends the trunk of the body . p p , the under-side of the rectus , where the epigastrick and mammary blood-vessels may be seen . q , the pyramidales , which derive their fleshy origin from the upper-part of the ossa pubis , and terminate in the linea alba. r r s s , the obliquus ascendens , or acclavis in situ : it arises from the fore-part of the spine of the os ilium and ligamentum pubis , whence mounting with an order of fibres inclining forewards , forms a broad membranous thin tendon ss , marching over the rectus to its implantation in the linea alba ; the posterior part of it being inserted to the cartilages of the eighth , ninth , tenth , eleventh , and twelfth ribs . besides its office in compressing the contents of the lower belly ; that part of it that 's between the spine of the ilium and cartilaginous endings of the ribs , is not only useful in drawing the ribs downwards in expiration ; but its fleshy fibres ( intersecting those of the descendens in the ilia ) are also imploy'd in converting the trunk of the body to the same side , as the descendens above noted , do's to the contrary . in the structure and reciprocal cooperations of these parts of the ascending and descending oblique muscles , the art of nature is very admirable . t t v v , the peritonaeum under which the intestines appear tt . tho' the peritonaeum is a transparent , thin membrane , yet it consists of divers laminae , and is apparently double in divers parts , especially between the navel and os pubis : besides its giving an external double integument to all the viscera of the lower belly , it provides still others investing each viscus , and helps to compose the omentum and mesentery . what vast extensions the membranes of the peritonaeum are capable of , is well known to those who have seen it affected with a dropsie ; for in its duplicature i have often taken out above fourscore pints . iob meekren in his ob. med. at chir. tells us of a hundred and twenty-five pints of clear water contain'd within the duplicature of the peritonaeum ; besides , the membranes themselves ( in the case now mention'd ) were thickned beyond a thumbs breadth , and their internal surface furnish'd with many fleshy bodies and water-bladders , call'd hydatides ; so that the whole , when taken out , seem'd to be a monstrous mass of fleshy matter . fig. . the texture of the peritonaeum examin'd with a microscope . a a , the nervous fibres running according to the length of the abdomen . b b , other fibres carri'd in a circular manner from the nervous plexus thro' to the breadth of the abdomen . c c , the fibrillae which join the preceding fibres together , and are complicated with them . d d , the nerves and their branches which are very remarkable about the ventricle . e e , the blood-vessels broken off . concerning the lymphe-ducts of the peritonaeum , &c. consult nuck's adenographia curiosa , cap. ix . the peritonaeum has divers perforations ; forewards , for the umbilical vessels in the faetus ; in its upper-part , for the vena cava , gula , and eighth pair of nerves , &c. in the lower-part by the anus bladder of urine , and vterus in women : in this lower-part of the peritonaeum , it 's two processes attending the spermatick vessels fall next under our inspection . fig. . a a , part of the peritonaeum . b , the process of its internal membrane , proceeding from within the cavity of the abdomen . c c , the spermatick vessels as yet cover'd with the double process of the peritonaeum . we call it a double process of the peritonaeum in men , that passes thro' the muscles of the abdomen in the inguen , because it consists of two membranes of different extents ; the external of which , being a continuation of the external membrane of the peritonaeum , is there call'd tunica vaginalis , inclosing the spermatick-vessels and testicle ; the internal process descends about four fingers breath on the spermatick-vessels in the inguina , and then cleaves to them inseparably ( and this nuck calls a diverticulum ) as it 's exprest , tho' somewhat stifly , in the following figure . fig. . a a , part of the internal membrane of the peritonaeum . b , the orifice or anulus of its process . c , its progress on the spermatick-vessels , call'd divertitulum . d , its cohesion to the spermatick-vessels . the thirty-third table . shews the viscera of the lower belly in situ , after the common and proper integuments of the abdomen are laid open , and some of them cut off , and the cartilaginous endings of the bastard ribs divided from their bony parts , and turn'd upwards . a a b b , the omentum , where its upper membrane appears contiguous to the bottom of the stomach , from whose inferior coronary vessels it receives its arteriae gastricae , emploicae dextrae , sinistrae and mediae , which have their correspondent veins entering into the coronary veins , and convey their blood to the vena porta ; the arteries being propagated from the coeliack arteries . this superior part of lamina of the omentum is not only a continuation of that external one of the ventricle , borrow'd from the peritonaeum , but its right ala in like manner is deriv'd from the lower part of the liver , and it s left from the concave part of the spleen : thus the superior and outwardmost part of the omentum arises ; and after descending on the intestines , joins or is continued to its inferior or inward part , in like manner deriv'd from the colon : between these superior and inferior parts , is fram'd the bursa omenti ; which may be plainly discover'd , if you pour water into its cavity ; and tho' the water will pass it 's many foramina , yet it will nevertheless discover the lower part of the omentum to be double . c c , the bottom of the stomach where its inferior coronary blood-vessels may be seen . d d , the liver . e , the ligamentum suspensorium hepatis , in which the umbilical ligament is inclos'd . f , the fissure made by the umbilical ligament . g g , part of the colon near its beginning in the right ilia . h h i i i , the small guts , some of which being here cover'd with the omentum . k k , the cartilaginous endings of the bastard ribs cut from their bony parts , and turn'd up towards the sternum : to these cartilages , parts of the transverse muscles of the abdomen and the diaphragma may be seen to adhere in this figure . the thirty-fourth table . fig. . a a , a portion of the omentum , the cells of which being fill'd with oily contents are call'd fat. b b , the fatty glandules of the omentum which are plac'd in the arboreous distribution of the fat. c c , divers foraminulae collateral to the arboreous fatty bodies . fig. . the membranes of the omentum free'd from their oily contents ; which professor bidloo proposes to be done after the following manner . when the blood-vessels of the omentum are injected with wax , or any tenacious body , then dip the whole in hot oil of turpentine , and with your hand squeese it , and move it up and down till the whole mass of fat is disolv'd in that oil. afterwards expose the membranes to the air , or gentle fire to dry them . a a , the upper lamella or membrane of the omentum . b b , the lower membrane of the omentum . c c , the foraminulae . d d , the arboreous ramifications of the porous cells , whence the fat or oil is exprest . e e , the blood-vessels injected with wax according to bidloo . fig. , . these figures of the muscles of the pharynx are copied after bourdon's table . fig. , . and are agreeable to the erroneous descriptions of those muscles by ryolan , spigelius , veslingius , bartholin , &c. the muscular contrivance of this organ being vastly differing from what is here exprest , i shall add a figure of it in the appendix . fig. . the stomach with part of the omentum taken out of the cavity of the abdomen ; the stomach being somewhat extended with wind , and plac'd according to its proper position . a a , the external and anterior surface of the stomach , cover'd with a common membrane deriv'd from the peritonaeum . b c , two bunchings out in the lower part , or fundus of the stomach . d , part of the gula at the upper or left orifice of the stomach , call'd cardia . e , part of the intestinum duodenum arising from the right or lower orifice of the stomach , call'd the pylorus . f , the superior coronary blood-vessels of the stomach , and the nerves of the eighth pair complicated with each other , are here elegantly exprest . g , the inferior coronary artery and vein of the stomach . these coronary blood-vessels are in like manner distributed to the omentum . h , the superior or outward membrane of the omentum , hanging at the bottom of the stomach . in dissecting the morbid body of a young gentle-woman , by the order of dr. radcliff : amongst other phaenomena of the viscera in the abdomen , i found the omentum so lessen'd , that at first sight , it appear'd doubtful wether there ever had been such a part fram'd in that subject ; but upon stricter enquiry , that little remains of it seem'd to represent a heap of small glands , containing a steotomatous or suet-like matter . nor was this appearance of these steotomae on the omentum only ; but a multitude of little white bodies or specks ( not unlike those of the omentum ) plac'd at some small distance from each other , were spread on the outward membrane of the stomach , intestines , and internal surface of the peritonaeum . in this subject the external parts of the small guts so stuck to each other , that they seem'd to be contain'd in one proper covering , or not unlike the brain cover'd with the pia mater : so strictly did the intestines cleave to each other , that it was not without violence i could any where divide them to see the mesentery : by this means the peristaltick motion of the guts must needs be very much lessen'd , if not quite hindred ; so that it was no wonder to find their whole chanel fill'd with excrements , even from the pylorus to the anus : besides the intestines had suffer'd mortifications in divers parts , whilst other parts of them were inflam'd and very much thickned : nor was there any part of them appear'd of a natural constitution ; so general did this diseas'd-habit affect the peritonaeum , in all its expansions . nor can i omit doing justice to the inquisitive dr. radcliff , who upon frequent observations of the symptoms of this case , left this prognostick , that there was scarce any of the viscera of the lower belly which had escap'd the attacks of the disease : all which he suppos'd to arise from a scrophulous-habit , as appear'd by very large tumified glands of the mesentery ; of which two very remarkable ones had so comprest the receptaculum chyli , as very little ( if any ) of the aliment could at length pass into the blood. whence the body became so very much emaciated , that scarce any thing but bones appear'd under the skin : nor did i any where see the least lobe of fat in the whole dissection . from what has been above taken notice of in the omentum , and surface of the peritonaeum , whether covering the inside of the abdomen , or outsides of the intestines ; it appears , that when the mucus , which is necessary in lubricating the intestines , is obstructed ; those parts are subject to adhesions , and the peristaltick motion of the latter can no longer be perform'd , and tho' the existence of proper glands for separating this mucus from the blood do's not offer in common dissections , yet it may be hop'd that the frequent examining of morbid bodies , will at one time or other demonstrate them ; which , i am apt to believe , not unlike the sweating glands of the skin , are plac'd at certain distances , and do discharge their mucus from their excretory pores in like manner ; which mucus may joyn with fatty exsudations from the omentum , &c. and make a composition necessary for making the intestines slide on each other . that there is a slimy matter besmearing these parts , may be observ'd in opening any large animal , not diseas'd , soon after death . it is well known to the butchers that this mucus makes the hands glib or smooth ; to which end they commonly use it , so soon as they have open'd any animal , by rubbing their hands with the intestines . i know it 's commonly suppos'd the water in an ascites proceeds from a broken lymphe-duct within the cavity of the abdomen ; but it 's not unlikely that that scrosity may at least sometimes arise from an exsudation by thos● glands ; since we constantly find the peritonaeum very much thickned in those cases . the thirty-fifth table . the membranes , glandules , blood-vessels , &c. which compose the stomach . fig. , . a a , &c. portions of the stomach shewing its first or external membrane , borrow'd from the peritonaeum ; the veins being injected with wax , are extended beyond their natural magnitude . b b , the superior and inferior coronary veins , inosculating with each other in their large trunks . fig. . a b , &c. the branches of the blood-vessels on the external membrane of the stomach , representing their various plexusses and mutual inosculations with each other , viz. the veins being join'd with veins , and arteries with arteries , before they become capillary . fig. . the second membrane of the stomach , call'd the muscular membrane , consisting of two orders of fibres . a b b , the first and superior order of fibres , continued between the pylorus and upper orifice of the stomach . a c c , the second or inferior order of fibres , embracing the fundus of the stomach . fig. . a portion of the second or muscular membrane of the stomach dri'd . a a , the first order of fibres , b b , the second ; consisting of fleshy and tendinous parts , c c , their fleshy parts , d d , their tendinous parts . the third , or internal membrane of the stomach , may be divided into three lamellae , and therefore may be consider'd in a threefold manner . fig. . a a , the inward surface of the third membrane of the stomach , by dr. willis call'd the villous tunicle : the villi or velvet-like surface of it , is best shewn by dipping it in scalding water . b b , the glandules as they appear obscurely under the villi . c d , &c. the glandules and vessels of the stomach as they appear where the villi are taken off , which may easily be done with the assistance of hot water . this may be esteem'd the second part of the third membrane of the stomach . fig. . the third or last division of this internal membrane of the stomach , which bidloo and others call the tendinous , and dr. willis the nervous membrane . a b , divers perforations for the blood-vessels to pass thro' this membrane . fig. . the whole stomach partly laid open to shew the foldings of its internal or third membrane . a a , the foldings of the internal and third membrane , in which the villous surface do's appear . b , the upper and left orifice or mouth of the stomach , with part of the gula. c , a portion of the intestinum duodenum continued to the pylorus . d , the pylorus or lower and right orifice of the stomach . e , the antrum pylori . the omentum and superior and inferior coronary blood-vessels , are here again exprest as in the preceding table , fig. . fig. , . the two orifices of the stomach when dri'd after inflation . fig. , the superior . fig. , the inferior . the plexus of blood-vessels appearing in the inside of the stomach , fig. . are remarkable , and their appearance is owing to the stagnation of the blood in them . the stomach cannot be wounded into its cavity , but many of these vessels , especially the arteries must be divided , and no small effusion of blood must necessarily happen , which if it flows into the cavity of the stomach , must either be ejected by vomit , or pass down the intestines with the excrements , if the patient survives : an instance of which lately occur'd , where my friend mr. goodier call'd me to see the patient ; who had receiv'd a wound by a sword on the right hypochondrium , which past obliquely to the linea alba , immediately below the ensiformal cartilage : a vomitting of blood soon follow'd with syncopes , which denoted the stomach to be wounded , not less than a pound of coagulated blood being ejected by the mouth so soon as he was brought to his bed. after some hours the vomiting ceas'd , and the pulse was recover'd which before was very feeble : nor was it many days before the patient recover'd and could drink two or three quarts of strong drink at a sitting ; what became of him afterwards , we could by no means learn. by this it appears that wounds in the stomach are not always mortal , tho' they very frequently prove so , as in the case of one wounded in like manner with a sword on the left hypochondrium , in whom the stomach was wounded also ; but in this the contents of the stomach in no small quantity , were discharg'd with a great deal of blood into the cavity of the abdomen , as appear'd on dissecting his body . if the trunk of a large artery happens to be wounded on the stomach , it is a great chance but it proves mortal thro' the flux of blood , but if the wound happens where the blood-vessels are capillary , the flux of blood do's not prove fatal . the thirty-sixth table . fig. . shews the lower part of the stomach and a portion of the intestinum duodenum continued to it , together with the pancreas and spleen . a a , the upper part of the duodenum continued from the right orifice of the stomach or pylorus , in a semicircular manner ; in which bending of the gut , the common passage for the gall and pancreatick juice empties it self n. this curvation of the intestine is here necessary , left the aliment after having undergone a preparation in the stomach , should too quickly descend into the small guts , before it has met with a due mixture with the gall and pancreatick juice . b , the ductus pancreaticus made bare , before it enters the external membrane of the intestine , between which , and the internal membrane , it passes before it arrives at its orifice n , in conjunction with the common gall-duct . c , the progress of the common gall-duct in like manner between the membranes of the gut , before it arrives at its orifice n , in conjunction with the pancreatick duct . d d , the superior and external part of the pancreas as it appears in its proper situation . e e e , part of the bottom of the stomach next the pancreas , colon and spleen ; whence divers blood-vessels are propagated , especially veins , which discharge part of the blood from the stomach into the ramus splenicus : the most remarkable of these have obtained the denomination of vasa brevia ; to which , some anatomists have inconsiderately assign'd divers uses . f f , the internal concave part of the spleen next the pancreas and stomach , cover'd with its proper membrane , as well as a common one continu'd from the peritonaeum . g , the external membrane of the pancreas rais'd and pinn'd out : h , that of the spleen in like manner rais'd and pinn'd out . i i i , divers vesiculae or airy bladder-like appearances , occasion'd by the breaking forth of the wind into the interstitia of the common and proper membrane of the pancreas , in blowing into its ductus excretorius b. k , the duodenum open'd , to shew the common orifice of the gall and pancreatick duct . l l , the pancreatick duct made bare in divers parts of the pancreas . m , part of the common gall-duct . n , the common orifice of the gall and pancreatick ducts , opening into the cavity of the intestinum duodenum . o o , &c. the arteria splenica injected with wax ; its magnitude and tortuous progress being very remarkable as it is truly exprest in this figure . p p , divers arteries of the pancreas arising out of the splenick artery . q , the vena splenica in whose cavity a blow-pipe is inserted . r , one of the lympheducts arising from the spleen pinn'd out . in blowing into the vena splenica of a castling calf , i have frequently observ'd the lympheducts of the spleen distended with wind : the like has happen'd by blowing into the splenick artery after tying the vein , tho' not so immediatly as by blowing into the vein . the same phaenomena i have observ'd in the penis of a dog by blowing into the veins of that part. the accurate nuck in his adenograp . curio . p. . tells us by forcibly blowing into the splenick artery , he has not only seen divers vesiculae to rise on the surface of the spleen ; but divers lymphatick vessels arising from those vesiculae and distended with wind also : in the subsequent page he takes notice that the spermatick vein of the testicle being distended with wind , shews the lympheducts on the tunica vaginalis , but in blowing into the spermatick artery of that part , the lymphe-ducts are by no means distended with wind : by this , it appears the lympheducts of the spleen , penis and testicles , do not arise from the extremities of the blood-vessels of those parts , as the lympheducts of other parts seem to do ; but that the venous chanels of those parts seem to give the immediate originations to their lympheducts . s , the spleen partly made bare of its integument . fig. . the ductus pancreaticus injected with wax , and free'd from the body of the pancreas , together with a portion of the intestinum duodenum and common gall-duct dried . a , part of the duodenum dried . b , the ductus pancreaticus lying between the membranes of the intestine before it joyns with the common gall-duct . c , the common orifice of the gall and pancreatick duct opening into the intestine . d , the common gall-duct . e e , the trunk of the pancreatick duct . f g , the ramifications of the pancreatick duct , which arise from the extremities of the blood-vessels of the pancreas . among the opinions hitherto held concerning the office of the pancreatick juice , that of brunnerus seems most probable : that like the saliva it is a dissolvent or menstruum for a farther concoction , in order to chylification . nor can i conceive the succus pancreaticus can act with any hostility by way of fermentation with the bile and aliment , as franc. sylvius , bern. swalve , rog. de gaff , and isbrand de diemerbroek apprehend ; or that it takes off the acrimony of the gall ; which latter , would be to rectifie a mistake in nature that might have been avoided in the first design : wherefore the pancreas appears to be a large salival gland , or one of the largest of the glands of the intestines , which continually supplies a proportionable quantity of liquor for the end above mention'd . besides , the pancreas has another as it were accidental use , ( viz. ) to discharge those serosities from the blood which we find in taking of purging medicines ; or at other times , when the blood is disordered so that a diarrhaea happens , the pancreas as well as the glands of the intestines are those strainers which discharge the vitiated juices from the mass of blood. fig. . the spleen with its blood-vessels injected with wax . a a , the internal concave part of the spleen next the stomach and pancreas . b b , the splenick arteries injected with red wax . c c , the veins fill'd with white wax . d e , the various flexures and contortions of the veins and arteries near the surface of the spleen . fig. . a , part of the spleen of some quadrupede cut off , after the whole spleen has been distended with wind and dried . b , the external common membrane deriv'd from the peritonaeum . c , the internal proper membrane of the spleen . d e , &c , the cells of its cavernous body , which open into the large veins of the spleen . in the humane spleen these cells are more numerous and less , and open into the extremities of the veins and arteries . i know ruysch in his accurate anatomical epistles lately publish'd , denies the existence of these cells as well as fibres in the humane spleen , but if you blow into the splenick vein , or inject water by the arteries , when the outward membrane of the spleen is not torn or broke in taking it out ( which are very liable to happen in freeing the humane spleen ) you may be satisfied of the existence of its cells ; and if you inject the veins with wax you will find this difference from that of a quadrupede ; that the wax in the humane spleen do's not reach the cells , except it is driven on with great force , and injected very hot ; but if you inject wax into the spleen of an ox , dog , or the like , you will find all its cells soon distended with it , and the great ramifications of the veins scarce to be distinguished , by reason the wax so soon passes out of their sides into the cells . fig. . a a , the internal face of the proper membrane of the spleen of a quadrupede . b c , the fibres broke off which pass between the cells to each side of the proper membrane of the spleen . d d , some of the larger cells of the spleen of various figures . fig. . the whole spleen free'd from its external and proper membranes , after its blood-vessels were injected with wax . a a , the arteries . b , the veins of the spleen fill'd with wax . a a b b , the ramifications of the blood-vessels before they enter the body of the spleen . c , part of the capsula or proper membrane of the spleen , according to bidloo . d , the nervous plexus . e f , the ramifications of the blood-vessels at their extremities , into whose sides the cells of the humane spleen open . f , the interstitia at the extremities of the blood-vessels , which bidloo calls the cells . g g , the extremities of the lympheducts , and divers fibres of the spleen . the texture and composition of the spleen being thus known , we should in the next place consider what office this part has in the animal oeconomy ; but that being a task too great for the limits of our present page , i shall insert my thoughts of it elsewhere . the thirty-seventh table . fig. . the superior convex surface of the liver here printed on the reverse . aa , the superior gibbous part of the liver , where divers lympheducts may be seen . b b , the ligamentum suspensorium hepatis , fasten'd to the diaphragma , its fore-part being cut from the ensiformal cartilage . c c , part of the diaphragma ; in which its fleshy and tendinous parts appear together with its blood-vessels . d , the ligamentum umbilicale pinn'd out . e e , that part of the liver which is extended towards the left side , and rests on the stomach , and is sometimes ( as in this subject ) divided into lobes . f , seems to be part of the diaphragma : bidloo makes it to be a ligament that adheres to the ensiformal cartilage , which i can by no means conceive . g , a portion of the external membrane of the liver , continued from the peritonaeum , rais'd . fig. . the inferior concave surface of the liver . a , the right side of the liver . b , the ligamentum suspensorium hepatis pinn'd out . c , the ligamentum umbilicale . d , the external and common membrane of the liver rais'd and pinn'd out . e , the liver cut into , to shew its inside . f , part of the diaphragm . g , the arteria hepatica , which we commonly find divided into two branches or trunks of the size of this here exprest , before they enter the liver . h h , the vena porta as it enters the liver . i , the capsula communis or production of the peritonaeum , which is said to inclose the vena porta , arteria hepatica , and ductus bilarii in their progress thro' the liver ; which description of it , i am apt to think , is rather imposed on it in favor of some conjectures concerning the office of the vena porta within the liver , than any real appearance of it in nature ; tho' it is very plain those vessels within the liver do appear cover'd with a common inclosure ; the like of which may be seen on the vessels within the spleen , kidneys , &c. k k , the vena cava extended on a pencil . l , the gall-bladder . m , a lympheduct passing on the surface of the gall-bladder . n , the ductus cysticus . o , the common gall-duct . p , the lympheducts of the liver marching on the vena porta towards their lymphatick glands , placed on the trunk of that vein below the liver . concerning the distribution of the vessels of the liver , and the intimate structure of that great gland , consult the following table . the thirty-eighth table . fig. . a portion of the liver boyl'd and view'd with a microscope . a , the outward membrane of the liver rais'd and pinn'd out . b b b , the lobuli compos'd of small glands , of various figures and sizes . c , the membranes continued from the blood-vessels , which divide the lobuli from each other . d d , the blood-vessels , of which some are broken off . e e , the gall-ducts , many of which are in like manner broken off as they arise from the lobuli . fig. . a , a branch of the vena cava . a a , its extremities within the liver . b , a branch of the vena porta . b b , its extremities in like manner not join'd with the former , says bidloo . in preparing the liver to inject its blood-vessels with wax , i found such a communication between the vena cava and porta , that i could by no means but conceive the extremities of those vessels are continued chanels ; for by pouring water or spirit of wine into the vena porta , with the assistance of a tunnel only , i found it soon run out again by the vena cava : nor do's the extremities of the arteries of the liver seem less communicative with the vena cava ; for by syringing water into the hepatick arteries , it easily passes into the vena cava , or porta . in blowing into the hepatick arteries or gall-ducts , i commonly find the lympheducts of the liver distended with wind. fig. . the gall-bladder and its ducts . a , the ductus cysticus . b , the internal membrane of the ductus cysticus appearing after raising the external . this internal membrane is much larger than the external , by which means it frames divers valves or rugae in the cavity of this duct . these rugae ( which some call valves ) prevent the perpetual effusion of the bile into the duodenum : nor do they oppose the retrocession of the gall by the cystick-duct , as some pretend ; for if you either blow , or inject water into the ductus communis , the gall-bladder soon becomes distended . in examining the gall-ducts of a lamb's liver , i clearly discover'd divers ducts of gall arising from the liver , and emptying themselves into the ductus cysticus : nor could i by any means observe in that subject any gall-ducts arising from the liver , and discharging their contents into the gall-bladder at its neck , as some pretend . i have more than once emptied the gall-bladder of a humane body , and made a ligature on the ductus cysticus some distance from its neck , and afterwards forcibly distended the hepatick-ducts with wind , but could by no means raise the gall-bladder : i have also made the same experiment in quadrupedes with mercury , by injecting it by the ductus hepaticus , but could not find it come into the gall-bladder immediately ; but in the ductae cysticus about a quarter of an inch from the gall-bladder , i have seen the mercury arise from two or three gall-ducts proceeding from the liver . c , the ductus hepaticus cut from the liver . d , part of the ductus communis . fig. . a a , the gall-bladder partly open'd . b , a portion of the meatus cysticus . c c , divers blood-vessels propagated between the gall-bladder and liver , which bidloo takes to be some of the lesser cystick-ducts . d , one of the larger of the last mentioned vessels , which bidloo in like manner describes as one of the largest of the cystick-ducts , with its orifice e f , looking into the gall-bladder . fig. . the blood-vessels of the liver and gall-ducts injected with wax , and free'd from their extremities which compose the glands . this scheme or distribution of these vessels may be prepar'd after the following manner . the whole liver being taken out with the trunks of its blood-vessels left to it of a convenient length ; wash out the blood from its vessels by syringing of warm water into them : this done , fill the blood-vessels with spirit of wine or alum-water , or inject them with oyl of turpentine a little warm'd . after some hours , dip the whole liver in hot water , and inject wax of a different colour into all its blood-vessels and secretory-ducts ; the arteries being fill'd with red ; the vena porta with a dark colour ; the vena cava of a distinguishable colour ; and the gall-ducts with yellow wax : this done , free the liver of its outward membranes , and with your fore-finger begin to divide the lobuli from each other , by thrusting it thro' the glandulous surface even to the trunks of the large blood-vessels . the lobuli of the liver being very much divided , dip the whole in warm water , and with a stubbed brush , made of the stiffest hogs-bristles , begin to brush off the glandules of the liver from the extremities of the injected blood-vessels . in doing of this be cautious , left you break off the large trunks of the injected vessels , always remembring to begin at the surface of the glands , and after the extremities of the injected vessels are clear'd , than proceed to their larger branches and trunks . if due care is taken in managing this preparation of the vessels of the liver , you will find them more numerous than this figure represents . a , the right side of the liver . b , the left. c c , the larger trunks of the hepatick arteries injected with red wax . c c c , the branches of the arteries which do accompany the vena porta , and hepatick gall-ducts . d , the trunk of the vena cava fill'd with green wax . e e , a portion of the diaphragm . f g h , the three large branches of the vena cava within the liver , lying towards its superior and convex surface , and not associating with the vena porta and other vessels , framing acute angles in their intersecting those of the porta . g h i , the lesser branches of the vena cava . k , the trunk of the vena porta cut off , after being injected with white wax . l l , parts of the capsula which includes the vena porta , hepatick arteries , and gall-ducts together . , , , , , the large branches of the vena porta . m , the gall-bladder . n , the roots of the ductus cysthepatici , according to bidloo . o , the ductus cysticus . p , the ductus hepatius : p , their branches . q , the ductus communis . r , part of the ligamentum umbilicale . s , the canalis venosus between the vena porta and cava , become a ligament . t , parts of the hepatick nerves . v , some of the lympheducts of the liver marching on the capsula of the vena porta . hence it appears the liver is a glandulous body compos'd of blood-vessels , excretory-ducts , nerves and lympheducts . the vessels which import blood into it , are the vena porta and arteria hepatica ; at their extremities arise , or are continued , the branches of the vena cava : nor are the extremities of the blood-vessels of the liver equally lessen'd like the veins and arteries of other parts , as the above mention'd experiment of pouring water only into the vena porta , and its running out by the vena cava do's evince ; or by gentle syringing water by the hepatick arteries , and it s easily passing by the vena cava ; so that the extremities of the hepatick blood-vessels seem to be largely inosculated with each other , especially the vena porta with the cava . the gall-ducts arise from the extremities of the blood-vessels , and tho' they communicate immediately with the blood-vessels , yet liquors convey'd into the vena porta and the like , do not so readily pass into these ducts as the other blood-vessels ; because the ortiolae in the sides of the blood-vessels whence those ducts arise , are much less than the pore of those vessels themselves . besides the blood-vessels of the liver , which are furnish'd with pores for the secretion of the gall , there are still other branches of the same vessels which administer a proper nourishment to the gland it self . by the gland it self . i mean the parietes of those vessels which compose the liver : for i cannot conceive the liver to be any thing else then a compages of vessels more or less distended . as there is a proper nourishment due to the gland it self , so it is necessary , that besides its secretory-ducts , the liver should be also furnish'd with lympheducts , to carry off the redundancy of its nutritive juice , continually supplied by the arteries ; but of this elsewhere . the nerves are necessary in the liver , as they are in all parts where membranes are useful ; not because they import any liquor as some conceive , as an ingredient to the matter separated ; but by the nerves the tone of parts is in a great measure maintain'd ; for if the nerves are relaxt , the parts to which they belong , suffers an atrophia , tho the blood has its free accession to the part as before ; but of this also in another place . in dissecting a morbid body which before death was much afflicted with hypochondriack pains , i found the liver very much lessen'd , and its surface uneven , not unlike a heap of small bullets . in dissecting the body of a noble-man afflicted with the like pains , i found that part of the liver which appears below the cartilaginous endings of the ribs , of a livid colour , and the whole somewhat lessen'd , the gall-bladder very much contracted , and fill'd with two or three small stones ; the peritonaeum on the parts adjacent being much thickned , and its blood-vessels turgid . in the body of a young lady ( reduc'd to a marasmus from a scrophulous indisposition ) i found the whole surface of the liver very black. in a person who is now living , and in tollerable health , i could three years since discover ( by feeling the right hypochondrium ) the lower part of the liver exceedingly tumified and hard ; which is now intirely vanish't . the thirty-ninth table . fig. . part of the iejunum or hungry gut , together with a portion of the mesentery , &c. a a , the surface of the iejunum cover'd with its external membrane continued from that of the mesentery , it being produc'd from , or a continuation of the internal lamina of the peritonaeum . b b b , the vasa lactea not extended , being here exprest by simple lines only , as they pass from the intestines thro' the mesentery . the lacteal-vessels carry both chyle and lympha promiscuously , and have a two-fold origin ; the one from the extremities of the arteries ; the other from divers ostiolae in the cavities of the guts : the former appears not only by injecting of mercury by the arteries of the mesentery d , and its passing into the lacteals b ; but when these milky-vessels are not imploy'd in conveying of chyle , they are constantly charg'd with lympha : the latter origin of these milky-tubes from divers ostiolae in the cavities of the guts , appear in their receiving of chyle from thence . the lympha from the arteries meets with the chyle at the beginnings of the lacteal-vessels , by which means its progress towards the next lymphatick gland is promoted : the vasa lactea primi generis , arise with capillary branches very much divided , and become united into large trunks , in the mid-way between the intestine and lymphatick gland ; and are sometimes again divided before their entrance into the vesiculae of the gland . the chyle and lympha thus receiv'd into the vesiculae of the mesenterick glands , there meets with other lympha brought into those vesiculae by the arteries ; whereby the chyle is not only more diluted , but its ascension towards the vesica chyli is promoted , by its receiving a fresh impetus from the lympha so mixing with it . thus we may conceive the progress of chyle towards the receptaculum commune is carri'd on , by means of the lympha joining with it in its several stages thither . nor would the valves of the lacteal-vessels be of any considerable use , if the chyle did not receive an additional impetus from the arteries in their supplying it with fresh lympha , as well in the lymphatick glands , as at the beginnings of the vasa lactea primi generis . c , the external membrane of the intestine rais'd and pinn'd out . c c , the muscular membrane of the intestine lying immediately under the external membrane consisting of a longitudinal and circular order of fibres . d d , the mesenterick arteries propagated to the intestine . e e , the veins which arise from the extremities of the arteries , and discharge the refluent blood into the vena porta . f , a branch of the mesenterick nerve made bare . g g , the vasa lactea primi generis . h , the external surface of the intestine adorn'd with blood-vessels . i i , the glands of the mesentery into whose vesiculae the vasa lactea primi generis import their contents , as above noted ; whence the vasa lactea secundi generis arise , and convey their contents in like manner , either into the receptaculum chyli immediately , or into the pancreas asellii . tab. . l , fig. . fig. . a portion of the iejunum dri'd after being distended with wind , whereby its valvuiae conniventes , fram'd by the loosness of its inward membranes appear as here represented . a b c d , the various disposition of the valves in the cavity of the intestine ; some of them taking up near two thirds of the circumference of the inside of the gut , a , inferior : others b d , about a fourth part ; whilst others are semicircular . as the upper part of the duodenum next the pylorus is furnish'd with large valves , so they gradually decrease in the small guts as well in magnitude as number , as they approach the lower parts of those intestines towards the colon : hence the valvulae conniventes of the duodenum are very large ; that at the pylorus being circular ; the valves of the iejunum less ; those of the ilium still less ; insomuch , that the lower part of this gut next the colon scarce affords any appearance of them : see fig. . these valves are compos'd of the internal membranes of the intestines , which being much larger then the exterior , are necessarily laid up in foldings , and frame these parts . these connivent valves hinder the quick descent of the contents of the intestines , least the chyle as well as the excrementitious parts should escape the mouth of the lacteal veins . fig. . a portion of the ilium dri'd after inflation . a a , the external surface of the intestine . b , the internal — c c , the valves of this intestine much less then in the iejunum . d , that end of the ilium next the iejunum . e e , that next the colon. fig. . the beginning of the colon , extremity of the coecum , together with a portion of the ilium dri'd after inflation . a a , the coecum adorn'd with its blood-vessels . b b , the colon plac'd in the right ilia g g , tab. . and c , tab. . c c , its blood-vessels injected with wax . d , a portion of the ilium as it enters the beginning of the colon. fig. . the same parts of the colon , ilium , and coecum , exprest in the precedent figure , open'd to shew the valves of the colon , and the entrance of the ilium into the colon as they appear after inflation and drying them . a , the valve at the orifice of the coecum in the colon. b b , the colon open'd to shew its inside . c c , the blood-vessels injected with wax . d , part of the ilium before it enters the cavity of the colon. e e , the end of the ilium which hangs down loose into the cavity of the colon , as appears before drying of the guts , which here frames an appearance of a connivent valve . f , the orifice of the ilium opening into the colon. by this contrivance we may easily conceive how the excrements , when they have past the small guts into the colon , cannot return again : a likeness of which , may be imitated if you take a piece of gut and put one end of it into the neck of a bottle , and tying the other end of the gut on the outside of the nosel of the bottle , filling the bottle with water by that gut ; and tho' you afterwards turn the nose of the bottle downwards , yet no part of the contain'd water can come out , till it has so prest out the end of the gut in the bottle that it becomes inverted . this may serve to give us an idea how it may happen in this part when the excrements are rejected by the mouth in cholick and iliack passions . g g , the large valves of the colon , which like those of the small guts are partly fram'd by the loosness of the internal membrane of the gut ; and are here in the colon chiefly made by a corrugation or folding of the membranes of the gut it self , by means of its ligaments , tab. . fig. . d , and tab. . d d. these ligaments of the colon are truly fleshy fibres , and i am apt to think are capable of contracting themselves and promote the passing on of the contents of this gut. when the ligaments of the colon are divided , the foldings of it which help to compose its valves , are loosned , and the whole gut becomes almost plain without any inequalities . as the ligaments of the colon descend towards the rectum they begin to expand themselves , and at length frame an external membrane for the rectum . h h , the internal concave surface of the cells of the colon. i i i , the external convex surface of the cells of the same gut. fig. . a portion of the rectum with part of the mesentery continued to it . a a b b , the external surface of the rectum , on which the ligaments of the colon compose a tegument , whose fibres are very strong , and are extended according to its length . c c d d , the fatty appendages , whose extremities have divers figures . e , the mesentery . f g , the trunks of the blood-vessels . fig. . the rectum divided according to its length , and expanded to shew its inside . a b , &c. the internal tunicle of the rectum , which being much larger than the external , necessarily appears in many folds in this position . this internal tunick of the rectum is compos'd of a vast number of glands , to which divers blood-vessels belong ; of these , the veins are considerably large and are commonly fill'd with blood , by reason of their position and the blood ascending directly in them ; whence it happens they become very much distended when the blood do's not readily pass on in their superior trunks ; or when any sharp humor affects this membrane , these veins become tumified , and sometimes discharge their blood , and are call'd haemorrhoides apertae ; if no blood flows from those tumified veins , they are call'd haemorrhoides caecae . the glandules imploy'd in separating a matter to lubricate the inside of the rectum , and cause the excrements , tho' very much harden'd to pass off easily , are in this case also very much swell'd , and a great quantity of mucus flows from them : hence the whole inward membrane of the rectum becomes much thickned , and when prest down beyond the stricture of the sphincter muscle of the anus , it is call'd procidentia ani. tho' it is commonly suppos'd the outward membrane of the rectum as well as the internal , is driven out in a common procidentia ani ; yet the following case seems to evince the contrary , and that it is the internal membrane of the rectum only that is then prolaps'd . a gentleman of about twenty seven years of age , had for several years been very much afflicted with the haemorrhoides and a procidentia ani , who after a sudden debauch had a great inflamation and tumor affected the anus , attended with great pain : in the space of twelve hours , the parts about the anus appear'd of a livid colour ; soon after a mortification follow'd . the sphincter muscle of the anus being relaxt , a procidentia ani follow'd ; the prolapsed intestine ( being expos'd to the matter which flow'd from the adjacent parts ) soon suffer'd mortification . the patient after some weeks recover'd his usual strength , and in a few months became perfectly well . nor did any inconveniency follow by reason of the mortification of the prolapsed intestine ; but on the contrary , he continued well , and was free'd not only from the habitual haemorrhoides , but was afterwards free'd from a procidentia ani. the fortieth table . fig. . the trunk of the body lying in a supine posture , and some of the viscera of the abdomen expos'd to view . a a , the common and proper integuments of the abdomen dissected . b , the under-side of the omentum as it appears when rais'd and remaining contiguous to the colon. c c , the colon at its beginning in the right ilia , and in its progress over the right kidney , by the pylorus and under the bottom of the stomach : the farther progress of this intestine is commonly so well describ'd , that we need not say more of it in this place . c c , the coecum . d , that part call'd one of the ligaments of the colon , which we take to be compos'd of fleshy fibres , &c. e e , the intestina tenuia , or thin guts , which are the duodenum iejunum , and ileum ; to these some add the coecum . f f , the intestina crassa , or thick guts , are the colon and the rectum ; to these the coecum is commonly reckon'd . g h i , the mesentery to which the intestines are contiguous . the mesentery is compos'd of divers strata of membranes , the outwardmost of which , on both sides of it , is a continuation of the internal membrane of the peritonoeum ; between these are plac'd divers membranaceous loculi , which inclose its glands k k : this internal part of the mesentery is by some esteem'd as a third membrane proper to this part. the rise or connexion of the mesentery to the stable parts , is at the three superior vertebrae of the loins on both sides the arteria magna , where it sends out the arteria coeliaca and mesenterica superior . besides blood-vessels , the mesentery is plentifully furnish'd with lympheducts and nerves ; the latter are well describ'd by dr. willis and vieusenius ; the lympheducts are mention'd in the precedent table ; its arteries are : figur'd in our appendix ; its veins correspond to them , and discharge their blood into the liver by the vena porta . k k , the glands of the mesentery thro which the chyle and lympha passes to the receptaculum chyli . l , a large gland of the mesentery near the receptaculum chyli , call'd by asellius , pancreas . m m , the fat which in humane bodies is commonly very plentifully plac'd between the membranes of the mesentery . in some quadrupedes , especially in dogs , the fat only accompanies the trunks of the blood-vessels of the mesentery . fig. . this figure is copied from bourdon's third table , fig. . a a a , the mesentery in which its vessels and glands are here only exprest . b b , the intestines . c d , the glandules of the mesentery , thro' which the chyle and lympha pass together from the intestines to the receptaculum chyli . c d , those glands which receive the contents of the vasa lactea primi generis ; f , that plac'd near the receptaculum chyli which receive the contents of the venae lacteae secundi generis . a a , inferior , denote the venae lacteae primi generis . a , superior and e , represents the venae lacteae secundi generis . e , superior , part of a lympheduct arising from the spleen . g , part of the receptaculum chyli , or the beginning of the ductus thoracicus . h , the arteria mesenterica . i , the vena mesenterica . a further description of the receptaculum chyli and ductus thoracicus , is inserted in the appendix , fig. , . fig. , . shew the different insertions of the thoracick-duct into the lower side of the left subclavian vein ; which in these figures are erroneously exprest in the right subclavian . e e , the subclavian veins . f f , the thoracick-ducts . fig. , . a b b , one of the lacteal-vessels blow'd up and dri'd , in which the valves appear at a greater distance from each other , then in a lympheduct prepar'd in the same manner , fig. . the forty-first table . shews the rest of the viscera as they appear within the cavity of the abdomen , after the intestines together with the mesentery , are remov'd . a a , the lower parts of the kidneys . it 's well known the kidneys are those parts which separate the urine from the blood ; whence it is convey'd by the ureters into the bladder of urine . concerning the structure of the kidneys ; see tab. . b b , the ureters partly cover'd with fat , in their way from the kidneys to the bladder of urine . c , the bladder of urine somewhat distended . d d , the spermatick vein and artery on both sides involv'd with fat and membranes , as they pass towards the testicles . e , the right side of the scrotum , with the testicle of that side remaining in it . this right side of the scrotum is divested from the left by a suptum intermedium , mention'd by the accurate ruysch . f , the left testicle taken out of the scrotum . g , the bottom of the stomach in situ . h h , the liver in situ . i , the pancreas as it appears in its proper situation after the intestines are remov'd . k , a portion of the duodenum cut off and tied below the insertion of the gall and pancreatick ducts . l , the lower part of the rectum in like manner tied up . m , part of the mesentery according to bidloo . n , the descending trunk of the arteria magna . o , the ascending trunk of the vena cava . p , the internal surface of the peritonaeum , as it appears when divided in a crucial manner , together with the common and the rest of the proper integuments of the abdomen . in the upper part of this appearance of the peritonaeum , the fibres of the musculus transversalis may be seen as they lie under it . q q , the fat withinside the skin . r r , the superior and inferior parts of the musculus rectus abdominis , divided as above noted . s , the lower part of the spleen in situ . t , the trunk of the arteria mesenterica superior cut off near the aorta . v , a portion of the arteria mesenterica inferior in like manner divided . w , the umbilical ligament of the liver turn'd upwards , and not free'd from its inclosing membranes . the forty-second table . represents the kidneys , testicles , bladder of urine , and spermatick vessels , free'd from the body and display'd . a a , the right kidney : b b , it 's membrana adiposa partly separated . c c , the left kidney free'd from the membrana adiposa . d d , the glandulae renales : after frequent injecting of wax into the veins of a foetus , i have constantly found the cavities of these glands fill'd with the wax . if you blow into the veins of a foetus , the glands of the kidneys will soon become distended with wind : these glands are soft and and membranous in the foetus , in the adult very hard , and proportionably less , and not capable of being distended by blowing into their veins ; nor do's any fluid iniected by the veins , of an adult , pass into the cavities of these glands . the glandula renalis of the right side has arteries from the emulgent , and arteria phrenica . the gland of the left kidney has divers small arteries from the descending trunk of the arteria magna : their veins are two trunks ; one to each gland , that of the right side arising only from the gland of the kidney it self , is less than the left , and empties its self into the ascending trunk of the vena cava , above the emulgent vein ; that of the left , arises from the arteries of the neighbouring parts , as well as from those of the gland it self , and discharges its self into the left emulgent vein k. e , the arteria coeliaca cut off near its origin . e , the trunk of the arteria mesenterica in like manner cut off . a f , the descending trunk of the aorta below the kidneys . f f , the external iliack branches of the great artery . g g , the ascending trunk of the vena cava below the kidneys . g g g , the iliack branches of the vena cava . x g , the spermatick artery of the right testicle , which commonly arises from the fore-part of the aorta near the beginning of the left spermatick artery ; but in the subject whence this figure was taken , it seems to arise with two trunks from the right emulgent artery , or else the operator committed a mistake in dissecting these parts here exprest . in all the subjects i have hitherto examin'd , i have constantly found the spermatick arteries to arise near each other , on the fore-part of the aorta , as is exprest on the left side , and commonly describ'd by anatomists . riolan tells us he has observ'd one of the spermatick arteries to arise from the emulgent ; the like i have more than once thought i had seen , but upon strict examination , i found it a branch from the emulgent artery , descending in the duplicature of the peritonaeum with the spermatick artery and vein ; nor could i observe any inosculation between it and the spermatick artery . the spermatick arteries being very small as they arise out of the aorta , i don't much wonder that they have escap'd the eyes of the less accurate dissectors , and give them occasion to suppose they were sometimes wanting . † g , the spermatick vein of the right testicle , ending in the vena cava , as i have constantly observ'd it . xf , the left spermatick artery arising from the fore-part of the descending trunk of the aorta towards the left side . † f , the spermatick vein of the left testicle which empties it self into the left emulgent vein in one trunk most commonly ; but sometimes i have seen it , as in this figure , divided a little below the emulgent vein . h h , the ureters of their common size descending from the kidneys to the bladder of urine . i , the urine bladder distended with wind. k , the left emulgent vein . i , the emulgent artery of the right side . m , part of the arteria mesenterica inferior . n n , the testicles . o , the epididymis of the left testicle . p p , the vasa deferentia free'd from the tunica vaginalis of the preparantia . , divers blood-vessels propagated to the peritonaeum from the spermatick vessels . the forty-third table . fig. . the external and inferior side of the left kidney . a a b b , the proper membrane of the kidney covering above two thirds of its body : the superior part of the kidney being free'd from its membrane , some vestigiae of its lobuli ( when in the foetus ) do appear . c , the emulgent artery pinn'd out . d , the emulgent vein pinn'd out . e , the vreter , and its expansion within the kidney , call'd the pelvis , made bare . fig. . a a , the concave part of the same kidney represented in the former figure , open'd , to shew the ramifications of its pelvis . b b , the blood-vessels . c c , the vreter and its pelvis branching within the body of the kidney . a piece of a tobacco-pipe being inserted to the superior branch of the pelvis . fig. . half of the kidney when divided according to its length . a a , the external convex surface and glandulous part of the kidney . b b c c , the tubuli vrinarii arising from the glands of the kidney in their way towards the papillae . d , half of the pelvis expanded , so that the beginning of the vreter from it may be seen . e , the vreter hanging down . f , the blood-vessels of the kidney . the proper membrane of the kidney is here pinn'd out . fig. . the kidney divided thro' its whole length , from its back to the pelvis . a a , the urinary tubes as they appear in divers classes , in their way towards the papillae in the pelvis . b c , the glands and urinary tubes interspers'd with the blood-vessels of the kidney . d , the pelvis or infundibulum open'd , so that the going out of the vreter may be seen . d , the vreter . e e , the carunculae papillares compos'd of the endings of the urinary tubes , which open into the branchings of the pelvis , into which the urine is discharg'd , in order to its being transmitted to the bladder of urine by the vreter . e e , the fat within the kidney lying on the pelvis . fig. . the blood-vessels and urinary tubes of the kidney exprest by a microscope . a , the proper membrane of the kidney . b b , the ends of the blood-vessels broke off . c c , the blood-vessels of the kidney which help to compose its glands . d d , the glands of the kidney compos'd of blood-vessels , urinary tubes , nerves and lympheducts . the nerves of the kidneys as well as of other glands in the abdomen furnished with excretory ducts , are very few , and their trunks very small ; nor do's any exquisite pains affect the kidneys themselves , tho' stones compos'd of divers angles are lodg'd in their glandulous parts ; but the parts whose nerves are complext with those of the kidneys , suffer most in such cases . tho' we reckon the nerves among the parts which compose the glands of the kidneys , yet we cannot think they are any otherwise useful here , than subservient to the other vessels which are immediately imploy'd in the secretion of the urine , as the blood-vessels and urinary tubes ; which are the parts organiz'd for separating the urine from the blood. nor are the lympheducts otherwise imploy'd here than we have elsewhere taken notice of , as in the liver ; to carry off part of the succus nutritius which is constantly convey'd to the gland it self . how these parts are organiz'd , the following experiments may a little inform us . if you blow into the emulgent artery , the wind will pass into the vein of that name , vreter , and lympheducts ; the the like will happen if you blow either into the vreter or emulgent vein . if you inject mercury , all these vessels will in like manner be distended . if you syringe water into the emulgent arteries , it will at first pass the veins and vreter ; but if you continue injecting it for any time , the whole kidney will at length become distended , and the water will no longer pass off again by those vessels . hence it appears the blood consisting of globular bodies , ( proportionated to the magnitude of the extremities of the vessels moving in the serum ) readily pass on by a succession of globules still driving others before them ; whilst the urinary tubes ( as they arise with small orifices from the sides of the extremities of the blood-vessels ) receive the thinner or urinous part of the blood , and discharge it into the pelvis of the kidney . in the body of a person of the first rank i lately dissected , i found the left kidney large , its texture very loose ; and by blowing into its vreter , the emulgent vein very suddenly became distended : in this person among other disorders , he had near twenty years before his death , very feculent urine : if his urine was evaporated by heat as in a spoon over a candle , its feculent part became still thicker ; by which it appear'd the nutritious parts of the serum of the blood as well as the urinous part , past off by the too great laxity of the urinous pores in the sides of the blood vessels in the kidney . e , the urinary tubes in their way from the glands to the papillae . f , the extremities of the blood vessels which compose the glands of the kidney . g , the urinary tubes composing the papillae , where their mouths open into one of the branches of the pelvis . h , a branch of the pelvis cut off . fig. . a a , the internal concave part of the kidney opened . b , part of the vreter . c , the pelvis free'd of the kidney . d d , the branches of the pelvis within the kidney also made bare . e e , the urinary tubes which arise from the extremities of the blood vessels of the kidney , and open into the branches of the pelvis , composing the papillae . fig. . the vreter , pelvis and its ramifications free'd from the kidney and dried . a , part of the vreter . b , the pelvis or beginning of the vreter lying within the body of the kidney . c d , the ramifications of the pelvis cut from the corpora papillaria , or endings of the urinary tubes . the forty-fourth table . fig. . the membranes of the ureter view'd with a microscope . a a a , &c. a portion of the ureter cut off near the bladder and expanded ; b , it s exterior membrane . c d , it s membranaceous fibres running according to its length , fill'd with fat. e , the second membrane or lamella of the ureters , consisting of oblique muscular fibres intersecting each other . f , the blood-vessels lying between this and the first membrane . h , the third or internal membrane of the ureter , compos'd of fibres much looser and standing at greater distances , than those of the former . i i , divers glandules which appear in this membrane , and emit a mucus to defend the ureter from the acrimonious salts of the urine . fig. . the inferior or back-part of the bladder of urine , &c. together with the penis . a b , &c. portions of the ureters in their tortuous progress to their oblique insertions , between the exterior and inferior membranes of the bladder . c c , the bladder of urine cover'd with fat , as it is commonly found in humane bodies . the bladder of urine may be said to be a dilatation of the ureters ; the intimate structure of the membrane of both agree , except that the muscular fibres of the bladder are stronger and larger than those of the ureters ; the superior and largest of them embracing the bladder , like a hand , as spigelius compares them ; the internal are less , and decussate the superior with various angles : some anatomists reckon these among the muscles , and call them detrusores urinae . the glands of the bladder of urine are also larger than those of the ureters , and are frequently tumified as well as the fibres in diseas'd bodies , especially in those who for some time have been afflicted with a stone in this part , the sides of the bladder have been very much thickned ; and by compressing them a mucus may be seen to arise from its internal surface , thro' divers ostiola or excretory ducts . the bladder is situated in the hypogastrium in the duplicature of the peritonaeum : when it 's inflated in the body , it exactly fill's that cavity of the abdomen , call'd the pelvis ; its upper part is suspended by the urachus , which in some animals would be liable to fall on its neck and hinder the evacuation of urine . the use of the bladder is to receive the urine from the ureters , and contain it till the time of excretion ; whence it 's squees'd out partly by its own carnous fibres , but chiefly by the muscles of the abdomen . d , that part of the urethra that is bended under the os pubis in its proper situation , and is plac'd between the sphincter muscle of the anus and prostatae . this part of the urethra is liable to be wounded , and sometimes perforated by too hastily introducing the conductor into the bladder , after an incision is made in the perinaeum in cutting for the stone ; whereby the operator afterwards thrusts his forceps between the bladder of urine and rectum . this inadvertency i am perswaded is very often practis'd among the pretenders to lythotomy , and frequently proves fatal to the patient . one would think it was hardly possible a man in his senses , and but tollerably acquainted with anatomy , could commit such errors ; yet of this i have met with more than one instance , when being call'd to dissect the deceased , in whom such operators have been so unfortunate as to leave the stone still in the bladder . e , the vasa preparantia or blood-vessels of the testes , involv'd in the peritonaeum . f , the testicle . between f and e g , is that part of the spermatick vessels , call'd corpus pyramidale , and plexus pampiniformis or varicosus . g g , the vas deferens ascending from the testicle to the vesiculae seminales . h h , the vesiculae seminales blow'd up by the vasa deferentia ; that of the right side having a blow-pipe still remaining in it . i , the back-part of the prostatae or corpus glandosum . k k , the back-part of the penis . l l , the musculi directores penis , whose origin , progress , and termination are exprest tab. . fig. . m , the bulb of the cavernous body of the urethra devested of the musculus accelerator urinae , exprest in the last mention'd table ; that part of the bulb towards the anus being cut off ; its internal cavernous part here appears deprest , or drawn inwards . the forty-fifth table . fig. . is the testes with its vessels and membranes when free'd from the scrotum . a , the body of the testicle . b , some appearances of the musculus cremaster ( according to bidloo . ) c c , the tunica vaginalis ; d , it s inferior part cleaving to the testicle ; e , it s superior part continued to the peritonaeum . f , the serpentine distribution of the blood-vessels on the testes . g , that part of the testes next the epididymis . h , the epididymis . h , the vas deferens whole thickness and cavity is very truly exprest at its extremity . i , a particular vaginal-tunicle of the vas deferens , which bidloo says has circular fibres , but not here exprest . k , the blood-vessels of the testicle call'd vasa praeparantia , as they appear before any injection or inflation is made into them . l , the nerve of the testicle . fig. . the testes , vas deferens , and vasa praeparantia display'd , together with some lympheducts of the former . a , the arteria spermatica continued from a portion of the descending trunk of the arteria magna : i can't but suspect this part of the figure to be erroneous , since in the many subjects i have always observ'd the origin of the spermatick artery to be very small , even much smaller than its inferior trunk ; insomuch , that its cavity arising from the arteria magna , would scarce admit the smallest probe commonly us'd , it being but just capacious enough to receive a large hogs bristle . a a , &c. the ramifications of the spermatick artery in their descent to the testes . b , the trunk of the spermatick vein with a portion o● the vena cava , into which it enters ; c d bb , &c. it s various anastomoses and retiforme inosculations , as it ascends from the testes . e e , the valves of the spermatick vein which look from below upwards , and prevent the descent of the blood in that vessel . should it be askt why the spermatick veins in humane bodies , and the arteries in quadrupedes should have a tortuous progress towards the testicles ; and vice versa the humane spermatick arteries and veins of quadrupedes should pass straight ? we answer , tho' the separation of the semen in the testicle is after the manner of that of other liquors in conglomerate glands , yet we constantly find in all animals , that the arteries of the testes are propagated from their large trunks at a considerable distance from them ; and those of the conglomerate glands , are always supply'd with blood-vessels from the next neighbouring-branch : and this practice in nature we can't at present account for otherwise , than that the blood in the testicles should not pass with that velocity as it do's in other glands ; else what should be the design of those many turnings and windings made in the spermatick arteries of most , if not all quadrupedes ? but that every angle of their contortions should take off the impetus of the impell'd blood from the heart . but the subject of our present animadversions here , offers an objection . why than are the spermatick arteries in humane bodies straight , when their progress is towards a perpendicular descent , upon the account of the erect position of the body ? we answer , that the descending progress of the blood might be a very good argument of its enjoying a freer accession to the testes ; but we constantly observe in all humane bodies , that the spermatick arteries are ( as we have intimated above ) very small at their originals from the arteria magna , which is a sufficient impediment to any great impetus of the blood from the great artery : nor was this contrivance in nature necessary in quadrupedes , because it would be an impediment in them in providing that requisite stock of semen to impregnate the female with her numbers ; or in regard a greater proportion of semen was in them necessary on the account of the length of the cornua uteri , which it must first pass thro' , before it can arrive at the fallopian tubes and ovaria : whence it is , that the testes of quadrupedes are much larger in proportion , than the humane . but why the humane spermatick veins are thus divided and inosculated with each other , when those of quadrupedes are straight and fewer trunks , is accountable from their positions ; those of men being towards a perpendicular ascent to convey the refluent blood ; and those of quadrupedes near horizontal . from hence the necessity of making one of these blood-vessels varicous , do's appear , especially the humane spermatick veins ; which , if had the arteries been also , as in quadrupedes ; the spaces or perforations in the muscles of the abdomen for their egress , must have been so large , as that the intestines would have been continually liable to an extrusion . f , part of the epididymis . g , the glandulous part of the testicle devested of its proper membrane . h h , the vas deferens partly free'd from the epididymis , to exhibit some of its contortions . i , the tunica vaginalis of the vas deferens . k , the tunica albuginea , with some of the glandulous part of the testicle rais'd with it . l , part of the tunica elythroides or vaginalis . m , some of the lympheducts of the testicle pinn'd out . fig. . part of the vas deferens that composes the epididymis , done much bigger than the life . a a , part of the testicle . b d , the tortuous or serpentine disposition of the vas deferens in the epididymis ; in which manner the whole body of the epididymis is compos'd of that vessel , or secretory duct of the testicle . c d , another separation of the vas deferens in the epididymis . e , the vas deferens . i i , the tunica vaginalis of the vas deferens compos'd of circular fibres according to bidloo . the forty-sixth table . fig. . a , the glandulous part of the testicle devested of its proper integument . b b , the tunica albuginea , or proper membrane of the testes rais'd and pinn'd up . c c , the vessels of the testes broken off in raising the albuginea . d e , &c. some of the blood-vessels which perforate the tunica albuginea . f , part of the foldings of the vas deferens , which composes the epididymis , made bare . g , the vas deferens ; h , its cavity or ductus which is very conspicuous in all the figures of the preceding table , and not letter'd . i d , the vasa praeparantia or blood-vessels of the testes involv'd in their proper membrane . k , the nerve of the testes . fig. . the testes devested of its tunica albuginea . a , the seminal-vessels of the testes collectively passing to their egress , in order to compose the epididymis . b b , the tunica albuginea free'd from the testes . c c , the glandulous part of the testicle . d d , the seminal-vessels or tubes deriv'd from their originals , in the sides of the arteries that compose the glands . e e , the orifices made by breaking off of the blood-vessels as they pass thro' the tunica albuginea . f , the seminal tubes passing out of the testes , which are afterwards united into one trunk , whose foldings , turnings or windings compose the epididymis ; whence it 's continued ( as is exprest in the preceding figure ) and call'd vas deferens . fig. . the testes dissected transversely . a a , the tunica albuginea rais'd . b b , the glandulous part of the testes where some vestigia of the blood-vessels appear . c c , the progress of the seminal tubes thro' the substance of the testes . d , their trunks collectively passing towards their egress , as in the former figure , which by some is call'd ductus highmorianus . fig. . the vessels of the testes exprest with a microscope according to bidloo , whose description take as follows . a , the seminal-vessels separated from each other . b , their cavities swelling in the manner of valves . c , the blood-vessels accompanying the aforesaid vessels , and covering them with glands . d e , the fragments of the small membranes . i am apt to believe this figure of the seminal-vessels of the testes is fictitious , or that it may be of the seminal-vessels of the epididymis ; for i am well assur'd the seminal-vessels of the testes and their blood-vessels , can with no art be so display'd as bidloo describes these to be so represented with a microscope : but grant it was practicable so to display those vessels , yet i am sure it is not possible to distinguish the vessels which carry the semen from those of the blood ; so that such a description must be precarious . the experiments i have made in examining the testes , convince me that the extremities of their blood-vessels which compose their glands , are much less or more tender than those of other parts ; whence it is , if you inject mercury by the spermatick artery , it will not pass back again by the vein , as in the kidneys and other glands ; but the mercury upon pushing it forwards , will sooner break the extremities of these vessels , and get out in the tunica albuginea , and extend the whole stone than return again by the spermatick vein : nor could i ever find the lympheducts fill'd with mercury , upon injecting it into the spermatick artery ; but by blowing into the vein of that name , the lympheducts soon become distended , as nuck has also taken notice in his adenographia curiosa , pag. . fig. . a , the blood-vessels of the testicle injected with wax , and not separated from their inward membrane , deriv'd from the peritonaeum . b , the spermatick artery . c , the vein . d d , the spermatick blood-vessels above the testes which are distributed to the epididymis . e , vasa deferentia ; f , tunica albuginea ; g , and to the stone it self h. the sixth figure shews the other side of the same testicle and vessels , which are distinguish'd by the same letters . from what has been said , it appears the vasa deferentia like the secretory ducts of other glands , spring from the extremities of the blood-vessels of the testes ; and agreeable to the length and tortuous progress of the blood-vessels of these parts , so their secretory ducts or vasa deferentia are of a vast length also , and dispos'd in divers foldings in composing that part call'd the epididymis . the vasa deferentia thus arising from the epididymis , pass up straight with the preparantia : soon after they are in the cavity of the abdomen , these deferent vessels leave the preparantia , and descend over the ureters in the pelvis of the abdomen , between the bladder of urine and the rectum ; where they begin to dilate themselves and open into the vesiculae seminales , as appears in the following table , fig. , . the forty-seventh table . fig. . shews the fore-parts of the penis , glandulae prostatae , and vesiculae seminales , &c. a a , the vesiculae seminales . a a , the blood-vessels ; b b , their branches on the vesiculae . c , the membrane which covers the vesiculae seminales and vasa deferentia . d superior , the vas deferens of the left side appearing very much enlarg'd before it enters the vesiculae seminales of that side . d d inferior , the vesiculae seminales of the right side . e , the neck of the bladder cut off at the beginning of the vrethra . f f , the fore-part of the prostatae divided to shew the inside of the vrethra . g , the caruncula or caput gallinaginis on the inferior or back-part of the vrethra ; as it appears when the superior or fore-part of the vrethra is divided . h h , the two orifices of the seed-vessels , as they appear when the upper part of the caruncula or caput gallinaginis is snipt off with a pair of sizars . the ostia prostatarum on both sides the caruncula do somewhat appear . i i , the upper part of the penis , call'd , dorsum penis , cover'd with its membrana carnosa , whose fore-part with the true-skin , composes the praeputium . k k , the corpora cavernosa penis cut from the ossa pubis . l , the bulb of the cavernous body of the vrethra . the figure of the cavernous body of the vrethra differs very much from those of the penis ; that of the vrethra being less in its middle , and large at both ends ; whereas the corpora cavernosa penis are less at their extremities , and large in their middles . m , the glans composing the other extream of the cavernous body of the vrethra . n n , the nerves of the penis pinn'd out . o o , the arteries of the penis . p , the vena ipsius penis where it is comprest by the transverse ligament of the os pubis , when the penis is erected . q , part of the membrana carnosa penis pinn'd out . fig. . the vesiculae seminales cut through after inflation and drying them , to shew their insides . a b c , the cells of the vesiculae seminales so extended by inflation , that the rete or vesiculae minores in their insides do not appear . d f f , the insides of the vasa deferentia in like manner so extended by inflation , that their vesiculae minores do not appear . g , the two seminal ducts which discharge the semen into the vrethra . h , part of the prostatae . fig. . a , a. the corpus glandulosum or prostatae divided . b , c , &c. it s glandulous inside . d d , the ducts of the prostatae which open into the vrethra , at the sides of the caput gallinaginis , which are elegantly exprest in the following table , fig. . k. f , f. part of the vrethra . fig. . the prostatae blow'd up , their excretory tubes in the vrethra and dry'd . a , a , the exterior membrane . b , b , the interior membrane compos'd of more carneous fibres than the former . c , c , &c. their transparent vesicules extended . d , d , some of the vesicules broke up . e , e , other vesiculae that remain hard and extended . f , f , some parts of the ducts remaining extended . g , g , the fragments of the membranes . fig. . the muscles of the anus and penis in situ . a , b , c , d , the musculus sphincter ani : the figure and situation of this muscle is here well exprest ; tho' part of it be frequently divided in opening a fistulous sinus of the anus , yet the remaining part of it is sufficient for its proper office of retaining the faeces . e , e , the levatores ani : the origination of which muscles are best seen after dividing the ossa pubis , to take out the bladder of urine with the penis : they spring from the internal parts of the last mention'd bones , and descend close over the corpus glandulosum or prostatae . the hinder parts of these muscles derive their broad , thin , fleshy beginnings from the ossa ischii and os sacrum ; from these places their fibres descend to their implantation , into the lower end of the intestinum rectum in the anus . these muscles have a two-fold office ; first in drawing up the anus , least it should be too much press'd upon by the foeces ; secondly they compress the prostatae and vesiculae seminales in coitu , in order to discharge their contents or semen into the vrethra . f , f , the directores penis or erectores : they arise fleshy from the lower margin of the ossa pubis where they are join'd to the ischii ; whence they ascend to their implantations near the beginnings of the corpora cavernosa penis . the position of these muscles renders them capable of pulling the penis inwards and downwards ; but by means of a ligament arising from the ossa pubis , which is fastned to the upper part of the penis , they have a different effect by drawing the penis somewhat upwards and nearer the pubes , whereby the great vein on the dorsum penis is comprest , and the erection of the penis promoted . g , g , the corpora cavernosa penis . h , h , the musculus accelerator vrinae covering the bulb of the cavernous body of the vrethra : this derives its origin from the upper-part of the vrethra l , fig. . on both sides , and encompassing the bulb , meets on its inferior part , but after a considerable progress on that part of the vrethra in the perinaeum ; this muscle divides its self and makes two tendinous insertions on both sides the corpora cavernosa penis , as is exprest in this figure . besides the offices commonly ascrib'd to this muscle of compressing the vrethra in driving out the remains of urine , and promoting the ejaculation of the semen , both which actions are chiefly done by the last describ'd parts of it , embracing the vrethra . it also assists the musculi directores in promoting the erection of the penis , by compressing the bulb whose contain'd blood is then driven towards the glans , in a greater quantity than can immediately be discharg'd by the veins of the bulb ; the glans thereby suddenly becomes distended : but the vigorous action of this muscle not continuing long , the veins of the bulb which were then compress'd , are again at liberty to discharge the retain'd blood , and the glans suddenly sinks : whence it comes that the glans is not always duly extended , when the corpora cavernosa penis are erected . this part of the bulb and accelerator muscle , &c. are divided in lithotomy , or cutting for the stone in the bladder ; whence it happens that the cicatrice of these parts afterwards , often hinders a compleat extention of the glans penis in an erection . the like happn'd in a patient i was not long since call'd to , who had a fistulous sinus in the perinaeum , in whom i found this bulbous part of the cavernous body of the vrethra very much indurated : upon enquiry he told me , when his penis was erected , the glans remained shrivelld and no ways extended : nor could the corpus cavernosum vrethrae be extended , and therefore he could by no means ejaculate the semen at the time of erection ; but the semen often came with the urine . i , the musculus transversalis penis on the left side , that of the right not being letter'd ; it arises from the knob of the os ischium immediately below the origination of the musculus director , and passes transversly to the superior part of the bulb of the cavernous body of the vrethra . k , the glans or balanus . l , the praeputium . m , the fraenum . n , the vrethra open'd the forty-eighth table . fig. . the upper and fore-parts of the penis and bladder of urine , well exprest after a curious dissection . a a , the cavernous bodies of the penis whole . b b , that part of the skin which composes the praeputium . b , the reduplication or inner membrane of the praeputium . c d , the blood-vessels which adorn the upper-part or dorsum penis . e , the glans or balanus . about the neck of the glans where the prepuce is join'd to the penis , are plac'd the glandulae odoriferae , taken notice of by the accurate anatomist dr. tyson . these separate a matter , which serves to lubricate the prepuce , and make it slide easily on the glans . these glandules of the prepuce are frequently very much tumified in venereal contacts , and especially if these parts happen to be ulcerated , whence a foetide matter proceeds . f f , the urine bladder open'd . g g , parts of the ureters next the bladder . h h , portions of the vasa deferentia . i i , parts of the vesiculae seminales in view . k , the caruncula or caput gallinaginis , and ostiolae prostatarum as they appear after the fore-part of the urethra is divided . k l , the prostatae whose upper-part is divided with the urethra . m , the vein of the penis which is comprest in an erection , by a ligament plac'd under the ossa pubis . n n , the two arteries of the penis . o o , the nerves . p p , the corpora cavernosa free'd from the ossa pubis and their musculi erectores . q q , parts of the musculus accelerator urinae free'd from the bulb of the cavernous body of the urethra , and expanded . fig. . a a , parts of the glans penis view'd with a microscope . b b , the common membrane of the penis or praeputium . c c , the proper membrane of the glans separated . d e f g , divers rows of fibres dispos'd like membranes , and intricately interwoven with the internal membranes and blood-vessels . fig. . the fore-part of a portion of the penis , together with the glans dri'd after inflation . a a a , the inner-parts of the corpora cavernosa penis . b , the septum of the corpora cavernosa . c d , the cells of the cavernous bodies which open into the sides of the veins , and are sustain'd by the fibres which pass to and fro' from the capsula or exterior membrane of the corpora cavernosa and septum . these fibres are not so conspicuous in the humane penis , as in that of a horse : nor are the cells of a humane penis so evident as they are in quadrupedes : this structure of the cavernous bodies of the penis seeming to agree with the spleen in the same animal . e e , the arteries passing thro' the middle of each cavernous body of the penis . after taking off the tops of the corpora cavernosa penis , from a patient who had the glans very much ulcerated , i could easily take hold of the ends of the bleeding arteries with my forceps , and pass a ligature on their trunks , and tie them ; which practice in such cases is preferable to the application of stypticks which cause pain . f , the glans . g , the orifice of the meatus urinarius in the glans . fig. . the hinder-part of the penis in like manner prepar'd by inflation , &c. a a , a portion of the capsula of the cavernous body of the penis cut , and rais'd up ; on which part of the rete of the corpus cavernosum do's appear . b , the corpus cavernosum . c , the urethra open'd . d , the corpus cavernosum urethrae divided . e , the remaining part of the urethra and its cavernous body entire . f , the glans penis . fig. , . the corpora cavernosa penis and that of the urethra , after a transverse section when inflated and dri'd . a a , the capsula or strong membrane of the cavernous bodies of the penis . b b , the corpora cavernosa penis ; in the middle of each of which the trunks of two arteries pass according to their length . c , the septum . d , the strong membrane or capsula of the corpus cavernosum urethrae . e , the circular cavernous body of the urethra . a particular account of the structure of this part is inserted in an appendix to our myotomia reformata ; where the lympheducts of the humane penis are describ'd , and some phaenomena relating to them explain'd : since the writing of which , i have had an opportunity of seeing the lympheducts on the penis of a dog , where i observ'd by blowing into the veins , the lympheducts were immediately distended . the forty-ninth table . shews the cavity of the abdomen of a woman after the intestines , mesentery , &c. are remov'd . a a , the internal part of the peritonaeum , together with the common and proper integuments of the abdomen after a crucial section . b , the right falloppian tube of the uterus somewhat rais'd from within the pelvis of the abdomen . c , a portion of the intestinum rectum . d , the bladder of urine in situ . e , the pubes . f , the arteria magna with its iliac branches lying on those of the vena cava . g , the vena cava . h , the stomach supported with a stylus . i , the liver in situ . k , part of the spleen . l , part of the left kidney . m m , parts of the musculus psoi magni . n , the ligamentum venosum umbilicale turn'd up . the fiftieth table . represents the parts of generation in a woman curiously diffected , and plac'd in their natural site . a , the right kidney . b , the left kidney . cc , the glandulae renales with their blood-vessels . e , the arteria magna . d d , the ureters . a , the trunk of the arteria mesenterica superior cut off . b , the trunk of the arteria mesenterica inferior . e e , &c. the rest of the branches of the great artery ; of which the superior are the emulgents , the inferior the iliaci externi , and interni . f , the ascending trunk of the vena cava . f f f , the various ramifications of the vena cava ; whereof the superior are the emulgentes , the middle the vertebrales , the inferior the external and internal iliac branches . g g , the spermatick artery and vein in their progress to and from the ovaria blow'd up , and separated from each other on the right side . h h , the spermatick artery and vein of the left side , still remaining within their coverings . i , a portion of the intestinum rectum tied . k , the fundus uteri lying under the internal membrane of the peritonaeum . l , the bladder of urine , in like manner , under the internal lamina of the peritonaeum . m m , the tubae falloppianae adorn'd with their blood-vessels . m m , the cavities of the falloppian tubes . n n , the ovaria . n n , the fimbriae of the falloppian tubes which embrace the ovaria after impregnation , as appears tab. . b , c. fig. . o , the orifice of the vagina or pudendum . p p , the labii pudendi . q , the praeputium clitoridis made by the nymphae . r r , the nymphae . t , the upper-part of the pudendum towards the mons veneris . v , the extremity of the clitoris call'd glans , cover'd with the nymphae . w w , the ligamentia teretia continued to the fundus uteri , and pinn'd out . tho' these parts have obtain'd the name of ligaments , yet their structure and composition differ very much from the ligaments of other parts , which are hard , dry and very compact bodies ; whereas these round ligaments of the uterus are compos'd of a great number of veins and arteries ; the nerves and lympheducts are also said to enter into their composition : they appear to be very extensible parts , and are coextended with the fundus vteri after impregnation : they are broad towards the fundus vteri , and gradually lessen themselves and become round as they approach the pubis , where they terminate under the fat : they pass thro' the muscles of the abdomen , not unlike the spermatick vessels in men , whence women are sometimes liable to have a hernia intestinalis ; but the perforations of the muscles not being so large as in men , those ruptures do not so often happen in women . x x , &c. a large portion of the internal lamina of the peritonaeum covering the surface of the fundus vteri , bladder of urine , ovaria and the like : this by some is erroneously call'd the ligamentum latum vteri . nor is there any such ligament belonging to the vterus , unless this part of the peritonaeum may be so call'd . the fifty-first table . fig. . the clitoris and parts annex'd , dissected . a , the upper part of the clitoris with its veins , which are comprest by the ligamentum transversum of the os pubis in the time of coition , in like manner as the vein of the penis is in its erection . b b , the two crura clitoridis , which arise from the ossa p●bis , where they appear porous . c c , parts of the labia pudendi . d , the glans clitoridis . g g , the nymphae which compose the praeputium clitoridis . h , the meatus vrinaruis , or passage of urine . e e , the musculi erectores clitoridis , which arise from the external margin of the os ischium , and are inserted to the beginnings of the corpora cavernosa of the clitoris : their office is to draw the clitoris to the ossa pubis , in order to stop the refluent blood in its large vein , whence the clitoris like the penis becomes extended . by these means the clitoris is not only dilated , but the labii pudendi are in like manner extended by two cavernous bodies or retia of blood-vessels plac'd on each side the orifice of the vagina externally . these are accurately describ'd by reg. de graaf de mulierum organis , cap. vii . and call'd plexus retiformis . f f , parts of the musculus sphincter vaginae left at the extremity of the clitoris . the circular fibres of this muscle encompass the vagina on the retiform plexus , and compress its veins , ( which discharge their blood into the vein of the clitoris a. ) by which means the plexus is fill'd with blood , and the external orifice of the vagina ( about the carunculae myrtiformes ) is straighten'd and adequately embraces the penis in a mutual coitus . fig. . part of the clitoris cut off after inflation and drying . a , the little head or glans clitoridis . b , its proper membrane or capsula . c , its cavernulous contexture . d , it s septum . fig. . the pudendum and fore-part of the vagina vteri open'd . a , part of the vagina , which lies under the bladder of urine . b b , the vagina and meatus vrinarius divided . c c , the corpus glandulosum or part analogous to the prostatae in men , divided . d d , the ductus secretorii or lacunae of de graaf , within the gland , which have divers ostiola about the meatus vrinarius , whence issues part of the matter emitted in coitu . besides these ducts arising from glands plac'd about the the meatus vrinarius , there are others of the same kind in the vagina , and two remarkable ones arising from two very conspicuous glands , plac'd towards the lower part of the orificium pudendi by the anus , whose ducts open at the roots of the carunculae myrtiformes externally on each side the pudendum . these and the above-mention'd ducts discharge the matter commonly call'd semen . e e e , the meatus vrinarius open'd ; at whose extremity divers of the aforesaid ostiola appear . f f , the labia pudendi open'd . g , the internal rugous membrane of the vagina vteri : this internal membrane is much fuller of rugae towards its upper part , b , c , d , here divided , than in the lower , g , next the rectum : as it approaches the pudendum , it becomes somewhat narrower , and behind or above the orifice of the meatus vrinarius it frames a valvulous appearance in virgins of above or years of age. in girls of or , it appears to be a transverse membrane having a small perforation towards its upper part. when the hymen is broke , whether in coitu or otherwise , the divided parts of it make the carunculae myrtiformes , whence it is , the figure and number of those caruncles are uncertain ; wierus , parry , hildanus and others give us histories of cases where the hymen has been impervious after twenty-two years of age , and such a quantity of menstrua pent in the vagina , &c. extend the lower belly , as if they had gone with child . some years since i was call'd by my ingenious friend dr. chamberlin to see a marry'd woman of above twenty years of age , whose lower belly was very much distended , as if with child . upon examining the pudendum , we found the hymen altogether impervious , and driven out beyond the labia pudendi in such manner , that at first sight it appear'd not unlike a prolapsus vteri . in the upper part towards the clitoris we found the orifice of the meatus vrinarius very open , and its sides extruded not unlike the anus or cloaca of a cock , and without any difficulty i could put my fore-finger into the bladder of urine . on dividing the hymen , at least a gallon of grumous blood of divers colours and consistencies came from her , which was the retain'd menstrua . the next day no less a quantity of the same matter flow'd after removing the pessary which i had put in the day before . after three , or four days she was easie , and soon after recover'd , and with in a year was deliver'd of a healthful child . her husband told us , tho' lying with her at first was very painful to himself as well as to her , yet at last he had a more easie access ; which could be by no other way than the meatus vrinarius . fig. . the vterus , ovaria and falloppian tubes dissected . a , b b , the fundus vteri open'd to shew the cavity and thickness of its sides . c c , the collum vteri leading from the vagina to the fundus , likewise open'd . d , the os tincae or orifice of the collum minus . e , the vagina vteri divided to shew its rugae . f f , the cavity of the fundus vteri as it appears before impregnation , it being of a somewhat triangular figure , and not exceeding the magnitude it 's here represented of . between d and f is the collum minus or cervix fundi vteri , where divers rugae are truly represented , in whose sulci are the orifices of divers small tubes , which arise from a glandulous contexture of the vessels of this part ; whence proceeds a pituitous serous matter , as may be seen by compressing this part externally . de graaf de mul. organ . generat . inseroi . cap. viii . acknowledges his ignorance , to what end this matter is here separated , unless it be to moisten the parts and excite venery , &c. in preparing a humane vterus after three months impregnation , i found the os tincae and collum minus very much dilated , and fill'd with a very tough , glutinous matter . the like is taken notice of by spigellius , lib. viii . cap. xxiii . as the time of the partus draws in , the os tincae still becomes larger , and the glutinous matter encreases , whereby it prevents abortions by opposing any extrusion of the chorion , notwithstanding the efforts made by the foetus from within towards the time of the partus : this glutinous matter also hinders the intrusion of any thing from the vagina after impregnation . when this matter is vitiated as in a fluor albus , impregnation is hindered . g h h , the orifices of the falloppian tubes in the two superior angles of the fundus vteri . i i i i , two probes inserted into each of the last mention'd tubes . k , a small constricture in the mouth of the tube . l l , the right falloppian tube open'd and expanded , whose internal membrane is somewhat rugous . m n , the right ovaria entire . o o o , the fimbriae or expansum foliacium tubae . p p , a broad ligament between the ovarium and tube , not unlike to a bat's wing . q , the left ovaria open'd . r r , the external membrane of the ovarium . s s , t t , divers glands and transparent little vessicules , which compose the ovaria . v v , the peritonaeum or external tegument of the vterus , which is call'd the ligamentum latum . w w , portions of the ligamenta rotunda vterina . the fifty-second table . the cavity of the abdomen after its viscera are remov'd . a a , the common and proper integuments of the abdomen , dissected and turn'd aside . b b , the diaphragma in situ : it arises tendinous on the right side from the third , second and first vertebra of the loins , and last of the back ( h ) ; on the left , from the first of the loins , and last vertebra of the back ; hence ascending with fleshy fibres on each side running straight , but towards the middle they pass somewhat curvedly , intersecting each other near the oesophagus ( d ) , do as it were embrace it : after which they become tendinous and join with its upper-part ( f ) , which arises thin and fleshy from the os pectoris or sternum : it s lateral parts derive their origins from the cartilaginous endings of the ribs and lower margin of the last rib ( g ) on each side . from these parts the fleshy fibres of the diaphragm ( like lines drawn from a circumference towards a center ) pass to its middle part , where its tendinous fibres are intercussated with each other and exhibit a rete . besides its perforation for the oesophagus in its fleshy part , it has another in its tendinous one , no less remarkable , to transmit the vena cava ( c ) . it s double origin at the vertebrae of the loins gives way to the descending trunk of the arteria magna ( e ) , and two ascending of the ductus chyliferus and vena azygos on the left side . in expiration this lower surface of the diaphragm is concave towards the abdomen ( as here exprest ) , and its upper , convex towards the thorax . in inspiration it approaches towards a plane next the thorax as well as the abdomen . if the viscera of the lower belly are taken out in vivisection , the inferior surface of the diaphragm will appear convex in inspiration , and more especially if two small wounds should be made into the cavities on both sides the thorax , so that the ambient air may rush into its cavities on each side the mediastinum ; the diaphragma than will still remain concave towards the thorax , and convex towards the abdomen . nor can respiration be perform'd , except the wounds in the thorax are large enough to discharge it s contain'd air freely again ; whence it happens that wounds in the thorax may suddenly prove mortal , when no contain'd part is injured . but in such cases the external wounds ought to be enlarg'd that the air may have a free egress , which the perforation of the skin and muscles not corresponding , hinders ; but this seldom happens , because both sides of the thorax are not very liable to be wounded in such manner at the same time . if one side of the thorax only is wounded , the external air ought by all means to be pent out , tho' the patient is not incident to be suffocated ; because the other side of the lungs are not incommoded , yet the intruded air ought to be let out , tho' it only hinders the dilatation of one side of the lungs . in dissecting a morbid body which had one side of the diaphragm very much deprest , ( by the contain'd water on the same side of the thorax ) i found the lungs on that side in great part mortified , and the blood stagnated ; there being some air also broke out from the bronchia into the cavity of the thorax , which compleatly hinder'd inspiration on that side of the lungs . b , the blood-vessels of the diaphragm , call'd phrenicae . c , the perforation for the vena cava . d , the gula or oesophagus cut off before it passes the diaphragm . e , the trunk of the arteria magna in like manner divided . f , the fore-part of the diaphragm towards the cartilago ensiformis . g , the back-part contiguous to the last rib. h , the tendinous origin of the diaphragm on the right side call'd appendix . the chief action of the diaphragm is to compress the viscera of the lower belly , in order to enlarge the cavity of the thorax in inspiration : nor can we see any reason to doubt its being a muscle elegantly fram'd for this action , wherein divers contingent offices occur ; as the great work of chylification is assisted by the frequent compresses made by it , in its repeated contractions ; and that not only in promoting the descent of the contents of the stomach and intestines ; but also the ascent of the chyle by the vasa lactea and blood by the vena porta are also promoted . it also hastens the discharge of those liquors contain'd in the excretory ducts of those many large glands within the cavity of the abdomen , as the liver , pancreas , kidneys , &c. not to mention many other contingent offices of this part ; as in the exclusion of the foeces and urine in both sexes , and foetus in women , &c. i i , the vertebrae of the loins with their cartilaginous interstitia join'd by ligaments . k k , the musculus psoas magnus on the right side ; the psoas parvus in this subject perhaps was wanting . l l , the psoas magnus on the left side somewhat free'd from the vertebrae , and pin'd out : this large fleshy muscle derives its origin from all the vertebrae of the loins internally , laterally within the cavity of the abdomen , whence descending over the superior part of the os sacrum and spine of the ilium , where it joins with the fleshy fibres of the iliacus internus ( n ) , and passes to its implantation on the superior part of the lesser trochanter of the thigh-bone . this pulls the thigh upwards , and moves it forewards in walking , running , &c. m , the musculus quadratus lumborum , describ'd tab. . n n n , the iliaci interni in situ : either of these muscles arises from above half the superior region and internal concave part of the os ilium , and joining with the psoas magnus , is inserted with it to the lesser trochanter . the office of this muscle , and the psoas magnus are the same . o , part of the gracilis . p p , parts of the triceps . the fifty-third table . fig. . represents the fore-part of the fundus uteri not long after impregnation , together with the parts annext . a , the fundus vteri . b , the left falloppian tube distended , and it s foliated expansions embracing the ovarium ; which action , according to de graaf do's not appear in rabbets till twenty-four hours after the coitus . c c , the ovaria with their protuberant ova in their folliculi . d d , the blood-vessels more extended with blood than before impregnation . e , the right falloppian tube with its fimbriae expanded . f f , portions of the blood-vessels of the ovaria call'd praeparantia and spermatica . g g , a portion of the peritonaeum which makes the external membrane of the vterus , and call'd ligamentum latum vteri . h h , the uterine round ligaments lying under the peritonaeum . i , the cervix vteri divested of its common membrane the peritonaeum , to shew its blood-vessels . k k , the vagina vteri inverted , where its internal rugae are well exprest . l , the internal mouth of the vterus , call'd os tincae , somewhat dilated . fig. . a , the left uterine tube ( exprest in the preceding figure ) pull'd from the ovaria it embrac'd with its fimbriae ; which remain extended , together with its whole ductus . b , the fimbriated orifice of the tube open. c , its progress towards the fundus vteri : the whole tube being of a deep red colour from its many blood-vessels , especially the veins which frame a reticular body , as may be demonstrated either by injecting them with mercury , or inflation . hence it appears the uterine tubes ( not unlike the corpora cavernosa penis clitoridis , &c. ) have their reticulated sides extended , and their internal cavities of consequence enlarg'd upon a particular stop of the refluent blood ; but whether this stop or retardation of the blood in the veins , made in the time of the coitus , ( which for some reasons we are enclin'd to suppose ) or as de graaf intimates five or six and twenty hours after ; neither our present occasions nor opportunities will allow us to examine . fig. . a a , the falloppian tube open'd , according to its length . b c c , its internal membrane divided and expanded . d d , a probe inserted into its beginning near the fundus vteri , which is not yet divided . the rest of the adjacent parts of this figure are explain'd tab. . fig. . fig. . the inferior or back-part of the same impregnated vterus , &c. exprest fig. . its vessels here being injected with wax . a a , the fundus vteri somewhat enlarg'd by reason its veins are injected with wax . b b , the veins fill'd with a dark colour'd wax : c , the arteries with red wax : both which vessels become distended by injecting of their large trunks on either side . d , part of the external membrane of the vterus deriv'd from the peritonaeum , rais'd from the cervix vteri . e , that part of the peritonaeum , call'd ligamentum latum vteri . f , the ovaria of the left side . g g , the falloppian tubes also fill'd with white wax , and very tortuous in this position , their extremities being drawn from the ovaria . h , the round ligament of the left side . i i , the broad ligaments like batt's wings joining the falloppian tubes to the ovaria , where the blood-vessels passing to and from the ovaria , are exprest . k k , the vasa spermatica cut off . these spermatick veins and arteries are not only inosculated in their large trunks , with the hypogastrick veins and arteries of the vterus , but those of the right side of the vterus , are inosculated with the left , in such manner that by injecting of wax into one of the spermatick veins , it will not only fill the hypogastricks , but the spermatick vein also of the contrary side . the like will not happen by injecting wax into the arteries , because their trunks are smaller than the veins . but mercury readily passes from the arteries of one side to those of the other . the fifty-fourth table . shews the abdomen of a woman open'd after seven months gone with child . a a a a , the common integuments of the whole body divided and turn'd off . b b , the proper integuments of the abdomen , viz. the muscles and peritonaeum in like manner divided . c c. the fundus uteri very much enlarg'd ; and in this subject enclines more towards the right side than the left. d d d , the colon and parts of the small gutts as they appear above the fundus uteri . d d , the muscular compages of fleshy fibres call'd the ligamentum coli , well exprest . e , that part of the fundus uteri towards the collum minus . f f f , the veins of the uterus very much dilated . as the time of the birth draws on , so the thickness of the uterus is still said to encrease , and the trunks of the veins become still more and more distended . the trunks of the arteries of the uterus are also at that time proportionably dilated . these blood-vessels of the uterus are inosculated with those of the placenta , as may appear by the passing of mercury from one to the other , so that if you pour it into the hypogastrick arteries of the mother , it will pass into the veins of the placenta as well as those of the uterus : and on the contrary the mercury will pass from the arteries of the placenta to the hypogastrick veins of the mother , as also into the veins of the placenta . hence it appears there is a circulation of blood between the mother and foetus ; and it seems as if the blood-vessels of both did germinate and inosculate with each other . but this requires too much speculation for my occasions to admit of a farther enquiry at present . therefore i shall here only speak of some phaenomena which offer in child-bearing . if the fundus uteri remain tumifi'd after child-bearing or an abortion , the flux of blood proves very great and sometimes destructive to the mother , because the uterus do's not collapse , and by that means close the orifices of the broken-off arteries of the mother . the like flux also happens from the same cause , when but part of the placenta comes away in the partus ; in which case the remaining part ought to be remov'd as soon as possible . the fifty-fifth table . is the abdomen of the same woman open'd , represented in the precedent table . a a a , the fundus uteri after a crucial section expanded . b b inferior , the inside of the skin cover'd with fat. b b superior , c c , the inside of the peritonaeum . d d , part of the colon above the fundus uteri . e e , the external convex surface of the placenta free'd from the fundus uteri . f g h , the asperities f , little hollownesses g , and tubercles h , of the uterus , which receive and were receiv'd by the like in the placenta . i k , part of the chorion cleaving to the internal concave surface of the placenta . l , part of the urinary membrane or allantoides . m , part of the amnios made bare , as it appears fill'd with its containing liquor . tho' this membrane which immediately involves the foetus , appears in most parts very transparent , yet here are a vast number of blood-vessels every where dispers'd thro' it . in divers parts of the amnios in cows , i have more than once observ'd various clusters of somewhat opacous bodies , which i am apt to think are a congeries of glands , and help to separate from the blood , part of the contents of the amnios in which the foetus mov'd , and is receiv'd by its mouth towards the time of the partus . n , part of the chorion rais'd from the amnios , and left to the uterus it self on the right side . part of the liver appears above the intestines immediately under the ensiformal cartilage . the fifty-sixth table . the abdomen and uterus of the same woman ( figur'd in the two precedent tables ) open'd , after seven months gone with child . a , the placenta uterina free'd from the upper part of the uterus , and drawn towards the right side , so that its internal concave surface next the amnios , appears cover'd with the chorion ; under which the arboreous disposition of its blood-vessels are elegantly exprest . b , part of the chorion free'd from the amnios , and rais'd with the placenta , to whose concave part it adheres , and it s continued ( h ) on the umbilical rope . c , part of the urinary membrane free'd from the amnios , and cleaving to the chorion . d d , the uterus with the chorion divided cross-ways and expanded . the inequalities of the internal surface of the uterus are here remarkable : its blood-vessels as well as those of the placenta not only germinate , but inosculate with each other , as is above noted . e e , the proper integuments of the abdomen , ( viz. ) the muscles and peritonaeum in like manner divided . f , the foetus lying within the transparent membrane call'd amnios . g , the amnios entire . h , the umbilical rope arising from the placenta , and passing to the navel of the foetus : its progress is various , sometimes it marches over the right shoulder , sometimes over the left close to the neck ; at other times it ascends towards the breast , whence it is again reflected to the back of the foetus , and thence to the navel . tho' the blood-vessels of the umbilical rope are dispos'd in the best manner ( vid. tab. . . fig. . ) to avoid their being comprest in any contorted position ; yet it sometimes happens either thro' the shortness of the umbilical rope , as in the case mention'd by hildanus , cent. ii. observ. li. or by the great strugling of the foetus in utero ; that it is so comprest , that the blood cannot pass in its vessels : in which case if an abortion do's not happen , or if it is at the time of the partus , and the birth do's not presently follow , the dead foetus with its secondines are retain'd in the uterus ; and if the mother survives , they do gradually putrifie and come away ; as appears in the history of a case very well attested in the excellent works of the above mention'd author , where the bones with part of the muscles of the limbs were taken out near the navel of the mother , some months after the secondines gradually came away at her pudendum . a like instance was lately communicated to me by the ingenious mr. dale the apothecary , who was an eye-witness of it in a woman in the country where he lives . i k l m n o p , the foetus lying in the vterus in its natural posture . the posture of the foetus in the uterus varies very much , especially towards the time of the partus ; this order of it is then inverst , the head at that time is downwards towards the neck of the womb. in the most easie births , the face is turn'd towards the back-bones or os sacrum . if any part , besides the head of the foetus offers it self first , ( except both legs together , ) the birth proves laborious , and sometimes very dangerous ; wherefore the operator in such a case is oblig'd ( if possible ) to reduce those parts , and turn the foetus to the most natural order that can be . the fifty-seventh table . a a , b b , divers eggs of a different size taken from the ovaria of a maid . fig. . an egg impregnated ; in which the branches and plexus of divers blood-vessels appear . fig. . a foetus with its secondines , twenty-five days after conception ; in which the rudimerits of all the limbs appear . a a , the placenta uterina . b , the chorion . c , the urinary membrane according to bidloo . d , the amnios open'd . e , the umbilical rope between the placenta and foetus . f , the foetus . fig. . a foetus forty days after conception , in which all the external parts appear distinct. fig. . a masculine foetus about two months and a half after conception ; in which the magnitude of the head in proportion to the rest of the body is remarkable . the conformation of the bones at that time may be seen in the . tab. fig. , . fig. . an abortive three months after conception , or there abouts dri'd ; so that the connection of its bones may be seen in divers parts . fig. . a foetus of eight months taken out of the uterus , together with its placenta , &c. a , a male foetus , whose hands are contracted and feet contorted inwards . b c d , the umbilical rope continued in its wonted progress between the foetus and placenta . e e , the chorion covering the internal concave surface of the placenta , and its arboreous ramifications of blood-vessels deriv'd from the umbilical rope . f , part of the urinary membrane . g , part of the ammios . h , a portion of the chorion . the fifty-eighth table . a , shews the external convext surface of the placenta uterina free'd from the vterus . the placenta is compos'd of blood-vessels of both kinds deriv'd from the mother and foetus , which frame glandulous bodies and fibres , to which divers succiferous ducts are inserted , says bidloo . these succiferous tubes and glands i must confess never yet occur'd to my observation in dissection , nor do i at present know who besides professor bidloo mentions them : here he only names them among other vessels of the placenta , and in tab. . he represents divers succiferous ducts in the umbilical rope ; nor do's he any where mention what juice these ducts of the placenta carry , or those of the umbilical rope ; wherefore i shall here venture to add my conjecture , and so proceed . if any liquor transcolated by glands of the placenta is convey'd towards the foetus , it is most likely that contain'd in the amnios ; and tho' we have observ'd tab. ● . divers glands plac'd at various distances in the amnios of cows , yet we can by no means think they are sufficient to supply that membrane with a necessary quantity of liquor for entertaining the foetus : and since we have observ'd divers tubercles on the surface of the umbilical rope , mention'd in the following table ( p ) . we cannot tell how to reconcile those phaenomena , but by supposing the greatest part of the liquor of the amnios , is convey'd thither from the glands of the placenta , by the ducts of the umbilical rope . this liquor of the amnios not only serves to facilitate the motions of the foetus , but towards the time of the partus it is partly receiv'd by its mouth , and is convey'd into its stomach and guts , and administers chyle to its lacteals and thoracick-duct ; which is receiv'd by the subclavian vein of the foetus , and there joins with the blood transmitted from the mother to the foetus . thus the stomach and intestines as well as the common passages of chyle and lympha of the foetus are imploy'd in the uterus ; by which means those channels are the more readily made use of , soon after the birth , when the infant has no other way of receiving its nourishment but by the mouth . the chyle thus mingling with the blood of the foetus , so thins it , that its circulation may be the better carried on by the weak systole of its heart ; whereby its blood may be again discharg'd into the hypogastrick veins of the mothers uterus . the liquor of the amnios has another , as it were accidental use , in lubricating the vagina at the time of the partus ; the foetus then breaking the amnios by its strugling , its contents flow by the pudendum , which they commonly call the breaking of the water . b b , the furrows or clifts of the placenta , which more or less result from its tubercles . c c , the tubercles of the placenta , which are thick and large towards their center , and less towards their circumference . d d , the chorion or external membrane involving the foetus , varigated with blood-vessels springing from the placenta , ( and umbilical rope in some animals ) and the vterus it self in humane bodies . e e , the urinary membrane call'd alantoides , lying immediately under the chorion , and cleaving to it by vessels and fibres ; it environing the whole foetus , according to bidloo . the existence of this membrane is much doubted of in humane bodies . i must confess i never met with a subject in which i could discover it . the midwives take notice of a by water , as they call it , near the time of the partus ; which i am apt to think is the contents of this membrane breaking forth , which often happens some weeks before the birth , and no ill consequence follows . f , part of the amnios or internal membrane involving the foetus . g , part of the umbilical rope tied . the fifty-ninth table . expresses the membranes which involve the foetus ; together with the internal concave part of the placenta next the foetus and umbilical rope . which altogether are call'd the secondine , or after-birth , or burden . a a , the amnios separated from the urinary membrane ; tho' the amnios appears transparent to the naked eye , it is full of blood-vessels of both kinds deriv'd from the umbilical rope : if mercury is injected into its arteries and veins , their extremities will ( by the assistance of a microscope ) appear continued to each other ; as in a preparation of part of the amnios i have now by me , taken from a cow , mention'd in the th table . b b , a portion of the umbilical rope arising from about the middle of the internal concave side of the placenta . c c , part of the urinary membrane not free'd from the chorion : in cows and other quadrupedes , it is long and unequal ; whence it 's call'd allantoides or farciminalis : it is plac'd between the amnios and chorion , and receives the urine from the bladder by the urachus thro' the umbilical rope . the urachus of humane bodies is scarce pervious . i must acknowledge in the subjects i have examin'd , i could never make the wind pass from the bladder of urine into the urachus in the umbilical rope ; but i have constantly found the urachus evidently hollow from the bottom of the bladder to the navel in a foetus , and very little further . d d , the chorion strictly cleaving to the internal concave side of the placenta . e e , the cavities and tracts of the succiferous ducts according to bidloo . f , the umbilical arteries distended . g g , the internal concave surface of the placenta next the foetus . h i , the ramifications of the arteries tending towards the circumference of the placenta . k k , the large ramifications of the umbilical veins distended . l , their lesser branches . n n , divers indentations made in the veins where the arteries pass over them . o , the concourse of the umbilical vessels to their inclosure in the external membrane of the umbilical rope ( p ) . p , that part of the umbilical rope , whose external surface in cows is full of tubercles , which we suppose are plac'd at the extremities of the succiferous ducts , where they discharge their contents into the amnios . this part of the umbilical rope in these animals we find distended with a mucilaginous matter , somewhat thicker than that contain'd in the amnios , but like it in colour . the sixtieth table . fig. . demonstrates the blood-vessels of part of the umbilical rope and placenta injected with wax . a b , the concave internal surface of the placenta next the foetus . c c , the chorion . d , part of the urinary membrane according to bidloo . f f , &c. the umbilical arteries fill'd with red wax . g g , &c. the veins in like manner injected with white wax . h , the umbilical rope cut off . i k m , the propagations of vessels from the umbilical rope to the placenta . fig. . a a , the placenta cut transversly . b c , the thickness of the placenta in a transverse section . d d. it s glandulous body . e e , some large branches of blood-vessels propagated from the umbilical rope under the chorion . f , the succiferous ducts according to bidloo . g , their little hollownesses or interstitia like fat. h h , a portion of the chorion , free'd from the placenta and suspended . i i , the blood-vessels which lie between the chorion and placenta . k k , their ramifications as they appear under the chorion on the internal concave surface of the placenta . l , part of the urinary membrane . m , a portion of the amnios . n , the umbilical rope cut off and ty'd . fig. . the umbilical rope with part of the chorion . a , part of the chorion free'd from the internal concave part of the placenta . b , the umbilical rope cut transversly from the foetus . c c , the two umbilical arteries cut off . d , the umbilical vein in like manner divided . e , the urachus according to bidloo , exprest in the following figure between the two arteries . f f , the umbilical rope cover'd with its loose membrane continu'd from the amnios . fig. . a a , the umbilical rope cut transversly and view'd with a microscope , after its being immers'd in hot water . b , the trunk of the umbilical vein divided . c c , the trunk of the two umbilical arteries in like manner cut off . d d , the succiferous tubes also divided . e e , the fibres contracted by the hot water . f , the thin contorted tube of the urachus , lying between the two arteries like a loose or flagging membrane . fig. . the umbilical vein and two arteries injected with wax and dry'd , so that the urachus and succiferous tubes disappear . the sixty-first table . fig. . a a , exhibits the placenta uterina , after the blood is wash'd out of it . b , the chorion partly rais'd from the placenta , and lying loosely on it . c , part of the urinary membrane according to bidloo . d d , the contexture , and reticular plexus of the vessels of the placenta made bare . e e , the concave surface of the placenta next the foetus . f f , the blood-vessels . g , a portion of the umbilical rope . fig. . a , part of the chorion separated from the urinary membrane , and supported on a piece of paper . b c , the urinary membrane pinn'd out , from which the chorion is separated . d d , a piece of paper rold up to support the chorion . fig. . a b b , part of one of the umbilical arteries free'd from the umbilical rope , and extended with wind ; in which the various inequalities of its trunk ( occasion'd by its contortions with its companion and the umbilical vein ) are exprest . c c , the same artery open'd according to its length , and expanded . fig. . part of the umbilical rope . a inferior , part of the umbilical vein open'd according to its length . a b b , the umbilical arteries inclos'd in their proper membranes . fig. . a , part of the blood-vessels of the umbilical rope injected with wax . b b , the two arteries fill'd with red wax , in which may be observ'd the inequalities of their trunks . c , the vein distended with a dark colour'd wax . fig. . a a , part of the chorion free'd from the placenta . b b , the blood-vessels of both kinds free'd from the glands succiferous tubes and ducts , according to bidloo . fig. , . the branching of the arteries and veins on the chorion , whose capillary extremities frame glands , and escape the sight of the naked eye . fig. . this is not taken notice of by bidloo ; but i supose it represents part of the blood-vessels of the umbilical rope , free'd from their membranes and not injected with wax , or any thing else ; the trunks of the two arteries and vein appearing flaccid . the sixty-second table . the abdomen of a female foetus seven months after conception open'd , to shew the progress of the umbilical vessels towards its navel . a , the umbilical rope suspended . c c , the common and proper integuments of the abdomen turn'd aside . e g , the umbilical vein entering the liver at a fissure near the middle of its lower part , whence the ligamentum suspensorium hepatis may be here seen continu'd to the ensiformal cartilage and diaphragm . f , the liver , which in proportion to the rest of the viscera in a foetus , is very large , extending it self to both hypochondria . the magnitude of the liver in a foetus rather proceeds from a greater quantity of blood carri'd into it by the vena umbilicalis , than any proper office it then executes : this disproportion of the liver do's not remit in an infant , but seems to continue in some measure , till they are four or five years old : hence it is , that the intestines of infants and children are suppli'd with more gall than those of riper years ; and are therefore incident to be gript much in the lower belly , and attended with a diarrhoea . nor do i in this conceive nature has any ways committed a mistake ; for sure it is very necessary some notable discharge ought to be made of the serosities in children , whilst their limbs are not able to perform those exercises which promote perspiration and the like . the blood imported into the liver by the umbilical vein meets with a contrary current of blood in the vena porta , as it passes the sinus to the vena cava ; whereby some of the capillary vessels about the liver or umbilical vein are frequently broken , and the blood is discharg'd into the cavity of the abdomen . in an abortive humane foetus ( after seven months conception ) i found the abdomen without any integuments ; it s viscera being expos'd , as in this figure : nor could i find so much as any part of the peritonaeum that had cover'd them ; which i suspected might have been broken . the left kidney also was expos'd to view . besides this , the top of the skull was wanting , and instead of it a membrane distended with grumous blood. very little part of the brain appear'd on the basis of the skull , but it was chiefly contain'd in the specus of the vertebrae of the neck . the left eye and ear were wanting , as well as the nose . a ligament of about an inch in length , fasten'd the great toe of the right foot to the bone of the upper jaw . the left arm was wanting ; and instead of it , something like a hand was fram'd , seeming to have a thumb and fore-finger : this was ty'd by two ligaments ; the one springing from the carpus was short , and fasten'd it to the scapula ; the other ligament was longer , and arising between those parts which represented a finger and thumb , was sixt to the basis of the skull on the same side . upon opening the thorax i found the cone of the heart pointing upwards ; its basis towards the diaphragm . and both extremities of the bastard ribs of the left side resting on their vertebrae . g g , the two umbilical arteries arising from the two internal iliack branches of the arteria magna , and passing on both sides the bladder of urine to the umbilical rope . h , the bladder of urine . i , the vrachus where it is visibly pervious . the ligamentum suspensorium hepatis , is here well exprest between the umbilical vein and enfiformal cartilage ; and the small gutts in their natural situation , are also represented . the sixty-third table . represents the cavities of the abdomen and thorax open'd of the same female foetus , exprest in the preceding table . a , the umbilical rope suspended . b , the umbilical vein . c , its insertion into the liver . d d , the two umbilical arteries , arising from the two internal iliack branches of the arteria magna . vid. app. fig. . . . e e , the external iliack branches of the great artery , by our author said to be internal ; which in this view of the parts do's not appear . f g , the urachus . h , the umbilicus cut from the common integuments of the abdomen . i , the head of the foetus , which in proportion to the rest of the body is much larger than in the adult : see the description at tab. . k , the mammae , which in a foetus of both sexes contain a serous liquor . l , the thorax open'd . m m , the abdomen in like manner open'd . n , the thymus in proportion to the rest of the parts , is very large in a foetus , and gradually lessens in the adult : see tab. . o , the heart , which in regard to the other viscera is very large . p , the lungs on the right side . q q , the kidneys , which appear conglomerate , and are somewhat large . r r , the glands of the kidneys or capsulae atrabilares are also large , and are here remov'd from their proper situation ; they not only bordering on the kidneys , as in the adult , but lie upon them , embracing their upper parts : in this figure they seem to be remov'd from their proper situation . s s , the ureters , which are also large and unequal . t , the bladder extended with urine . v , the falloppian tube , somewhat long , and very large in proportion to the rest of the parts . w , the ovaria are also large and tumid . x , the fundus uteri somewhat rais'd by the suspension of the bladder of urine . a , the round ligament of the vterus of the left side . b , the arteria magna , where the emulgent arteries pass to the kidneys . c , the ascending trunk of the vena cava cut off . d d , the diaphragma divided . e , the spleen in situ . the stomach and intestines are here laid aside . f , the sternum rais'd together with the cartilaginous endings of the ribs , where the mammary vessels on both sides are exprest . fig. . a , the bladder of urine of a foetus . b , its ureters fill'd with wax . c d d , the umbilical vein and two arteries , according to bidloo , which we cannot think to be well exprest . e , the descending trunk of the arteria magna . f , its bifurcation . g g , it s two internal iliack arteries , whence the umbilical arteries arise . the sixty-fourth table . the professor bidloo in imitation of steno and bourdon , here adds geometrical figures of the disposition of the tendons and fleshly fibres of divers muscles ; first of a single fibre . fig. . a , the fleshy part of the fibre of a muscle ; b c , b c , its two tendinous extreams making obtuse angles with the fleshy part. fig. . many of the fibres represented in the first figure , expos'd in the same plan together , framing an oblique angled parallelogram . a , b , the order of the moving , or fleshy fibres . c , d , f , g , e , h , i , k , their tendinous extremities : when any additional matter passes into these fleshy fibres and distends them , the breadth which they thereby acquire , necessarily shortens them , and their tendinous extremities fixt to the most movable part , is pull'd nearer the more stable . this additional matter we take to be the blood , which is constantly in a progressive motion , as well in the capillary as in the larger trunks of its vessels ; and when a sudden stop or retardation of it happens in the trunks of the veins in muscles , the blood in the extremities of those veins necessarily breaks forth by their collateral pores , and passes into the cells of the fleshy fibres ; whence an intumescence of those fibres follows , and their length is necessarily lessen'd . when i say the blood as a pondus acts in muscular motion : i mean that as a fluid , it insinuates where ever there is a passage , and necessarily distends the cells of the fleshy fibres , when it is push'd on by the arteries , and d o's not readily return by the veins . this structure of the extremities of the blood-vessels in muscles , renders the appearance of their fleshy fibres red or more bloody than other parts , which are furnish'd with a far greater number of blood-vessels than the muscles ; as the pancreas , salival glands , and cortical part of the brain . the liver , spleen , and kidneys have their colour , from the number and magnitude of their blood-vessels always fill'd with blood. the question is , how the venose channels are so instantaneously comprest that the refluent blood is retarded ? till enquiry and observation affords me something to the purpose , i shall say no more ; choosing to recommend such speculations , to those who have more talent and time to bestow on them . fig. . the fibres of a muscle framing a simple parallelepipede figure . a , b , c , d , e , f , g , the carnous part. h i , k l , the tendinous parts . fig. . the disposition of the fibres of the musculus deltoides , said to be compos'd of twelve simple muscles . a a , the upper-part of the deltoides towards the top of the shoulder . b b , its lower-part . , , , , , , , , , , , , the order of the fleshy fibres which frame parallelograms , and compose the deltoide muscle , fixt to their tendinous extremities a b. fig. . the order of fibres of the musculus biceps humeri . fig. . the musculus membranosus . fig. . the fibres of part of the gemellus . we come next to the muscles of the artus or limbs ; and first to those of the whole arm , by which is understood all the part fastned to the upper-part of the trunk of the body , arising at the shoulder . fig. . the arm in common acceptation , is taken to be all that part between the neck of the shoulder-blade and wrist ( h ) . the arm strictly speaking , is that part between the shoulder and elbow ( b ) , which , otherwise , is call'd humerus : it consisting of one bone , and is call'd os humeri , the shoulder-bone , or arm-bone . the lower-part of the arm from the elbow ( b ) to the wrist ( h ) , is call'd the cubit , and consists of two bones , call'd vlna and radius ; we shall elsewhere speak of the articulations of these and other bones . as some have comprehended the shoulder or arm , cubit , hand , and fingers under the title of the whole arm ; so others have call'd all those together , the whole hand . the hand in common acceptation , is meant all that part below the cubit , or wrist , consisting of four fingers ( m n o p ) and a thumb ( l ) . the palm ( c ) call'd vola manus ; opposite to which is the back of the hand or dorsum manus . fig. . the external muscles of the arm , cubit and palm . a a a , the skin with its parts annext free'd from the muscles . b , the internal tubercle of the os humeri , whence the musculus pronator radii teres , palmaris longus , flexores digitorum communes , and flexores carpi do arise . c , the tendinous expansion of the palmaris longus in the palm ; where , near the root of the fingers it 's divided , to give way to the tendons of the flexores digitorum . d , the biceps cubiti . e , the pronator radii teres . f , the long tendon of the palmaris deriv'd from a small fleshy bodied muscle , springing from the internal protuberance of the os humeri , here exprest . g , the tendon of the radialis flexor carpi , whose description may be seen tab. , . h , the transverse ligament of the carpus . i , the abductive pollicis arising from the ligamentum transversale carpi , and ending at the superior and external part of the second bone of the thumb . it draws the thumb from the fingers , whence it derives its name . k , the palmaris brevis , or caro musculosa quadrata ; this springs from the external part of the os metacarpi minimi digiti , with a thin tendon encompassing the external part of the abductor minimi digiti becoming a thin disgregated fleshy muscle in the palm , as it is here represented ; it passes under the tendon of the palmaris longus , to its tendinous termination in the eighth bone of the carpus . this hollows the palm by drawing the bale of the thumb or mons lunae , and metacarpal bone of the little finger , nearer each other . l m n o p , the thumb and four fingers , with part of the skin remaining on them . q , the head of the os humeri which was articulated with the scapula . r r r , the blood-vessels and nerves passing withinside the arm , between the musculus biceps and gemellus , of which the former especially the arteries are to be comprest in the time of amputation ; which may be perform'd with the fingers only , without any compress or boulsters under them ; or with the hard twisting of a ligature , which some use : the compression being thereby the more easily commanded , to let the arterious blood pass out in order to discover the divided large arteries , so that they may be taken hold of with the ends of the forceps and ti'd ; which practice we can't but recommend in amputations , or in other cases where large fluxes of blood happen . nor have i found any considerable inconveniency to the patient , tho' the trunk of the nerve has been also ti'd up with the artery , which the diligent operator may very easily avoid . s , part of the musculus deltoides . t , part of the gemellus or biceps externus . v v , the tendinous part of the musculus supinator radii longus . w , the flexor carpi vlnaris . x , part of the musculus flexor digitorum perforatus . y , the abductor minimi digiti . z , flexor primi & secundi ossis pollicis ; it arises fleshy from the ligamentum transversale carpi , bones of the carpus at the bottom of the mons lunae , and os metacarpi of the middle finger ; whence passes to its insertion partly to the ossa sesamoidea of the second internode , and partly to the first bone of the thumb : this disgregated fleshy muscle is very divisible as vesalius takes notice , and appears tab. . m n o o p. it moves the thumb variously according to the several disposition of its series of fibres , inclining its first and second bones , either directly or obliquely towards the carpus and palm . the sixty-fifth table . represents divers muscles of the arm and cubit . a , the musculus deltoides rais'd from its origination and left at its insertion . b , the clavicula made bare . c , that part of the deltoide muscle , which arises from the spina scapulae . d , the pectoralis cut from its original , and left at its implantation . d , the rotundus major : it arises from the inferior angle of the scapula , and becoming a round fleshy body , passes under the superior head of the gemellus , where it grows thinner and makes a broad flat but short tendon implanted below the neck of the os humeri . it s office is to draw the arm backwards and pull it somewhat downwards . e , the subscapularis or immersus : it fills the internal concave part of the scapula , arising fleshy from its whole basis and superior and inferior costa internally , and in its progress lessens its self according to the configuration of the scapula , and running over its juncture ; it 's inserted to the neck of the os humeri in a semicircular manner . this draws the arm to the trunk of the body , and is made use of by the bag-pipe-player to compress his bellows under his arm. f , the coracobrachialis : its partly fleshy and partly tendinous origination , is at the extream point of the processus coracoides scapulae , in its descent growing thicker , strictly adhering to the internal head of the biceps , which it parts from near it s partly tendinous and partly fleshy insertion , about the middle of the internal part of the os humeri . f , a trunk of a nerve which passes thro' the last describ'd muscle ; whence it 's also call'd persoratus . g g , the basis scapulae . h , the processus coracoides scapulae . i , the biceps whose two heads or tendinous beginnings are here exprest ; the one arising from the processus coracoides ( h ) call'd the internal head , the other springing from the upper-part of the brink of the acetabulum scapulae under the broad ligament of the articulation , and is call'd the external head , passing in a sulcus or channel on the head of the arm-bone ( vide tab. . fig. . d , e , ) wherein it 's inclos'd by a proper ligament : in its descent becomes fleshy , and joins with its other head , composing a large fleshy muscle , which becomes less near the articulation of the cubit with the shoulder-bone , and presently growing perfectly tendinous , which tendon is again divided into two ; the external being thin , passes over the musculus pronator radii rotundus , and makes an external inclosure to all the muscles on the cubit . ( vide app. fig . m. ) the internal ( which is short thick and round , as it is here exprest ) is fastned to a protuberance near the upper-part of the radius . ( vide tab. . fig. . a. ) when this muscle acts , it bends the arm : besides its common office to which its lower external tendon also more advantagiously contributes , by how much the more it approaches towards the other extream of the radius from the os humeri : this lower tendinous expansion , by us call'd fascia tendinosa , has also a further use in corroborating the muscles of the carpus and fingers in their strenuous actions , whose office we have endeavour'd to explain in our treatise of the muscles , where an extraordinary case in practice , relating to this muscle , is explain'd . vid. myotomia resormata , pag. . k k , the brachiaeus internus : it arises fleshy from the internal part of the os humeri at the terminations of the deltoides and musculus coracobrachialis , and descending over the juncture of the cubit with the os humeri , it 's inserted partly fleshy and partly tendinous to the superior and fore-part of the ulna , and part of the radius , as this figure expresses ; which latter i must confess i never yet observ'd in nature . it bends the cubit . l , part of the brachiaeus externus . m , the internal protuberance of the os humeri . n , the ulna . o , the radius . the sixty-sixth table . divers muscles of the arm and cubit . a , the biceps free'd from its subjacent muscles . b , the brachiaeus internus in situ . c , d , e , the biceps externus or gemellus : it has a twofold origin ; the first ( c ) or superior , arises tendinous from the superior part of the inferior costa of the scapula internally , and marching out from between the two round muscles , soon grows fleshy , and joins with its second beginning ( d ) , which arises broad and fleshy from the upper and back-part of the os humeri under the deltoide muscle ; soon after the conjunction of these two heads , it becomes externally tendinous ( e ) , and is so implanted to the superior and external part of the ulna , call'd olecranum , ancon , or the elbow . it s office is to extend the cubit , which it do's the more advantageously , by how much the more it is intertext with various orders of fibres . hence it comes that tumblers when they stand on their hands , can by the sudden extension of their cubits , immediately return to their feet . f , the infraspinatus : it lieth below the spine of the scapula ; it arises fleshy from the inferior part of the basis scapulae , also from its spine and inferior costa ( in those bodies in whom the teres minor is wanting , as i am apt to think , it was in the subject by which this figure was taken ) whence marching in a triangular form according to the figure of the bone , it 's inserted to the upper-part of the head of the os humeri . this moves the arm directly backwards . g , the supraspinatus , it being plac'd above the spine of the shoulder-blade . it arises fleshy from the superior part of basis scapulae that's above the spine , as also from the spine and costa superior of the shoulder-blade , and hence marching between the processus coracoides and anchoriformis , becoming tendinous as it marches over the juncture of the humerus , and is so inserted to the most superior part of the shoulder-bone . it 's office is to lift the arm upwards and somewhat backwards towards the occiput . h , the spina scapulae . i i , the clavicula . ✚ the subclavian muscle , free'd from the first rib and remaining on the clavicula . k , the rotundus major . l , the os humeri made bare . m , the external protuberance of the last nam'd bone , whence the extending muscles of the carpus and fingers do arise . n , part of the supinator radii brevis , as it arises from the ulna , and passes over the upper-part of the radius . o , the ulna . x x , the deltoides arising from above one third of the inferior and external part of the clavicula ( ii ) , where it is intirely fleshy ; it also arises partly fleshy and partly tendinous , from the whole inferior margin of the spina scapulae ( h ) , from hence descending , soon becomes thick and fleshy , growing still narrower , till it is inserted by its partly fleshy and partly tendinous apex , to the middle of the os humeri ( l ) . this draws the arm either directly upwards , or somewhat forwards , or backwards according to the direction of its differing series of fibres . the sixty-seventh table . some of the muscles employ'd in bending the fingers and carpus . a , b , c , d , e , the perforatus , or sublimis , or flexor secundi internodii digitorum , dissected from its original : it arises partly fleshy and partly tendinous , from the internal extuberance of the os humeri , between the flexores carpi : it has also a disgregated fleshy origination from the fore-part of the radius , between the pronator radii teres , and flexor pollicis magnus , soon composing a fleshy belly , lessens its self where it begins to divide into two parts , each of which being again subdivided , makes four roundish tendons ( c c c c ) , included in their proper mucilaginous membranes , and pass under the annular ligament of the carpus thro' the palm : near the first internode of the fingers , each of these tendons are again divided or perforated ( e ) , to admit the tendons of the following muscle to pass thro' 'em ; these tendons joining again , are inserted to the superior parts of the second bone of each finger . f , g , h , i , &c. the perforans in situ ; it 's also call'd profundus and flexor tertii internodii digitorum : it arises fleshy from near two thirds of the superior and fore-part of the ulna , and internal edge of the radius , as also from the ligament between the radius and ulna ; it becoming a large thick-bellied muscle ; it grows outwardly tendinous before it passes over the pronator radii quadratus , where dividing into four round tendons , which march under those of the perforatus ( last describ'd ) beneath the transverse ligament of the carpus , where the lumbrical muscles m , m , m , m , are said to arise : these tendons pass the palm h , h , h , h , and run thro' the tendons of the former muscle and proceeding over their extremities , terminate in the superior and fore-part of the third bone of each finger i i i i. the tendons of the first of these two last describ'd muscles a , b , c , d , being perforated e , to transmit those of the inferior muscle f , h , and to their insertions i , &c. is a no less useful than stupendious artifice in nature : for since its requisite the fingers should be bended with a considerable strength , and each of their internodes should be accommodated to different tactile bodies , it was therefore necessary the muscles employ'd in that action , should not only be large , proportionable to the force required ; but that each internode should be furnish'd with a particular instrument . the internal protuberance of the os humeri , being a necessary place for the rise of part of these muscles ; but upon the account of bending the cubit , the extreams of that part of them might suffer some approximation ; it was therefore thought fit , that place should be allotted to the bender of the second internodes of the fingers , to which not so much force is requir'd , as to the bender of the third internodes ; for the fingers like so many leaves are more effectually mov'd , when the vis movens is fastned to their extreams , which is their third internodes ; wherefore the strongest muscles are there inserted : now the origin of the superior muscle being confin'd to the internal extuberance of the os humeri , and part of the radius only , these places could not furnish spaces for a muscle so large as that of near two thirds of the superior and forepart of the ulna , internal edge of the radius , and intermediate ligament of the bones of the cubit , whence the inferior muscle springs : hence it appears the inferior muscle is much stronger than the superior ; wherefore the tendons of the latter are perforated , to transmit those of the former in a right progress to their terminations , at the extremities of the fingers : nor is this constructure only advantageous in bending the fingers only ; but if the external muscle should be divided transversely , as i have sometimes seen it ; yet the compleat flexion of the fingers has nevertheless been perform'd by the internal muscle ; which is a provident contrivance in nature . k k , the mucilaginous membranes which involve the tendons of the perforans , those of the perforatus not being exprest in this figure . l l , the ligamentum transversum , or annulare divided . m m , the lumbricales , or flexores primi internodii digitorum . the originations and progress of these are here so well exprest , that they need no other description . n n , &c. the tendons of the lumbrical muscles passing to their terminations , with the musculi inter-ossei . o o , the annular ligaments of the fingers open'd , which keep in the bending tendons , when they act. p , the abductor pollicis . q q , the tendon of the flexor pollicis longus . r r , flexor secundi internodii pollicis . s , the trunk of that nerve whose branches are propagated to the fingers . t , the long tendon and bellied part of the muscle palmaris . v , the radialis flexor . w , part of the ulnaris flexor . x , part of the supinator radii longus . y , the artery whose pulfation is commonly felt near the carpus . z , pronator radii quadratus , partly in sight . * , the internal protuberance of the os humeri . ✚ , pronator radii teres . ψ , the lower part of the bicipital muscle . the sixty-eighth table . the muscles bending the fingers , thumb , carpus , &c. rais'd from their originations , and left at their insertions . a , the perforatus . b , the perforans . c c , &c. the lumbricales . d , d , the six inter-ossei muscles free'd from between the metacarpal bones , and left at their insertions in conjunction with the tendons of the extensor digitorum communis . these draw the fingers to each other , and assist in extending them . e , the fore-finger . a , the pronator radii teres , or rotundus : it arises from the internal protuberance of the os humeri , and in its oblique descent , cleaves to the flexor carpi radialis , lessening its self at its insertion a little above the middle of the radius externally . it s name declares its office , and figure . b , the pronator radii quadratus , or inferior quadratus : it arises from the lower and inner part of the ulna , and passes transversly over the ligament , joining the radius to the ulna , and is inserted to the superior and external part of the radius . it s name intimates its use , and figure . c , the supinator radii longus . d , the supinator radii brevis ; left at its insertion , which is here truly exprest . e , flexor carpi radialis : it arises fleshy from the internal protuberance of the os humeri , cleaves to the pronator radii teres a ; in half its progress , becomes tendinous , and runs under the annular ligament , and is inserted to the upper part of the os metacarpi ; which sustains the fore-finger as here exprest . f , the little finger . g , the first bone of the thumb made bare . h , the adductor pollicis ad dorsum manus , and abductor iudicis rais'd both together . i , k , the abductor minimi digiti : this we have often seen , as it s here represented , divided into two , and sometimes three distinct muscles , and each of a differing order of fibres : it arises first from the ligamentum transversale , and fourth bone of the carpus ; secondly from the third bone of the carpus ; thirdly and lastly from the superior part of the subjacent os metacarpi : the two first , terminate at the superior part of the first bone of the little finger forwards : the latter ends at the same part of the said bone internally and laterally . l , the flexor pollicis longus : this we have observ'd to have a twofold beginning ; the first and superior of which is sharp , but soon grows fleshy at the internal protuberance of the os humeri , between the perforatus and perforans : this fleshy body becoming tendinous , again joins with the middle tendon of its other large head. the second and inferior origin of this muscle is that part of it commonly describ'd and here figur'd . it arises with a double order of fleshy fibres from immediately below the superior part of the radius , which unite in a middle line or tendon , not unlike the fibrillae of a feather joining to their stamina ; and before it passes over the articulation of the carpus , and under the transverse ligament , it composes a somewhat flat strong tendon , running in an interstice in the musculi flexor primi , and secundi internodii pollicis , to its implantation at the superior part of the third bone of the thumb . m , p , o , flexor primi & secundi ossis pollicis : it arises from the ligamentum transversale carpi , and bones of the carpus at the basis of the mons lunae , and os metacarpi that sustains the middle finger , and is inserted to the ossa sesamoidea of the second internode , and partly to the first bone of the thumb . its actions are various according to the diversity of its series of fibres . so it bends the first and second bones of the thumb either directly or obliquely towards the carpus and vola manus . n , n , &c. the abductor and part of the flexor secundi internodii pollicis rais'd together . q. the ulnaris flexor carpi : this like the radialis derives its origin from the internal protuberance of the os humeri , as also from the superior and external part of the ulna , and is partly inserted in some subjects to the fourth bone of the carpus ; but most commonly it passes farther on , and runs under the transverse ligament , and is implanted to the upper part of the os metacarpis that sustains the little-finger . it s name denotes its imployment . r , the biceps left at its insertion to the radius . s , the brachiaeus internus . t , the internal tubercle of the os humeri . v , the ulna made bare . w , the radius . x , the ligament between the ulna and radius . the sixty-ninth table . represents the external muscles lying on the cubit , imploy'd in extending the fingers , thumb and carpus . the skin with the parts annex'd , rais'd . b , the elbow , which bidloo erroneously calls the external apophysis of the os humeri . c , the external protuberance of the os humeri , which bidloo ( in like manner ) calls the internal apophysis of that bone. d , f , the radialis extensor carpi : this has two beginnings , and does indeed represent two distinct muscles ; the uppermost ( f ) arises immediately above the external protuberance of the os humeri , below the supinator radii longus ; the other beginning is beneath the former , either from the apex of the extuberance of the os humeri , or superiour part of the radius . both its tendons , marching under the extensores pollicis , run under the annular ligament , and are inserted to the superiour part of the ossa metacarpi of the fore and middle fingers . vid. tab. . f , i. e , the extensor carpi ulnaris : this arises from the external protuberance of the os humeri , as also from the upper part of the ulna , and is inserted to the metacarpal bone of the little finger . if this and the ulnaris flexor , act , they move the hand sideways towards the ulna ; and in like manner , if the radialis flexor and extensor , act , they move it towards the radius . g , extensor digitorum communis , by some call'd cnemodactilius ; it springs from the outward extuberance of the os humeri between the extensores carpi , and its tendons pass under the annular ligaments between the lower parts of the ulna and radius , marching separately over the back of the hand , do transmit tendinous filaments to each other , before they pass the first internodes of each finger , and are inserted to the first , second , and third bones of the fore , middle and third fingers . there being no force requir'd in extending the fingers , we need not wonder that the muscles imploy'd in that office are no larger in proportion to their antagonists . h , the extending muscles of the thumb , which are distinctly exprest in the following tables . i , part of the tendon of the musculus indicator . k inferior , abductor minimi digiti . k superior , the lower end of the ulna , next the carpus b , its upper part call'd olecranum . l , the annular ligament . m , extensor minimi digiti , describ'd in the following table . n , part of the ulnaris flexor . o , the anconaeus : it arises fleshy from the inferior and back part of the os humeri , and growing thicker as it marches between the superior ends of the ulna and radius , is inserted to the lateral part of the ulna , a thumbs length below the olecranum , or elbow . this assists in extending the cubit . p , part of the supinator radii longus : this arises broad and fleshy from the external part of the os humeri , three finger's breadth below the termination of the deltoides ; and descending obliquely , it gradually lessens its self , and makes a flat , broad tendon , which likewise grows narrower till it 's inserted to the external and inferior part of the radius , near the carpus . vid. tab. . c. q , part of the gemellus , which is sometimes continuous with the anconaeus . r , part of the brachiaeus internus . s , part of the biceps cubiti . the seventieth table . divers muscles which extend the carpus , fingers , and thumb ; somewhat separated from each other and rais'd . a , the first internode of the fore-finger . b , the first internode of the little-finger . c inferior , the second internode or bone of the thumb . c superior , the musculus extensor tertii internodii pollicis : this has a broad partly fleshy origination from the ulna , immediately below the beginning of the extensor primi internodii , or between it and the iudicator , as also from the ligament between the last nam'd bone and radius , whence . descending obliquely becomes tendinous , as it marches in a proper sinus on the inferior appendix of the radius , wherein it 's enclos'd by an annular ligament , passing over the two tendons of the radiaeus extensor , to its implantation at the superior part of the third bone of the thumb . d d , the extensor digitorum communis . e f , &c. its tendons passing over the first and second joints of the fingers , here supported with a pen. g g , the radialis extensor stretch'd out with a pair of compasses . h h , the ulnaris extensor . i , the anconoeus . k , the extensor minimi digiti proprius : this arises partly tendinous at the extremity of the external protuberance of the os humeri , and partly fleshy from the superior part of the ulna , between the extensor communis digitorum , and ulnaris extensor ; and becoming tendinous as it passes under the ligamentum annulare at the carpus , where it is divided into two , sometimes three tendons , which are again united near their insertions to the first , second , and third bones of the little finger . l , part of the ulnaris flexor . m , the upper epiphysis of the ulna . n , the musculus iudicator , or extensor iudicis proprius : this arises fleshy from the external part of the ulna next the radius , immediately below the extensores pollicis , and in its oblique descent becomes tendinous , running under the annular ligament on a sinus , in the lower part of the radius , and passes over the os metacarpi iudicis , joins with the tendon of the extensor communis digitorum , and is inserted with it . o o , the extensores secundi & tertii internodii pollicis . p , the lower part of the ulna . q q q , the inter-ossei . r , the abductor minimi digiti . s , the adductor pollicis ad dorsum manus . the seventy-first table . shews the muscles employ'd in extending the carpus , and fingers , rais'd , and left at their insertions . a , the radius made bare . b , the ulna made bare . c , the upper end of the radius , articulated with the os humeri . d , the ligament joining the ulna and radius together . e , the musculus ulnaris extensor . f , i , cc , radialis extensor : i , by bidloo is erroneously call'd extensor iudicis . g , supinator radii brevis : the origin of this muscle is here well exprest and its insertion , tab. . d. h , part of the extensor digitorum communis . k , extensor minimi digiti proprius . l superior , extensor tertii internodii pollicis . m m , the bones of the carpus . n n n , the ossa metacarpi . o o , extensores primi & secundi internodii pollicis , which derive their originations from the ulna , like the extensor tertii internodii , and are inserted to the respective bones of the thumb . p , part of the extensor communis digitorum , together with the iudicator . q , the tendinous origin of the ulnaris flexor , cut from the ulna . r , the ligament rais'd which incloses the ossa carpi at their articulations , with the radius . s , the adductor pollicis ad dor sum manus : it arises from the lower part of the os metacarpi of the fore-finger , and descends obliquely to its broad termination at the superior part of the first bone of the thumb . t , the abductor minimi digiti . v v v , the inter-ossei . the seventy-second table . as the arm , cubit , and hand are comprehended under the title of the whole hand ; so the thigh , leg and foot , are in common call'd , the foot. the bones of those parts are represented , tab. , , . where we shall speak of the particular denominations of the parts last mention'd : our business at present being to explain the muscles which move the bones ; first of the muscles which move the thigh-bone . the skin and fat of the buttocks being rais'd , the muscle which first offers its self to view , is the glutaeus major , here rais'd and laid aside to shew its inferior surface ( a. ) the superior or external surface of this muscle appears compos'd of divers muscles , in whose interstitia the fat is inserted , and requires an artificial management of the knife in freeing the muscle of it , so as to leave no part of the fat behind , nor wound the fleshy fibres of the muscle . a , b b , c , the glutaeus major rais'd and turn'd downward . this muscle is not well describ'd by anatomists , they only mentioning its fleshy part here exprest ; besides which , it has a large broad tendinous part , springing from the whole external margin of the spine of the os ilium ( o o ) next the musculus communis of the membranosus , whence marching over the external part of the glutaeus medius ( d ) ; at the great trochanter ( e e ) , it meets with the fleshy part of this muscle , arising from the posterior part of the spine of the os ilium , hindermost part of the sacrum laterally , and os coccygis , and cleaving to the broad ligament that 's extended between the two last mention'd bones and tubercle of the os ischium ; its fleshy fibres descend disgregately in an almost semicircular manner , and become tendinous as they approach the great trochanter where it 's united with its first describ'd tendinous beginning , which together descending over the great trochanter , joins with the tendon of the membranosus ( of which hereafter , ) and proceeds to frame a large , thick , strong tendon ( c , ) inserted to the linea asperia on the back of the os femoris , near four fingers breadth below the great rotator . the first describ'd tendinous origin of this muscle , do's not only serve to support its fleshy body , but its fibres extending themselves , intersect those of the membranosus as they cover all the muscles of the tibia , do more adequately include those muscles , and corroborate them in their actions ; as we have elsewhere observ'd of the muscles of the cubit and fingers . when this muscle acts , it draws the thigh directly backwards . i was lately consulted in the case of a fistulous ulcer a little above the great trochanter ; the sinus tended upwards , and was at least two inches deep from the surface of the skin , and about three inches in length : i could discover the bottom of the sinus to be very hard like a cartilage ; nor was it at all sensible to the touch of the probe , as the patient inform'd me ; but on the contrary , told me , i than seem'd to grate against the bone. the sinus had been divers times open'd , and the hard body at the bottom of it laid bare , but the wound could not be cicatric'd : i open'd it again , and afterwards cut out the hard cartilaginous body which cover'd the external part of the glutaeus medius ; the wound afterwards incarn'd , and was cur'd in a few days . this preternatural hard body was fram'd in the first describ'd tendinous part of the glutaeus major , and the blood-vessels would not spring from it to afford incarnation ; nor would common escharoticks act on it , wherefore it continued to lie bare ; but after cutting it out thro' the blood-vessels from the subjacent muscle , the glutaeus medius sprung up , and join'd with those of the membranes under the skin , by which means a confirm'd ci●atrice was made . by this we may be inform'd how useful anatomy is in surgery . the like case may happen on the tendinous expansion of the inferior part of the membranosus , on the muscles of the tibia and tarsus , where dividing it only according to its length may be sufficient . d , e e , f , glutaeus medius : this lies chiefly under the tendinous beginning of the maximus , arising fleshy from almost the whole external part of the spine of the os ilium , whence descending becomes thicker and fleshy , and is inserted ( in a semicircular manner e e ) by a short strong tendon , to the superior and external part of the great trochanter . this muscle is not only employ'd in extending the thigh , but is chiefly serviceable in turning it inwards ; and this action of it will manifest it self , if in time of dissection you give the thigh that motion as it lies on the table ; you may then observe the fore-part of this muscle notably relaxt ; and in living persons when the thigh is turn'd inwards , you may see the fore-part of this muscle tumified , which ought to be taken notice of by painters ; or , if in performing that action with your own thigh you lay your thumb on this muscle , you may easily feel it move under the skin : besides these actions , it 's also employ'd in stradling or pulling the thighs and legs from each other ; it cooperating with the musculus membranosus in that action . g , part of the triceps . h , the pyriformis or iliacus externus . i i , part of the marsupialis . k , the great crural nerve . l , the appendix of the os ischium , whence the muscles bending the tibia and musculus quadratus do spring . m , a ligament protended from the os sacrum to the tubercle of the ischium , or os coxendicis . n , part of the os sacrum . o o , the spine of the os ilium . p , the great trochanter . q , part of the vastus externus . r , the upper head of the biceps femoris . s , the beginning of the seminervosus . the seventy-third table . divers muscles of the thigh , &c. a , the glutaeus major . b , the medius ; both being rais'd and left at their insertions . c , the glutaeus minor in situ : it has a semicircular broad beginning from the dorsum ossis ilii , whence its fleshy fibres descend to their partly fleshy and partly tendinous insertion , at the superior part of the root of the great trochanter . this performs the same office with the medius , mention'd in the description of the preceding table . d , f , g , i , the pyriformis , by some call'd iliacus externus , by others quadrageminus primus : it arises round and fleshy from the inferior and internal part of the os sacrum , within the pelvis of the abdomen , descending from thence obliquely in the great sinus of the os ilium ( tab. . fig. . f ) above the acute process of the ischium ( ibid. g , ) and joins with the glutaeus medius before it 's inserted to the upper part of the root of the great trochanter . this moves the thigh somewhat upwards and turns it outward . e , the os sacrum . h , that part of the marsupialis , call'd the marsupium . k , the tubercle of the os ischium . l , the back-part of the os ilium . m , the great trochanter . n , the musculus quadratus femoris : it arises broad and fleshy from the epiphysis of the os ischium , and passes transversly of an equal breadth and thickness to its partly fleshy and partly tendinous implantation , at the posterior part of the os femoris ▪ below the great trochanter : this turns the thigh outwards . o , divers muscles of the tibia near their origin . the seventy-fourth table . several muscles imploy'd in moving the os femoris , rais'd from their originations , and left at their insertions . a , the glutaeus major , scarcely appearing under the medius . b , the glutaeus medius , free'd from their originations , and left at their insertions . c , and minor , free'd from their originations , and left at their insertions . d , the iliacus externus , or pyriformis hanging at its insertion . e , part of the triceps . f , g , the marsupialis or bursalis , by some call'd obturator internus : it arises broad and fleshy from the os ilium , ischium , pubis , and ligament that 's extended in the great foramen of the two last nam'd bones internally ; whence passing transversly , it 's inflected on the sinus of the ischium n ; on each side of which , namely the acute o , and obtuse process p , arises its second fleshy body , call'd marsupium g ; which , covering the tendons deriv'd from its former origin , descends obliquely with them to their insertion at the superior part of the root of the great trochanter . when this muscle acts , the great trochanter is directed towards that part of the ischium n , whereon its tendons are inflected , not unlike a pulley ; by which the os femoris is turn'd outwards . h , the obturator exteruus cut from its origin at the great foramen ( r ) of the os ischium ; its name is deriv'd from its situation , it s call'd rotator femoris extrorsum from its use ; it has a large fleshy beginning from the external parts of the os ischium , pubis , and membrane that covers the foramen externally , ( opposite to the origin of the marsupialis ) passing transversly backwards , lessens its self , and grows tendinous at its implantation to the root of the great trochanter . i , the head of the os femoris lying out of the acetabulum , after the ligamentum latum i● cut off . k , the round ligament of the os femoris which is fasten'd to the inferior part or margin of the acetabulum ; whereby the great atrition of the superior part of the acetabulum , with the head of the os femoris , is prevented in walking , running , and the like actions . l , the mucilaginous gland entertain'd in a particular depressure in the bottom and lower part of the acetabulum ; whereby the too great and often compressure of the mucilage in ordinary motions of the thigh , is prevented . m , some remains of the mucilaginous glands on the neck of the os femoris , near the conjunction of the ligamentum latum ; which is here taken off , to shew the head of the thigh-bone and acetabulum of the os coxendicis . k , the os ilium . l , the os sacrum . m , the coccygis . n , the sinus of the os ischium in which the tendons of the marsupialis pass . o , an acute process of the ischium . p , the appendix of the ischium whence springs the bending muscles of the tibia . q , the lower margin of the os pubis . r , the great foramen of the os ischium and pubis . the seventy-fifth table . expresses divers muscles of the tibia , and some of those of the thigh . a , b , c , the sartorius , or fascialis longus , seu longissimus femoris : itarises sharp and fleshy from the fore-part of the spine of the os ilium , close by the musculus communis of the membranosus , and descending obliquely inwards on the rectus , and vastus internus , and over part of the triceps of an unequal breadth and thickness ; it meets with the gracilis below the middle of the thigh internally , and accompanies it in its passage over the internal and inferior head of the thigh-bone ; where it becomes tendinous as it passes under the strict inclosure of the fascia lata , and is inserted four fingers breadth below the superior part of the tibia internally ; it 's employ'd in moving the thigh and tibia upwards , somewhat forewards , and inwards ; in which actions , the upper-part of this muscle appears thro' the skin , which ought to be observ'd by painters , and sculptors . d , e , f , the gracilis : it arises somewhat broad , partly tendinous and partly fleshy from the os pubis internally , between the two first heads of the triceps , and in its straight descent on the inside of the thigh , lessens it self , becoming tendinous a little above the tendon of the last describ'd muscle , and is so inserted immediately beneath it to the tibia . it assists the flexors of the tibia . g , the rectus : it arises fleshy from a prominence of the os ilium , between the fore-part of its spine and acetabulum , ( tab. . fig. . , ) thence descends directly between the vastus externus , and internus , over the crureus : its fibres externally descend from a middle line obliquely laterally ; internally they pass according to its length , and become entirely tendinous four fingers breadth above the patella , where it 's united with the tendons of the two vasti and crureus , and is inserted with them to the tibia . it assists in extending the leg , as also in drawing the thigh and leg upwards . h , the vastus internus : it arises partly tendinous and partly fleshy , at the linea aspera on the back-part of the os femoris , from immediately below the lesser trochanter , to three fingers breadth above the inferior appendix of that bone internally and laterally ; whence its fleshy fibres descend in an oblique and almost semicircular manner , and on a sudden becoming tendinous , joins with the tendon of the rectus , vastus externus , and crureus , and is inserted to a prominence on the upper and fore-part of the tibia after joining with the patella . it s office is the same with the last nam'd muscles . i , the vastus externus : its origin externally is tendinous , internally fleshy from the lower-part of the great trochanter , and exterior part of the linea aspera of the os femoris ; whence its fibres descend obliquely forwards , and on the contrary become outwardly fleshy and tendinous internally , and immediately becomes perfectly tendinous , joining with the tendons of the two last treated of muscles , and is inserted with them ( after joining with the rotula ) to the tibia , as is above mention'd . k k , parts of the triceps . l , the pectineus , by some call'd lividus and flexor femoris ; it has a thick broad fleshy origin from the external part of the os pectinis , or pubis , between the musculus lumbalis , together with the iliacus internus , and second head of the triceps ; whence descending obliquely backwards , becomes a flat strong tendon near its implantation to the asperity , on the posterior part of the os femoris , immediately below the lesser trochanter , and the termination of the psoas . this acting together with the psoas magnus , and iliacus internus , do not only assist those muscles in drawing the os femoris upwards , but by its oblique curve descent from its origin to its insertion : it directs the thigh somewhat outwards , which is a provident contrivance in nature , least in walking , the thigh-bones by their oblique position should be incident to turn inwards ; wherefore this muscle is more particularly employ'd in directing the whole foot , viz. the thigh , leg , and foot outwards , in a more graceful step. m , the psoas together with the iliacus internus , near their insertions . n , the os pubis . the seventy-sixth table . divers muscles lying on the fore-part of the thigh . a , the musculus communis of the membranosus . b , part of its tendinous expansion rais'd and pinn'd out ; it 's call'd membranosus and fascia lata , from its large membranous expansion , comprehending all the muscles of the tibia , together with part of those of the thigh : it hath an acute fleshy beginning from the fore-part of the spine of the os ilium , between the origination of the sartorius , and first describ'd tendinous beginning of the glutaeus magnus , being dilated to a fleshy belly after an oblique descent , it becomes tendinous four fingers breadth below the great trochanter ; whence it descends directly over the vastus externus , to its proper termination at the superior appendix of the fibula ; but in its progress thither , it is conjoyn'd with the tendinous expansion of the glutaeus magnus , that arises from the spine of the ilium , covering the external part of the glutaeus medius , and all the external muscles of the tibia , as well as those of the thigh-bone , and descending over the patella , comprehends all the external muscles of the tarsus and toes , and joins with the ligamentum annulare , which retains the tendons of the muscles of the toes and foot : unless it may be suppos'd this fascia lata should end at the lower-part of the thigh-bone , or superior parts of the tibia and fibula , and that the last nam'd bones should give an origin to the inferior part of the fascia ; which seems to be matter more of controversie than use. when this muscle acts , it draws the leg outwards ; its tendon being join'd with part of the tendinous beginning of the glutaeus magnus , having a differing series of fibres intersecting each other , do thereby compose a strong involucrum , as well including all the common muscles of the leg , as covering the proper ; whereby those muscles are corroborated in their actions . c , the crureus or femoreus : its origination is large and fleshy on the fore-part of the thigh-bone , from between the greater and lesser trochanter , as appears tab. . its fibres descend directly , and become intirely tendinous a little below the upper-part of the tendon of the rectus , soon joining with that tendon , together with those of the two vasti , and fixing to the patella , is afterwards implanted to a prominence at the superior and fore-part of the tibia . the extending muscles of the tibia are much stronger than their antagonists the flexors , as appears by their magnitude and conformation ; whether in respect to their variety of series of fibres in general , or triple order of those of the rectus in particular , and its inclosure in the fascia tendinosa : nor is this conformation without some considerable end design'd by the author of nature ; for should not the legs be extended with a force exceeding the incumbent weight , we should be continually liable to an inflection at the knees , thro' the pressure of the whole body ; much less should we be able to translate the body from one place to another . but the all-wise architect of humane bodies has so fram'd these muscles , as not only to make them useful in supporting the whole body , and rendering them effectually serviceable in walking , running , and the like : but thro' the great proportion of strength of these extending muscles of the tibia , they are also capable ( upon inflection at the knees ) by their sudden acting to extend the legs with such a force , as to remove the whole body from the place where it stood , as in leaping : in which action , the extending muscles of the back , namely the sacrolumbales , longissimi dorsi , &c. and the gasterocnemii of the feet do in like manner concur in extending those parts : a likeness of which is represented in a piece of whale-bone , vid. borell . de motu animalium d , part of the sartorius . e , the tendinous part of the gracilis . f , a portion of the rectus , as it appears hanging down . g , the vastus internus rais'd and hanging down . h , part of the vastus externus in like manner dissected . i , the first and largest head of the triceps , which arises broad and fleshy from the inferior edges and external parts of the os ischium and pubis , and descending with an oblique order of fibres to its partly tendinous and partly fleshy insertion to the linea aspera of the thigh-bone , immediately below the implantation of the musculus quadratus femoris ; the lower-part of this head of the triceps composing a strong round tendon , inserted to the superior part of the internal and lower appendix of the thigh-bone : the second head of this muscle arises tendinous from the os pubis , but in its descent soon becomes fleshy , and joins with the former , near its insertion to the middle part of the linea aspera of the thigh-bone : the third and last beginning of the triceps , springs from the inferior part of the os pubis , between the origin of the last describ'd head , and pectinaeus ; and descending obliquely , joins with the first head near its insertion to the linea aspera of the thigh-bone , immediately above the termination of the second head. the triceps moves the thigh variously according to the diversity of its beginnings ; so the first describ'd part of it draws the thigh-bone upwards , inwards , and somewhat backwards ; the second and third beginnings of it , pulls the thigh more inwards , and turns it somewhat outwards , as when we put our legs across each other . k , parts of the psoas , and iliacus internus . l , the musculus pectinaeus . m , the os pubis . n , the blood-vessels of the thigh ti'd . o , the patella or knee-pan . p , the inferior and internal part of the lower appendix of the thigh-bone . q , part of the tibia . the seventy-seventh table . some of the muscles of the thigh and leg dissected from their originations , and left at their insertions . a b c , &c. the musculus biceps femoris : bb , it s two heads or beginnings : c , its termination . d , the semimembranosus , which in its proper situation is partly cover'd with the seminervosus ( e ) : it has its tendinous origin from the protuberance of the os ischium , and composing a broad , flat tendon in half its progress , on the back-part of the thigh it becomes a round fleshy belly , lying under the long tendon of the seminervosus : about the lower appendix of the thigh-bone ( m ) , this muscle is converted into a strong round tendon , running in a channel on that appendix , and is afterwards inserted to the superior and back-part of the tibia : this bends the tibia , which action it performs the more advantageously by its lower tendons , passing in a channel on the inferior appendix of the thigh-bone ; which , as a pully not only directs it in its office , but renders its action in bending the leg more vigorous . it must be granted , that if the tendon of this semimembr anosus had past further on , and terminated with those of the seminervosus , gracilis , and sartorius , it would have rendred it capable of performing its action with force ; but in regard the number of tendons here on this internal side of the ham are already increas'd to three , the fourth could not well be admitted without some inconveniency , either in performing its office together with the rest , or in the figure of the part : besides it seems to be no small artifice in nature , as well here in the leg , as in the arm , to furnish both with proper muscles , which should gradually bend them : thus the shorter beginning of the biceps femoris and the muscle now treated of , are analogous to the brachialis internus , flexor cubiti ; and this contrivance here seems the more convenient in respect of walking ; in which a moderate flexion of one of the legs is only necessary , in order to its translation before the other . e , the seminervosus or semitendinosus . f , the glutaeus magnus rais'd . g , part of the glutaeus medius . h , the back-part of the thigh-bone made bare . i , the vastus externus partly cover'd with the tendinous expansion of the membranosus . k , the tendon of the membranosus on the vastus . l , m , the two prominencies of the lower appendix of the thigh-bone , of which the internal ( m ) is furrow'd to receive the round tendon of the semimembranosus . n , the trunks of the blood-vessels cut off in the ham. o , part of the crural nerve . p p , the two fleshy beginnings of the gasterocnemius externus . the seventy-eighth table . represents the muscles on the back-part of the thigh partly free'd from each other , and left at their originations and insertions . a , part of the glutaeus major . b b , biceps femoris in situ : it having two beginnings ; the superior and longest of which , arises from the protuberance of the os ischium ( g ) , in its descent becomes large and fleshy , and lessening it self , joins with the inferior and shorter head , which springs partly fleshy and partly tendinous from the linea aspera of the os femoris , immediately below the termination of the glutaeus magnus ; soon after these two heads or beginnings of this muscle are united , it becomes tendinous as it descends in a channel on the external part of the lower appendix of the os femoris , and is implanted to the superior epiphysis of the fibula . besides the office commonly assign'd , this muscle together with the seminervosus and semimembranosus ; it 's likewise imploy'd in turning the leg together with the foot , &c. outwards in sitting with the leg bended . c c , the semimembranosus remov'd from its proper situation . d d , the seminervosus in like manner rais'd , and left at its origination and insertion : this arises from the same protuberance of the os ischium ( g ) , with the upper beginning of the biceps and origin of the semimembranosus ( cc ) , and descending obliquely inward after making a fleshy belly , composes a round tendon above the ham , which descends to its insertion with the gracilis and sartorius , below the upper appendix of the tibia internally . e , the posterior part of the thigh-bone . f f , parts of the gasterocnemius externus . g , the protuberance of the os ischium where the bending muscles of the tibia above-mention'd do arise . h , part of the triceps . i , the great crural nerve . the seventy-ninth table . expresses parts of some muscles remaining on the fore-part part of the thigh-bone . a a , the fore-part of the thigh-bone . b b , part of the crureus muscle rais'd from the os femoris . b b , a portion of the crureus still remaining on the thigh-bone . c , the internal part of the patella , or knee-pan . d , the inside of the tendon of all the extending muscles of the tibia united above the patella . e e , the mucilaginous glandules of the knee . the situation of these glandules as well as others of this kind , is so contriv'd in the several articulations of bones to which they belong , as that they are not liable to be comprest by the apposition of the bones in their various motions : nor are they destitute of such a compressure as is necessary to accelerate their mucilaginous or slimy juice , when lodg'd in their excretory tubes . the tubes or excretory ducts of these glands , do not discharge their contents like those of the fauces , by open apertures ; but are carri'd beyond the surface of their glands , and frame a fimbria or fringe-like appearance , which hangs loose or flaggy in the sinus's of the articulations : this contrivance in these excretory tubes of the mucilaginous glands of the joints , is not only necessary to defend their mouths from being opprest by the mucilage contain'd in the sinus's of the articulations in its endeavour to return again ; but the too plentiful excretion of this mucilage is also prevented , and such a quantity only emitted as is necessary to lubricate the articulations in their respective motions . hence it appears as in violent repeated motions of the bones , there is a greater expence of the mucilage , so there is a constant supply in proportion to that expence . f , the head of the thigh-bone taken out of the acetabulum , or cavity of the hip-bone . g , the ligamentum latum , or broad ligament of the coxendix , which involv'd the articulation of the thigh-bone with the hip , here cut from the margin of the acetabulum , and left at its connection to the neck of the thigh-bone . h , part of the great trochanter . the muscles adjacent to these parts last mention'd , are here so confusedly exprest , as no explanation of them can be asserted . the eightieth table . the muscles on the fore-part of the leg lying under the fascia lata . a , the upper-part of the tibia next the patella which composes the knee . b , the tendons of the musculi peronei in their progress towards their insertions , as is exprest in the following table . c , the lower appendix of the fibula , call'd malleolus externus . d , the musculus tibialis anticus in situ : spigelius calls it musculus catenae , because when it is divided , the patient is oblig'd to use a sling to support the foot for some time . i have more than once seen this muscle divided , whether by ignorantly mis-applying of causticks on nodes of the tibia , or in the case of a fracture of that bone , and the patient after some time has recover'd the compleat action of lifting up his foot , by the extensor pollicis pedis , h : the tibialis anticus derives its fleshy origin from the lower-part of the superior apendage of the tibia between its prominence , where the great tendon of all the extending muscles of the leg is inserted , and the origination of the musculus extensor digitorum pedis longus seu magnus ; it also continues a disgregated fleshy origination for near two thirds of the superior part of the tibia externally laterally , next the fibula ; which composing a fleshy belly , lessens its self in half its progress , and growing into a strong and somewhat round tendon , descends obliquely over the inferior part of the tibia , and under the annular ligament , and is inserted to the superior and internal part of the os metarsi pollicis . this pulls the foot upwards and forwards , directly . e , the peronaeus longus . f , the extensor digitorum pedis longus . g , part of the tendons of the extensor digitorum brevis . h , the tendon of the musculus extensor pollicis longus . i , part of the gasterocnemius externus . n.b. that the muscles are exprest in this figure under the fascia lata ; which like a bandage retains their tendons in their proper situation , in order to perform their offices in extending the toes and drawing the foot upwards . in the following figure the fascia lata is taken off , and the muscles are represented more distinct , being partly separated , and their tendons rais'd . part of the gasterocnemius internus is exprest in this figure between e , and i. the eighty-first table . divers muscles on the fore-part of the leg , partly divided from each other . a , the superior apophysis of the tibia , to which the tendons of the extending muscles ( after joining with the patella ) are inserted . b , the upper appendix of the fibula . c , part of the tibia . d , the heel or os calcis . e , the musculus tibialis anticus . f , the extensor digitorum magnus or longus , it being the largest and longest muscle that extends the toes : this hath an acute fleshy beginning externally from the inferior part of the upper appendix of the tibia next the fibula ; as also a long fleshy one from the superior part of the last nam'd bone , and lessening it self in half its progress on the leg , it joins with a second broad , disgregated fleshy beginning , continued for near half the inferior part of the fibula ; where descending under the ligamentum annulare of the talus , it is divided into five tendons , four of which are inserted to the third bones of all the lesser toes ; but the fifth is implanted on the superior part of the os metatarsi of the little toe ; which part of it , vesalius makes his ninth muscle belonging to the foot. g , the extensor digitorum brevis : it ariseth fleshy from the external and fore-part of the os calcis , soon dilating it self to a fleshy belly , which being divided into four fleshy portions , become so many tendons , passing over the upper-part of the foot , make acute angles with the tendons of the former muscle , as they run over the first internode of each lesser toe , to their insertions at the superior part of their second internodes . h , the extensor pollicis pedis longus & magnus : it being the longest and largest extender of the great toe : its beginning is large and fleshy on the fore-part of the fibula , from immediately below its superior appendix , to four finger's breadth above its inferior one ; and descending under the ligamentum annulare of the tarsus , between the tendon of the tibialis anticus , and the tendons of the extensor pedis longus , marching along the superior part of the foot ; it 's inserted to the upper-part of the second bone of the great toe ; its name declares its use. i , the peroneus primus seu magnus in situ : in the following table it 's rais'd from its origin , and left at its insertion . k , the skin on the bottom of the foot , call'd planta pedis , taken off . l l , a style or bodkin supporting the tendons of the extensor digitorum longus . m , the lower appendix of the fibula , call'd malleolus externus . n , part of the bone , call'd talus and astragalus made bare , so that its cartilaginous surface that is articulated with the inferior part of the tibia and fibula , may be seen . o , the mucilaginous gland of the tarsus entertain'd in the large cavity or interstitium , fram'd between the talus and oblong tubercle of the os calcis ; the use of which cavity and mucus , is taken notice of by realdus columbus lib. i. cap. xxxii . to moisten the articulation of the bones , least they become dry by their frequent motion . p , the tendon of the peroneus longus marching behind the malleolus externus , in its way to its insertion in the bottom of the foot. q , part of the tendon of the peroneus secundus . r , the extensor pollicis brevis in situ . s , part of the gasterocnemius externus . t , part of the internus . n. b. that the fascia membranosa which helps to compose the annular ligament , between the two malleoli and upper-part of the foot or tarsus , commonly , call'd the instep , is here taken off from its continuance near half the lower-part of the tibia , that of the upper-part of the leg or tibia remaining on , as is well exprest in this figure . the eighty-second table . shews the extending muscles of the toes , together with divers imploy'd in the motion of the foot dissected from their originals , and left at their tendinous insertions . a , the inside of the tibialis anticus free'd from the tibia . b , the peroneus secundus , by some call'd semifibulaeus : it has an acute fleshy beginning from above the middle of the external part of the fibula , under the fleshy belly of the peroneus longus , continuing to derive a disgregated fleshy beginning from the posterior sharp edge of the fibula , composing a fleshy belly ; it grows tendinous as it passes behind the malleolus externus , under the tendon of the peroneus longus , and is inserted to the superior and external part of the os metatarsi of the little toe . this draws the foot outwards . c , the peroneus primus or longus , so call'd because it is the first that offers its self to view , and the longest muscle plac'd on the os perone or fibula ; it arises externally tendinous , and internally fleshy , from above half the superior part of the fibula , descending somewhat backwards , composes a strong flat tendon , which becomes somewhat round as it marches in a channel on the malleolus externus ; whence it 's inflected forwards ( tab. . p , ) accompaning the tendon of the peroneus secundus to its insertion ( tab. ibid. q , ) ; where the tendon of this muscle leaves it , and proceeds to march over the os cuboides or spongiosum , and under the abductor minimi digiti ; whence it passes in planta pedis , between the ossa cuneformia and tendons of the muscles bending the toes , to its implantation at the superior and hindmost part of the os metatarsi of the great toe , as is exprest , tab. . fig. . m , ibid. fig. . f. this contrivance in nature in conveying the tendon of this muscle , not only over the lower appendix of the fibula , but on the os spongiosum ( as a rope on a double pully ) is very considerable in respect to its office ; for since the ball of the great toe ( to which part this tendon is inserted ) is necessary for the center of gravity to the whole body ; it is an instance of the skill of the divine architect so to dispose of this instrument , which brings that center towards a perpendicular bearing ( which necessarily projects from the fulciment or tibia ) , by adding this double pully ; which composing angles of contortion do's reciprocally augment the force of making the ball of the great toe approach towards a right bearing with the tibia ; and by this means sustains the weight of the body , tho it is not in a direct position with the gravity of the whole . d , the extensor digitorum pedis longus . e e e , &c. it s five tendons inserted to the extream internode of the lesser toes ; two of which go to the little toe , as here exprest . e , one of the tendons of the extensor digitorum magnus , implanted on the os metatarsi of the little toe . f , the extensor digitorum pedis brevis . f f f , its tendons . g , the extensor pollicis longus , h , the extensor pollicis brevis . i , the tibia . k , the fibula . l l l , the bones of the tarsus connected to each other , and the ossa metatarsi , by ligaments . m , the great ligament of the articulation of the tarsus , with the tibia and fibula divided , to shew the upper cartilaginous surface of the os tali or astragalus . n n , &c. the musculi inter-ossei lying between the bones of the metatarsus . o , the abductor minimi digiti . p , part of the flexor pollicis longus remaining in situ on the back-part of the fibula . q , part of the gasterocnemius internus . r , the trunks of the nerves and blood-vessels which are inservient to the muscles on the fore-part of the tibia . s , the ligament between the tibia and fibula which distinguishes the muscles of the fore-part from those behind . the eighty-third table . represents divers external muscles of the leg and bottom of the foot. a , the upper appendix of the tibia , which helps to compose the internal lateral part of the knee . b , the body of the tibia . c , the os calcis . d , part of the musculus popliteus inserted to the upper and internal part of the tibia . e , the gasterocnemius externus , so call'd , because it 's the external muscle which helps to compose the calf of the leg : ves●●ngius distinguishes this here exprest , with its companion on the outside of the calf , by the name of gasterocnemius , and the subjacent muscle , he calls soleus , from its figure being like that of the sole-fish , which others , as spigelius , &c. call gasterocnemius internus . this external muscle is also call'd gemellus , it being as it were double ; it having two distinct fleshy originations , from the superior and hindmost parts of each tubercle of the lower apendage of the thigh-bone ; which in their descent are each dilated into two large fleshy bellies : the innermost of which is thickest , and largest ; each of these fleshy bellies having a differing series of fibres , join to each other , near where they make a broad strong tendon , which narrowing it self , joins with the great tendon of the gasterocnemius internus , four finger's breadth above its insertion to the os calcis . riolan asserts with vesalius , that in the two beginnings of this muscle , there are two ossicula sesamoidea ; which we must acknowledge with marchette , have hitherto escap'd our observation , tho' it 's likely it may be so in aged bodies ; as appear'd in a subject i lately dissected , on one side only . when this muscle acts , the foot is said to be extended or pull'd backwards , which motion of it is very necessary in walking , running , leaping , and standing on tiptoe , &c. hence it is those that walk much , have these muscles larger than others , thro' the frequent use of them , and amongst whom those that carry heavy burthens , and especially sedans or chairs in this town ; and those who wear low-heel'd shoes have these muscles remarkably larger than others . f , the tendinous expansion of the musculus plantaris free'd from the bottom of the foot. g , the perforatus , so call'd , because its tendons are perforated like those of the fingers . it is also call'd flexor secundi internodii digitorum pedis , from its use , and sublimis from its situation : it springeth from the inferior and internal part of the os calcis , between the musculi abductores of the greater and lesser toes , dilating it self to a fleshy belly ; after it hath pass'd the middle of the planta pedis ; it is divided into four fleshy portions , which become so many tendons , and are divided near their terminations to admit the tendons of the following muscles or perforatus , to pass thro' them to their insertions ; these tendons being united again , pass underneath the perforantes to their implantations at the upper-part of the second bone of each lesser toe . h h , the tendons of the perforans passing thro' the divisions of those of the perforatus last describ'd . i , the tendon of the flexor pollicis longus . k , the abductor pollicis , so call'd from its office : it arises partly tendinous and partly fleshy from the internal and lateral part of the os calcis , and in half its progress composes a tendon which joins with another beginning , springing from the os cuniforme majus , and naviculare ; both marching forwards make one tendon at its insertion to the external part of the os sesamoides of the great toe laterally : it draws the great toe from the rest . l , the abductor minimi digiti ; this muscle is outwardly tendinous and inwardly fleshy in its origin at the external part of the os calcis , and becoming tendinous in half its progress on the outside of the foot ; it joins a second fleshy beginning of this muscle , springing from the superior and external part of the os metatarsi of the little toe , makes one tendon at its insertion to the upper-part of the first bone of the little toe externally laterally . m , the internal malleolus . n , the tendon of the tibialis anticus . o , the tendon of the gasterocnemii . p , part of the small long tendon of the musculus plantaris , in its descent towards the bottom of the foot. q , part of the gasterocnemius internus or soleus . note , that part of the flexor digitorum pedis perforans and flexor pollicis , may be seen in this position of the part between m and q ; but the membranes not being taken off ( in the subject whence this figure was taken ) those muscles are here exprest very obscurely . the eighty-fourth table . represents the muscles of the hinder-part of the leg , after the gasterocnemii are dissected from their originals , and left at their insertions . a a , the two inferior heads of the thigh-bone . b , part of one of the semilunary cartilages plac'd in the articulation of the thigh-bone with the tibia ; this cartilage together with that on the other side of this articulation , frame two shallow cavities on the tibia , which receive the prominencies of the two inferior heads of the thigh-bone : these semilunary cartilages are thick and large , externally towards the surface of the tibia , to which they are connected and gradually become thinner as they approach the center of the upper-part of the tibia ; their figure very aptly represents a half-moon ; their office is very considerable in preventing those frequent luxations and dislocations which this part , on very slight occasions , would otherwise be incident to ; for which end these semilunary cartilages are connected to the broad ligament which invests this articulation ; which ligament is very well exprest in this figure , it being partly taken off from the hinder-part of the articulation , to shew the two heads of the thigh-bone . c , the musculus popliteus , by some call'd subpopliteus : it ariseth with a short strong tendon from the external head of the inferior appendix of the os femoris , whence descending obliquely over the juncture , it becomes fleshy or more and more expanding it self , till it 's implanted to the superior part of the tibia internally , immediately below its upper appendix ( a ) : this muscle not only assists the rest imploy'd in bending the tibia , but it is advantageously situated to antagonize the biceps femoris , when the leg or knee is bended in turning the foot and toes inwards . d , the internal part of the tibia . e e , parts of the gasterocnemius externus dissected from their originations . f , the inferior or internal surface of the gasterocnemius internus ; where a very elegant disposition of its fibres are curiously exprest , which appearance i have frequently observ'd ; but in some subjects , and particularly in one i lately dissected , a quite different series of fibres of this muscle offer'd : this muscle lies under the gasterocnemius externus and part of the plantaris ; it 's call'd soleus from its figure ; it s external fleshy part is cover'd with a transparent tendinous expansion , which makes it appear of a livid colour ; it arises partly tendinous , but chiefly fleshy from the hindmost part of the upper appendix of the fibula , and back-part of the tibia , immediately below the termination of the subpopliteus , and increasing to a large fleshy belly compos'd of various orders of fibres , all which being united into a tendon , join with the tendon of the external muscle , and are inserted to the superior and hindmost part of the os calcis . the talus together with the toes being as it were a leaver to the whole body , ought therefore to be attended with muscles of great strength to extend them ; wherefore we find those muscles so much to exceed their antagonist the tibieus anticus , as well in the advantageous constructure of their differing series of fleshy fibres , as their magnitude and insertion at the extremity of the os calcis ; by which means they are not only rendred serviceable in walking , running , and the like ; but do also support the tibiae in standing , least the weight of the body should make them incline forwards at their articulations with the bones of the feet . g g , the plantaris left at its origination ; or which i rather believe , after dissection from thence , and rais'd , is there again fastn'd ; its proper situation being between the gasterocnemius externus and internus ; the latter of which muscles could not without difficulty be taken from its origination , as is represented in this table , and the plantaris left : this muscle is so call'd because its tendon is expanded in the planta pedis , like that of the palmaris in the palm of the hand : it arises fleshy from the superior and back-part of the external head of the thigh-bone , immediately under the outmost beginning of the gasterocnemius externus ; whence descending obliquely between the two gasterocnemii , composes a thin , long , flat tendon , which passes out from between the fleshy bellies of the last nam'd muscles , and descends internally laterally by their great tendons ( as is exprest in the preceding table p , ) and marches over the os calcis , expanding it self on the sole of the foot ; where it almost inseparably adheres to the fleshy body of the musculus flexor digitorum perforatus , and is inserted on both sides the first internodes of each lesser toe , and sometimes to that of the great toe . the office of this muscle is very obscure ; its tendinous expansion on the bottom of the foot , is chiefly serviceable in defending the subjacent muscles , tendons , nerves , and blood-vessels , from being comprest in standing , walking , &c. n. b. in some bodies the fleshy beginning and long tendon of this muscle is wanting . g , the tendinous expansion of the plantaris separated from the bottom of the foot. h , a large nerve in its way to the bottom of the foot and toes . i , the beginning of the flexor pollicis in situ . k k , part of the peroneus secundus . l , the beginning of the perforans in situ . m , the abductor pollicis . n , the skin and fat taken off the heel and bottom of the foot. the eighty-fifth table . all the muscles represented in the preceding table rais'd from their originals , and left at their insertions . a , the inferior part of the musculus popliteus at its insertion to the internal and upper part of the tibia . a , the internal part of the knee . b , the great bone of the leg call'd tibia ; c , the lesser bone call'd fibula . d d , the two beginnings of the gasterocnemius externus ; e , its conjunction with the internal gasterocnem muscle . f f , the musculus plantaris plac'd between the external and internal gastarocnem muscles . g , the tibialis posticus , so call'd from its situation on the back-part of the tibia ; it 's also call'd nauticus , from the use which mariners make of it in climbing up their masts ; it 's plac'd under the flexor pollicis longus and part of the persorans digitorum pedis ; in some subjects it seems to have two fleshy bellies : this muscle remains undivided between the bones after the circular incision for amputations of the leg below the knee : it springs from a partly tendinous and fleshy origination at the superior and back-part of the fibula , as also from the ligament between the tibia and fibula ; whence descending , becomes tendinous as it runs in a sinus on the back-part of the lower appendage of the tibia call'd malleolus internus , under an inclosing ligament , and is inserted to the os naviculare : this draws the foot upwards and inwards . h , the perforans or flexor tertii internodii digitorum pedis ; it hath an acute fleshy origination from the back-part of the tibia , immediately under the subpopliteus , having a double order of fleshy fibres united to a middle tendon like the flexor pollicis longus , but ceases to be fleshy as it marches behind the malleolus internus , running in a channel over the internal part of the os calcis , and under its inclosing ligaments ; in half its progress through the bottom of the foot , its tendon is divided into four , which march through the fissures of the tendons of the perforatus i , and are inserted to the third bones of the lesser toes . i , the perforatus in situ , describ'd tab. . k , the flexor pollicis pedis longus is an antagonist to the extensor longus ; it arises opposite to it from the back-part of the fibula , with a double order of fleshy . fibres passing to a middle tendon ; it ceases to be fleshy as it passes over the juncture of the talus , running through a channel on the internal part of the os calcis , its tendon still marches under the tendon of the musculus flexor digitorum longus perforans , to which it most commonly joins , and passes in a depressure made in the flexor pollicis brevis ( elgantly exprest in this figure ) to its insertion at the last bone of the great toe : its name declares its office. there are many remarkable parts exprest in this figure , which have been already explain'd in the preceding tables , as the os calcis made bare , the malleolus internus , the musculus abductor minimi digiti , &c. wherefore we shall not insert particular characters of them here , as we have done in the foregoing tables . the eighty-sixth table . fig. . exhibits all the muscles which appear in the bottom of the foot , after the expansion of the plantaris is remov'd . a b c , the musculus lumbricalis , by some call'd carnea massa in planta pedis ; it springs fleshy from the internal part of the os calcis , and growing tendinous , joins with the tendons of the perforatus ; where growing fleshy again , divides its self , and composes the four musculi lumbricales f f e , ( properly so call'd from their figure ) ; all which become tendinous at their insertions to the internal parts of each lesser toe , laterally next the great toe : it is also call'd flexor primi internodii digitorum pedis , from its use. a a a , the tendons of the perforans running thro' the fissures of the musculus perforatus ; which is here dissected from its original , and left at its insertions to the lesser toes , that of the little toe being wanting . d , part of the flexor pollicis longus . g , the abductor minimi digiti pedis cut from its first original at the os calcis , and left at its second , at the metatarsi minimi digiti . h , part of the abductor pollicis . i , the flexor pollicis pedis brevis in its proper situation . k , the transversalis pedis in like manner in situ . l , parts of the inter-ossei . m , part of the tendon of the peroneus longus , in its way to its insertion in the bottom of the foot. n , the heel-bone . fig. . a , between c c , and d , the flexor pollicis brevis : this , as appears in the preceding table , seems to be divided into two parts , by the tendon of the long muscle bending the great toe passing over it : it ariseth from the os cunesorme medium , and marching over the termination of the peroneus longus , is implanted to the ossa sesamoidea of the great toe , which bones are ( like the patella ) afterwards tied to the second internode of that toe : its name declares its office. b , the abductor minimi digiti cut from its origin and pinn'd up . aaaa , the musculi inter-ossei in situ , somewhat rais'd . c c c , part of the abductor pollicis , and flexor brevis . d , the adductor pollicis : this arises partly tendinous and partly fleshy from the inferior part of the os cuneforme tertium , after composing a fleshy belly , is lessen'd at its insertion to the part of the outermost os sesamoides of the great toe : its denomination expresses its use. e , the transversalis pedis , so call'd from its situation : it ariseth tendinous from the external os sesamoides of the great toe , and becoming a fleshy belly in its progress over the first internodes of the two next toes , it is lessen'd at its insertion to the inferior part of the os metatarsi of the little toe : its office is to bring the lesser toe towards the greater . f , the tendon of the peroneus longus at its termination . g , the os calcis . n. b. parts of the tendons of the perforatus and perforans , are exprest at their terminations on the bones of the toes . fig. . a a , &c. the eight musculi inter-ossei of the toes , according to bidloo and others ; the first of which lying on the little toe , we choose to call from its office , flexor primi internodii minimi digiti , it not lying between the metatarsal bones like the rest : its rise being from the superior part of the os metatarsi minimi digiti , it passes directly to its insertion in the first bone of the lesser toe . the inter-ossei are in number seven , they derive their names from their situation , and may each deserve a proper appellation from their use : the first next to the muscle last describ'd , may be call'd adductor minimi digiti ; the second is the largest , and draws the next toe towards the lesser , and may be call'd abductor auricularis ; the third antagonizes the former , and is an adductor of that toe ; the fourth is an abductor medii digiti ; the fifth is an adductor of the same ; the sixth is an adductor ; and the seventh an abductor indicis pedis : their origination , progress , and insertion , may be seen exprest in this figure . b b , c c , divers muscles of the great toe which are confusedly dispos'd . d , the abductor minimi digiti . e , the tendon of the peroneus longus , at its implantation to the os metatarsi of the great toe . the eighty-seventh table . having examin'd the muscles of the limbs and most of those of the head , trunk and other parts of the body , and taken notice of many of the most remarkable ligaments in divers articulations of the bones : we come next to view the whole compages of the bones when dried , call'd the skeleton ; the fore-part of which is represented in this table . if you examine the proper situation of each bone , you will find none of them plac'd in a perpendicular bearing to each other : above two thirds of the whole head , projects from its articulation with the vertebrae of the neck : the whole ribs and sternum which compose the fore-part of the thorax , together with all its viscera , as well as the viscera of the lower belly , project from the vertebrae of the back and loins : the claviculae whose positions are horizontal , support the arms , by their connections with the scapulae : the articulations of the thigh-bones are not perpendicular to the grand fulciment of the head and trunk ; ( i.e. the whole vertebrae , ) but are plac'd before it . the thigh-bones stand obliquely inwards , and so do the tibiae , tho' not in so great a manner . we stand either on the extremity of the os calcis , and ball of the great toe together ; or else on the ball of the great toe only , as on tip-toe . a , the forehead-bone divided into two parts , by means of a continuation of the longitudinal suture , which may be seen in divers subjects as here exprest ; nor do's such an appearance determine the sex as some pretend . b , the bregma . c , the temple-bone call'd squamosum . d , the yoke-bone or os iugale compos'd of two process's ; the one deriv'd backwards from the os squamosum ; the other forwards from the first bone of the upper jaw . e , the fourth bone of the upper jaw . f , the lower jaw-bone . g , the teeth call'd incisores . h , the first rib near its articulation with the vertebrae of the neck . i , the clavicula on the right side . k , the processus coracoides scapulae on the left side . l , the sternum or brest-bone . m m , &c. the seven true ribs . n n , &c. the five bastard ribs , call'd nothae or spuriae . o o , &c. divers of the twelve vertebrae of the back . p p , &c. four of the five vertebrae of the loins ; the uppermost being hid by the cartilages of the bastard ribs . q , the os ilium . r , its conjunction with the os pubis in the acetabulum . s , the os pubis . t , the os sacrum . v , the upper-part of the ossa pubis , behind which , is the os coccygis , not to be seen in this position . w , the os humeri or shoulder-bone . x , the ulna , exprest in its whole length in the left arm. y , the radius ; between which and z , are contain'd the eight bones of the carpus . z , the bones of the hand , particularly those of the metacarpus . , the thigh-bone . , the patella or knee-pan . , the tibia . , the fibula . , the bones of the foot. the eighty-eighth table . is the back and side of a humane skeléton . what has been said in the preceding page relating to the position of the bones , with respect to their bearing on each other , seems better explain'd in the figure of this table : whereby it appears , if the muscles which draw the head up , or backwards , as well as those plac'd on the back-part of the whole spine , were not very large as well as numerous , the trunk of the body as well as the head , would be continually subject to fall forwards . nor could we stand , much less translate the body from one place to another , if the extending muscles of the thigh-bones , those of the tibiae and feet , were not very strong , as is elsewhere taken notice of in the description of those muscles . hence we may easily conceive , why we can with less difficulty continue a progressive motion for a longer time , than in a standing posture ; the former being an alternate acting of most of the muscles ; the latter a continued or tonic action of some few muscles only . hence also we may be inform'd , why the greatest part of the gravity of the whole body is sustain'd by one leg only in standing , rather than with both at once : and divers other phaenomena of which my time at present will not give leave so much as to make mention . a , the forehead-bone . b , the bregma . c , the temple-bone . d , the yoke-bone . e , the bone of the occiput ; near e is the mammiform process . f , the bones of the upper-jaw . g , the lower jaw-bone . h , the fourth bone of the upper-jaw which constitutes the greatest part of the roof of the mouth . i i i i i , five of the spines of the vertebrae of the neck ; the uppermost arising from the second vertebra , being short and double , do's not appear in this posture . i i inferior , the spines of the two first vertebrae of the back or thorax . k k , &c. the rest of the spines of the vertebrae of the back , l l , those of the loins . m , the first rib. n , the scapula or shoulder-blade . n , part of the clavicula articulated to the spine of the scapula . o , the internal part of the sternum or os pectoris . p p , &c. the true ribs . q q , some of the inferior or bastard ribs . r , the os ilium , s , the sacrum , t , the ischium , v , the coccygis . w , the internal part of the os pubis . x , the os humeri or shoulder-bone . y , the ulna . z , the radius . , the bones of the hand . , the thigh-bone . , the patella . , the tibia . , the fibula . , the bones of the foot. a particular description of each of these bones , may be seen in the explications of the following tables . the eighty-ninth table . this and the three following tables represent the bones of the skull , and those of the upper and under jaws . the bones which compose the skull are the ossa frontis , sincipitis , occipilis , temporum , sphenoides and cribriforme : of these the four first are esteem'd proper to the skull ; the two latter are said to be common to the skull and upper jaw . the bones of the upper and under jaws will be more particularly treated of in tab. . fig. . the convex fore-parts of the forehead bone , with those of the upper-jaw and os sphenoides , as they appear separated from the rest of the bones of the skull . a , the forehead-bone whose superior margin , sutur'd with the the ossa sincipitis , composes near two thirds of a circle . b b b , parts of the superior lamellae or table which sticks out with sharp edges and points , which are receiv'd in the interstitia of the like fram'd by the ossa sincipitis , which conjunction is call'd sutura . c c , the lower-part of the frontal-bone , composing the superior part of the orbit of the eye . d , a process of the os frontis near the great cantbus of the eye . e , another process of the same bone towards the lesser canthus . f , part of the os cuneiforme join'd to the frontal-bone , by bidloo call'd two eminencies of the last nam'd bone , on both sides towards the temples . g , in this as well as the rest of the bones of the skull , may be seen divers foraminulae for the coming in and going out of blood-vessels , whether belonging to the dura mater and common integuments of the skull , or duploi of the skull it self . h , that part of the os frontis , where a cavity is fram'd containing a pituitous membrane , which is continuous with that of the foramina narium , and helps to separate part of the mucus that is excreted at the nose . this cavity is often divided with a septum osseum ; as appears in tab. . fig. . in some humane skulls this cavity scarce appears , in others it is very large , especially in those who have projecting eye-brows . those that take much snuff may have part of it , get up into this cavity , and there lodge , and prove pernicious . in quadrupedes these cavities are large and divided by divers bony partitions , and communicate with each other by various apertures : in sheep i have frequently found in those cavities divers large maggots , not unlike the great eruca terrestris . in cows , bulls , &c. these cavities are very large ; in these animals the pituitary membrane which invests these cavities , frequently becomes inflam'd and thickned ; whereby the pituita is pent up in these cavities , and causes a disease in those animals , call'd the staggers ; for which the country people ( particularly in sussex ) perform this following operation , and the animal is presently reliev'd . the head of the beast being held in a convenient posture , and the operator furnish'd with a mallet and large broad chisel : with one or two stroaks he drives his chisel into the os frontis , which composes this cavity ; this done , he raises up the bone with its superjacent parts , by means of the chisel ; then with his fingers he separates the pituitary membrane from the bone , and draws it out : this done , he presently depresses the rais'd up parts with his hand ; and the divided bone afterwards unites , and the animal is seldom troubled with the like disease afterwards . this membrane fill'd with pituita ( they tell you ) is a water-bag lying on the brain . the rest of the bones exprest in this figure are explain'd tab. . fig. . fig. . the internal concave parts of the same bone represented in the preceding figure . a , that part of the os frontis which receives the fore-part of the brain . b b , the saw-like appearance of the os frontis after disjunction from the bones of the sinciput , at the coronal suture . c c , the superior and fore-part of the os cuneiforme , join'd to the frontal-bone . d d , the internal and anterior process's of the os cuneiforme , which help to compose the sella equina , or turcica ; in this sell the pituitary gland is lodg'd ; the contorted trunks of the carotid arteries pass by it on each side in their way to the brain , where they send out divers small branches which help to compose the rete mirabile : this process gives way to the optick nerves in their progress to the eyes . f f inferior , two internal long processes of the os sphenoides join'd with the os frontis . f f superior , the impressions which the blood-vessels make in the frontal-bone in their distribution on the dura mater . g , an internal process continued from the os cribrosum or ethmoides , distinguishing the right side of the frontal-bone from the left. h , that process of the os cribrosum , call'd crista galli . i i , the internal part of the os cuneiforme or sphenoides next the brain . k , the lower-part of the fourth bone of the upper jaw , which composes the roof of the mouth , by some call'd os palati . l l , the processus pterygoides or aliformis . m m , the internal and back-parts of the two first bones of the upper jaw . n , part of the fourth bone of the upper jaw , in which the upper teeth are fasten'd . o o , two of the dentes molares left in both sides of the upper jaw . p , the septum of the foramina narium . q , that part of the os cuneiforme that was join'd to the occipital bone by syncondrosis , which conjunction becomes intirely bony in aged bodies . r , the two hinder processes of the os sphenoides , which compose the back-part of the sella turcica , call'd ephippium . n. b. between c d , and i , on either side , is exprest the second perforation of the os sphenoides or large rima , thro' which pass the third , fourth , sixth , and a branch of the fifth pair of nerves , together with divers blood-vessels , particularly a large branch of the carotid artery and vein ; which latter is figur'd tab. . fig. . f. the other foramen , here exprest immediately under the last mention'd , or between it and the processus pterygoides ( l ) , is reckon'd the third foramen of the os cuneiforme , by which a branch of the fifth pair of nerves passes out of the skull : the rest of the foramina of the os cuneiforme are the fourth , fifth , sixth , and seventh ; the first of these namely the f●urth is exprest in the first figure of this table , and again in tab. . fig. . i , within the orbit of the eye , and in fig. . of the same table ( v v ) ; by this foramen , or rather large rima like the second foramen ( made by the fourth bone of the upper iaw and cuneiforme ) pass the branches of the third , fifth and some of the sixth pan of nerves , after passing thro' the second foramen , to the adjacent muscles and parts , together with large blood-vessels of both kinds , especially to the temporal muscle . the fifth foramen of the os cuneiforme , is compos'd at its meeting of the os petrosum and occipitale , exprest tab. . fig. . x , x ; which external aperture there represented , is partly fill'd with a cartilage , but its internal foramen transmits the carotid artery to the lateral part of the sella equina ; which artery first enters the cranium by the os petrosum , as appears in the last mention'd figure ( z z ) ; by this foramen the intercostal nerve passes out of the skull . the sixth perforation of the os sphenoides is describ'd in the last mention'd table and figure ( y ) , and is compleatly fill'd by a branch of the fifth pair of nerves : the seventh foramen of this bone is externally laterally adjacent to the sixth , and is most commonly of an oval figure ; by it a small branch of the carotid artery passes to the dura mater , accompanied with a vein running paralel with it ; which frame those sulci in the bone , exprest in this figure ( f f superior ) , and in that of tab. . fig. . f f. the ninetieth table . the six first figures represent the internal and external surfaces of the rest of the proper bones of the skull , when separated from each other at their sutures . fig. . the bone of the sinciput or bregma of the right side . a a , the external convext part of the bregma , circumscrib'd by b b , the coronal suture in the fore-part , joining it to the os frontis ; c c , the sagittal suture in the superior part , by which the right and left bregma are distinguish'd ; d d , the lambdoidal backwards , by which it is connected to the os occipitis . d , a , b , the inferior side of the bregma , on which the superior part of the os temporum , and part of the os cuneiforme rests . fig. . the internal surface of the left sincipital-bone next the dura mater and brain . a a , the internal concave part of the os sincipitis . b , c , d , the furrows which the blood-vessels of the dura mater , make on the internal surface of this bone ; where may be observ'd many foramina these vessels have , for their entrance into the meditullium● of the bone ; sometimes we have seen these vessels perforate the cranium directly , in more than in one or two places , especially towards the occipu● , where two of their large foramina are commonly to be observ'd on the external surface of the bone ; but here also th●y sometimes pass obliquely into the meditullium : the number and magnitude of these foramina for the blood-vessels , may be seen to increase near the impression which the longitudinal sinus makes in the cranium . e e , that part of the bregma that was contiguous to the os temporale , and upper-part of the os sphenoides . fig. . the occipital bone separated at its conjunction from the rest of the bones of the cranium . a , the external convext surface of the occipital-bone , where the muscles extending the head , are implanted , and part of the musculus cucullaris do's arise . b , the first great foramen of the occipital-bone , by which the medulla oblongata descends out of the cranium into the great cavities of all the vertebrae . c c , two depress'd protuberancies of the occipital-bone , which are receiv'd into the shallow cavities of the first vertebrae of the neck . d , two depressures fram'd at the origin of the musculi recti mi●ores of the head. e , a third foramen appearing in the internal part of the left side of the os occipitis ; by which the nerve of the ninth pair on that side passes out of the cranium ; that of the right side not appearing in this position of the bone. the second foramen of the os occipitis , is fram'd at its conjunction with the os temporum , and helps to compose the specus which receives the bulbous part of the lateral si ? us , at the beginning of the internal jugular vein . fig. . the internal and concave part of the os occipitis next the dura mater , on part of the cerebrum and cerebellum . a , b , c , a rising in the bone fram'd collateral to the lower-part of the longitudinal sinus , where it meets with the two lateral sinuss's . d f , two depressures parting to each side from the inferior part of the last mention'd rising ; in which the external surface of the lateral sinuss's are entertain'd . e , that part where the longitudinal and lateral sinuss's meet , which conjunction is call'd torcular herophili . g g , divers foramina by which the blood-vessels enter the meditullium of the bone. fig. . the external surface of the os temporale or squamosum of the right side , when free'd from the os occipitis , sincipitis , and cuneiforme . a , the meatus auditorius , being the continued passage from the c●●c●a ( exprest tab. . fig. . c , d , e , ) to the membrana tympa●i : in this meatus ( by some call'd alve●re auris , and porus auditorius , ) is contain'd the glandulous membrane , in which the cerumen commonly call'd the ear-wax , is separated from the blood ; which membrane is frequently ulcerated , being very liable to obstructions is in circulating blood and separated matter , by reason of the vast numbers of vessels that are necessary in the composition of its glandulous structure ; here also arise excrescencies , some of which we have seen very much like those of the foramina narium , commonly call'd polypi from their figure : others i have observ'd to be like mulber●●s , and the patient has suffer'd great pain when they have been but touch'd with a probe : nevertheless i have frequently consum'd them with causticks , and the patient has recover'd his hearing . these excrescencies last mention'd , commonly arise after impostumations on the glandulous membrane of the ear. b , a sinus cover'd with a cartilage , which receives the head of the long process of the lower jaw , by the mediation of a cartilaginous body , describ'd in our appendix fig. . s , t. c , d , that part of the os temporale plac'd between the os occipitale and cuneiforme , call'd the third process of that bone , in which the internal organs of hearing are contain'd . e , the second process of the os squamosum or temporale , which joining with the process of the first bone of the upper jaw , composes that bone call'd iugale . f , the first process of the temple-bone , call'd mastoides or mammiforme , whose internal part is cavernulous , and opens into the tympanum . c , g , that part of the temple-bone which is contiguous to the os occipitis . g , h , that part of the temple or squamous-bone plac'd on the os sincipitis . h , c , the other side sutur'd with the os cuneiforme . fig. . the internal face of the os squamosum next the brain . a , the process of the temple-bone , and may be call'd processus petrosus , as well from its appearance as compactness ; wherefore the whole temple-bone is by some call'd petrosum . in this process are contain'd all the internal organs of hearing between a and c : as the membrana tympani , the tympanum , the musculus obliquus , the musculus internus and musculus stapidis ; the incus , maleus , stapis and ossiculum quartum ; the meatus à palato ad aurem ; the foramen ovale and rotundum ; the labyrinth and its vestibulum ; three semicircular ducts , and the cochlea , together with its lamina spiralis , and the expansion of the auditory nerve within the labyrinth and cochlea . b b , that part of the os squamosum which cleav'd to the bone of the sinciput . d , the foramen by which the auditory nerve enters the os petrosum , in its way towards the labyrinth and cochlea . having already said something of the meatus auditorius and the membrane which invests it ; the order of parts would require our next examination of the membrana tympani , and the muscles within the cavity of the tympanum , &c. but the succeeding figures representing the four little bones of the labyrinth , cochlea , and their foramina only ; we must prosecute the order set before us , and refer to our appendix to what properly belongs to this place . ( viz. ) the muscles of the internal ear and membrana tympani . fig. . the labyrinth of the left ear of a foetus . a , b , c c , the three semicircular ducts clear'd of the membranes and part of the os petrosum ; in which bone they are entirely inclos'd in the adult , and no marks of their tracts appear , as in the foetus . d , that part of the os petrosum in which the cochlea is contain'd , part of which is here exprest , broken up . fig. . the labyrinth and cochlea of the left ear. a , b , c , the three semicircular ducts whose cavities are invested with a membrane , in which the auditory nerve is expanded : the extremities of these ducts open into the vestibulum of the labyrinth , or cavity immediately within the foramen ovale , figur'd in our appendix : one of the spiral ducts of the cochlea also opens into the vestibulum . d , part of the cochlea open'd , which consists of two spiral ducts , or one duct divided by a bony septum ; which from its figure is call'd lamina spiralis : one of these ducts ( as above noted ) opens into the vestibulum of the labyrinth , at its basis ; the other in like manner ends its basis at the membrane within the foramen rotundum . the auditory nerve is expanded in like manner in the cochlea , as in the labyrinth . fig. . the four little bones of the ear contain'd in the tympanum , taken out , and represented in their proper articulations with each other . a , the malleolus , the deprest head of which , is receiv'd in the shallow cavity of the incus . b , the incus , articulated with the stapes by the mediation of the os orbiculare . c , the stapes . .... d , the os orbiculare or fourth bone of the tympanum . these bones we shall figure in situ in our appendix . fig. . the malleolus taken from the rest of the little bones of the ear , with parts of two of its muscles remaining to it . a , . , the roundish deprest head of the malleolus . b ... , a ligament which connects the head of the malleolus to the incus . c , the neck of the malleolus . d d , the two process's of the malleus , in which the external and internal muscles are inserted : besides these process's , its long production call'd the manubrium or handle of the malleus , is remarkable , which adheres to the inside of the membra●a tymp●ni . fig. . the incus in whose lower-part ( as it s here figur'd ) is a shallow depressure which receives the roundish head of the malleus : its two process's are here well exprest ; of which the shortest rests in a sinus of the os petrosum , within the tympanum ; but the longer is articulated with the stapes , by the mediation of the os orbiculare . fig. . the stapes so call'd from its figure , whose basis rests on the margin of the fenestra ovalis , as is here exprest , and the os orbiculare lying under it ; which latter is delineated som●what bigger than the life . the ninety-first table . fig. . shews the external convex surface of the upper-part of the skull , and its proper sutures , elegantly exprest . a , b , the forehead-bone , by some call'd os coronale , inverecundum , and os puppis . c , the os sincipitis or verticis , by some call'd bregma , either from the soft moist brain lying under it , or from its thin moist constitution in infants , and sometimes in the adult . d , part of the os occipitis , by some call'd basillare , os prorae , os memoriae and os pyxidis . e e , the coronal suture . f , the sagittal suture or sutura longitudinalis . g g , the sutura lambdoides . tho' the sutures here exprest are regular according to their common appearance , yet in divers subjects we find nature sport very considerably ; sometimes the longitudinal suture is double , at other times it passes obliquely towards the coronal suture , and in some subjects it frames an os triquetrum at its conjunction with the coronal suture , or else divers small bones of various figures ; the like may be sometimes observ'd in the sutura lambdoides , as also in the coronal suture ; of which latter , the figure here gives a specimen on the right side . fig. . the internal concave surface of the upper-part of the skull when saw'd from its basis. a a , the inside of the ossa bregmatis . b b b , the sutures as they appear withinside the skull approaching to a simple straight line , which conjunction of bones is call'd harmonia . c , the internal part of the os frontis . e , a portion of the inside of the os occipitis . f f , the channels fram'd by the blood-vessels of the dura mater : these insculptures or furrows of the bone , i found very large in the skull of a person i lately dissected , who died apoplectick , in whom the blood-vessels of the dura mater were proportionably augmented to the magnitude of a goose-quill . in this subject divers large foveae appear'd in the skull , breaking out as it were from the impression of the longitudinal sinus ; one of which foveae exceeded half an inch in its diameter . when the top of the cranium was oppos'd to the light , the foveae above mention'd , as well as the large furrows of the vessels appear'd transparent , not unlike the horn commonly made use of in lanterns ; nor indeed did the thickness of the skull in those parts much exceed it : by this , we may be inform'd with what caution we ought to use the trepan in perforating the skull , especially near the longitudinal suture , as also laterally on the bregma , where those vessels usually take their course ; and that more especially when the patient has suffer'd under habitual head-aches , which was remarkable in the person last mention'd , even from his infancy ; for doubtless these cavities and furrows have an early date , from an irregular formation of the blood-vessels ; whence the refluent blood is subject to be retarded , and the neighbouring parts as the pericranium , &c. suffer tension and pain . b superior and e , the channel or impression which the longitudinal sinus makes in the middle and upper-part of the skull , according to the length of the sagittal suture . the ninety-second table . fig. . shews the fore-part of the skull , in which part of the proper bones of the skull already describ'd , and divers of those of the upper jaw and the bones of the lower jaw , are well exprest . a , b , c , the first bone of the upper jaw , constituting the inferior part of the orbit of the eye , and part of its lesser canthus , together with part of the os iugale and cheek : b , that part of it which composes part of the os iugale . d , the second bone of the upper jaw , which may be call'd os lachrymale , because the ductus arising from the two puncta lachrymalia , passes thro' it into the foramina of the nostril on that side , together with a branch of the fourth pair of nerves , and some remarkable blood-vessels . anatomists disagree in their descriptions and number of the bones of the upper jaw ; galen in libel . de ossib . reckons xi . de partium usu ix . in introductorio sive medico galeno adscripto xii . to which latter vesalius subscribes ; but columbus mentions xiii . and at the same time in his description , omits the third pair of vesalius and others , and instead of them adds two others , or another pair call'd ossa spongiosa , plac'd within the nostrils : we can't but agree with vesalius's description , being so very clear and intelligible by the appearance of most , if not all skulls ; nor can we find any reason to omit what columbus has added , so that the bones of the upper jaw are xv in number ; viz. the vi. pair of vesalius , the two ossa spongiosa and septum narium of columbus , by him call'd vomer , from the likeness it has to a plow-share or coulter . the third bone of the upper jaw is scarcely exprest in this figure , or in that of tab. . fig. . by reason of the foreshorten'd site ( as painters term it ) it 's in , in this position of the cranium : this third bone of the upper jaw is commonly of a quadrangular figure and very thin , plac'd within the orbit : the precise place of its situation is forewards , adjoining to the second bone of the upper jaw , or os lachrymale ; backwards it sometimes touches the os cune●forme at one angle only ; above it 's sutur'd with the os frontis ; below with the fourth bone of the upper jaw . e , the fourth bone of the upper jaw , which is the largest of all the bones of the jaw , composing the lower-part of the orbit , the greatest part of the palate , and containing all the upper teeth in its sockets ; its upper-part is join'd to the lower-part of the forehead-bone , the bone of the nose , and second bone of the upper jaw ; laterally to the first bone of the upper jaw ; backward to the third , and os cuneiforme , and lastly to its fellow : the large foramen of it ( here exprest immediately under the orbit of the eye ) serves to transmit a branch of the fifth pair of nerves to the muscles of the lips , &c. the second , third , fourth and fifth foramina , are in common with it and other bones ; of these , the first is compos'd at its conjunction with the os lachrymale ; ( d ) the second with the os cuneiforme ; ( i ) the third at its conjunction with its partner near the dentes incisores fig. . g ; and the fourth at its conjunction with the os palati ( ibid. fig. . h h ) backwards : it has a large cavity which opens into the foramen of the nose ; in the lower-part of which aperture the os spongiosum , mention'd by realdus columbus , is plac'd : this cavity is call'd antrum maxillae superioris ; by some call'd antrum hig●●orianum , for what reason i know not , since 't was describ'd long before dr. highmore , as appears by vesalius , columbus , baubinus , &c. f , the fifth bone of the upper jaw , which with its partner composes the upper bony part of the nose , its sutures or conjunctions with the other neighbouring bones and figure are here so well exprest , 〈◊〉 it needs no other description . g , the septum narium whose bony fore-part here exprest , is compos'd partly by the os cribriforme , and partly by a process of the fourth bone of the upper jaw . h , the sixth bone of the upper jaw or os spongiosum ; this and its partner are mention'd by columbus , and call'd spongiosa : these we have constantly observ'd to be distinct bones in humane skulls , as well as in those of quadrupedes ; in which latter , these ossa spongiosa have a very remarkable disposition ; they being broad , thin , bony bodies , rol'd up very much like a piece of paper , exprest tab. . fig. . d d : nor is this involuted disposition of these bones only in quadrupedes , but in humane bodies also it 's so dispos'd ( tho' not so much turn'd in ) and cover'd every where with the pituitary membrane , which invests the inside of the foramina narium ; on which the branches of the olfactory nerves are expanded . i , a chink or foramen compos'd by the os cuneiforme , together with the fourth bone , and part of the first bone of the upper jaw ; commonly call'd the fourth foramen of the os sphenoides , or the third foramen of the fourth bone of the upper jaw . k , the os frontis . l , part of the left bregma . m , the os squamosum or temporale . fig. . the inferior surface of the basis of the skull . a , the os occipitis . b , part of the bregma . c , that part of the os temporale call'd processus mammillaris . d , the os iugale compos'd of a process of the os temporum and first bone of the upper jaw . e , the four dentes incisores . f inferior , the eight dentes molares , four on each side . the rest are the two dentes canini . g , the fourth foramen of the fourth bone of the upper jaw . g , f , the lower-part of the fourth bone of the upper jaw next the palate , by some therefore call'd os palati . h , the seventh pair of bones of the upper jaw , call'd ossa palati ; these bones are perforated on each side ( h h ) near the dentes molares ; which perforation is in common with the fourth bone of the upper jaw , and is call'd the fifth perforation of that bone , as above mention'd . these seven pair of bones of the upper jaw make fourteen on each side , to which realdus columbus adds another which has no partner , and is reckon'd the fifteenth bone of the upper jaw . i , the fifteenth bone of the upper jaw , by columbus liken'd to a coulter or plow-share , making the back-part of the septum narium . k , the processus pterygoides or aliformis , reckon'd the first of the external process's of the os sphenoides . the musculus pterigoideus internus , arises from the internal part of the sinus of these process's , vid. app. fig. . g. l , the lower-part of the processus , or appendix styloides ; its upper-part being broken off on both sides in this figure . m , the margin of the meatus auditorius in the os temporale of the left side . n , the sinus of the os petrosum or temporale , which receives the head of the long process of the lower jaw . o o , two process's of the os occipitis articulated with the first vertebra of the neck . p , the anterior appendix or process of the os occipitis ; by veslingius in his animad versions on his figures of chap. xiii . erroneously call'd os sphenoides . q , the processus mammiformis or mastoides of the os temporum , on the left side . r r r , the great foramen of the os occipitis , by which the medulla oblongata passes out of the skull . s s , the asperities and sinus's of the bones of the occiput , made by the insertions of the muscles moving the head. t t , the internal parts of the first bones of the upper jaw . v v , the fourth foramen of the os cuneiforme ; vid. fig. . i. w , part of the os cuneiforme next the aliform process . x x , the fifth foramen of the os cuneiforme , compos'd at the meeting of that bone with the os petrosum , and fore-part of the occipital-bone on both sides . y , the sixth foramen of the os cuneiforme at the root of the processus pterygoides , by which a branch of the fifth pair of nerves pass out of the skull . z z , the foramina of the ossa temporum , by which the carotid arteries first enter the basis of the skull . fig. . the inferior part of the lower jaw . a , the internal part of the lower jaw , whence the musculus mylobyoideus do's arise . b , a large foramen in the internal part of the lower jaw , by which the blood-vessels and a branch of the fifth pair of nerves pass to the teeth , fig. . b. the external foramina of this bone , by which the branches of those vessels pass out of the bone again to the muscles of the lips. c , a fore-shorten'd appearance of the processus coronae of the lower jaw , call'd the short process . d e , the head of the long process of the lower jaw call'd condylus , which is articulated with the os temporum by the mediation of a moving cartilage ; vid. app. fig. . t , s. f , the cervix or neck of the long process of the lower jaw . fig. . the teeth of the upper and lower jaw of one side only , when taken out of their alveoli or sockets . a a , &c. the dentes incisores ; b b , the canini ; c c , &c. the molares . fig. . the right side of the lower jaw in which the alveoli or sockets , after the extraction of the teeth , are represented . a , the processus coronae , to which the temporal muscle is fixt . b , the processus condylus . c c , the alveoli or sockets of the teeth . fig. . a a , &c. divers teeth broken or divided variously , to shew their internal cavities or sinus's . fig. . one of the grinding teeth in like manner broken to exhibit its internal structure , figur'd much bigger than the life . a , the external stony part. b , the bony striae of the tooth divested of its stony cortex . c , the internal bony part of the tooth becoming more porous , as it approaches its middle cavity . d , the middle cavity or hollow of the tooth , cover'd with a membrane on which the blood-vessels and nerves of the tooth are distributed ; by which the tooth derives the matter which makes it germinate and repair that loss it sustains by frequent use on its cortical or stony part : thus when one tooth is wanting in either jaw , the opposite tooth grows longer for want of its resistance in mastication . when this internal membrane within the cavity of the tooth is expos'd thro' the breaking away of the upper-part of the tooth , it is most exquisitely sensible to the touch of any hard body , or cold liquor ; and very frequently a carnous fungus will arise from it : in these cases the drawing out of the tooth is the best remedy . e , the external membrane lying on that part of the tooth within the socket or alveolus : they who doubt of the existence of such a membrane may be satisfied therein ; after a tooth is drawn from a living or lately dead body , and laid in water for some days , this membrane will be very conspicuous even to the naked eye . f , the basis of the tooth ; g , the apex of one of its roots where the blood-vessels arising from the parietes of the alveolus or socket , are exprest , running into that part of it which lies within the alveolus . fig. . the stony parts of the teeth of a foetus , which lying within the jaw-bones , are cover'd with the periostium , as appear'd in the dissection i sometime since made of a humane foetus ; vid. tab. . l l. a a , the stony capsula of one of the dentes incisores . b b , that of the caninus . c c , &c. the superior stony parts of the dentes molares in a foetus . fig. . the os hyoides or bone of the tongue , together with two process's of the scutiformal cartilage . a , the middle bone of the os hyoides , b , it s superior part next the tongue , c , its internal concave part towards the fauces , d , part of the superior long process of the scutiformal cartilage of the left side loosly tied to the extremity of the os hyoides of the same side ; that of the right side is not letter'd in this figure . e , one of the two lateral bones which helps to compose the os hyoides . the ninety-third table . from the bones of the head , we pass to those which support it and the trunk of of the body . ( viz. ) the bones of the neck , back , loins , os sacrum and coccygis ; all these together have generally obtain'd the name of spina . since it 's necessary the head and trunk of the body should be variously mov'd , it was therefore requisite their supporter should not consist of one bone only , but that it should be divided into many , which are call'd vertebrae ; of these , there are reckon'd twenty-four ; ( viz. ) seven of the neck ; twelve of the back , and five of the loins . in some subjects we have found but six vertebrae belonging to the neck ; in another we found thirteen of the thorax , and as many ribs ; as appears in a skeleton now hanging in the middle of the anatomical theater of the surgeons of london ; the like i don't doubt may , or has been observ'd of the loins : the inferior part of the spine is compos'd of the os sacrum and coccygis . fig. . the inferior part of the first vertebra of the neck , call'd atlas , because it supports the whole head. a , its fore-part : b , its back-part , wanting a spinal process : cc , it s transverse processes perforated to transmit the cervical artery and vein . d d , two oval process's , whose surfaces are smooth and cover'd with a cartilage , which process's move to either side on those of fig. . b b. fig. . the upper-part of the first vertebra of the neck . a , the inside of the back-part of the first vertebra of the neck next the medulla spinalis . b , the outside and fore-part of the same vertebra : c c , two process's whose two shallow cavities are articulated with two somewhat● convext prominencies of the os occipitis , tab. , fig. . o o ; in which articulation the head is mov'd in nodding fore-wards , back-wards and side-ways . d , a sinus in the upper-part of this vertebra , in which the contorted trunk of one of the cervical artery , passes towards the great foramen of the os occipitis . n. b. it is necessary the great foramen of this first vertebra of the neck should be much larger than any of the inferior , least the beginning of the medulla spinalis should be incommoded in turning the head to one side ; in which action , this first vertebra moves with the head on the axis or tooth-like process of the second vertebra of the neck . fig. . the superior part of the second vertebra of the neck . a , the tooth-like process on the fore-part of this second vertebra inserted behind the fore-part of the first vertebra ( a , b , fig. , . ) whose apex a , is fastned by a ligament to the margin of the fore-part of the great foramen of the os occipitis : vid. appen . fig. . e. b b , two process's , whose cartilaginous surfaces are of an oval figure , and correspond to those of fig. . d d. whereby the rotatory motion of the head is perform'd . the other remarkable parts of this figure may be known by the explanation of the following . fig. . the inferior part of the second vertebra of the neck : a , the tooth-like process call'd epistropheus . b , the inferior surface of the fore-part of the second vertebra , join'd to the superior and fore-part of the third . fig. . c. c c , its transverse process's perforated to transmit the blood-vessels , as in fig. . c c. d d , it s two oblique descending process's plac'd on the two oblique ascending of fig. . a. e , the internal part of the second vertebra next the medulla spinalis . f , the double - spinal process , to which the superior musculi interspinales are inserted . fig. . the superior part of the third vertebra of the neck . a , one of its oblique ascending process's . b , its transverse process perforated like as in the two first vertebra . c , the superior part of the body of the third vertebra , on which the inferior part of the second is plac'd . n. b. the rest of the figure may be vnderstood by the explanation of the preceding . fig. . the lower part of the third vertebra of the neck ; a , it s oblique descending process : b , it s transverse process perforated as above noted . fig. . the superior part of the first vertebra of the back . a , it s transverse process not perforated like those of the neck . b , its spinal process on the back-part . c , a shallow depressure on the fore-part of the transverse process which receives the tubercle of the first rib. vid. tab. . fig. . b. d , one of the oblique ascending process's , which receives the descending of the last vertebra of the neck . e , the sinus , in which some of the axillary nerves pass out of the specus or great foramen of the vertebrae . fig. . the inferior part of the same first vertebra of the back or thorax : a , it s transverse process : b , it s spinal process . c , a shallow depressure in the transverse process , to which the second tubercle of the first rib is connected : d , it s oblique descending process , receiv'd by the ascending of the next vertebra . after taking out the viscera from the cavity of the thorax of the late earl of peterborough , i was desir●d by one of his physicians dr. iohnston ( who constantly attended his lordship some time before his death ) to examine the vertebrae of the thorax , because his lordship did not only complain of very great pains about the eighth and ninth vertebrae of that part , and particularly the right hypochondrium , &c. but one of the spinal process's of those vertebrae was observ'd to be very prominent some weeks before his death ; nor could he endure any motion of the trunk of his body : besides at that time the lower limbs were destitute of motion , as well as exquisite sense of feeling . on freeing the descending trunk of the arteria magna and ductus thoracicus from the fore-parts of the vertebrae of the thorax , i found a tumor , whose thick hard membrane was chiefly fram'd of the ligaments of the vertebrae ▪ i divided the tumor , and a brownish colour'd matter flow'd from it : on farther examination i found the upper and fore-part of the ninth , and in like manner the lower part of the eighth vertebrae of the thorax consum'd and gone ; insomuch that i could without difficulty put the top of my fore-finger into the foramen , and feel the medulla spinalis cover'd with its membranes only . i doubt not but part of the matter contain'd in this tumor , had descended into the lower-part of the specus of the vertebrae of the loins and os sacrum ( since it lay open ) whereby the inferior nervous distributions were affected , and their proper office perverted ; but decency forbid our scrutiny in this case , since the bodies of those vertebrae must have been cut away with a chizel to have made such a discovery . fig. . the upper-part of one of the vertebrae of the loins : a , it s transverse process : the rest of its parts may be known by the explanation of the fifth and seventh figures . fig. . the inferior part of the same vertebra of the loins , whose explanation may be refer'd to fig. . fig. , . the superior parts of the two lower vertebrae of the loins ; a a , their tranverse process's : b b , their oblique ascending process's : c c , the bodies of the vertebrae . d d , their spinal process's . the ninety-fourth table . the ribs are twelve in number on either side ; sometimes we have found thirteen , at other times but eleven on each side ; and frequently twelve on one side and eleven on the other : the seven superior are call'd , the true ribs , which are join'd with the sternum or os pectoris , by the mediation of cartilages . the inferior ribs are the nothae , spuriae , or bastard ribs . the nine superior ribs have a twofold articulation to the vertebrae of the back ; the one collateral to the fore-parts of the bodies of the vertebrae ; the other to the fore-parts of their transverse process's . the two and sometimes three inferior ribs , are only articulated to the bodies of the vertebrae ; and don 't touch their transverse process's . the lowest and last rib has not its cartilaginous extremity fasten'd to its superior rib , as the rest of the bastard ribs have , but its extream point gives an origin to part of the oblique descending muscle of the abdomen . fig. . the inferior part of the first rib of the right side . fig. . the upper-part of the same rib. a a , that part of the first rib next the sternum . b b , its protuberance articulated in a sinus of the transverse process of the first vertebra . c c , its little head receiv'd in a sinus of the anterior bodies of the first vertebra , laterally . d d , it s middle broad flat part. fig. . the lower-part of the sixth or seventh true rib of the right side . fig. . the superior part of the same rib. a a , that extremity of the bony part of the rib join'd to the cartilage , plac'd between it and the sternum . b b , the other extremity articulated to the vertebra of the back laterally . c , a tubercle articulated to the transverse process of the vertebra . e , fig. . a sinus fram'd in the inferior part of the rib for the passage of the blood-vessels , which ought to be avoided in perforating the thorax , in case of an empyema , &c. fig. . the lower edge and internal part of the eleventh rib of the right side . fig. . the upper edge , and part of the external and internal parts of the same rib. fig. , . the internal and external parts of the twelfth rib. the ninety-fifth table . represents the scapulae , claviculae and os pectoris , or sternum . fig. . the external convext part of the left scapula or shoulder-blade . a b , the outside of the scapula a little arch'd or convext . c , the spina scapulae ; d , its extremity call'd acromion , articulated to the extremity of the clavicula . e , the processus coracoides or crow's-bill-like process , by some call'd ancyroides or anchor-like . f , the processus brevis , or short process of the shoulder-blade which receives the head of the arm-bone . the rest of the parts which circumscribe the scapula , are explain'd in the following figure . fig. . the internal concave part of the right shoulder-blade . a b b , various eminencies on the inside of the scapula , whence the fibres of the musculus subscapularis take their origin . c , the inferior angle of the scapula . d , the superior angle of the scapula . e superior , the processus coracoides . f f g , the foramina for the blood-vessels , which pass in and out from the meditullium of the bone. g inferior , the sinus of the short process of the scapula , in which the head of the os humeri is receiv'd . g superior , the internal or lower part of the acromion of the scapula . h , the cervix or neck of the short process . n. b. from c to d , is call'd the basis scapulae ; from d to f , the costa superior ; from h to c , the costa inferior scapulae . fig. . the superior part of the right clavicula or channel-bone : some call the claviculae , ossa humerorum : they are also call'd furculae . fig. . the inferior part of the left clavicle . a , that part of the clavicle articulated to the superior part of the os pectoris or sternum , in which articulation a cartilaginous body is plac'd not unlike that of the lower jaw with the os temporum . vid. app. fig. . s , t. b , that extremity of the clavicula join'd to the acromion of the scapula , by two almost plain cartilaginous bodies appos'd to each other , and connected by ligaments : this conjunction of the clavicle with the acromion of the shoulder-blade we have more than once seen suffer a dislocation : when the patient has fallen from some high place , and the top of the shoulder or acromion of the scapula has first come to the ground . the scapula with the arm in such case will be deprest , and the outmost extremity of the clavicle will be seen to arise up : this dislocation we mention , because we don't find it taken notice of ( or at least not commonly ) by authors . c , the middle superior and external part of the right clavicula . d , the middle inferiour and external surface of the left clavicula . the use of the claviculae is to support the scapulae , together with the ossa humerorum . fig. . the external and forepart of the os pectoris or sternum , whose appearance in the adult differs very much from that of the foetus ; as may be seen tab. . . in aged bodies it 's intirely united into one bone ; in some adults it 's divided into two ; in others ( as in this subject ) it has three distinct bones . a , the superior and largest bone of the sternum . b , a sinus which receives the internal round end of the clavicula . c , the superior part , or almost semicircular sinus of the sternum . d , the middle bone of the os pectoris . e e e , the sinus's in the middle bone of the sternum laterally ; in which the cartilaginous extremities of the true ribs are receiv'd . f , the lower bone of the sternum ; the extremity of which is commonly cartilaginous , and call'd cartilago mucronata or ensiformis ; externally it frames that cavity call'd scrobiculus cordis or heart-pit , commonly call'd the pit of the stomach : the pains of which part are call'd cardialgiae , they affecting the upper orifice of the stomach call'd cardia , where the plexuss's of the upper and lower stomach nerves are made . the ninety-sixth table . represents the bones of the arms , together with the two bones of the cubit : these , together with those which compose the hand represented in the following table , are commonly call'd the bones of the whole hand ; but are properly divided as above . first of the bone of the arm , which is properly that part between the elbow or cubit and shoulder ; the whole arm comprehends the bones of the cubit . fig. . a , the fore-part of the os humeri of the right arm ; b , the round head of its upper appendix cover'd with a cartilage , which is articulated with the scapula by arthrodia . c , the circular sinus of the upper-part of the os humeri , to which the ligament involving the juncture , together with the tendons of the musculus supraspinatus , infraspinatus , teres minor and subscapularis are inserted . d f , two prominencies of the shoulder-bone . e , a sinus fram'd between the two last mention'd prominencies , wherein the external tendinous beginning or head of the musculus biceps is receiv'd . vid. tab. . . g , a convext protuberance of the lower appendix of the shoulder-bone , which is receiv'd in a shallow concave depressure on the superior extremity of the radius . h k , that part of the os humeri , that 's articulated to the upper end of the vlna by ginglymus . i , the internal protuberance of the os humeri , from which the greatest part of the muscles bending the fingers and carpus , together with the musculus pronator radii teres and palmaris longus , do arise . l , an interstice between the lower appendix of the os humeri and its internal protuberance . n , a large foramen for a blood-vessel of the bone. i was lately call'd to a boy about or years of age , who four or five days before , in playing with his companion , receiv'd such an injury in one of his arms , as he could not afterwards move it forewards or backwards , much less , lift it up towards his head ; but had all the actions of his cubit and fingers , as we commonly find in those who have dislocated the os humeri from the scapula : after examining the shoulder , and finding no such dislocation ; by moving the arm , i found the bone near the shoulder grate very much , which i guess could be no otherwise than the upper appendix of the os humeri divided from the bone. i then reduc'd it to a good figure , and after applying a plaister de sapone to attenuate the extravased blood , i rol'd it up , and he has continu'd easie ever since . the tingling , as he told me , he had at his fingers ends , and violent pain in his shoulder , leaving him . i don't find authors mention such like cases where the appendages of bones are broken off in young bodies ; but i am perswaded from other examples as well as this ; such accidents often happen , and are not commonly known by surgeons . n. b. these fractures of bones at their appendages in young bodies , are sooner vnited , than when the middle-parts of bones are broken. fig. . the hinder-part of the left shoulder-bone . m , a cavity , in which the superior and back-part of the vlna ( fig. , . c f ) , call'd olecranon , is receiv'd in an extension of the cubit . n n n , the foramina for the blood-vessels , which pass to and from the marrow , and internal parts of the bone. fig. . the vlna or os cubiti of the right arm : a b , it s internal side , next the trunk of the body : c , its superior part or olecranon articulated with the os humeri : d , it s inferior part , whose lateral smooth surface is receiv'd in a sinus , at the inferior part of the radius laterally . e f , the semicircular sinus of the vlna , which receives , and is receiv'd by the two prominencies and sinus of the lower appendix of the os humeri , ( fig. . k h , ) which articulation is call'd ginglymus . g , the inferior and lesser acute process of the vlna , call'd styloides . fig. . that side of the left vlna next the radius . a , an almost semicircular sinus of the vlna , in which the upper head of the radius , fig. , . b b , is receiv'd laterally : b c , it s external side next the radius ; b , its lower end next the carpus ; c , its superior ( call'd olecranum ) towards the os humeri . d , a smooth prominence at the lower end of the vlna , which is receiv'd in a sinus of the radius , as above-noted , fig. . d. e , the anterior process of the vlna , which frames the semicircular sinus , articulated with the os humeri , fig. . k h. this process is receiv'd in a sinus at the inferior and forepart of the os humeri , ( exprest fig. . above k h ) when the cubit is bended . f , the superior and posterior process of the vlna in like manner , framing its upper and semicircular sinus , which process is receiv'd in the cavity ( m , fig. . ) of the inferior and back-part of the os humeri , in an extension of the cubit . g , part of the lesser sharp process of the vlna , call'd styloides . fig. . the hinder-part of the radius of the left cubit . a , the neck of the radius : b , its superior appendix ; in whose upper concave sinus , ( not exprest in this figure ) receives the convext tubercle of the inferor appendix of the os humeri , fig. . g. c , d , the inferior part of the radius , which is articulated with the bones of the carpus , exprest , tab. . fig. . e , a sinus in the radius laterally which receives the inferior head of the vlna , fig. , . d d. f , another sinus on the inferior part of the radius , in which the tendon of the musculus extensor tertii internodii pollicis and indicator , is entertain'd . vid. tab. . c , n. fig. . the fore-part of the right radius : a , it s tubercle a little below its neck , to which the round internal tendon of the musculus biceps is inserted . vid. tab. , i. b , a smooth cartilaginous outside of the superior part or head of the radius ; which is receiv'd in an almost semicircular sinus of the upper end of the vlna , fig. . a , by this articulation of the radius with the vlna , the former , i. e. the radius is render'd capable of turning on the vlna , like as on an axis , the vlna at that time remaining unmov'd ; which motion of the radius together with the hand , is call'd either pronation or supination : pronation is perform'd when the palm of the hand is turn'd down and the back of it is uppermost ; and on the contrary , when the palm is turn'd up and the back is undermost , it 's call'd supination . c d , the lower-part of the radius articulated with the ossa carpi . n. b. the foramina of the blood-vessels of the bones are well exprest in this table . the ninety-seventh table . demonstrates the bones of the hand properly so call'd . fig. . the internal parts of the bones of the hand , next the palm . these are distinguish'd into three parts ; viz. the carpus or brachialis , ( , , , , &c. ) the metacarpus or postbrachialis ( e e e ) ; and the fingers ( f g h i ) ; first of the bones of the carpus or wrist : these are eight in number , and compos'd of two orders or ranks of bones ; of which the first rank is commonly reckon'd to have four , , , ; the two first of these bones jointly compose a smooth convext surface , cover'd with a cartilage which is receiv'd in a shallow sinus at the inferior part of the radius , tab. . fig. , . c d ; which articulation is call'd arthrodia : the third bone here exprest , do's not help to compose the articulation of either rank , but is fasten'd on the fourth by a ligament , which conjunction is call'd syndesmosis ; the use of this third bone , is to help to support the transverse ligament , under which the tendons bending the fingers pass : the fourth bone ( plac'd between the second and eighth ) do's not compose either rank , whether articulated with the radius or metacarpal bones , but is inserted between the two ranks : the fifth bone here exprest , is not properly to be reckon'd among those of the two ranks , but like the fourth is plac'd between them , and is articulated to the first bone of the thumb ; which articulation may be call'd synarthrosis : the sixth bone here exprest , ought to be reckon'd the seventh , the sixth not being exprest in this figure , but is represented in fig. . * : this may be properly reckon'd the first of the second rank , to whose lower part the metacarpal-bone of the fore-finger is articulated : the seventh bone of the carpus ( here sign'd the sixth as above noted ) like the preceding , is articulated with the metacarpal-bone of the middle-finger , and may be properly esteem'd the second bone of the second rank or order : the eighth bone of the carpus ( here sign'd seventh and eighth ) is the third and last bone of the second rank : the lower-parts of the metacarpal-bones of the little and ring-fingers , are conjoin'd to this eigth bone of the carpus by synarthrosis : the upper-parts of the three bones of the second rank last treated of , ( not unlike the two first of the first rank ) do conjunctly frame a convext oblong smooth surface on their upper-parts , which is receiv'd in a concave fitted for it , fram'd by the inferior parts of the two first bones of the first rank : this articulation made by the two ranks of bones of the carpus , may also be call'd arthrodia . a b c d , the four bones of the metacarpus , whose upper-parts are articulated to the sixth , seventh and eighth bones of the carpus by synarthrosis , and their inferior parts with the bones of the fingers , by arthrodia . e e e , the interstitia of the metacarpal-bones , wherein the musculi inter-ossei are plac'd ; the internal parts of these bones towards the palm are concave , as appears in this figure ; but their external parts towards the back of the hand are convext , as is represented by fig. ; the like may be observ'd in the bones of the fingers and thumb . f f f , &c. the first internodes , or bones of the fingers and thumb . g g , the second internodes . h h h , &c. the third and last internodes of the bones of the fingers and thumb . i i k k , the articulations of the bones of the fingers with each other , and the two last bones of the thumb , is by ginglymus ; but the fingers are articulated with the metacarpal-bones by arthrodia , as above noted . , , , the ossa sesamoidea ; of which ten are said to belong to each hand , viz. two of the thumb plac'd on the inferior and internal part of its first bone f ; the other eight are in like manner plac'd on the inferior and internal parts of the ossa metacarpi . in young bodies these bones are not found , as in others . they are apt to be lost in freeing the bones , whether by boyling or otherwise . fig. . the bones as they appear on the back-part of the right hand ; for whose explanation consult fig. . fig. . , , , , , , , , the bones of the carpus separated from each other . the ninety-eighth table . we come now to the two bones which compose the lower-part of the spina , namely the os sacrum and coccygis . fig. . the outside and back-part of the os sacrum compos'd of four or five bones like vertebrae in the foetus ; all which are united in the adult , and some marks of their conjunction only appear , especially on its internal concave part. vid. fig. . d. a a a , &c. some vestigia or marks of the conjunctions of the ascending and descending process's of the five vertebrae , which compose the os sacrum . b b b b , the foramina fram'd by the last mention'd transverse process's , and chiefly fill'd with a cartilaginous body ; some small branches of nerves only passing out of them to the musculus glutaeus maximus . c c c , d d , the sinus's fram'd on each side the os sacrum , by the meeting of its transverse process's . e , the superior surface of the upper-part of the os sacrum , on which is plac'd the last vertebra of the loins . f , the specus or great foramen of the sacrum , being continued from that of the vertebrae of the back , by which the nerves that help to compose the cauda equina descend to their egress , thro' the internal foramina of this bone , fig. . b b b. g g , a sinus fram'd in the oblique ascending process of the first vertebra of the os sacrum , which receives the oblique descending process of the last vertebra of the loins . h h , those parts of the sacrum join'd to the ossa ilii by the interposition of a cartilage ; which conjunction is call'd syncondrosis . i i , the spines of the sacrum . k k , two process's of the sacrum , connected to the two process's of the os coccygis , fig. . a , b. fig. . the inside or fore-part of the os sacrum . a a a , the smooth inside of the five vertebrae which compose the os sacrum . b b b , the foramina by which the nerves pass out from its specus . c c , d d , the partly cartilaginous and partly bony connection of the vertebrae of the sacrum . e , the inferior part of the sacrum join'd to the upper-part of the os coccygis . fig. . the back-part of the os coccygis , compos'd of five bones join'd to each other by syncondrosis . a , b , two ascending process's of the os coccygis , join'd to those of the sacrum , fig. . k k. , , , , , the several bones which frame the os coccygis . fig. . the internal part of the os coccygis , whose characters are explain'd in the preceding figure . the ninety-ninth table . fig. . the internal concave surface of the os innominatum , which in the foetus is manifestly compos'd of three bones ; but become so united in the adult , as that no marks of their cartilaginous conjunction do's than appear . this bone is by some call'd ilium , os coxendicis , and os anchae , and sometimes lumbare : for the better description of it , anatomists have given distinct names to the several parts of it , which appear in the foetus , as follow . a b c d , that part of the os innominatum , call'd ilium : a a a , the internal concave part of it , in which the musculus iliacus internus is plac'd , call'd costa ilii : b , the spine of the ilium : c , the foramina of the blood-vessels which pass into its meditullium or internal part. d , that part of the os ilium join'd to the sacrum by a cartilaginous interposition , which conjunction is call'd syncondrosis . e , that part of the os innominatum , call'd os pubis or pectinis . f , the great foramen of the os ischium , compos'd by that bone in conjunction with the os pubis . g , the fore-part of the os pubis . h , the third part of the os innominatum , call'd os ischium and os coxendicis . i , a prominencé of the os ilium , whence the musculus rectus femoris do's arise : vid. tab. . g. fig. . the external convext surface of the os innominatum : a b b , its cavity , wherein the head of the os femoris is receiv'd , call'd acetabulum and pixis . a , a sinus excavated in the inferior part of the acetabulum , in which the mucilaginous gland is plac'd : vid. tab. . . the ligamentum rotundum figur'd tab. . k , arises from the lower-part of the acetabulum towards its external margin ; whence it passes upwards to its termination in the head of the os femoris ; which disposition of that ligament , is no small artifice in nature , in preventing too great a coalision of the superior part of the acetabulum with the head of the thigh-bone , in walking , running , &c. as before noted . b b , the external margin of the acetabulum , whence the ligamentum latum do's arise ; which ligament is implanted in the neck of the os femoris . c d e , the dorsum ilii . d superior , the spina ilii . e e , divers processes towards the back-part of the ilium , where it s other side , exprest in the former figure d , is join'd with the sacrum . f , a sinus of the os ilium , in which the musculus pyriformis passes towards its implantation . g , an acute process of the ischium . h , an appendix of the ischium , to which a ligament arising from the os sacrum is fasten'd : from this appendix the musculus quadratus femoris , and the muscles bending the tibia , do arise . i , that part where the os ischium joins with the os pubis . k , the os pubis or pectinis . l , the great foramen of the ischium and pubis . n. b. the three bones which compose the os innominatum , all meet and join in the acetabulum . the hundredth table . shews the bones of the foetus of one month to seven months after conception . fig. . a skeleton of a foetus about a month after conception ; in which the cartilaginous rudiments of bones have divers little bony specks or ossifications in the arms and legs . fig. . the skeleton of a foetus of six weeks , in which the rudiments of the bones of the artus or limbs do appear in bony specks , somewhat larger than those of the preceding figure ; the claviculae being intirely bony . fig. , . the fore and back-part of the skeleton of a foetus of about three months ; in which the beginnings of all the bones appear . fig. . the skeleton of a foetus of about four months ; in which the bones with their cartilaginous appendages do appear , without any considerable difference ( except in magnitude ) from those in the two preceding figures . fig. . the back-part of the skeleton of a foetus of about four months after conception . in the embryo , or first rudiments of the foetus within the womb ; those parts which afterwards become bones , are than intirely cartilaginous , till about the end of the first month after impregnation ; at which time divers bony specks or ossifications begin to appear about the middle of the larger bones of the limbs , especially in the claviculae . two months after conception , the whole head do's not afford any bony appearance , except the third pair of bones of the upper jaw , and the two bones which frame the lower jaw , which about this time appear distinct. the middle-parts of the claviculae are bony after the first six weeks . the shoulder-blades are without any proper figure about the second month after conception , at which time their ossifications begin in their middle-parts : about the third month their spinal process's begin to be bony , as well as their coracoidal and short process's : near this time the whole spine , or vertebrae of the neck , back , loins , os sacrum and coccygis , begin to be bony . the sixth vertebra of the back internally , some bony specks in each vertebra appear , and gradually lessen themselves to the fifth vertebra of the neck ; the like ossifications may be observ'd to become less and less in each vertebra , towards the lower-part of the spine , to the third vertebra of the os sacrum . the incurvation or bending forwards of the whole spine at this time , is remarkable . the four upper vertebrae of the neck , afford some bony appearances laterally , about the third month ; near which time the bodies of the three upper vertebrae of the os sacrum , seem to frame one bone , but its lateral parts are not bony till the fourth month ; at which time the bodies of the third and fourth vertebrae of the neck begin to appear . the fifth and sixth month , the epistropheus or second vertebra of the neck has a bony speck ; but its tooth-like process is yet cartilaginous : the fore-part of the atlas or first vertebra is yet wanting . the os coccygis is cartilaginous till about the eighth or ninth month ; at which time , in its internal part , call'd its body , two offeous specks appear about the bigness of two great pin's heads . all the vertebrae of the spine of the foetus ( at this time ) appear compos'd of three bones ; first that of the bodies of the vertebrae forwards ; secondly its two lateral parts which frame their transverse process's : their spinal process's not appearing bony till some time after the partus ; whence ( as spigelius observes ) rope-dancers , tumblers , &c. by early practice whilst they are children , the spines of the back-bone give way to the inflection of their vertebrae backwards ; the common position of the spines being obliquely descending , they do thereby incline more horizontal , and their points are also rendred more obtuse . the os innominatum about the second month after conception is cartilaginous , except that part of it call'd ilium , where it frames the upper-part of the acetabulum , it has a bony speck about the bigness of a common pin's head. in the fourth month the os coxendicis or ischium , ( another part of the os innominatum ) has a bony appearance , where it meets the ilium within the acetabulum , not exceeding the head of a common pin in magnitude ; the like may be observ'd of the os pubis within the acetabulum : these three bones which compose the innominatum , remain distinguish'd in the foetus by a cartilaginous interposition , which continues till the seventh year , at which age those cartilaginous marks disappear . in the second month all the ribs except the first and last , are so harden'd , that the channels ( exprest fig. . tab. . e , ) or sinus's for the intercostal blood-vessels and nerves , appear . the time of the ossification of the sternum is uncertain ; but eustachius is mistaken in saying , it 's altogether cartilaginous in children newly born. kerckringius affirms he never diffected a foetus of four months , but he found some little bony-bodies in the sternum . their number and figure varying in most subjects , we need not say more of them in this place . the ossification of the artus is very early , as appears by the first and second figures of this table , where the middle-parts of the bones first appear in little white specks a month after conception , as above noted ; but some of their appendages are intirely cartilaginous for some months after the birth . the eight cartilages of the carpus become bony some time after the birth . the appendages of the bones of the metacarpus and fingers , continue intirely cartilaginous some months after the birth ; the like may be observ'd of the feet and toes ; the patellae in like manner are intirely cartilaginous some months after the birth . the hundred & first table . represents the fore-parts of the bones ' of a foetus of nine months . a , the fronticulus fram'd at the meeting of the bones of the sinciput and frontal bones , it being a discontinuation of those bones in the foetus ; which continues in the infant for divers months , and sometimes years . b b , the two frontal-bones . c c , parts of the bregma or sincipital-bones . d d , the sagittal suture extended to the upper-part of the nose . e e , the coronal suture ; they are call'd sutures in respect of their appearance in the adult , but here in the foetus they rather seem to deserve the term harmonia ; they approaching to simple lines , and are not indented till the bones become hard ; but since a membrane interposes , spigelius call's this conjunction in infants synymensis . f , the cartilage of the nose cut off ; g , it s septum . h h , the upper-jaw , or properly the fourth bone of the upper jaw . i i , the two bones which compose the lower jaw ; k , their suture , or more properly their conjunction by synchondrosis . l l , the external or stony parts of the teeth , yet lying within their alveoli or sockets , and cover'd with the periostium of the jaw-bone : the time of their breaking forth is uncertain , and the order they appear in , is commonly well known ; yet in this too they sometimes vary , and the dentes canini appear before the incisores ; if their eruption is tedious , the gums thro' frequent use are so harden'd , as to occasion ill symptoms ; in which case not only the gums , but the periostium , which at that time immediately cover's the upper-parts of the sockets , is to be divided by a sharp instrument ; whereby the imprison'd tooth is set at liberty , and the tension of the periostium reliev'd . in practising this operation , we ought to have regard to the time of the eruption of those teeth we cut upon ; for those only ought to have their gums and periostium divided , which appear somewhat prominent : by too early dividing of those parts they unite again , and their cicatrice render's them more obstinate to the eruption afterwards , especially if the periostium its self was not divided before . m , the left clavicle . n , the internal part of the right scapula . o , the acromion of the scapula join'd with the extremity of the clavicle . p , the cartilaginous appendix of the os humeri . q , the os humeri . r r , the ulnae . s s , the radii . t t , the cartilages which compose the bones of the carpus on both sides . v v , the ossa metacarpi , whose extremities are cartilaginous . w w , the bones of the fingers , whose knuckles or appendages are cartilaginous . x , the vertebrae of the neck ; y , those of the back ; z , those of the loins . , the os sacrum . , the coccygis . , the ilium . , ischium . , pubis . , , the sternum with divers little bony bodies . , , the true-ribs . , , &c. the bastard-ribs . , the ensiformal cartilage of the sternum . , the thigh-bone ; , its trochanter major yet cartilaginous . , the trochanter minor in like manner cartilaginous . , the cartilage which makes the patella . , the tibia . , the os surae or fibula . , the cartilages which make the bones of the tarsus . , the ossa metatarsi . , the bones of the toes , which are cartilaginous at their extremities , like those of the fingers . the hundred & second table . is the back-part of the skeleton of a foetus of nine months . a , part of the sagittal suture . b b , the ossa bregmatis . c c , the sutura lambdoides . d , the os occipitis which commonly in the foetus is divided into four bones ; three of which appear in this figure ; the fourth lying between the ossa petrosa , and is join'd to the os sphenoides , tab. . fig. . p. e , the os temporum or squamosum not yet join'd with that part or process of it , call'd petrosum . f f , the lower jaw . g , the os iugale . h h , &c. the seven vertebrae of the neck , i i , &c. twelve of the thorax , k k , &c. five of the loins , without their spinal process's . l , the right scapula . m. part of the right clavicula . n n , &c. the true ribs . o o , &c. the bastard ribs . p , the os humeri . q , the ulna . r , the radius . s , the cartilages which compose the bones of the carpus . t , the bones of the metacarpus . v , the bones of the fingers . w , the os sacrum ; x , the ilium , y , the ischium , z , the pubis , , the thigh-bone . , the cartilaginous appendages of the lower-part of the thigh-bone , and upper-parts of the tibia and fibula . , the tibia , , the fibula . , the cartilages which frame the bones of the tarsus . , the bones of the metatarsus . , the bones of the toes . n. b there are divers remarkable parts of this figure , as well as of the preceding table , which have escap'd lettering : as the spines of the scapulae , cartilaginous appendages of the ossa humeri , ulnae , radii , femoris , tibiae fibulae , &c. but most of these being already letter'd on other figures of the bones , we shall omit their repetition on these , since the additional letters already made with a pen on these figures , are so numerous . the hundred & third table . the bones of the inferior artus or limbs are divided into the thigh , shank , and foot. fig. . the fore-part of the left thigh-bone . a , the upper appendix of the thigh-bone , call'd its head , cover'd with a cartilage , which is receiv'd in the acetabulum of the os innominatum , tab. . fig. . a b b. the round ligament arising from the inferior part of the acetabulum , is inserted near the middle of this head of the thigh-bone , fig. . b. this articulation of the thigh-bone with the hip-bone , is call'd enarthrosis . b , the trochanter major , which in young bodies appears join'd with a cartilage to the thigh-bone , and is therefore call'd an epiphysis or appendix . c , the cervix or neck of the os femoris , to which the ligamentum latum is fasten'd . d e , the inferior appendix of the os femoris , framing two heads : the smooth cartilaginous surface which appears between them , receives the internal surface of the patella , fig. . f , a sinus whence the musculus poplitaeus has its tendinous origin . fig. . the posterior part of the right thigh-bone . a , it s head. b , a little depressure , where the ligamentum rotundum is implanted . c , the lesser trochanter , to which the musculus psoas and iliacus internus , are inserted . d e , the two inferior heads of the thigh-bone , which are receiv'd in two shallow depressures , fram'd by two semilunary cartilages , plac'd on the superior part of the tibia : the sinus between these two heads , receives a small prominence on the upper-part of the tibia , especially in its flexion : this articulation of the thigh with the tibia , is by gynglimus . f , the great trochanter , where the musculus pyriformis , marsupialis , obturator externus , and parts of the glutaei medii , minimi , and quadratus femoris , are inserted . g g , the linea aspera , to which part of the musculus quadratus femoris , glutaeus maximus , and the greatest part of the triceps are inserted : the vastus externus and internus , do chiefly arise from the linea aspera . in some bodies , especially aged , we find two ossa sesamoidea on the superior parts of the two lower heads of the thigh-bone d e : the office of which , is to defend the bending tendons of the tibia from too great a collision on those heads of the bone , which they would else be subject to : the like ossification i have more than once observ'd in the tendon of the peroneus longus , at its contortion over the os calcis towards the bottom of the foot. fig. , . the former figure represents the external rough part of the patella ; the latter the internal smooth surface of the same bone cover'd with a cartilage ; which is applied to the fore-part of the juncture of the os femoris with the tibia , where it 's fasten'd by the tendon of all the extending muscles of the tibia ; wherefore by spigelius its conjunction is call'd syntenosis . the use of the patella ( by some call'd rotula , mola , scutum , os scutiforme , &c. ) is to prevent the thigh-bone from thrusting out forwards , especially in walking down any steep place , and from pressing on the tendons of the extending muscles of the tibia : it also defends the articulation of the thigh and tibia , especially in kneeling ; and like a pully acts on the lower-part of the os femoris , to extend the tibia when inflected . the hundred & fourth table . fig. . shews the fore-part of the right tibia , or major focile of the leg. a a , the sharp edge on the fore-part of the tibia , call'd its spina . a superior , a prominence on the upper-part of the tibia , to which the great tendon of the muscles , extending the leg , is inserted . b , a process in the middle of the upper appendix of the tibia , to which a ligament is inserted , proceeding from the hollow or sinus , between the heads of the lower-part of the thigh-bone , exprest fig. . in the preceding table . c , the malleolus internus , fram'd by the lower appendix of the tibia . fig. . the back-part of the left tibia . a a , that part of the tibia whence the musculus perforans , or flexor tertii internodii digitorum pedis , do's arise , b , a prominence in its upper appendix , to which a ligament is fasten'd , continued from the sinus between the two heads of the lower appendix of the os femoris . c , a sinus in the lower-part of the tibia and its appendix , in which the inferior part of the fibula is receiv'd . d , another small sinus in the lower-part of the tibia , wherein the tendon of the musculus tibialis posticus passes towards its insertion . e , a prominence receiv'd in a shallow depressure of the upper-part of the fibula . f , the malleolus internus . fig. . the back-part of the left fibula with its lower end uppermost , it 's also call'd os surae , canna minor , focile minus , and os peronae . a a , the external part of the fibula . b b , its edge , whence the musculus peronaeus longus do's arise . c c , the two extreams of the bone , properly so call'd . d , it s lower appendix which makes the malleolus externus . e , it s upper appendix . f , that part of the fibula , whence the upper-part of the musculus flexor pollicis longus , do's arise . fig. a b c , &c. the internal part of the right fibula next the tibia , with its lower end uppermost , as in the former figure . d , a smooth cartilaginous surface of the lower appendix of the fibula , which is entertain'd in the sinus of the lower-part of the tibia , fig. . c ; and touches the os calcis externally laterally . vid. tab. . fig. . a. e , a shallow depressure on the superior appendix of the fibula , which receives the prominence of the tibia , fig. . e. f , the superior part of the bone next its appendix . the hundred & fifth table . we come now to the bones of the foot it self : these like those of the hand are divided into three parts , viz. the bones of the tarsus , metatarsus , and those of the toes . the tarsus is compos'd of seven bones , which in this table are represented separated from each other ; the , is the astragulus or talus , by some call'd os balistae ; , the os calcis , calcaneus or pedis calcar ; , the os spongiosum , call'd cuboides , os tesserae , grandinosum and polymorphon ; , , , the three ossa cuneiformia ; , the os naviculare or cymbiforme ; it 's also call'd scaphoeides . fig. . the upper-part of the bones of the right foot , when join'd to each other with wires in their natural situation . a b , the os calcis : a , it s external lateral smooth side , cover'd with a cartilage which touches the internal and lower-part of the inferior appendix of the fibula , call'd malleolus externus : b , the upper-part of the os calcis , cover'd with a cartilage which is receiv'd in a sinus of the lower appendix of the tibia . c , the os calcis . d , the os naviculare . e , the os spongiosum or cuboides . f g h , the three ossa cuneiformia . i k l m n , the five ossa metatarsi or second division of the foot. , , , &c. to , all the bones of the toes according to bidloo , but we suspect the second bone of all the lesser toes was wanting in the subject , by which this figure was delineated ; for i am perswaded the painter follow'd the life very strictly , as appears by the figure . fig. . the bones of the inferior part or bottom of the right foot. a b , part of the astragalus . c , the os calcis . d , the os naviculare . e , the os spongiosum or cuboides . g h , two of the ossa cuneiformia . i k l m n , the ossa metatarst . o o , the ossa sesamoidea of the great toe . n. b. the bones of the toes ( as exprest in the former figure ) wanting their second internodes . fig. . one of the nails . a , the upper-part of the nail , commonly call'd its root . b , its side , which was border'd with a protension of the cuticula . c , its external convex part , where its series of fibres appear extended according to its length , from a to c. d , it s limbus or extream part , which projects over the top of the finger or toe . the nails arise from their subjacent parts , call'd their roots , fram'd of a complication of nerves and blood-vessels ; whence horny fibres or tubes arise , and being united , compose that hard body call'd the nail . the horny fibres which make the outside or convex surface of the nail , arise from the lower-part of its root next the second internode of the finger ; the rest of the horny fibres which arise from the superior part of its root towards the top of the finger ; successively make the internal concave surface of the nail : so that the extremity of the nail which extends it self beyond the top of the finger , is fram'd of all the fibres which arise from the surface of its root , and is much thicker than its other extream towards its root : hence it happens that the external surface towards the root of the nail is protruded forwards towards its top ; as may be observ'd if you mark the lower-part of the nail towards its root , you will see it advance to the top ; which at length is either worn away or cut off . when any corosive matter ( as in a paronychia or the like ) destroys the tender roots of the horny fibres , the nail necessarily falls off ; but nevertheless it will bud again , and a new nail will grow in its place ; which commonly do's not prove so beautiful as the former , whether occasion'd by too early using it , or its being expos'd to the external air , or some inconvenient covering made use of , to defend it from outward injuries . an appendix , representing the external muscles , and divers parts of humane bodies which are either omitted , or not well exprest in the preceding tables . done after the life . the first table . fig. . represents the external muscles as they appear in their proper situation on the forepart of the body , after the skin , fat , and membranes are taken off , together with the musculus quadratus colli lying on each side the neck , and tendinous expansion of the musculus membranosus from the fore-parts of the thighs . , the musculus frontalis . , the orbicularis palpebrarum . , the elevator labit superioris , and dilatator alae nasi . , the elevator labii superioris proprius . , part of the elevator labiorum communis . , the orbicularit seu sphincter labiorum . , the depressor labii inferioris proprius . , the depressor labiorum communis . , the zygomaticus seu distortor oris . , the buccinator . , the temporalis . , the masseter . a , the parotid salival gland . b , the os iugale . c , the salival duct , where it arises from the parotid gland , and passes over the masseter muscle , whence it marches thro' the musculus baccimator to its orifice in the internal membrane of the mouth , against the dentes molares . d , the lower jaw-bone made bare . e , the insertion of the right mastoid muscle , to the processus mammiformis . , the genichyoideus . , , the mastoidei , where their two beginnings are exprest on each side ; the one from the top of the sternum●g and the other from the clavicula f : the termination of the right mastoid in the pr●cessus mammilaris e , is also exprest . , the sternobyoideus of the left side , that of the right not being figur'd . , , the caracobyoideus marching under the mastoid muscle . , , parts of the scalenus . , part of the elevator scapulae . , , parts of the trapezius or cucullaris , on each side inserted to the claviculae . , the de●toides . , , the two pectoral muscles . f , f , the claviculae . g , the upper-part of the os pectoris or sternum ; h , the scrobicu●us cordis at the lower-part of the sternum . , the biceps humeri . , , parts of the coracobrachiales . , , parts of the brachiales flexores . , , parts of the brachiales extensores . i , a branch of the axillary nerves , which passes between the internal protuberance of the os humeri k , and the olecranum or elbow . k , the internal protuberance of the os humeri . l , the large trunk of the axillary artery , which is frequently prickt by bold blood-letters . m , a thin membranous tendon springing from the musculus biceps humeri , which is expanded over all the external muscles on the cubit . , part of the brachialis flexor . , pronator radii teres . , , radialis flexor . , , pal●oris longus . , , parts of the musculi flexores secundi internodii perfor●●ue . , , the ulnaris flexor . , , the supinator radii longus in both arms. , part of the radialis extensor . , a tendon of the flexor tertii internodii pollicis . , , the abductor pollicis on both hands . n , the ligamentum annulare of the carpus o , o , the tendinous expansion of the palmaris longus . , the caro musculosa quadrata . , the abductor minimi digiti . , , the fleshy parts of the obliquus descendens abdominis on both sides , , , q , q , their tendons running over the recti to the linea alba. , , parts of the latissimus dorsi on both sides . , , parts of the serrati majores antici . , , the recti abdominis , as they appear under the tendons of the two oblique muscles . p , the linea alba. q , q , the tendons of the two oblique muscles , call'd linea semilunaris , before they march over the rectus to the linea alba. r , r , the fore-parts of the spines of the ossa ilii . s , s , the glandulae inguinales ; neither these glans , nor those in the axillae , call'd glandulae axillares , are any where mention'd in the preceding descriptions : their office is to receive the lympha from all the inferior parts , and discharge it again by their exporting lymphe-ducts in its way towards the thoracick-duct . if any parts of the legs or thighs are diseas'd , as in an anasarca , with an erysipelas , abcess , exulceration , especially with a caries of the bone , and the like ; you will most commonly find the inguinal glandules tumid and hard : the like may be observ'd of the axillary glands , when the mammae , arms , cubits , or hands are in like manner affected . the intumescence of these lymphatick glands , in the cases above mention'd , is caus'd by the vitiated lympha , arising from the diseas'd parts , not pasting the vesiculae glandulosae ; whence a tumor is begun , and is still increas'd by the accession of the succeding lympha , and the whole gland becomes distended to a vast magnitude ; as appear'd in the case of the late sir william cranmer , in whom , after death , i found the glandule of the right inguine to weigh above six pounds , and the trunk of the crural artery passing thro' the lower-part of it . tho' the surface of this tumified gland seem'd to have matter fluctuating in divers parts of it , yet no other than a glandulous appearance offer'd on dividing it variously . the like intumescence of the inguinal glands happen'd after castration , in a hernia carnosa of the same side , which in like manner prov'd fatal . in the case of an anasarca of one leg , on which an erysipelas happen'd , i found the inguinal gland on the same side very much indurated and somewhat distended . when the excoriation from the erysipelas began to abate of the flux of matter , the inguinal gland above became more and more distended ; at length the outward skin on it began to look red , and soon after imposthumated : after the contain'd pus was discharg'd , i could pass my probe very deep into divers interstices of the gland , in which the matter was lodg'd ; all which sinus's after some weeks clos'd by the use of desiccative topicks , with convenient bandage , without hard tents or dozils . in this case the patient took divers doses of calamel , and strong purges . the like intumescence of these glands also happens in venerial cases , especially when the external parts of the penis are ulcerated , as i have elsewhere taken notice of . t , the os pubis . u u , the process's of the peritonaeum covering the spermatick vessels , as they descend to the testes . , the pyramidales . , , the musculus communis membranosi on both sides , part of its tendinons expansion of the left side being exprest , fasten'd to the upper appendix of the fibula x. , , the sartorius on both sides . , part of the glutaeus medius made tumid by the great trochanter . , , the rectus femoris on both thighs . , , the vasti externi . , , the vasti interni . , part of the pectineus . , , the great and first describ'd heads of the triceps on both sides . , , the gracilis partly exprest on both sides . w w , the patellae or knee-pans . x , part of the tendon of the membranosus , inserted to the upper appendix of the fibula . y , the right tibia made bare . z , the malleolus internus . * , the malleolus externus . † † , the annular ligament of the tarsus . , the tibialis anticus . , , the extensor pollicis pedis longus on both feet . , part of the peroneus secundus or semifibuleus . , part of the peroneus primus or fibuleus . , , parts of the gasterocnemus externus on both legs . , part of the flexor tertii internodii digitorum pedis perforans . , part of the gasterocnemus internus . , the abductor pollicis . , part of the extensor secundi internodii digitorum pedis , or extensor brevis . , the tendon of the extensor pollicis brevis . , the extensor tertii internodii digitorum pedis longus . the second table . fig. . the external muscles and other parts as they appear on the back-part of a humane body , after the skin , fat , and membranes are remov'd . , the musculus temporalis . , the orbicularis palpebrarum . , part of the zygomaticus . , the depressor labiorum communis . , the masseter . , part of the mastoideus . , part of the elevator scapulae . , part of the splenius . , the occipitalis . , , , the cucularis or trapezius , on both sides . a , the os bregmatis ; b , the occipitis . c , part of the sagittal suture , or longitudinal suture . d , the lambdoidal suture . e , the os iugale . f , the parotide salival gland . under this parotide salival gland , are plac'd divers lymphatick glands , which receive lympha from their importing lymphe-ducts , arising from the neighbouring parts as well as the parotide salival gland it self . besides these lymphatick glands immediately under the parotides , there are still others of the same kind below them , lying near the jugular veins , and are continued to the claviculae ; all these transmit lympha ( by their exporting lymphe-ducts ) either to the subclavian glands , or to the upper-part of the thoracick-duct immediately . these lymphatick glands become tumid in scrophulous cases , and may be happily remov'd by incision , and no great flux of blood follow ; which practice is preferable to the application of escharoticks which are commonly made use of . i have at this time a patient in whom not only the above mention'd superior lymphatick glands of the left side were distended , but the parotide salival gland of the same side was very much indurated , and not a lit tle distended also ; in the middle of which induration of the parotide gland , i found an aperture whence the spittle flow'd in no small quantity , in mastication : in pressing the part near the aperture , i found the spittle gush out , which had lodg'd it self between the skin and the gland . after the external skin was divided , i could plainly see the spittle arise from divers interstices of the lobuli of the gland ; when he chaw'd any thing , the spittle flow'd on his handkerchief ( per stillicidium , ) which he was wont to hold under his ear to receive it . the sinus's from whence the spittle was discharg'd being thus laid open , the quantity of spittle which flow'd , soon abated ; the fungous flesh being remov'd by the application of gentle escharoticks , the flux of saliva lessen'd . he drinking of a decoction of sarsaparila , china , lig. guiaci , &c. for his common drink , and eating of a very drying diet , such as biskets , almonds , and the like . aquapendens in treating of the wounds of the cheeks , mentions a clear water not unlike the tears of the eyes , which he saw flow from a very small hole when the patient eat ; to which he adds , vnde & quomodo effluat , ego certe nescio . the accurate nuck tells us ( from roonhuyse a dutch writer ) of a patient in whom the spittle flow'd from an ulcer in the cheek , not unlike that above mention'd : nor was the flux of spittle abated , and the ulcer brought to a cicatrix without a drying diet , as the incomparable nuck takes notice . a flux of lympha sometimes happens in wounds of the limbs , where the lymphe-ducts are wounded . after letting blood in the flexure of the cubit , i saw ( the next day ) a vast quantity of lympha had stain'd the shirt which lay over the orifice , and about the arm ; the next day after , the flux of lympha abated , and the orifice soon after clos'd . perhaps a great part of that thin matter call'd gleet , which we find some days after amputations , or large wounds , flows from the divided lymphe-ducts as well as nutritive tubes of the part. when lymphe-ducts are broken in old ulcers , and the flux of lympha do's not easily abate , tho' the patient is confin'd to a drying diet. the like difficulty attended the restraining of the flux of lympha when a lymphe-duct was open'd in an issue in the leg , as was communicated to me by mr. bernard and mr. guddier both experienc'd surgeons of this town ; in which case a drying diet stopt the flux , and the ulcer was soon after cicatric'd ; tho' many desicatives topicks , as well as actual and potential cauteries , had before prov'd ineffectual . by this we may see ( however some endeavour to disparage anatomy ) how useful it is in the practice of surgery . g , the spine of the seventh vertebra of the neck . h , h , the tendons of the cucularis on both sides inserted to the spines of the scapulae . i , i , the extremities of the spines of the scapulae , to which the claviculae are connected . k k , the lower angles of the scapulae . l l , the basis scapulae . m m , the upper appendices of the vlnae , call'd olecrani . n n , the external protuberance of the ossa humerum , where the radii are articulated , and the muscles extending the carpi and fingers do arise . o o , the inferior appendix of the vlna next the carpus . , the musculus deltoides of the right side . , , the infraspinatus on both sides . , , parts of the rotundi minores . , , the rotundi majores . , , , the latissimi dorsi . ** their tendinous parts passing over the sacrolumbales and dorsi longissimi . , , parts of the rhomboides on both sides , near their insertions to the basis of the shoulder-blades , ll . , , the gemellus , or biceps externus on both arms. , , parts of the brachiales . , , parts of the supinator radii longus on both sides . , , the anconeus : , , the radialis extensor on either cubit . , , the extensor digitorum communis : , , the extensor minimi digiti : , , the vlnaris extensor : , , parts of the perforatus or flexor secundi internodii digitorum . , , the vlnaris flexor on both cubits . , parts of the tendons of the radialis flexor & palmaris . , , the abductores minimi digiti on either hand . , the adductor pollicis ad dorsum manus . , the extending muscles of the thumb . , , parts of the oblique descending muscles of the abdomen on both sides . , the glutaeus major . , , parts of the glutaeus medius on both sides . , the fleshy part of the membranosus or musculus communis membranosi . p p , the back-part of the spines of the ossa ilii . q , the os sacrum . r , a prominence made by the great trochanter under the tendinous expansion of the glutaeus major . f , f , the great crural nerves as they descend in the ham. t , the upper appendix of the fibula . u u , the lower appendix of the fibula , call'd malleolus externus . w , the lower appendix of the tibia or malleolus internus . x , the tendon of the gasterocnemii . y , the os calcis . , , parts of the vasti externi . , , the biceps femoris on both sides . , , the seminervosi or semitendinosi . , , the semimembranosi . , , parts of the triceps femoris on both sides . ▪ part of the gracilis on the left thigh . , part of the sartorius on the same thigh . , part of the vastus internus on the same thigh also . , , the gasterocnemii externi . , , the gasterocnemii interni cover'd with the tendons of the externi . , the peroneus longus . , , the abductor minimi digiti on both feet . , part of the tendon of the extensor digitorum longus on the right foot. the third table . fig. . shews the trunks and large ramifications of all the arteries of a humane foetus , injected with wax , and display'd after dissection . , the aorta , or arteria magna , cut from its origin at the orifice of the left ventricle of the heart . , the trunk of the great coronal artery of the heart arising from the beginning of the aorta ; the rise of the lesser coronal artery , not appearing in this position of the arteria magna . , the canalis arteriosus fill'd with wax , by injecting it into the aorta : this arises from the upper part of the trunk of the pulmonick artery ( near its two ramifications which pass into the lungs ) and after an oblique descent under the beginning of the aorta , empties it self into the upper part of its descending trunk , as here exprest . besides this communication between the right ventricle of the heart of a foetus , and arteria magna ; there is another call'd foramen ovale , by which part the blood , at its entrance into the right ventricle , passes into the pulmonick vein , and the left ventricle of the heart , thence to the aorta . hence it appears , that the blood which flows into the right ventricle of the heart of the foetus , passes immediately ( by the canalis arteriosus ) to the arteria magna , as well as the blood of the left ventricle ( which is receiv'd immediately from the vena c●●a , or right article of the heart ) into the pulmonick vein , and left ventricle : so that the blood in the foetus , which runs into the right ventricle , passes immediately to the aorta , by the systole of the heart , as well as the blood of the left ventricle : not do's any part of the blood of the right ventricle pass into the left ; or any blood of the left ventricle first pass the right , as in the adult . hence the heart in the foetus may be said to have but one ventricle in effect , since the blood which passes one , do's not come into the other , before it arrives at the aorta . after the birth , when the infant has receiv'd air into the lungs ( and their vesciculae remain distended , and the ramifications of the pulmonick arteries and vein consequently are more display'd ) the blood th●● begins to pass their extremities , more freely than before ; and the arterious chanel at length becomes neglected , as well as the foramen ovale ; the former becoming a lig●●●● , and the latter closing up . the too early occlusion of these passages in children , often produces many disorders , as inflammation of divers parts of the head , neck , and lungs● in which cases , bleeding is of great use : of this , i have met with many in●●●nces in the dissection of children . i have often found the foramen ovale open in the adult : the canalis arteriosus , for what i have observ'd , closes sooner than that foramen . , , the subclavian arteries , arising from the arteria magna , to which the axillary arteries , and those of the arms ( , , ) are con●●'d . , , the two carotide arteries arising from aorta , between the subclavian arteries . , . the two vertebral arteries , arising from the sub●lev●culae , which pass thro' all the transverse processes of the vertebrae of the neck , from whence they are freed . , . the arteries which convey blood to the lower part of the face , tongue , adjacent muscles , and glandules . , . the trunks of the temporal arteries spring from the carotides , and giving branches to the parc●ide glands ( , . ) as well as the temples ( , . ) also to the neighbouring muscles , hairy-scalp , and forehead . , . the occip●tal arteries , whose trunks pass close by the mammi●o●● process , and are distributed on the hinder pa●● of the hairy-scalp , where they are inosculated with the branches of the temporal arteries . . di●ers arteries , which carry blood to the fauces ga●ga●con and muscles of those p●●●● . , . the contortions of the carotid arteries , as they pass the basis of the skull to the brain . , . those parts of the carotid arteries , where they pass by each side of the solla t●●ica , where di●e●● small branches do arise from them , and help to compose the rete 〈◊〉 , which is more conspicuous in quadrupedes than men. , . the contortions of the vertebra arteries , as they pass the transverse processes of the first vend●● ●● the neck , towards the great foramen of the os occiputis . i have more than once taken notice , that the cavities of these arteries , where they are con●e●●ed , have been larger than their inferior trunks ; whereby the impetus of the blood must necessarily be very much lessen'd , as well as by their contortions only . in quad●●pedes the angles of these contortion : of the arteries of the brains are more acute , which in them is the more necessary to lessen the force of the blood at their extremities , by reason of the horizontal position of their trunks . . the vertebral arteries , where they ascend on the medulla oblongata , towards the 〈◊〉 protuberance , or po●a var●● . , . the communicant branches between the carotid and vertebral arteries ; in this subject , somewhat larger than we commonly find them . , . the ramifications of the arteries within the skull ; the larger trunks of which lie between the lobes of the brain , and in its s●●●i . from the extremities of these arteries of the brain are continu'd its veins , whose trunks vary much in their position from the arteries : they entring the brain at its basis , and distributing themselves , as above noted ; whereas the trunks of the veins are extended on the surface of the brain , and discharge their blood into the longitudinal s●r●s . nor do's the veins of the brain accompany its arteries at their ingress , as in other parts : or the arteries and vein . of the dura meter , pass the same f●ramen in the basis of the skull . , . the arteries of the larynx thyroid glandules , and adjacent muscles and parts , arising from the subclavian arteries . , . others arising near the former , which convey blood to the muscles of the neck , and scapul● . , . the mammariae , which arise also from the subclavian arteries , and descend on the cartilages of the true r●bs internally , about half an inch distant on each side the or pectoris , or s●rm●n . some branches of these pass thro' the pectoral , as well as i●●●costal muscles , and give blood to the mammae , where they meet with some branches of the intercostal arteries , to which they are inosculated . these maminary arteries join with the large trunks of the epigastricks ( , . ) also , by which means the impetus of the blood in integuments of the abdomen , is carry'd on with more force ; the ex●●●es of the intercostal and lumbal arteries do also inosculate with each other , as well as with these . , . the arteries of the muscles of the os humeri , and some of those of the scapul● . , . those parts of the large trunks of the arteries of the arms , which are liable to be wounded in opening the vena basilica , or innermost of the three veins in the bending of the cubit , ( see fig. . of this appendix between . and m , ) where the precise progress of this artery is exprest . , . the divisions of the arteries of the arm below the flexure of the cubit . . a communicant branch of an artery , arising from the trunk of the artery of the arm , above its flexure at the cubit , which is inosculated with the arteries of the cubit below . in some subjects you will not find this communicant branch , as here repres●●d● in whom there are divers smaller branches of the same kind . by these 〈◊〉 branches ( of the upper part of the brachial artery with those of the cubit ) the blood still passes , tho' the trunk ( ) is firmly ty'd , which is done in taking up the 〈◊〉 ; as it 's call'd when 't is wounded , in the cause of an aneurisma . besides firmly tying the trunk of the artery above the place where it is wounded ; it is also necessary to tie it in like manner below , least the blood convey'd by the communicant branches to the inferior trunk , still pours out at the wound of the artery from below , in a retrograde manner . . the external artery of the cubit , which makes the pulse near the carpus . . the arteries of the hands and fingers . , . the descending trunk of the arteria magna . . the arteria bronchalis , springing from one of the intercostal arteries ; it sometimes arises immediately from the descending trunk of the aorta , at other times from the superior intercostal artery , which springs from the subclavian . these bronchial arteries inosculate with the pulmonary arteries , as i have elsewhere taken notice , and which i s●re find is mention'd and figur'd by the accurate ruysch , epist , anatom . . fig. . c , c , c. . a small artery springing from the fore-part of the aorta descendens , passing to ● gula● prysch tells us of branches of arteries from the superior intercostal , which 〈◊〉 the gula. , . the intercostal arteries on each side the arteria magna descendens . . the trunk of the arteria caeliaca , from whence springs , . the hepatick arteries , and . the arteria cystica , lying on the gall-bladder , . the arteria cerenaria ventriculi inferior , . the pylorica , , . the epiplaica dextra , sinistra , and media , springing from the coronaria . . the ramifications of the coronary artery , which embrace on the bottom of the stomach . . the c●●r●ria ventriculi superior . , . the phrenick arteries , or the two arteries of the diaphragm ; that of the left side arising from the trunk of the arteria magna , the right springing from the caeliacae . . the trunk of the splenick artery , arising from the caeliaca : this is contorted in the adult , as it appears tab. . . two small arteries going to the upper part of the duodemum and pancreas ; the rest of the arteries of the pancreas spring from the splenick artery in its passage to the spleen . . the trunk of the arteria mesenterica superior , turn'd towards the right side . , . the branches of the superior mesenterick artery , freed from the small guts ; here the various anastomoses , the branches of this artery make in the mesentery , before they arrive at the intestines , may be observ'd . . the inferior mesenterick artery , arising from the arteria magna . . a remarkable anastomosis of this inferior mesenterick artery , with the superior . , , . the branches of the inferior mesenterick artery , as they pass to the intestinum colon ; , . those of the rectum . , . the arteries of the kidneys . , . the vertebral arteries of the loins . , . the spermatick arteries , which descend to the testes , are so small as to escape being fill'd with wax . . the aneria sacra . , . the iliaci . , . the rami iliaci externi : , . the iliaci interni ; which are here larger in the foetus proportionably , than in the adult , by reason of their conjunction with the two umbilical arteries . , . the two umbilical arteries cut off . , . the epigastrick arteries , which ascend under the right muscles of the abdomen , and are inosculated with the mammariae , as above noted . , . branches of the external iliac● arteries , passing between the two oblique muscles of the abdomen . , . branches of the internal iliack arteries , which convey blood to the extending and obturating muscles of the thighs . , . the trunks of the arteries , which pass to the penis . , . the arteries of the bladder of urine . , . the internal arteries of the pudendum , which with those here exprest of the penis , make the hypogastrick arteries in women . the external arteries of the pulendum , arise from the upper part of the crural artery , which is immediately below the epigastricks . . the penis distended with wind , and dry'd . . the glans penis . . the upper part or dorsum penis , cut from the body of the penis , and rais'd to show the corpora caevernosa penis . , . the corpora caevarnosa penis , fred from the ossa pubis , and ty'd after inflation . . the two arteries of the penis , as they appear injected with wax , in each cavernous body of the penis . . the capsula , and septum of the corpora cavenosa penis . . the crural arteries . , . the arteries , which pass to the muscles of the thighs and tibiae : the nomination of each muscle in this place would be tedious , and of no use ; wherefore i shall pass them by here , as i have done in the arms ; it being sufficient , we know , the progress of the great trunks , to avoid wounding them in chirurgical operations , or to find them on occasion : we shall begin first with the description of the trunk of the arteries of the arm. so soon as the subclavian artery has past the claevicula , it marches thro' the axilla , wherefore it 's call'd axillaris , whence it● . trunk descends between the masculus brachiaeus intermu and externus , on the inside of the arm , and is divided below the bending of the cubit , as you see it exprest in the figure ; it parting with several branches to the neighbouring muscles , and parts it passes by ; their distribution not being alike in any two subjects , i have hitherto examin'd , or in the right and left sides of the same , as appears in this figure : tho' the progress of their large trunks are commonly uniform ; yet in that too , they vary considerably , and the trunk of the artery at the flexure of the cubit sometimes runs collateral with the vena basilica , tho' it most commonly passes under that vein : of this , those that let blood ought to take notice , and that the vessel they see or feel has no pulsation , before they thrust their launset into it . nor can i omit a useful observation in this place ; which is , that the operator before he applies his ligature on the arm , should first feel for the artery , because afterwards its palsation cannot be so easily discover'd ; the reason of which is obvious . after amputation , above the elbow , the trunk of the axillary artery only , affords any considerable flux of blood : in amputations below the elbow , we find two , sometimes three , and four considerable trunks , which may require tying up ; the manner of which practice is so well describ'd in the works of ambrose pary , i shall omit saying any thing of it in this place , tho' it has been most commonly disus'd in this kingdom till of late ; the many conveniencies of which practice will ( i don't doubt ) sufficiently recommend it to a general use , as well in other impetuous fluxes of blood , as in those after amputations . after the external iliack artery ( ) is past out of the cavity of the abdomen , it obtains the name of the crural artery , ( . ) and descends obliquely on the crural vein , on the fore-part of the thigh , immediately under the musculus sartorius : about four fingers breadth above the knee , these two large blood vessels pass thro' the lower part of the musculus triceps to the ham , ( . ) here the vein is plac'd above the artery as in other parts , and so descends to the foot , after being divided in three branches , as is exprest in fig. . . that part of the crural artery , which passes the ham. . the three large trunks of the arteries of the leg. . the arteries of the foot. fig. . the extremities of the veins and arteries , as they appear by a microscope in the transparent fin of a living grig . a a , the fin of a grig , lying in a glass tube . b b , the cartilaginous extremities of the ribs , on which the fin is extended . c c , the small scratches , or streaks we commonly find in the glass tube . d d , the branches of the arteries , proceeding from their larger trunks in the body of the grig , conveying the blood to the outmost margine of the fin. e e , the extremities of the arteries , continu'd to the veins , wherein one globule of the blood only moves before another . besides these communications of the veins with the arteries , there are still others which are larger , wherein more than two globules can pass together : those are every where interspers'd with the lesser , as plainly appears in the fin and tail of the flounder , fig. . f. f f , the veins which convey the refluent blood to the heart . g g , the magnitude of the arta , taken by the microscope . fig. . the extremity , or outmost margin of the side-fin of a small living flounder , view'd with a microscope . a a , the cartilaginous extremities of the ribs , on each side of which , the trunks of the great blood vessels pass . b b , the arteries . c c , the veins . d d , their lesser extremities continu'd to each other . e e , the large branches of veins and arteries , inosculating with themselves , before they arrive at their extremities . f f , the larger conjunctions of the veins and arteries , at the outmost margin of the fin. g g , the arta which the microscope took in , as it appears to the naked eye . fig. . represents ( according to our conception ) the origination of the lympheducts from the extremities of the blood vessels . a , the small branch of an artery , a a , its extremity continued to the vein . b , the branch of a vein . c , a lympheduct arising from the extremities of the blood vessels , either by the mediation of divers vesiculae , or small tubes ; which have apertures into the sides of the blood vessels . fig. . the manner of the origin of the excretory ducts , from the extremities of the blood vessels . a , the artery . b , the vein . c , a branch of the ductus excretorius . d d , the extremities of the blood vessels . e e , the extremities of the excretory tubes , at their rise from the pores in the sides of the blood vessels , before they unite in the branch of the duct . the fourth table . fig. . is the basis of the skull with the first vertebra of the neck remaining on it , together with divers muscles and other parts . a , b , c c , d d , the first vertebra of the neck : a , its fore-part , behind which , the tooth-like process of the second vertebra is plac'd ; b , it s back part wanting a spinal process where the musculi recti minores postici arise ; c c , the transverse process's : d d , two somewhat oval process's of the first vertebra , which move side-ways on the like process's on the upper part of the second vertebra of the neck . e , a cavity immediatly behind the fore-part of the first vertebra , fenc'd with a strong ligament backwards next the medulla spinalis , in which the tooth-like process of the second vertebra tab. . fig. , . a a , is receiv'd . f , the great foramen , through which the medulla spinalis descends from the head. g , a small muscle , which from its position i call rectus lateralis : i first met with it in dissection , some time since , and afterwards found it was partly mention'd by galen , and describ'd by fallōppius : it arises from the superior part of the extremity of the transverse process of the first vertebra of the neck , and ascends directly to its implantation in the os occipitis ; when it acts , it nods the head laterally . h , the musculus rectus anterior minor , so call'd from its progress , situation and size , it being much less than the rectus major , tab. . l l. it arises from the fore-part of the first vertebra , and is inserted to the appendix of the os occipisis : this with its partner nod the head forewards , and may be term'd annuentes . i i , the perforations in the transverie process's of the first vertebra , in which the trunks of the vertebral arteries and veins pass . k k , the trunks of the vertebral arteries in their contorted passage between the transverse process of the first vertebra and great foramen ( f ) of the os occipitis . l l , the mamiform process's . m m , the cartilages of the meatus auditorius . n n , a probe inserted into the meatus à palato ad aurem . this passage from the fauces admits the air to pass from thence into the cavity of the tympanum , whereby the membra●ea tympani becomes more distended , and the least impetus of the outward air shakes it , together with its little bones that are contiguous to it . besides this passage into the tympanum , there is another passage out of it , by the upper part of the membrana tympani into the meatus auditorius , by which some in holding their nostrils and mouths , and forcing up their breath , can move a small feather or the flame of a candle , when held near the outward ear ; in others it 's still opener , and they can blow smoke out at their ears . tho' this passage thro' the tympanum is not commonly so open as in the first case , yet naturally there is a small passage by the upper part of the membrana tympani into the measus auditorius , which seems necessary , to the end when the tympamon is fill'd with air , any sudden impetus of the external air should not violate the membrana tympani . the meatus à palato ad aurem do's not only convey air into the tympamon , but ( constantly remaining open ) it admits of a fluctuation of the contain'd air of the tympamon , as well as a fresh supply : if this passage is straiten'd , a difficulty of hearing necessarily follows ; if it is totally obstructed , a deafness ; in which case , the taking of sneezing powders gives relief . o , the glandulous membrane continu'd from the foramina narium to the inside of the fauces . p p , the processus scyloides . q , the carotid artery cut off near its entrance into the os petrosum . r r , the lower parts of the ossa iugalia . s , a cartilaginous body lying in the depressure of the os temporum , where the processus condyliformis of the lower jaw is articulated . t , the same intermediate cartilage of the articulation rais'd . v , the smooth sinus in the os temporale , which receiv'd the last mention'd cartilage . t , part of the mucelaginous gland of this articulation , clearing to the above-mention'd cartilage . w , the upper part of the os temporale cut off . x , the os occipitis , in like manner saw'd off . y , the musculus occipitalis , as it arises from that part of the os occipitis , where the muscles of the head are inserted , whence mounting it , soon becomes tendinous , and marches on the sincipus , where it 's join'd with the tendon of the fromalis : unless it may be suppos'd , that the occipital and frontal muscles are one biventral muscle , arising from the occiput and inserted to the lower part of the skin of the fore-head , and being fasten'd to the hairy-scalp , moves it forewards and backwards , as well as lifts up the lower part of the forehead with the eyebrows . z z , the thinner part of the os occipitis , where the muscles of the head are inserted . a , the gargareon supported by the probe , n n , inserted into the meatus à palato ad aurem . b b , the little glandules , which appear in cutting the fauces from hence . c c , the extremity of the processus pterygoides , or more properly the extremity of a small slender process above the processus pterygoides in this position of the skull ; since anatomists in describing the muscles of the uvrela have call'd this process pterigoides or aliformis , we shall still retain the same name , tho' the aliform process's exprest , tab. . fig. . k , are distinct process's , and no ways like these . dd , the musculi sphenopirrigostaphilini , so call'd from their origin , progress , and insertion : they are also call'd pterigopalatini and sphenoterigopalatini ; they arise fleshy from an acute process of the os sphenoides exprest appen . fig. . h. whence they pass to the processus pterygoides , c c , where they become tendinous , and are reflected over those process's to their insertions on the fore-part of the gargareon : when these act , they draw the fore-part of the gargareus towards the pterigoid process's , whereby it 's pull'd somewhat upwards , as well as forewards . e e , the sphenostaphilini : these arise from the same process's of the os sphenoides with the former , and are inserted on the back-part of the gargareon opposite to the former . these draw the uvula upwards and backwards , whereby it prevents the ascent of the aliment into the foramina nariton in deglutition , as it happens in those in whom the uvula is wanting . f , the musculus pterygoideus externus left at its origin , at the external part of the processus pterygoides , as well as the upper part of the os sphenoides it self ; whence it passes backwards to its insertion at the neck of the processus condyloides of the lower-jaw . when this and its partner act they draw the lower-jaw forewards , whereby the fore-teeth of the lower-jaw are driven beyond those of the superior , as falloppius observes . g , the musculus pterygoideus internus also free'd from the lower-jaw , and left at its origin : tab. . fig. . n. it 's represented at its insertion . h , some appearance of the septum narium backwards . i i , the denies molares . k k , the canini . l , the in●isores . m , the glandulae labiorum , as they appear in the inside of the upper lip. under the ininternal membrane of the mouth ; each of these glands has an excretory duct , which perforates the membrane of the mouth at a small papilla , by which a salival humor is emitted into the mouth : the like glands may be seen on the inside of the cheeks . n , the tip of the nose . o , the hairs of the palpabrae . fig. . the external surface of one of the glandulae tonfillae or amigdalae , where the many large foramina of its excretory ducts appear , by which its pituitous matter is discharg'd into the fauces , which joins with the aliment in its descent to the gula. fig. . the receptaculum chyli fill'd with quick-silver , with the neighbouring lymphatick glands remaining in their proper situation , together with the adjacent parts ; as i could make a sketch of them whilst i was demonstrating the parts of a humane body to some worthy and ingenious gentlemen , when professor bidloo favor'd me with a visit. a a , the kidneys . a a , the emulgent veins , of which that of the right side is lower than the left. b , the ascending trunk of the vena cava distended with wind ; the lower part of which is comprest by the iliack artery of the right side . b , the trunk of the vena cava cut from its entrance into the liver and ty'd . c c , parts of the two iliack veins , which may be seen distended with wind below the right iliack artery , as the vena cava is above ; the external iliack veins , as well as the crutal veins , lie immediatly under the trunks of the arteries that accompany them , till they pass by the lower part of the musculus triceps and os femoris , to the ham , where the vein is uppermost and the artery passes underneath , after the same manner the great trunks of veins and arteries do in other parts . this contrivance in nature of placing the trunks of the iliack and upper parts of the crural arteries on the veins , is an admirable artifice to accelerate the ascention of the blood to the vena cava and heart , as it arises from the inferior parts , by means of the pulsation of the arteries . if you inject the arteries with wax and afterwards fill the veins with the same , you will see by the figure of the wax contain'd in the veins , what effect the pulsations of the arteries have on them , in order to promote the ascention of the refluent blood from below . in this compressure made by the iliack artery of the right side , on the inferior part of the vena cava it s contain'd blood is forc'd to ascend towards the heart , the valves in the crural veins opposing its descent : by this means also the pondus of the refluent blood from below is lessen'd , to the end its motion may be the better carri'd on at the extremities of the vessels in the legs and feet , and a kind of a pulsation made by the vena cava , whereby the lymphatick lumbal gland r r , lying between it and the bodies of the vertebrae is gently comprest , of which hereafter . d d , the ascending trunk of the vena cava below the kidneys . d d , the iliack arteries . e , the trunk of the culiata arteries cut off . f , the trunk of the mesenterica superior in like manner cut off . e e , the arteries of the testes ; the right appearing at its origin from the trunk of the arteria magna d ; the left passing thro' the lumbal gland , q. f f , the spermatick veins near their entrance into the trunk of the vena cava of the right side , and emulgent vein of the left ; where there are valves plac'd , which hinder the descent of the blood from those large vessels into these veins . g g , the upper parts of the ureters distended with wind ; h h , their lower parts , as they pass to the bladder of urine not extended : about these parts of the ureters , as they descend over the iliack arteries , we frequently find them dilated by reason of the pulsation of those arteries , which prevents the free descent of the urine , and especially stones and gravel , both which often pass them : tho' more than once i have seen one of the ureters compleatly obstructed by small stones in this part. i , some fat remaining on the ureter , as it passes out of the kidney . g g , the glandulae renales or capsulae atrabilares in situ . h h , the lower fleshy part of the diaphragm , which arises from the vertebrae of the loins . i , the fissura of the diaphragm , in which the gula passes to the stomack . k , the bladder of urine distended with wind. l , the urachus turn'd down . m m , the musculi psoi magni . n. the saecculus chyliferous or receptaculum chyli ( exprest a. fig. . ) as it appears when fill'd with mercury , after freeing the vena cava , b , from its accompanying the a●eria magna , d. o , a large trunk of the vinae lactea secundi geruris , by which the mercury was injected . p , the tube which convey'd in the mercury . q q the glandula lumbalis of the left side , lying partly on the trunk of the arteria magna . r r , the right lumbal gland , lying partly under the trunk of the vena cava . s s , some communicant branches of lympheducts between the two lumbal glands . f f , the lympheducts arising from the inguinal glandules , app. fig. . s s. as well as divers other lymphatick glandules lying on the iliack branches of blood-vessels ( c c d d : ) these discharge all the lympha , arising from the inferior parts into the lumbal glands , whence it passes immediatly into the receptaculum chyli , and is afterwards convey'd by the thoracick duct ( fig. . mm. ) into the subclarian vein ( fig. . hl : ) this is the ordinary course of the lympha , arising from the inferior parts in its way to the mass of blood again . hence it appears , the lympha of the inferior parts meets with the chyle in its receptaculum , whereby the chyle is there not only farther dilated , but its ascention is accelerated towards the subclavian vein , by an additional impetus from the ascending lympha . here we can't but take notice of a considerable artifice in nature in the disposition of these lymphatick lumbal glands , whereby the progress of the lympha is promoted towards the receptaculum chyli . as the lympheducts pass from the inferior parts , they accompany the trunks of the arteries , by whose continual motion of systole and diastole , the ascent of the lympha is promoted as well as the blood ; but when the lympha arrives at the lumbal glands , the pulsation of the ascending trunk of the great artery being not sufficient ( by reason those glands are much larger than the exterior surface of that artery can give a sutable impulse to ; ) one of the lumbal glands r r , is plac'd under the vena cava b , or between it and the vertebrae lumbares , by which its vesiculae are gently comprest , and their contain'd lympha is push'd on towards the receptaculum chyli . t t , the spermatick vein and artery on both sides involv'd in the duplicature of the peritonaeum as they pass towards the testes . fig. . the lumbal glandules with the receptaculum chyli and part of the thoracick duct &c. fill'd with mercury and free'd from the body . a , b b , the receptaculum chyli compos'd of three trunks ; one of which a , is very large exprest at n , fig. . the other two are much less , and he immediatly under the trunk of the great artery d , fig. : this division of the receptaculum chyli into three trunks has not been taken notice of , which makes me suspect the descriptions we have hitherto had of it , have been taken from quadrupedes ; where by reason of its horizontal position , it is likely one secculus chyliferus may be sufficient ; but in men , in whom the thoracick duct , and receptaculum inclines to a perpendicular position , it seems to be a necessary contrivance that it should be divided into three channels ( especially before it intirely passes under the trunk of the great artery ) the better to support the chyle and lymphe in their ascending progress . a , the trunk of a lympheduct arising from the diaphragm . b , the ductus thoracicus above the diaphragm , where it passes between the descending trunk of the arteria magna and bodies of the vertebrae thoracis ; which disposition of it is very necessary , to the end the pulsation of the artery may continually press this duct , and thereby hasten the ascent of its contents . c , a trunk of one of the vasa lactea secundi generis , exprest fig. . o , by which the mercury was injected . c , a considerable double valve , which hinders a retrocession of chyle and lympha in this lacteal vessel . d , the surface of the left lumbal gland plac'd on the arteria magna . d , another small trunk of the vasa lactea secundi generis , with a small gland of the mesentery , from whence it arises . e , the lympheducts , which arise from the inferior parts and empty themselves into the left lumbal gland . f , the glandula lumbalis of the right side plac'd under the vena cava . g h , the lympheducts of the inferior parts , which empty themselves into the last mention'd gland . i , a large lympheduct , which discharges in self into the receptaculum chyli majus . k l , the communicant branches of lympheducts between the right and left lumbal glandules . m m , the thoracick duct where its valves , which hinder the descent of the chyle and lympha , are faintly exprest . n n , divers divisions and inosculations of this duct , whereby the ascention of the chyle may be the better carri'd on . o , divers lympheducts , which arise from the lymphatick glands on the back-parts of the lungs , and are the exporting lympheducts of those glands ; their importing lympheducts spring from the lungs themselves and adjacent parts . fig. . the thoracick duct at its entrance into the subclavian vein , with its lympheducts injected with wax . a , the thoracick duct where it leaves the descending trunk of the arteria magna , and accompanying the gula as it passes towards the left side of the bodies of the upper vertebrae of the thorax , in its way to the subclavian vein , where that of the former figure is cut off and ty'd . b b , two lympheducts , which sprang from the thymus . c , a division and inosculation of the thoracick duct . d , a large lympheduct , whose extremities arise panly from the thymus and partly from the right subclavian gland . e , the left subclavian lymphatick gland . the subclavian glands ( tho' not mention'd by any author i know of ) are two large glands plac'd under each clavicle , and seem to be one of those belonging to the concatenation of glands of the internal jugular vein : they receive their importing lympheducts from the muscles of the neck and glands last mention'd on the jugular veins , and perhaps from the thyroid gland . f g , the exporting lympheducts of the subclavian gland , which empty themselves into the thoracick duct . h , the large trunk of the thoracick duct near its entrance into the subclavian vein . i , the external and superior part of the subclavian vein . k , part of the axillary vein not fill'd with wax from the thoracick duct by reason of the valves . l , parts of the internal jugular and cervical veins cut off . m , the wax injected by the thoracick duct cut transversely , with the trunk of the vein as it passes towards the heart . fig . a lymphatick gland with its importing and exporting lympheducts fill'd with mercury . a , the gland whose vesiculae are distended with mercury . e , the importing lympheduct , by which the mercury was injected into the vesiculae glandulosae ; d d , its ramifications before they enter the gland . c c , the ramifications of the exporting lympheducts , as they arise out of the gland and unite in one trunk , call'd b , the exporting lympheduct , which passes either into the receptaculum chyli immediatly , or thoracick duct , or else into another lymphatick gland . besides this communication of lympheducts by the mediation of lymphatick glands ; the trunks of the lympheducts themselves are frequently inosculated with each other , and tho' they commonly enter into the next lymphatick gland ( where they meet with a fresh supply of lymphe separated from the blood-vessels of the gland , as well as an impetus from thence ) yet it sometimes happens there is a communicant branch from the importing to the exporting lympheduct , as appears in the following figure . fig. . a , the gland fill'd with mercury as in the foregoing figure . c , the importing , b , the exporting lympheduct . d d , the communicant branch . the fifth table . fig. . divers parts of the organ of hearing of a man. a , the external convext part of the os temporale . b , part of the os sincipitis . c , the processus mastoides continuous with the os temporum . d , part of another process of the os temporale , which makes the os iugale . e , the processus styloides . f , part of the os temporum , behind which the carotide artery passes towards the brain . g g , part of the os sphenoides . h , an acute process of the os sphenoides , whence the muscles of the gargareon spring . i , a perforation between the os sphenoides and temporum , by which the ductus à pala●o passes into the tymparnum . k , the sixth foramen of the os sphenoides which is near the root of the processus pterygoides ; by which a branch of the fifth pair of nerves passes out of the cranium . vid. tab. . fig. . y. a , the upper-part of the porus auditorius or passage from the external ear. b b , the breaking off of the bone which composes the lower-part of the meatus or porus auditorius . c , the musculus extermus auris , by some call'd laxator externus . this small muscle is plac'd under the glandulous membrane of the porus auditorius , which separates that matter call'd the ear-wax : in beginning is fleshy on the external margin , at the upper-part of the porus , soon becoming tendinous , passes to its broad tendinous expansion on the external surface of the membrana tympani . when it acts , it draws the membrana tympani towards a plan outwards , together with the handle or long process of the malleus ; by which means the great concussion made in the outward air , is hindred from violating the membrana tympani ; which at that time is relaxt . d , the long process of the malleus , call'd its manubriton , lying immediately under the membrana tympani , and is contiguous to it . e , the membrana tympani or thin transparent membrane , commonly call'd the drum of the ear. f , a sinus in the os temporum for the articulation of the processus condyloides of the lower jaw . g , the conjunction of the os sphenoides with the os temporum . h h , the edges of the last mention'd bones saw'd ost . * the suture between the os temporum and sincipitis . fig. . the organs of hearing as they are made to appear on the internal parts of the same bones , represented in the foregoing figure a a , the inside of the lower-part of the os sincipitis which lies on the upper-part of the os temporum next the brain . a a , the channels in the bone which receive the blood-vessels lying on the dura mater . b , part of the os occipitis . b b b , the conjunction of the os temporum with the bones of the sincipus and occipus , call'd sutura squamosa . c c , the os temporum next the brain . c , that part of the os temporum or processus perrosus of that bone , which touches the anterior appendix of the os occipitis . d , part of the os sphenoides . d , that part of the os sphenoides at the upper-part of the processus pterygoides . e , part of the os iugale . e , the external semicircular duct of the os petrosum open'd ; exprest at k , fig. . f , the external surface of the os petrosum , to which the dura mater firmly adheres . f f , the external lamina of the os petrosum cut off with a chizel , to shew the two internal muscles of the malleus , part of the cavity of the tympanum and the articulation of the malleus with the incus , with the cavernulae of the os petrosum which communicate with those of the processus mastoides . g , a channel on the os petrosum , in which the superior long and narrow sinus of the dura mater , passes from the sella turcica to the tortuous part of the lateral sinus . g , the perforation in the processus petrosus , by which the carotide artery passes in a tortuous manner towards the sella turcica to the brain . h .... the head of the malleus articulated with the basis of the incus . i ... the basis of the incus and its short process in situ . k ... the musculus obiiquus or semicircularis auris ; this du verny describes instead of the laxator externus exprest at c , in the preceding figure : it is plac'd in a proper furrow of the bone which is above the bony part of the channel , from the palate to the ear , whence it marches obliquely to its insertion at a small acute process near the neck of the malleus : when it acts , it draws the handle of the malleus sideways towards the os iugale ; whereby it assists the external muscle , in making the memorana tympani capable of resisting any great impetus made in the outward air , from injuring that membrane . l ... the musculus intermos tympani auris : the fleshy part of this , like the former , is inclos'd within a bony channel of the os petrosum , lying on the upper side of the bony part of the duct a pala●o ad aurem , as here exprest ; when it is advanc'd to the upper side of the tympanum , it is converted into a small tendon which passes out of its bony channel , not unlike a rope from a pully , to the opposite part of the tympanum , and is fasten'd to the long process of the malieus . this muscle arises from that part of the os sphenoides that touches the os petrosum , and helps to frame the aqueduct or meatus à pala●o ad aurem . the strong membrane which lines the bony channel in which this muscle is entertain'd , passes out with its tendon to the internal acute process of the malleus , where the preceding muscle is inserted . placentinus seeing the tendon of the former muscle at its insertion , and not discovering that muscle , suppos'd it belong'd to the muscle last mention'd , which he describes and figures with double tendinous terminations . when this internal muscle of eustachius acts , it draws the long process of the malleus towards the foramen ovale and rotundum ; whereby the external surface of the membrana tympani becomes concave , and the membrane it self much extended , which is necessary when sounds are low. m , the foramen of the os sphenoides , by which a branch of the fifth pair of nerves , passes out of the skull . n , the foramen of the processus petrosus or os petrosum , by which the auditory nerve passes to the organ of hearing . fig. . the external surface of the os temporum of the right side of a full grown foetus . a a a , it s superior and anterior margin which was contiguous to the os sincipitis and sphenoides : b , its posterior part which touches the os occipitis . c , a large foramen by which the blood-vessels enter the bone ; this foramen appears at the root of the mammiform process of the adult ; which process do's not appear in the foetus . d , a process of this bone in the foetus at the meeting of the os sincipitis , with the os occipitis , which is not conspicuous in the adult . e , part of the os iugale cut off . f , the sinus in which the condyloide process of the lower jaw , is receiv'd . g , that part of the os temporum , call'd processus petrosus ; wherein the three semicircular ducts and cochlea are excavated . h ... the long process of the incus which is articulated to the upper-part of the stapes , by the mediation of the os orbiculare . i .... the os orbiculare and stapes , articulated to the extremity of the long process of the incus . k .... the long process of the malleus which is connected to the internal surface of the membrana tympani . by this mutual articulation of the four little bones of the tympanum with each other , and the connection of the internal surface of the membrana tympani , to the long process of the malleus ; whatever motions are made by the outward air which shakes that membrane , the malleus is necessarily mov'd , consequently the incus and stapes : now the basis of the stapes exactly covering the foramen ovale , the air contain'd in the labyrinth and cochlea , is thereby necessarily agitated , and the effects of the various tremulous motions of the stapes , are represented to the expansions of the auditory nerves , in the labyrinth and cochlea . l , the circulus osseus of the foetus . m ... , part of the cochlea in situ , open'd . n .... the tendon of the musculus stapedis descending from the os petrosum , to its implantation on the upper-part of the stapes , whereby it draws the stapes upwards towards the foramen , and shuts it . o , the stapes . p , the ossiculum quartum or orbiculare . q , the musculus stapedis free'd from its bony pipe , excavated in the os perro●●on , near the bottom of the tympanum . the pipe which contains the fleshy part of this muscle is less than the sixth part of an inch in length , and is much larger than the foramen , by which its tendon passes to its implantation in the stapes . r - , - the basis of the incus where the head of the malleus is articulated ; s. - - it s short process which rests on the os petrosum ; t , - it s long process that is articulated with the stapes . v. - the head of the malleus which is articulated with the incus . w ... that part of the long process of the malleus , where the internal muscle of the tympanum of eustachius is inserted . x. . the external acute process of the malleus , where it begins to cleave to the membrana tympani ; y — it s internal acute process , to which the musculus obliquus or externus of du verny , is implanted . fig. . the internal face of the same os temporum next the brain , represented in the preceding figure a , the internal concave and unequal surface of the bone next the dura mater . b , part of the os iugale . c , the porous substance of the bone as it appears after it 's cut away to shew its cavity , call'd tympanum . d , the posterior part of the os temporum which touches the occipital bone. e , the extremity of the processus petrosus next the anterior appendix of the os occipitis . f ... the lower-part of the annulus osseus . g ... part of the musculus obliquus auris , left at its insertion . h. - . the long process or handle of the malleus . i ... part of the incus where it 's articulated with the malleus . k ... the os petrosum cut away into the cavity of the tympanum f , g , h i , k. the tympanum open'd : besides the membrane of the tympanum at the extremity of the meatus auditorius ; the cavity of the tympanum is lin'd with a thin transparent membrane , which ( i am apt to think ) is also extended on the malleus , incus , os orbiculare , and stapes , since the accurate ruysch has observ'd divers blood-vessels on those bones . k , the superior or external of the three semicircular ducts free'd from the adjacent part of the os petrosum , and open'd . l , the middle semicircular duct also clear'd and open'd . m .... part of the third and most internal semicircular duct also partly open'd . n , the foramen by which the auditory nerve enters the os petrosum . fig. . the salival glandules of the lower jaw , together with those under the tongue , dissected . a a , the two inferior maxillary glands , which are represented in situ , tab. . fig. . m m , compos'd of divers lobuli , inclos'd in one membrane . b b , the glandulae sublinguales cover'd with their common membrane ; one of which glandules is represented in situ , in the last mention'd table , fig. . w. c c , the trunks of the two arteries which spring from the carotides , and convey blood into the above mention'd salival glands . d d , two branches of arteries , arising from the last mention'd trunks , which pass to the tongue . besides the branches now mention'd , each of these large trunks sends out another considerable branch exprest tab. . fig. . f. which is employ'd on the muscles of the face . e , the trunk of the vein arising from the extremitties of the arteries of those glands , and those of the neighbouring parts . f , a branch of the fifth pair of nerves . g g , the salival ducts of the inferior maxillary glands , as they pass to their excretory pores at the extremity of each papilla plac'd under the tongue . h h , the two papillae last mention'd , where the excretory ducts of the sublingual glands also empty themselves at the same pores with the two salival ducts . this protrusion of the salival ducts which frame the papillae , is a necessary contrivance to hinder any particle of the masticated aliment from entring those ducts , or the exceted saliva from repassing them . i , the salival duct of the right side open'd according to its length , and expanded . k , a small stone as it appear'd lying in the above mention'd duct : it was of a bright yellow colour , not unlike that of arumpigmentum . in dissecting these parts the lesser end of it happen'd to break off , as it is here exprest . fig. . the internal or back side of the larynx , with the aspera arteria and part of the bronchia . a , the concare part of the epiglottis as it appears when pinn'd up . a a , divers small glands at the root of the epiglottis , which are cover'd with a loose membrane which makes the glottis , and is continued to that of the inside of the mouth , fauces , and gula. b b , the extremities of the os hyoides . c c , the ligaments which fasten them to the two superior long processes of the scutiformal cartilage . d d , the internal concave part of the scutiformal cartilage . b b , the two long and superior processes of the scutiformal cartilage . c c , the superior parts of the arytenoidal cartilages which were cover'd with the loose membrane above mention'd , and compose the glottis . d , the back-part of the annular cartilage . e e , the musculi crico●rytenoidei possici which open the arytenoidal cartilages c c , by drawing them backwards . f , the musculus arytenoideus which draws the two arytenoidal cartilages nearer each other , and streightens the rimula . g , the cartilaginous part of the wind-pipe forewards . h h , the posterior and membranous part of the wind-pipe next the gula. e e , divers small glands which appear on this membranous part of the wind-pipe , and beginning of the bronchiae . the excretory ducts of these glands , i am perswaded , discharge themselves into the wind-pipe and bronchia , and serve to moisten their cavities , and defend them from the inspired air , whence arises part of that moisture which is rejected in expiration ; a great part of it arising also from the saliva , as the air passes the mouth ; whence it happens , less moisture passes with the expired air by the foramina narium only , than when we expire thro' the mouth ; and consequently the ha●●ms is more or less wet , as the mouth is more or less open'd . f f , the beginning of the bronchia . the glands above mention'd are most commonly affected in catarths , and most of those defluctions on the wind-pipe which cause frequent coughing . fig. . a portion of the wind-pipe open'd and pin'd out to shew its inside . a a , its cartilages divided according to the length of the wind-pipe . b , its internal membrane compos'd of longitudinal fibres , rais'd : this draws the cartilages nearer each other , and shortens the wind-pipe . c c , the transverse order of fibres lying on the membranous part of the wind-pipe next the gula : these pull the extremities of the little semicircular cartilages of the wind-pipe nearer each other , whereby they strenghten its canalis . fig. . the larynx or upper-part of the wind-pipe after the scutiformal cartilage is taken off , as it appears laterally . a , the epiglottis ; b , its root cut from the tongue . c , the arytenoidal cartilage . d , the back-part of the cricoidal or annular cartilage ; d , its fore-part which appears immediately under the thyrois . e , the musculus cricoarytenoideus posticus . f , the thyroarytenoideus free'd from the scutiformal cartilage , and left at its insertion to the arytenoidal cartilage lateraly . g , the cricoarytenoideus lateralis ; it arising from the cartilage cricoides , and is inserted to the arytenoides . it assists with its partner in opening the glottis or arytenoidal cartilages . h , parts of the wind-pipe . fig. . the larynx together with a portion of the wind-pipe . a , the epiglottis , by which the whole larynx is suspended , which makes it appear much longer in this than in the preceding figure . b , that part of the epiglottis cut from the root of the tongue . c c , the sides of the scutiformal cartilage drawn from each other ; a a , it s superior long processes tied to the extremities of the os hyoides . b , one of its two inferior short processes cleaving to the annular cartilage . c , one of the arytenoidal cartilages ( which compose the rimula of the larynx , ) cover'd by the glottis . d d , the annular cartilage . d , a portion of the wind-pipe . e , the membranous part of the wind-pipe which touches the gula , as it descends to the stomach . e , the musculus cricoarytenoideus posticus . f , the cricoarytenoideus lateralis . g , the thyroarytenoideus arising from the internal concave part of the thyroid cartilage , and is inserted to the backpart of the arytenoidal cartilage above the insertion of the cricoarytenoideus lateralis : this and its companion on the other side acting together , draw the two arytenoidal cartilages nearer each other , and streighten the rimula : they act in deglutition , whereby any part of the aliment is effectually hindred from descending into the larynx , by the assistance of the epiglottis , which at that time exactly covers the rimula . these muscles are so strong in some , who by adequately closing this passage to the wind-pipe , can suffer liquors pour'd into their mouths to pass the gula , without the action of deglutition , or the assistance of the epiglottis ; as 't is evident if they hold their mouths open and their tongues deprest , whilst a quantity of liquor descends from thence into their stomachs . the use of the epiglottis is to cover the glottis in deglutition , so that the aliment may descend over it into the gula and stomach . nor has the epiglottis any muscles to depress it in that action ; but when the tongue is elevated , the epiglot is necessarily deprest : hence it is , when the tongue is very much intumisied ( as it is frequently in those who are in great salivations ) the free action of deglutition is hindred , and the patient is necessitated to swallow even fluids very leasurely , and not without difficulty , especially if the tongue is so distended , that it cannot be contain'd within the teeth . fig. the upper-part of the tongue as it appears when taken out with its proper muscles . a , the tip of the tongue . b , its root free'd from the epiglottis and os hyoides . a a , the vilous nervous bodies of the tongue , which stand obliquely from the apex or tip of the tongue towards its root . b b , the glands plac'd at the root of the tongue , whose excretory pores may be seen to open in their middle , whence a salival humour is emitted , nor unlike the glands of the fauces and foramina narium , and those plac'd in the cheeks and lips. c c , the musculi ceratoglosii exprest in situ , tab. . fig. . d d , on one side . d d , the styloglossi in like manner exprest , tab. ibid. fig. ibid. c. fig. . the vesiculae seminales with part of the vas deferens , and their common duct which passes thro' the prostatae into the urethrae , open'd . a a , part of the external surface of the vesiculae seminales , where the ramifications of blood-vessels are conipicuous to the naked eye . b , c , the larger cells of the vesiculae seminales and vas deferens . d , the vas deferens open'd . b , c c , the lesser cells of the vas deferens and vesiculae seminales within the larger . e , the place where the vas deferens and vesiculae seminales communicate with each other . f , the common duct of the vesiculae seminales and vas deferens which passes thro' the glandulae prostatae , and discharges the semen into the ure●●ra . the sixth table . fig. . represents the internal surface of the basis of the cranium , with the inferior part of the dura mater remaining on it , done immediately after the brain was taken out ; the blood-vessels being first injected with wax . a a , the edges of the skull , as they appear when its upper-part is saw'd off . b b , part of the dura mater lying on the basis of the skull . c c , the two lateral sinus's fill'd with wax in their declive and tortuous progress , to their egress at the basis of the skull . d d , the two superior long sinus's which communicate between the circular sinus , and lateral sinus's . e e , two inferior short sinus's , which also discharge themselves into the two lateral ones at their egress . f , the os cristae gaelli or middle process of the os ethmoides or cribrosum , by which the olfactory nerves pass to the foramina narium . g g , divers blood-vessels of the dura mater , not injected with wax , by reason of their smallness . h h , the first arteries of the dura mater not fill'd with wax . i i , the second branches of the arteries of the dura mater : these arise from the carotides before they enter the skull , and pass thro' a small foramen reckon'd a fifth of the os sphenoides , at the root of an acute process of that bone , whence the muscles of the gargarton spring : after these arteries enter the skull , their larger branches lie on the exterior surface of the dura mater , as exprest tab. . fig. , , and , which are entertain'd in furrows on the internal surface of the cranium , exprest tab. . fig. . f f : as the branches of these arteries become still more and more divided , and less on the upper-part of the dura mater , so their channels on the top of the skull scarce appear ; nor do any of them enter the longitudinal sinus , as dr. ridley has well observ'd . besides those branches of these arteries which carry blood to the dura mater , there are others also which convey blood to the meditulliton of the skull a a , and do inosculate with the arteries of the hairy-scalp . the branches of these arteries on the dura mater , are accompanied with veins , which do not pass out of the cranison at the same perforation where the arteries enter'd , but leave them where the inferior and foremost angle of the bregma touches the os sphenoides and temporum internally , and afterwards pass between the two internal long processes of the os sphenoides and os frontis , and march out at the second perforation of the os sphenoides or large rima , tab. . fig. . c d , i. nor do the larger branches of these blood-vessels always continue their whole progress between the skull and dura mater , but parts of them march in bony inclosures of the skull , especially at the inferior angle of the bregma above mention'd , and afterwards pass our again in their usual manner : nor are the perforations in the os sphenoides always regular where these arteries of the dura mater enter : they sometimes marching thro' the sixth perforations of the sphenoides , where the branches of the far quintum nervorum pass out ; at other times their perforations are at the conjunctions of the os sphenoides with the ossa petrosa , between the acute processes of the first nam'd bone , and perforations of the latter where the carotide arteries enter the skull . k , the third branch of the arteries of the dura mater enter the cranium , where the eighth pair of nerves pass out : i don't remember i ever saw any branches of veins accompany these arteries . besides these arteries of the dura mater , i don't doubt but on a diligent search , many more may be found ; and in some subjects some of these may be wanting , especially those in whom divers branches pass the upper-part of the skull near the longitudinal suture ; of which , we commonly find two remarkable ones towards the occiput , as has been taken notice of , tab. . fig. . l , the great foramen of the os occipitis , by which the medulla oblongata passes to the specus in the vertebrae . m m , some veins of the dura mater which communicate with the inferior short sinus's . n , part of the os iugale . o o , the os ethmoides or cribriforme , by which the olfactory nerves pass out of the cranium . p p , the optick nerves cut off at their egress . q q , the great branches of the carotide arteries cut off at their entrance into the cavity of the skull . r , one of the nerves of the third pair on the left side , made hare from the duplicatute of the dura mater , in which it passes before it marches out of the skull with the following pair . s s , the fourth pair of nerves free'd from the duplicature last mention'd , and turn ' up at their passing the second perforation of the os sphenoides or large rima , exprest tab. . fig. . between c , d , i. t t , the fifth pair of nerves on the right side expanded , before it is divided into three branches , on the contrary side its trunk is whole . vid. fig. . v , the upper and foremost branch of the fifth pair of nerves on the left side , before it passes out of the skull at the second perforation of the os sphenoides , with the third , fourth , and sixth pair of nerves . w , the nerve of the sixth pair on the left side free'd from the duplicature of the dura mater ; in which it is inclos'd at a considerable distance before it accompanies the third , fourth , and foremost branch of the fifth pair of nerves at its egress . x , the intercostal nerve of the left side , compos'd of two branches from the fifth nerve , and joining with the body of the sixth in this subject , whether this disposition is constant , i must confess my late enquiries have not afforded me an opportunity of observing . y , the two branches of the fifth pair of nerves which help to compose the intercostal nerve . z z , the contortion of the carotide artery collateral to the sella turcica . , , the glandula pituitaria lying in the sella turcica . , , the circular sinus or vein environing the pituitary gland , and was first taken notice of by dr. ridley . , the infundibulum in whose inside , i conceive , the trunks of exporting lympheducts pass from the pinial gland ; besides which , the inmost cavity of the infundibulum it self transmits the aqueous humour of the ventricles of the brain into the pituitary gland , where it joins with the lymphs above mention'd . , , two arteries taken notice of by vieustens , which pass out of the cranium to the glandulous membranes of the foramina narium and neighbouring 〈◊〉 . , , the bended parts of the lateral sinus's as they pass that part of the cranium , where the os temporum , sincipitis , and occipitis meet . , part of the dura mater rais'd and reclin'd laterally , to shew the progress of the third , fourth , fifth , and sixth pair of nerves . , , the hard and soft trunks of the auditory nerves entring the os petrosum . , , the eighth pair of nerves or par vagum , together with the accessory nerves ( ** ) accompanying them at their egress . ** , the accessory nerves . , , the ninth pair of nerves . fig. . the trunk and three branches at one of the nerves of the fifth pair within the cranium . a , the trunk , b , it s gangleon , c , its foremost branch exprest at v , in the preceding figure , passing out of the skull at the second perforation of the os sphenoides ; d , it s middle branch somewhat less than the other two , which passes out at a distinct foramen of the os sphenoides , collateral to the sella turcica , and is reckon'd the third foramen of that bone , exprest tab. . fig. . e , the third branch of this nerve , which passes the sixth perforation of the sphenoides . fig. . the basis of the brain with the large trunks of its blood-vessels of both kinds injected with wax , some of their ramifications being clear'd of the pia mater , together with the ten pair of nerves of the brain , and a portion of the medulla spinalis , &c. a a , the foremost , b b , the hindmost lobes of the brain . c c , the cerebellion which in this subject was very large . d d , the two lateral sinus's cut off after their declive and tortuous progress , exprest in the first of the two precedent figures c c , , . e e , the trunks of the vertebral arteries as they pass the transverse processes of the first vertebra of the neck , in their tortuous progress thro' the great foramen of the os occipitis , to the medulla oblongata and brain . vid. append. fig. . k k. f , the vertebral sinus or large vein , in whose external membrane the wax is extravast , which makes it appear with an unequal surface , as here exprest . g g g g g , a continuation of the dura mater divided according to its length ; one side lying on the medulla spinalis , the other being rais'd and pinn'd out . a , a foramen to whose margin the upper broad part of the infundibulum is fasten'd , and opens into it , insomuch that if you take out the brain with the infundibulum remaining to it , and insert a blow-pipe into the fourth ventricle , you may thereby not only distend that and the two lateral ventricles with wind , but you will also see the infundibulum rise and be distended also . b b , two white protuberances behind the infundibulum . c c , two large branches of the carotide arteries cut off , before they pass between the foremost and hinder lobes of the brain . d d , two communicant branches between the carotide and cervical arteries , by which the latter chiefly became fill'd with wax , it being injected into one of the trunks of the carotide arteries only of one side : hence we may be inform'd , not only of the inosculations of the large branches of the carotide artery of the right side with those of the left , but of their communications also with the vertebral arteries , as they pass the transverse processes of the vertebrae ; the wax in such an injection pouring out by the vertebrals ; as i have had occasion more than once to observe by injecting these arteries as above mention'd , after the head together with the vertebrae of the neck have been taken from the body . e e e e , two large branches of the cervical artery sometimes seeming as tho' they came from the communicant branches ; from the foremost of these chiefly spring the arteries of the plexut choroeides ; from the two hindmost arise those branches which go to the chorocid plexus of the fourth ventricle of the brain . f , two little branches of the carotides . h h , the two trunks of the vertebral arteries which compose the cervical . g , the cervical artery . i i , the spinal artery whick by reason of the retrograde motion of the wax , or some coagulated blood in it near the vertebral artery , was not fill'd with wax as the rest . k , a small branch of an artery running between the fasciculae of the nerve of the ninth pair , on the right side near their originals . l l , parts of the cr●ra medullae oblongata , immediately before they meet at their conjunction under the pons varolii . m m , the annular protuberance or pons varolii . n , that part of the caudex medullaris or medulla oblongata on the right side , call'd by willis and vicussen●us , corpora pyramidalia , o , that part on the same side , call'd corpus os●●●●● . p , a branch of the carotide arteries which divide the two anterior lobes of the brain from each other ; from whence spring some small branches which accompany the olfactory nerves at their egress by the os cribriforme , fig. . , . q q , little branches from the cervical arteries which run under the pia mater that covers this part , and sometimes pass further to the plexus chorotides in the fourth ventricle , and cerebellum . r r r r , other branches passing into the annular protuberance . s s , the two first medullary processes of the cerebellum which are continued to the protuberancia annularis , and seem to compose part of it : the two second processes of the cerebel are exprest tab. fig. . s s. t t , the veins on the cerebellum which pass according to its sulci or external furrows which vary very much in their progress from those of the brain it self . v v v , other veins variously distributed on the cerebel which empty themselves into the lateral sinus's . w w , the sulci of the brain , in which large branches of veins and sometimes arteries may be seen . x x x , their capillary branches as they appear under the pia mater on the external corrical surface of the brain . , , , , , &c. the ten pair of nerves of the brain , with seven of those of the spinal marrow . , , the first pair of nerves of the brain , call'd par olfaectorium , they are much larger in brutes , and are hollow ; which hollownesses communicate with the ventricles of their brains , but do not appear so in humane bodies . they are call'd processus mammillares , from their appearance in quadrupedes . by the utmost scrutiny that exact anatomizer of these parts , dr. ridley and my self could make , we never discover'd but one original to each of these nerves ; which is from the under and foremost part of the crura medulla oblongata , whence they pass in an oblique manner for some space between the fore and hindmost lobes of the brain , and march out from thence as appears in the figure : as they pass thro' the os ethmoides ( o o , fig. . ) these medullary bodies are converted into as many nervous fasciculi , as there are perforations in that bone , which are afterwards expanded on the glandulous membrane that invests the foramina narium . , , the second pair of nerves , call'd optici , or seeing nerves : these arise from the two large medullary protuberances of the brain , call'd thalami nervorum opticorum , exprest in the following table , c c , fig. . and passing over the crura medullae oblongatae , march to their conjunction here exprest Ψ ; after parting from each other again , they soon pass the first foramina of the os sphenoides p p , app. fig. . where the great branches of the carotide arteries lie contiguous to them ; whence it happens in any great plethora ( as after plentiful drinking or the like ) these arteries by reason of their turgescence , so press on the optick nerves , as to distort the course of their fibres , and make objects seem disorder'd . some branches of the blood-vessels are visible to the naked eye at they pass thro' the bodies of those nerves , and are conspicuous also on their expansions within the bulb of the eyes , which compose the tunica retinae . , , the third pair of nerves passing out between the two branches of the cervical artery e e e e ; these arise from the upper and fore-part of the annular process , where the crura medullae oblongatae meet : nor do the beginnings of these nerves appear till the blood-vessels above mention'd and pia mater are remov'd : they enter the duplicature of the dura mater on each side the pituitary gland , as exprest tab. . fig. . h h , and pass out of the skull with the following nerves , to the muscles of the eyes , wherefore these are call'd par oculorum m●terium . , , the fourth pair of nerves of the brain as they appear after their progress between the cerebrum and cerebellum : they arise remote from their appearance in this figure , even at the back-side of the medulla oblongata , tab. . fig. . v v. in taking out the brain you 'll find them under the fore-part of the second process of the dura mater near the sella turcica : they march into the duplicature of the dura mater immediately under the former , and pass the second foramen of the os sphenoides with them into the orbita oculi : they are call'd par patheticiam , either because some branches of them pass to the oblique mindes of the eye , or that considerable branches ( if not their whole trunks ) pass the trochleae cartilages of the eyes . , , the fifth pair are very large in their originals , at the upper and lateral part of the processus annularis , near the pedunculus or second process of the cerebellum . in taking out the brain from the basis of the skull , you 'll find these nerves immediately under the pathetick : nor can you well see them to cut them off ( in this operation ) unless you first divide the second process of the dura mater , where it 's fasten'd to the extremity of the inner process of the os petrosum : after they pass over the extremity of the last mention'd process they frame gangleons , and each is divided into three branches reprepresented in the preceding figure . , . the sixth pair of nerves are about the bigness of the third , and arise from the hinder-part of the annular process , not far from the basis of the corpora pyramidalia ; as they pass on the annular protuberance , some branches of the cervical artery run over them : they enter the duplicature of the dura mater below the former . vid. tab. . fig. . n n , and pass over the extremity of the internal process of the petrosum with the former , as is represented fig. . w. , , the seventh pair are the the auditory or hearing nerves , each of which are compos'd of two nerves ; the one being hard , the other soft , which have distinct originals : the former or hard trunk springing from the medulla oblongata ; the latter or softer arising very remote from it , being continu'd from divers bright medullary fibres that appear in the fourth ventricle of the brain , whence they creep on the sides of the caudex medullaris , till they meet with the harder trunk , which they accompany to the ossa petrosa , fig. . , . the soft nerves being expanded within the labyrinths and cochleas of the organs of hearing ; whilst the hard trunks pass thro' the bone , and expand themselves in a larger field , as the accurate vieussens represents them . , , the eighth pair of nerves or par vagum ; each of those have ten or twelve nervous fibrillae springing from the medulla oblongata , immediately below the annular process m , m , and under the corpora olivaria o o , or between them and the third or cordal processes of the cerebellum , tab. . fig. . w w , whence they march accompanied with divers small blood-vessels of both kinds , to their egress with the lateral sinus's , , fig. . where they meet with the spinal accessory nerves ** which go out with them , and are distributed as vicussens has exprest them . , , the ninth pair of nerves , whose various originals of the right side differ from those of the left : they continue to derive their beginnings at various distances from the upper-parts of the corpora olivarea , to half an inch in length on the caudex medullaria ; some of the fibres of that on the left side , passing over the vertebral artery of the same side , when those of the contrary side pass from under it : after passing a short space , these nervous fibres collectively pass the third perforation of the os occipitis . vid. fig. . , . tab. . fig. . r r. tab. . fig. . e. k , a small branch of the vertebral artery which i have seen injected with wax , and pass out with one of these nerves . ** the spinal accessory nerves as they ascend from under the vertebral arteries to the par vagum : they arise much lower from the medulla spinalis than vieussens describes them , even from the formost and hindmost beginnings of the seventh pair of nerves of the neck ( ) and in their collateral ascent to the spinal marrow , they still receive new roots from all the nervous origins they pass by , except those of the ninth pair of the brain . , the tenth pair of nerves of the brain on one side , or more properly the first of the neck , which pass out between the first vertebra of the neck and the os occipitis . , , , , , , , the rest of the nerves of the neck , which pass out between the vertebrae successively . fig. . a a , part of the cerebellum ; a a , its second processes which help to compose the annular protuberance . b b , the crura medullae oblongatae cut off from the brain . c c , the annular process divided thro' its middle , its external surface ( m m , in the preceding figure ) being cut off with a razor , or large sharp knife . b b , the cineritious and medullary striae which appear in this section of the annular protuberance . c , the middle medullary tract to which the lateral striae run . d d , the cineritious part of the medulla oblongata under the corpora pyramidalia : in this section the corpora olivaria are divided . e , the left chordal process partly in situ . the seventh table . fig. . the brain lying on its basis after its two hemispheres are cut off , and the blood-vessels injected with wax ; the cerebellum remaining intire . a a , the inferior part of the fornix as it appears when cut from its roots b , b. and turn'd back , with part of the corpus callosum remaining on it . a a , the blood-vessels that appear on this inferior surface of the fornix . b b , the roots of the fornix . c c , the thalami nervorum opticorum or beginnings of the optick nerves . δ δ , the corpora striata ; that of the left side remaining whole ; the right being divided to shew its striae . d d , the crura fornicis where they begin to wind down on the sides of the crura medullae oblongatae : these crura of the fornix are call'd hyppocampi or bombycini . e e , the plexus choroides whose arteries arise from the first branches of the cervical artery e e , appen . fig. . f , the meeting of the plexus at the root of the fornix , where its two veins pass to its other part g g. g g , the other part of the plexus choroeides , whose arteries spring from the second branches of the cervical artery , join'd with the first by communicant branches ; which do not appear here , by reason they lie under the crura fornicis d d. h h , two veins which arise from the upper-parts of the plexus choroeides , and pass the third ventricle to the other part of the same plexus g g , near the nates and testes . i i i i i i , the branches of the carotide arteries cut off , as they appear injected with wax , and passing between the cortical foldings of the brain . k , a branch of a vein which passes according to the length of the corpus striatum of the left side , and discharges its blood into the veins of the plexus choroeides ; that of the right side being taken away to shew the striae . l , part of the rima of the third ventricle that do's somewhat appear under the vein , h. m , a long medullary tract between the corpus striatum and thalamus nervi optici , call'd by dr. willis , processus medullaris transversus . n n n n , the centrum ovale of vieussens . o , that part of the corpus callosum by vieussens , call'd fornix vera , between which , and the fornix p , is plac'd the septum lucidum , dividing the fore-part of the right ventricle of the brain from the left. this septum by some call'd speculum , is a continuation of the inward membrane which invests the two superior ventricles , meeting in their upper-parts not unlike the pleura on the sternum , where it composes the mediastinum , and divides the cavity of the thorax . in the upper-part of this septum i have more than once seen its duplicature fill'd with a watrish humour in hydropick brains , as vieussens also takes notice . o , the fourth sinus of the dura mater fill'd with wax . p , the longitudinal sinus cut off , where it meets the fourth and two lateral sinus's , call'd torcular herophili . q q , the two lateral sinus's also extended with wax . r , a vein fill'd with wax on the second process of the dura mater . r , some branches of veins as they appear on the second process of the dura mater . p , the fornix cut off near its two roots . q q , some lymphe-ducts on the plexus choroeides which accompany the vein h h h , in their way to the glandula pinialis not seen in this figure ; that gland being plac'd under the fornix a , a , with the nates and testes , as is exprest tab. . fig. . q , o , o , p , p. these lymphe-ducts perhaps were seen by that accurate anatomist . mons. beddevold , in examining an ox's brain ; of which he communicated an account to the accurate nuck as mons. beddevold himself told me , and appears in an epistle at the end of nuck's adenographia curiosa . vidi , says he , lymphaticum in cerebro bivino , quod examine tuo ( ut originem scias & insertionem ) erit dignissimum . non longe à glandula pineali , à qua ramos forte habet , incumbit plexui choroidaeo ad infundibuli latera sese extendens . s s s s , the cerebellum cover'd with the second process of the dura mater in its upper-part , and the dura mater it self on the hinder-part . f f , some branches of veins which appear fill'd with blood on the dura mater , covering the back-part of the cerebellum ; which vary in their course from those subjacent vessels on the pia mater , which are immediately distributed on the cerebellum it self , and faintly appear in those stroaks running somewhat parallel with the lateral sinus's . t t , parts of the vertebral arteries . v v , the vertebral sinus's on which the wax appears extravast , as in fig. . f. w , the back-part of the medulla oblongata cover'd with the dura mater . x x , a probe supporting the large veins of the plexus choroides in the third ventricle of the brain . † † † the medullary ; *** the cineritious part of the brain . fig. . the back-part of the cerebellum cut thro' its hinder-part and reclin'd laterally ; together with a portion of the medulla spinalis . a a a , the cerebellum cover'd with the pia mater only , where its circular sulci in which its large blood-vessels pass , are exprest , together with divers arborious ramifications of blood-vessels , which decussate those of its sulci as they march under the pia mater . b b , the branching of the medullary part of the cerebellum , as it appears when divided . a , the vermicular process on the back-part of the cerebellum . c c , the two pathetick nerves near their origin . c c , the nates ; d d , the testes , in whose surfaces the blood-vessels appear distributed under the pia mater . f , the glaudula pinialis which we take to be a lymphatick gland , receiving lympha from the lymphe-ducts of the plexus choroeides , and discharges it into exporting lymphe-ducts which pass the third ventricle of the brain , to the infundibulum and glandula pituitaria ; the manner we conceive these lymphe-ducts pass the infundibulum , is on its internal surface , and so pierce the pituitary gland ; it being unusual in the practice of nature for lymphe-ducts before they arrive at the receptaculum chyl● to discharge their contents in large cisterns , to be again transmitted by narrow conduits to the thoracick-duct , as it must do , if as some conceive , the infundibulum it self is a meer lymphe-duct , which in some measure i am apt to think with dr. ridley it do's ; as i have already intimated , append. fig. . . g g , the first process's of the cerebellum which pass towards the nates . e , the transverse process which unite the two first processes of the cerebellum , whence the pathetick nerves take their rise . h h , the third , or cordal process's arising from the cerebellum , and descend on both sides the medulla oblongata . i i , some bright striae which appear in the fourth ventricle of the brain , and help to compose the medullary trunks of the auditory nerves ; these sometimes have various originals from the upper-part of the fourth ventricle ; at other times some of these striae arise lower than here exprest . k k , l l , n , the fourth ventricle open'd and expanded . o , the beginning of the medulla spinalis . p p , the accessary nerves . q q , those parts of the tenth pair of nerves which arise from the back-part of the medulla spinalis . m m , parts of the eighth pair of nerves where they meet the accessary nerves . fig. . the lower jaw with some of the muscles of the under lip remaining to it . a , the external left side of the bone made bare . b , the processus condyliformis . c , the processus corone . d , an acute process , on the internal part of the lower jaw beyond the dentes mollares , under which the trunks of nerves and blood-vessels pass into the meditullium of the bone , and give branches to each tooth . d , some branches of the same nerves and blood-vessels marching out of the bone again to the muscles , glands , and membranes of the lower lip. e , the inside of the lower lip co●er'd with its proper membrane . f f , the inner face of the musculus depressor labii inferioris proprius . vid. tab. . fig. . h. g g , some of the small salival glandules which appear immediately under the membrane e. h h , these muscles i could never find describ'd by any author , tho' they are constant in nature , or at least in all those bodies i have ever look'd for them . i call them elevatores labii inferioris proprii from their office. they spring fleshy from the fore-part of the lower jaw , immediately under the gengivae of the dentes incisores , and descend to their insertions in the skin , which composes the chin : when they act , they draw up the skin on the chin , and make it appear variously indented , the eighth table . fig. . the muscles of the face as they appear after the skin , fat , membranes , and musculi quadrati genarum are taken off . a a , the musculi frontales . b , the orbiculares palpebrarum . c , the musculus dilatator aloe nasi . d , the elevator labiorum communis . e e , the elevator labii superioris proprius . f f , the sphincter labiorum . g g , the zygomatici seu distortores oris . h h , the depressor labiorum communis . i , the depressor labii inferioris proprius . k , the buccinator . l , the temporalis . m , the elevator auriculae . n , the masseter . a , part of the os iugale . b , the cartilage of the auricula free'd from the skin . c c , the parotide gland . d , the ductus salivalis superior of the parotide gland , as it descends over the masseter thro' the buccinator into the mouth . e e , a branch of the carotide artery which passes thro' the inferior maxillary gland . f , part of the lower jaw bone made bare . g , part of the inferior maxillary gland . o , part of the musculus biventer in situ . p , the mastoideus . q , part of the cucularis . r , part of the elevator scapulae . s s , parts of the musculi sternohyoidei . t t , parts of the coracohyoidei . fig. . the left eye with its muscles free'd from the orbit and dry'd . a. the bulb of the eye fill'd with wax . a a , the optick nerve in like manner distended with wax . b , a portion of the superior and external margin of the bone of the orbit next the nose . b ... , a small cartilage call'd the trochlea , in which the long tendon of the superior oblique muscle ( d ) passes to its insertion . c , a portion of the inferior and external margin of the orbit , where the musculus obliquus inferior ( i ) takes its origin . d , the obliquus superior as it arises from the inferior part of the orbit , and passes thro' the trochlea b ... to its insertion on the back-part of the bulb of the eye . this contortion of the tendon of this muscle renders it capable of drawing the whole bulb of the eye outwards , and turning its papilla downwards . e , the musculus atollens . f , the abducens . g , the deprimens . h , the adducens . i , the obliquus inferior , whose origin from the external margin of the inferior part of the orbit , renders it capable of performing the same action in opposition to the trochlearis or obliquus superior , i. e. of drawing the posterior and lateral part of the bulb of the eye towards its origin , whereby the whole eye is drawn outwards , and its pupilla turn'd upwards ; else the projection of the eyebrows would hinder our looking upwards , unless the head at the same time was drawn very much back . besides these proper offices of the two oblique muscles of the eyes , they have conjunctly a very usefull common office in holding the bulb of the eye as it were on an axis , they prevent its being drawn inwards , when any of the streight muscles act ; by which means , each performs its proper office in turning the eye either upwards , downwards or side-ways ; which is no inconsiderable artifice in nature . fig. . represents the inferior part of the skull with its basis uppermost ; the left side of the lower jaw together with the first vertebra of the neck and its muscles arising from it , remaining to the occiput . a , the left side of the lower jaw . b , the musculus pterygoideus internus , in situ . c , the foramen of the fourth bone of the upper jaw , by which a large branch of the fifth pair of nerves passes to the muscles of the face , and a branch of the carotide artery to the inner cavities of these bones , as you see them exprest in the preceding figure . d , the musculus depressor labii superioris proprius & constrictor aloe nasi , here cut from its insertion to the upper lip , and left at its origin from the gums of the upper jaw . d , part of the elevator labii inferoris proprius left to its origin from the lower jaw . e , that part of the inferior margin of the orbit , where the inferior oblique muscle of the eye springs , exprest in the preceding figure at c. e , the os iugale . f f , the styloidal process's of which that of the right side is broken off , which frequently happens by means of the rope after the common execution of malefactors . g g , the mammiform process's . h , the first vertebra of the neck remaining on the occiput . g g , two process's of the first vertebra of the neck , which are articulated with the like process's of the second . h , the extremity of the transverse process of the first vertebra . i , the musculus annuens or rectus minor anticus , exprest somewhat foreshorten'd in appen . fig. . k , the rectus lateralis or abnuens lateralis . l , the obliquus superior capitis . m , the musculus rectus minor posticus . i , the auricula or outward ear. n , the lobe of the ear cut off . o , that part of the superior orbit where the trochlea is fasten'd . k k. the os occipitis . l , the os squamosum . m , the os frontis . n , part of the os sphenoides . the ninth table . fig. . shews divers muscles employ'd in the motions of the head and vertebrae of the neck , which appear on the back-part . a , part of the hairy scalp remaining on the fore-part of the head. b , the os occiputis , made bare . c , part of the musculus splenius left at its insertion . a , part of the os iugale . d d d , the musculus complexus rais'd from its insertion , to shew its inside . e e , the recti majores , that on the right side remaining in situ , that of the left hanging down from its origin . f f , the obliqui superiores , in situ . g g , the obliqui inferiores , in situ . h h , the recti minores , also in situ . b , the processus mastoides of the left side , made bare . c , the back-part of the first vertebra of the neck , made bare . d , part of the complexus inserted to the mammiform process , by falloppius made a distinct muscle , which with its corresponding part on the other side , he reckons the third pair of muscles of the head. i i i i , the spinales colli , that of the left side remaining in situ , the right being rais'd from its inferior part , and turn'd to one side , to shew its subjacent muscle the transversalis colli . k , the transversalis colli which arises from the transverse processes of the inferior vertebrae of the neck , and is inserted to the spinal processes of its superior vertebrae . l l l , the musculi interspinales colli ; these are not taken notice of by authors , tho' they are distinct fair muscles as they are here represented : it was for these muscles the spinal processes of the vertebrae of the neck are made double : they draw the spinal processes nearer each other , when we pull the head very much back , as when we would look on the zenith . e e e e , the apices of the double spinal processes . f , the extremity of the spine of the first vertebra of the thorax . fig. . represents part of the organ of hearing of a calf , where a small bone ( distinct from that plac'd between the long process of the incus and stapes ) may be seen in the tendon of the musculus stapedis . schelbamer tells us of the like bone found in some animals lying in the tendon of the internal muscle of the ear , describ'd by eustachius ; but whither he has mistaken it for the musculus stapedis , no opportunity has hitherto given me occasion to observe . the knowledge of this small bone in the tendon of the musculus stapedis of a calf , was communicated to me by the ingenious dr. adare ; but there is no such contrivance in humane bodies . a a , part of the os petrosum . b , the foramen rotundum . c , the stapes on the foramen ovale . e , the musculus stapedis lying bare in the cavity of the tympanum ; it not being inclos'd in a bony channel in this animal , as in humane bodies . f , the small bone in the tendon of the musculus stapedis , which is plac'd on a rising of the os petrosum , on which it acts as on a pully , by which means it draws the stapes from the foramen ovale . g , the cochlea open'd . fig. . the back-parts of the muscles of the pharynx and oesophagus . a a a , that part which composes the pharynx . b b , the musculus pterygopharyngeus : this is erroneously divided into two pair of muscles by authors , as appears by tab. . fig. , . after bourdon : it has two thin fleshy origins from the roots of the processus pterygoides , and in a semicircular manner embraces the back-part of the glandulous membrane of the fauces as well as the tonsillae . when it acts in deglutition , it not only straitens the fauces , but compresses the tonsillae , as well as the lesser glands of the fauces , and forces out their contain'd matter at the same time , to join with the aliment in its descent to the stomach ; this muscle acts in like manner in secretion or hawking up any tenacious matter , whither log'd in the fauces or excretory ducts of the tonsillae . i chuse to make this a distinct muscle from the oesophageus , not only because it s extended on that part call'd the pharynx , but it acts distinct from the oesophageus ; for when this is contracted in deglutition , that is dilated . c c , the tonsillae . d d , the musculi stylopharyngei which draw the fauces upwards and dilate them . e e , the oesophageus or constructor gulae . f , part of the superior long process of the scutiformal cartilage , whence the last mention'd muscle partly arises . g , the musculus vaginalis gulae , cover'd with its external membrane . the fibres of this perforated muscle of the gula , have a double order of fibres ; the external descend according to their length , the internal parts obliquely ; the former seem to arise from the arytenoidal cartilages under the glottis , and passing somewhat obliquely to the back-part of the gula , descend to the stomach ; the latter order of fibres seem to be a continuation of the constrictor gulae , and descend obliquely to the upper orifice of the stomach . the office of this muscle is to press the aliment after deglutition into the stomach , to which , by its own weight it is apt to descend in humane bodies ; but in quadrupedes the position of the gula being horizontal , this muscle is compos'd of a double order of spiral fibres , mutually intercussating each other ; as it is describ'd by dr. willis and others . fig. . a portion of the intestinum duodenum distended with wind. a , it s external membrane , continued from the peritonaeum , rais'd . b , the external surface of the gut with the last mention'd membrane remaining on it . c , the external longitudinal fibres of the intestine . d , the orbicular or circular fibres plac'd immediately under the former , which by dr. cole are thought to be spiral , and a continued thread from one extream of the gut to the other , by which means the peristaltick motion of the intestines are continued . by what i could ever observe in examining these fibres , whether after boyling or not , i must confess i could never be satisfied whither they are continued and of a spiral disposition , nor indeed is it possible to untwist a single fibre if they were so dispos'd , by reason of its smallness and collateral adhesion to each other , by means of their blood-vessels ; but on the contrary they rather appear on very strict examination , to be semicircular , some longer and others shorter ; by which means they more adequately bring the sides of the intestine nearer each other , in order to drive on its contents . besides this office of the muscular fibres of the intestines , by their reciprocal co-operation , they not only compress their subjacent glands , and drive out their contain'd mucus to join with the aliment ; but by collaterally pressing each side of the guts , they open the mouths of the lacteal-vessels to receive the chyle . fig. . represents a portion of the intestinum iejunum distended with wind ; it s external membrane and muscular fibres being taken off . a a , some of the semicircular fibres still remaining on the intestine . c c , divers small glands scater'd at various distances between the last mention'd clusters of glands . we are beholding to the learned wepher and the accurate peyer , for the discovery of these clusters of glands of the small guts , as well as those solitary glands scatter'd up and down in the large guts : tho' dr. willis and others had mention'd a glandulous membrane of the guts , yet it furnisht us with no tollerable idea of their existence and office. they are supplied with blood-vessels , nerves and lympheducts , in common with the intestines and excretory ducts of their own ; but i can by no means think the nerves import any part of the matter , which these glands discharge by their excretory pores , into the cavity of the intestine . peyer takes notice that these glandulous clusters are plac'd in that part of the gut , opposite to its connection with the mesentery , but you will frequently find them near the mesentery ; yet i never found them in that part of the gut , to which the mesentery is connected . the matter they separate from the blood , and discharge by their excretory pores into the cavity of the gut , is very tenacious , and since it s comprest from them by the peristaltick motion of the guts , at the very instant the alimentary contents are passing by , it affords us no mean argument , that it cannot so join with them , as to render any of the chylous particles more fit to pass the mouths of the lacteal vessels ; but that it only serves as a vehicle to those contents of the guts , and defends the inward villous membrane from being offended , either by sharp humours , or any acuminated bodies which often pass that way . the glands of the coecum , colon and rectum , which are analogous to these of the small guts , differ very much from them in figure and situation ; the former lying in clusters , whereas these from their appearance , peyer and others call solitary glands ; they being small , lentiformal , and very numerous , plac'd from each other at various distances , not unlike the stars in the firmament . all these glands of the intestines , as well as those of the stomach , liver , and pancreas , are affected with cathartick medicines , and help to discharge the matter evacuated by stool ; by affected , i don't mean that the purging medicine bestows any particles , immediately as it passes by them into the cavity of the gut ; but that after its particles are past into the blood by the chyle ducts , it meets with a fit strainer in the parts last mention'd , as well as these glands by which it passes off again with the serous part of the blood. finis . the index . a. abdomen or lower belly open'd , tab. , . of a woman , t. . with child , t. , , . of a foetus , t. , . its integuments , t. . muscles vide muscles . cavity , t. , , . acesabu●●nt , t. . fig. . acretion of parts in general , v. introduction . acromion , v. bones scapula . adipose ducts their use , t. . f. . allontois , t. , , . f. . t. , . whence call'd , t. . a description of it , ib. its use , ib. whether existent in humane bodies , t. . alveari●●n , v. ear meatus auditorius . alveoli , t. . f. . amnios , t. , , . f. . t. , . transparent , full of vessels , t. , . uses of its contain'd liquor , t. . glands in it in cows , and their suppos'd use , t. . amygdals , v. tonsils . anasiomoses of arteries and veins , v. arteries . anatomy prov'd useful in surgery , introduct . t. . f. . t. . ap. f. . aneon . v. bones ulna . animal spirits , the common hypothesis concerning them , rejected , t. . f. . annular cartilage , t. . f. , , , . ap. f. , , . an●hesix , v. ear external . antitragus , ib. aquaeductus ateris , ap. f. . arm , t. , , . arteries their tunicks external , t. . f. . middle or fibrous , t. cad . f. . internal , t. cad . f. . farther they run from the heart , they subdivide and grow thinner , ib. their extremities transparent , ibid. view'd in the fin of a living grig , ap. f. . of a flounder , f. . arteries and veins a continu'd channel , ib. tying them advis'd in cutting off the breast , t. . f. . in amputation , t. . f. . direction for tying them in an aneurism of the arm , ap. f. . how to secure the artery of the lower-part of the face , &c. in incisions , t. . , f. aneurism in a small artery coming out of the skull to the forehead , and how cur'd , t. . f. . a system of them by bidloo erroneous , t. . f. . an exact one , ap. f. . — aorta or great artery , t. . f. , . ap. f. . its valves semil●●●r . t. . f. . ascending trunk , t. . f. . ap. f. . descending trunk , t. , , , , . f. , . ap. f. . — coronal of the heart , t. . f. . ap. f. . — subclavian , ap. f. . — carotid , t. . f. . t. . f. . t. . f. . t. . f. , . ap. f. , , , . their contortions , t. . f. . ap. f. . reason of them , t. . f. . passing by the sella turcica , ap. f. , . — vertebral , ap. f. , , , . their contortions , ap. f. . reason of them , ib. their cavities sometimes larger there , ib. ascending on the medulla oblongata , ib. — cervical , ap. f. . — communicant branches , ap. f. , . — lower-part of the face , tongue , t. . f. . ap. f. . — temporal , ap. f. . its branches to the parotid gland , ib. temples , ib. — occipital , ib. inosculates with the temporal , ib. — of the fauces , uvula , &c. ib. — larynx , &c. ib. — muscles of the neck and scapula , ib. — mammary , t. . f. . ap. f. . inosculate with the intercostals and epigastrick , ib. — muscles of the shoulder and scapula , ib. — arillary being the beginning of the — brachial , t. . f. . ap. f. , . an account of their progress , ap. f. . their division at the cubit , ib. a communicant branch , ib. where wounded in letting blood , f. . — cubit which makes the pulse at the wrist , t. . ap. f. . — hands and fingers , ap. f. . — bronchial , ap. f. . their rise , ib. inosculate with the pulmonary , t. . f. . ap. f. . — of the gula , ap. f. . — intercostal , ib. — celiack , t. . ap. f. . its various ramifications making the — hepatick , t. . f. . ap. f. . — systick , ap. f. . — coronary inferior of the stomach , t. , . f. . ap. f. . — pylorick , ap. f. . — epiploick , ib. — coronary superior , t. . f. . ap. . — phrenick , ap. f. . their origin , ib. — splenick , t. . ap. f. . — of the duodemun and pancreas , ap. f. . — mesenterick superior , t. . f. . t. , , ap. f. . inosculate with themselves and mesenterick inferior , ap. f. . — mesenterick inferior , t. . f. . t. , , . ap. f. . its branches to the colon , ap. f. . rectum , ib. — emulgent , t. , . f. . ap. f. . — vertebral of the loins , ap. f. . — spermatick of a man , t. , , . f. . t. . f. , . t. . f. , . ap. f. . their rise , t. . an error concerning it noted , and the cause of it , ib. very small at their beginning , t. . f. . ap. f. . different in men and brutes , and the reason of it , t. . f. . — spermatick of a woman , t. , . f. , . communicate with the hypogastricks , ib. — sacrae , ap. f. . — iliack , t. , , . f. . ap. f. . external , t. , . ap. f. . internal , t. . ap. f. . larger proportionably in a foetus than in an adult , and the reason , ib. — umbilical , t. , . f. , . t. . f. , , , , . t. , . ap. f. . various inequalities in their trunks , t. . f. , . the causes of them , f. . — epigastrick , t. . f. . ap. f. . — of the oblique muscles of the abdomen , ap. f. . — of the extensors and obturators of the thigh , ib. — penis , t. . f. . t. . f. . ap. f. . — bladder , ap. f. . — internal of the pudendum , ap. f. . — hypogastrick how compos'd , ib. — external of the pudendum their origin , ib. — crural , ib. an account of their progress , ib. — leg , ib. — foot , ib. — pulmonary , t. . f. , . t. . f. , . t. . f. . — arthrodia , t. . f. . their semilunar valves , t. . f. . arytencides cartilage , t. . f. . ap. f. , , . aspera a●teria , v. wind-pipe . asiragalus , v. bones . atlas , v. epistrophicus . atlas , v. vertebrae . auricles of the heart , v. heart . b. bladder of urine of a man in situ , t. . taken out , t. . f. . of a woman in situ , t. . taken out , t. . of a foetus in situ , t. . f. . taken out , f. . its back-part cover'd with far , t. . f. . fore-part open'd , t. . f. . suspended by the uracus , t. . f. . its situation , ib. structure , ib. use , ib. its fibres and glands sometimes tumified , and cause a thickness of its sides , ib. bladder of gall , v. gall-bladder . blood , an account of it according to the chymists , t. . f. . view'd with a microscope , t. cad . f. . no fibres discernable in it , ib. its fibrous appearance caus'd by a coagulation of the serum , ib. another way of examining it , ib. how made , introduct . bones in an embrio cartilaginous , t. . f. . time of their formation , ib. appendixes sometimes broken off , a case recited , t. . f. . — all in a skelleton of an adult ; its fore-part , t. . 〈◊〉 and 〈◊〉 t. ●● of a 〈◊〉 month after conception , t. . f. . of six weeks , t. ead . f. . of three months , t. ead . f. , . of four months t. ead . f. , . of nine months , t. , ● . — skull , the external surface of its upper-part , t. . f. . internal of the same , t. ead . f. . channels in it for the passage of vessels , ib. very large and transparent in an apopletick person , ib. inferior surface of its basis , t. . f. . ap. f. , . internal part of the same , t. . f. . ap. f. . — forehead its convext or outer part , t. . f. . a description of its cavity , ib. its inner-part , t. ead . f. . — sinciput its external part , t. . f. . internal , f. . — occiput external part , t. . f. . internal , t. . f. . t . f. . — temples external part , t. . f. . ap. f. . in a foetus , ap. f. . internal part , t. . f. . of a foetus , ap. f. . — ear , t. . f. , , , . ap. f. , , , . — os cuntiforme , t. . f. , . an account of its foramina , ib. — os cribrosum , t. . f. . t. . f. . t. . f. . ap. f. . — upper-jaw , t. . f. , . t. . f. . their number and description , ib. — lower-jaw , t. . f. , . its processes , ap. f. . — teeth , v. teeth . — tongue , t. , f. . — vertebrae their number , and reason why divided , t. . first of the neck or atlas , f. , . ap. f. . second with its toothlike process , f. , . third , f. , . first of the thorax , f. , . t. . f. . a caries found in them , the case related , ib. of the loins , f. , , , . — ribs their number , distinction , and articulations , t. . the first , f. , . the seventh , f. , . the eleventh , f. , . the twelfth , f. , . — scapula or shoulder-blade , its external part , t. . f. . internal part , f. . — clavicle or channel-bones , t. . f. , . its joint with the acromion sometimes dislocated , and the symptoms , ib. — starnum or breast-bone in an adult , t. . f. . in a foetus , t. . — shoulder-bone , t. . f. , . — ulna , t. . f. , . — radius , t. . f. , . — carpus , t. . their number , disposition , and articulations , ib. — metacarpus , t. . f. , . — fingers and thumb , t. . f. , . — ossa sesamoidea of the hand , t. . f. . of the great toe , t. . f. . sometimes found on the lower heads of the thigh-bone , t. . f. . also on the tendon of the peroneus longus , ib. in the tendon of the musculus stapedis , ap. f. . — os sacrum , t. . f. , . — os cotoygie , t. . f. , . — os innomination in a foetus consists of three , therefore distinguish'd into — os ilium , t. . f. , . — os ischium , t. . f. , . — os pubis , t. . f. , . — thigh-bone , t. . f. , . — patella or knee-pan , t. . f. , . — tibia , t. . f. , . — fibula , t. . f. , . — tarsus or instep ; which are the — talus , t. . f. , . — heel , ib. — os spongiosion of the foot , ib. — ossa cuneiformia , ib. — os naviculare , ib. — metatarsus , t. . f. , . — toes , t. . f. , . brain , its upper-part with its membranes , t. . f. . cover'd with the dura mater , t. . f. . hinder and lateral part with its membranes , t. . f. . two hemispheres , t. . f. . foremost lobes , t. . f. , . ap. f. . hinder lobes , t. . f. . t. . f. . ap. f. . cut transversly , t. . f. . ap. f. . cortical part , t. . f. . ap. f. . anfractus or windings on its surface , t. . f. . t. . f. . medullary part , t. . f. . ap. f. . view'd with a microscope , the distribution of blood-vessels , the glands and their tubes , t. . f. . its arteries , v. arteries carotid , vertebral veins before they enter the longitudinal sinus , t. . f. . t. . f. . the manner of their entrance , and the reason of it , t. . f. . a large vein emptying it self at the torcular , t. . f. . blood-vessels lying in the duplicature of the pia mater , t. . f. . t. . f. . wounds liable to great and dangerous fungus , t. . f. . in concussions what vessels injur'd , t. . f. . breasts of a man , t. , . f. . in a foetus of both sexes they contain a serous liquor , t. . of a woman , t. , . f. . their glands , lactiferous ducts , plexus of blood-vessels , sacculi adiposi lying on them , t. . f. . nipple and areola , v. nipple . arteries , veins , nerves , lympheducts , t. . f. . lactiferous ducts , v. lactiferous ducts . milky tumors in them , how caus'd , t. . f. . bregma , v. bones of the sinciput . bronchia , t. . f. , , . t. . f. , , , , . ap. f. . glands in its membranous part , and their use , ap. f. . its cartilages of various forms , and how connected , t. . f. . a representation of it in tin , t. ead . f. . how to prepare it , f. . c. calamus scriptorus , v. ventricle , fourth of the brain . calcis os , v bones , heel . canalis arteriosus , ap. f. . its origin , insertion , and use , ib. after the birth it becomes a ligament , ib. cartalis venosus turn'd into a ligament , t. . f. . canthus greater and less , v. eye its external part. caruncula lachrymalis , ib. carunculae myrtiformes how caus'd , t. . f. . carpus , v. bones . cartilage ensiformal , t. . f. . t. . f. . cartilages semilunar on the upper-head of the tibia , t. . — of the larynx , t. . of the wind-pipe , t. . f. . cataracts directions for couching , t. . f. . catarrhs the parts affected in them , ap. f. . cavernous bodies of the penis , v. penis . caul , v. omentum . center of gravity to the whole body , where , t. . centrum ovale , ap. f. . cerebel , t. . f. . t. . f. , . t. . f. . t. . f. . ap. f. , , , . its meditullium , t. . f. . t. . f. . ap. f. . vernicular process , t. . f. . t. . f. . ap. f. . first process , t. . f. . ap. f. . a transverse process joining them , ib. second process , ap. f. , . third or cordal process , ap. f. , . cheeks their inside , t. . f. . chorion , t. , , . f. , . t. , , . f. , , . branching of its vessels , t. . f. , . chyliferous duct , v. thoracick duct . chylification , introd . cilia their cartilages , t. . f. . circulation between the mother and the foetus prov'd , t. . manner of it thro' the heart of a foetus , ap. f. . clavicles , v. bones . clitoris , t. . f. . the glans , t. , . f. , . prepuce , t. , . f. . what it is , ib. crura , t. . f. . contexture , t. . f. . capsula or proper membrane , ib. septum , ib. cause of its extension , t. . f. . coccygis os , v. bones . cochlea , v. ear. cacum , v. intestines . colon , v. intestines . columnae carncae , v. heart . conception , introd . concha , v. ear external . condylus processus , v. bones of the lower jaw . coracoidal process , v. bones scapula . corpus callosum , t. . f. . ap. f. . it s corpus transversale , t. . f. . corpus glandosum in men , v. prostates ; in women , v. vagina . corpora scriata , t. . f. . ap. f. . corpora pyramidalia , ap. f. . corpora olivaria , ap. f. . corpora cavernosa penis , v. penis . corone , ib. cricoidal cartilage , v. annular . crista galli , v. bones os cribrosum . cuticle , v. scarf-skin . d. diaphragm , v. muscles . diastole of the heart , t. . f. . v. heart . diploe of the skull , t. . f. . t. . f. . dislocation of the clavicle and acromion , v. bones . dissimilar parts , what , t. . f. . ductus hygropthalmici lachrimalis , t. . f. . bilarius , t. . f. . m. pancreaticus , t. ib. f. ead . — thoracis , ap. f. , , . a palato ad aurem , ap. f. . hepaticus , t. . f. . duodenum , v. intestines . dura mater , t. . f. . t. . f. , . t. . f. . t. . f. , , , . t. . f. , . t. . f. . ap. f. . blood-vessels distended with wind , t , . f. . lying in its duplicature , t. . f. . pass from it to the skull , t. . f. . t. . f. . a particular account of them , ap. f. . quadruplicatures , t. . f. . t. . f. . first process , v. falx . second process , t. . f. . e. ear external , t. . f. . . the meatus auditorius , t. . f. . ap. f. . cartilages of the meatus , ap. f. . its glandulous membrane , t. . f. . its use and diseases , ib. the membrane tympani or drum , ap. f. . annulus osseus in embrio's , ap. f. , . cavity of the tympanum , ap. f. , . lin'd with a membrane , f. . which is communicated to its bones , ib. a passage into it from the palate , ap. f. . another one of it into the meatus , ib. the use of both , ib. its bones , v. bones . a distinct one in the ear of a calf , ap. f. . labyrinth , t. . f. , . ap. f. , . cochlea , t. . f. . ap. f. , . foramen rotundum , ap. f. . its muscles , v. muscles . eggs taken from the ovaria , t. . f. . impregnated , f. . introd . embrio , v. foetus . empiema caution in opening , t. . f. . epidydymidae , v. testicles . epigastrium , t. . epiglottis , t. . f. . t. . f. , , , . ap. f. , , . glands at the root of it , ap. f. . its use , t. . f. . ap. f. . mistaken by some for an excrescence , t. . f. . epistropheus , t. . f. . eye its external parts , t. . f. , . glands , v. lachrymal glands . — bulb , t. . f. , , . ap. f. . its muscles , v. muscles . — optick nerve , v. nerve . — tunica adnata , t. . f. , , . another membrane of columbus , t. . f. . — tunica sclerotis , t. . f. , , , , . — tunica cornea , t. , f. , , , . — tunica coroides , t. . f. , . ligament . ciliare , t. . f. . its use , ib. — tunica retina , t. . f. , , , . iris and p●pilla , f. . — humor crystaline , t. . f. , , . — humour vitreous , t. . f. , , . — humour aqueous , f. . f. foetus of seven months in the womb , t. . its posture various , when best for birth , ib. of twenty-five days after conception , t. . f. . of forty days , f. . of two months and a half , f. . of three months , f. . of eight months , f. . open'd , t. , . falloppian tubes , t. . f. , . falx , t. . f. , , . its use , f. . fat , t. . f. . its membranes , ib. globules with ther● blood-vessels , ib. what it is , ib. lobi of it on the abdomen , t. . foetus their glandulous membrane , t. . f. . fermentation of the aliment in chylification , introd . fermentation of the blood in its vessels , v. intestine motion of it . fibre of a muscle , t. . f. . fibula , v. bones . fistula lachrymalis , its cause and way of cure , t. . f. . fistulous ulcer in the upper-part of the thigh how cur'd , t. . foramen ovale describ'd , ap. f. . fornix , ap. f. . its roots , t. . f. . ap. f. . crura , ap. f. . g. gall-bladder , t. . f. . t. . f. , , . its duct , t. . f. . t. . f. , . internal membrane of the duct , t. . f. . valves in it how made and their use , ib. gall-ducts enter it , none into the bladder , prov'd , t. . f. . gangleon in the nerves , t. . f. . ap f. . gargareon , v. uv●la . ginglimus , t. . f. . glands adipose , v. omentum . — axiliary , ap. f. . their use , tumours in them how cau●'d , ib. — inguinal , ap. f. . their use , causes of tumors in them , cases related , one where it weigh'd six pounds . — lachrymal , t. . f. , , . their ducts , t. ead . f. . — lips , ap. f. . — lymphatick , ap. f. , . those of the neck tumid in scrophulas and their cure , f. . — lumbal , ap. f. , . — maxillary , t. . f. . ap. f. . their arteries , veins , nerves , salival-duct , ap. f. . — miliary , v. skin . — mucilaginous of the vertebrae , t. . f. . their use , ib. — parotide , t. . f. . ap. f. , , . a remarkable case of an abscess in it , ap. f. . its salival-duct , t. . f. , . ap. f. , . symptoms and cure of it when wounded , ap. f. . — piliferous , t. . f. . — pinial , t. . f. . ap. f. . its use , ib. — pituitary , t. . f. , . ap. f. . — renales , ib. t. , . in a foetus , t. . their — composition and vessels describ'd , t. . subclavian , ap. f. . — sublingual , t. . f. . ap. f. . their blood-vessels , nerves , salival-duct , ap. f. . — skin , or sudoriferous , t. . f. . — thyroid , t. . f. . t. . f. . their use , colour and compactness , t. . f. . glans penis , t. . f. , , , , . glottis how compos'd , ap. f. . gula or gullet , t. . f. . gums , t. . f. . view'd with a microscope , f. . h. haemorrhoids how caus'd , t. . f. . hairs view'd with a microscope , t. . f. , , , , , . their rise , t. ead . f. . how nourish'd and their composition , ib. hairy-scalp , t. . f. . its piliferous bodies , and miliary glands , ib. number and largeness of its blood-vessels noted , ib. hearing how perform'd , ap. f. . heart in situ , t. , . in a foetus , t. . taken out , t. . f. . cut transversly , f. . it s external membrane , f. . fibres , t. ead . f. , , , . how to prepare and show them , f. . the right auricle , t. . f. , . open'd , f. , . left auricle , t. ead . f. , , , . the right ventricle , t. . f. , . left ventricle , t. ead . f. , . columnae carniae , f. , . their origin , composition , and use , f. . valves semilunar or sigmoidal , f. , , . mitral or tricuspid , f. , , . the septum , f. , . a sinus between the ventricles , f. , . coronary vessels , f. , . nerves , f. . glands at its basis , t. . helix auriculae , t. . f. . hernia of the intestines , how incident to women , t. . hircus ariculae , t. . f. . humour of the amnios , v. amnios . humors of the eyes , t. . f. , , , , , . hymen how fram'd and its different appearance , t. . f. . imperforated in a married woman , the history of it . hypochondrium , t. . hypogastrium , t. . i. ilia , t. . t. . fig. . r r. inous , v. bones of the ear. infundibulum , t. . f. ● , . ap. f. . its connection to the glandula pituitaria , t. . f. . inguina , t. . intestine motion of the blood in its large vessels , introd . — of the chyle , introd . intestines , t. , . f. , . their fibres describ'd , ap. f. . glands their kinds , disposition , and use , ap. f. . — duodeman , ap. f. . its membranes external , and muscular , ib. perforated by the biliary and pancreatick ducts , t. . f. . reason of its curvation , ib. — iejuam , t. . f. , . ap. f. . external membrane , t. . f. . origin of it , ib. muscular membrane , ib. arteries , veins , nerves , ib. — ileum , t. . f , , . valvulae connive●●●s how made , their order , and use , t. . f. . — coecum , t. . f. , . t. . f. . — colon , t. , . f. , . its cells , ib. valves and how caus'd , ib. ligament , t. . f. . t. . compos'd of fleshy fibres , and their use , ib. blood-vessels , t. . f. , . reason why the excrements can't return , ib. an experiment illustrating how it happens in iliack passions , ib. — rectum , t. ● . f. , . its external coat whence deriv'd , f. . blood-vessels , ib. fatty appendages of it , ib. internal coat , and its composition , f. . its diseases , ib. iris , its inner 〈…〉 ● . . f. . v. eye . k. kidneys in situ , t. . in a foetus conglomerate , t. . taken out , t. , . f. , . t. . their adipose membrane , t. . proper membrane , t. . f. , , . pelvis , t. . f. , , , , , . glandulous part , t. . f. . view'd with a microscope , f. . tubuli urinarii , t. ead . f. , , , . carunculae papillares , t. ead . f. , , . emulgent arteries and veins , t. , . f. , , , , . nerves , lymphe-ducts and their use , t. . f. . manner of their secretion , ib. stones in them , how they cause pain , ib. ill effects of their laxity related in a case , ib. l. labyrinth , v. ear. lachrymal bone , v. bones of the upper-jaw . lachrymal ducts , v. glands lachrymal . lacteal vessels , t. . f. . t. . f. . ap. f. . their valves , t. . f. . rise , progress , and use , t. . f. . lactiferous vessels in the breast , t. . f. , , , . their beginning , form , and orifices , f. . lambdoidal suture , v. suture . l●mina spira●u , t. . f. . larynx , its fore-part , t. . f. , . back-part , t. . f. , . ap. f. . view'd laterally , ap. f. , . its cartilages , v. thyroidal , annular , arytetenoidal , epiglo●●● . ligament annular of the wrist , t. . f. . t. , . ap. f. . — of the ancle , ap. f. . how compos'd , t. . — imbanding the tendons of the fingers , t. . — between the ulna and radius , t. , . — between the tibia and fibula , t. . — round of the thigh-bone fasten'd to the acetabu●●m , and its use , t. , . f. . — broad covering the joint of the thigh and hip , t. . — investing the knee , t. . — of the ancle joint , t. . — joining the bones of the tarsu● , t. . — of ossa carpi at their articulation , t. . — reaching from the os sacrum to the appendix of the ischium , t. . — ciliare , v. eye . linea alba , t. . ap. f. . linea semilunaris , ib. how compos'd , ib. liver in situ , t. , , . in a foetus , t. . a compages of vessels and the several offices of them , t. . f. . how found in dead bodies , three instances , ib. scirrhoma cur'd , ib. proportionably larger in a foetus , and by what means , t. . discharges more gall in children , and the benefit of it , ib. taken out , t. . f. , . its convex part , t. . f. . concave part , t. ead . f. . cut in two to shew its inside , ib. portion of it view'd with a microscope , t. . f. . lobuli of glands , ib. fissure in it , t. . f. . suspensory ligament , t. . f. , . umbilical ligament , t. . f. , . t. . f. . t. , . external membrane , t. . f. , . t. . f. . hepatick artery , t. . f. . t. . f. . vena porta , t. . f. . t. . f. , . vena caeva , t. . f. . t. . f. , . nerves , lymphe-ducts , and their use , t. . f. . hepatick , or gall-ducts , t. . f. . t. . f. , , . their orifice in the duodenum , t. . f. . gall-bladder , v. gall-bladder . how to prepare a scheme of the vessels , t. . f. . capsula of the vessels , t. . f. . t. . f. . lungs in situ , t. . in a foetus . t. . taken out , t. . f. . part of a lobe divided , t. ead . f. , . their external membrane , t. . f. . ramification of their blood-vessels , t. . f. , . they communicate with the intercostals and bronchial , f. . adhaesions how caus'd , f. . lympha course of it from the inferior parts , ap. f. . lymphatick glands , v. glands . lympheducts their origination , ap. f. . manner of communication , ap. f. , . of the spleen , penis , testicles , arise from the veins , t. . f. . several arising from the inferior parts , lungs , &c. ap. f. , , . m. malleus , v. bones of the ear. malleoli , v. bones , tibia , fibula . mammillary or mastoid processes , v. bones of the temples . maxillary glands , v. glands . meatus auditorius , v. ear. meatus from the palate to the ear , ib. meatus cysticus . v. gall-bladder . mellastinum , t. . a continuation of the pleura , an interstice in it noted , its use , ib. that it divides the breast , prov'd - by an hydropick body , ib. its arteries , veins , nerves , lymphe-ducts , ib. medulla oblongata , its crura , t. . f. . ap. f. , . caudex , t. . f. . ap. f. . hinder-part going out of the skull , t. . f. . t. . f. . t. . f. . a portion of it cut off and divided , t. . f. . medulla spinalis with all its nerves springing from it , t. . f. . its beginning , ap. f. . a portion of it taken out of the back , t. . f. . divided , f. . its common membrane , t. . f. . sacculi of fat between it , and the proper , ib. its proper membrane , t. ead . f. , . membrana adiposa , v. fat. membrana carnosa , t. . f. . the same with the common membrane of the muscles , t. . f. . its structure and extension , ib. membrane pituitous of the cavity of the fore-head , t. . f. . its use , ib. maggots found in it in sheep , ib. why taken out for the cure of the staggers , ib. — glandulous of the meatus auditorius , v. ear. — mucilaginous inclosing the tendons of the perfo● rans , t. . — of the fauces , t. . f. . t. . f. . ap. f. . — of the palate , t. . f. . t. . f. , . mesentery , t. . f. . t. . f. , . its origine , structure and vessels , t. . f. . glands , f. , . vasa lactea , v. lacteal vessels . fat. t. . f. . metacarpus , v. bones . metacarsus , v. bones . milk deriv'd from the blood , t. . f. . a description of it , ib. monstrous conception , t. . mucilaginous glands , t. . description of their excretory-ducts in general , t. . 〈…〉 whence deriv'd , t. . f. . ill consequences of wanting it in a remarkable case , ib. muscles their fibres , t. . f. , , . disposition of them in the de●●ides , t. ead . f. . in the biceps of the arm , f. . membranosus , f. . genaellus , f. . motion how perform'd by them , t. . f. . introd . redder than other parts , the cause of it , ib. extensors of the tibia , why stronger than the flexors , t. . the same in the talus and toes , and the reason , t. . tibialis divided , and the use of the foot recover'd , t. . muscles , abductor auris , v. retrahens auriculam . — abductor indicis , t. . h. — abductor minimi digiti manus , ib. i , k , — abductor minimi digiti pedis , t. . f. . g. — abductor oculi , t. . f. . d. — abductor pollicis manus , t. . . — abductor pollicis pedis , t. . m. — accelerator urinae , t. . f. . h h. — acclivis , v. obliquus ascendens . — adductor minimi digiti pedis , v. transversalis pedis . — adductor oculi , t. . f. . c. — adductor pollicis manus , t. . s. — adductor pollicis pedis , t. . f. . d. — anconeus , t. . o. — ani-scalptor , v. latissimus dorsi . — ani sphincter , v. sphincter ani. — ani levator , v. levator ani. — annuens , v. rectus minor anticus . — antithenar , v. adductor pollicis manus . — aperiens palpebram rectus , t. . f. . a. — arytaernideus , ap. f. , . f. — attollens auriculam , t. . f. . a. — attollens nasi alam , v. elevator , &c. — attollens oculi , v. elevator oculi . — attollens palpebram , v. aperiens palpebram . — auriculae elevator , v. attollens auriculam . — basiglossus , v. tongue . — bibitorius , v. adductor oculi . — biceps internus humeri , t. . i. — biceps externus humeri , v. gemellus . — biceps femeris , t. . a , b , c. — bicornis , v. extensor carpi radialis . — biventer , v. digastricus . — bractiaeus externus , t. . l. — bractiaeus internus , t. . k k. — bu●●inator , t. . a , b. — bursalis , v. marsupialis . — caro musculosa quadrata , v. palmaris brevis . — catenae , v. tibieus anticus . — ceratoglossus , t. . f. . d d , h. — ciliaris , v. orbicularis palpebrarum . — clitoridis musculi , v. erector clitoridis . — cnemodactilius , v. extensor digitorum communis manus . — collateralis penis , v. erigens . — complexus , t. . f , g , h. — constrictor palpebrarum , v. orbicularis . — constrictor labiorum , t. . f. . i. — constrictor alae nasi seu depressor labii superioris , ap. f. . — coratobrachi●lis , t. . f. — coracohyoidous , t. . f. . c c , &c. — cr●naster , t. . f. . b. — cricoerytemoideus posticus , ap. f. . e e. — cricoerytemoideus lateralis , ib. f. . g g. — cricothyroideus , t. . f. . h h. — crurcus . t. . c. — cubiteus extensor v. ulnaris . — cubiteus flexor v. ulnaris . — cucullaris , t. . a , b. — declivis , v. obliquus descendens . — delioides . t. . x , x. — depressor labii superioris , seu constrictor alae nasi , ap. f. . — depressor labii inferioris proprius , t. . f. . h. — depressor labiorum communis , t. ib. f. ib. c. — depressor maxillae inferioris , v. digastricus . — depressor oculi , t. . f. . c. — detrusor urinae , t. . f. . c c. — diaphragma , t. . b , c. — digastricus , t. . f. . a , b , c. — dilatator alae nasi , t. . f. . e. — director penis , v. erector . — distortor oris , v. zygoma●icus . — dorsi latissimus , v. latissimus dorsi . — dorsi longissimus , t. . n. — elevator ani , v. levator . — elevator auris , v. attollens auriculam . — elevator oculi , t. . f. . a. — elevator labiorum communis , t. . f. . d. — elevator labii inferioris proprius , ap. f. . h h. — elevator labii superioris proprius , t. . f. . c. — elevator scapulae , v. levator . — erector clitoridis , t. . e e. — erigens seu erector penis , t. . f. . f f. — extensor carpi radialis , t. d , f. — extensor carpi ulnaris , ib. e. — extensor communis digitorum manus , t. . g. — extensor digitorune pedis longus , t. . f. — extensor digitorum brevis , t. ib. g. — extensor minimi digiti manus , t. . g. — extensor primi ossis pollicis manus , t. . o. — extensor pollicis pedis longus , t. . h. — extensor secundi ossis pollicis manus , t. . o. — extensor pollicis pedis brevis , t. . r. — extensor tertii ossis pollicis manus , t. . c. — externus auris vel laxator externus , ap. f. . c. — fascialis , v. sartorius . — fascia lata , v. membranosus . — fibuleus , v. peroneus primus . — fidicinales , v. lumbricales manus . — flexor capitis , t. . l. — flexor carpi radialis , t. . e. — flexor carpi ulnaris , ib. q. — flexor primi internodii digitorum manus , v. lumbricales manus . — flexor pollicis manus longus , t. . l. — flexor pollicis pedis longus , t. . k. — flexor pollicis pedis brevis , t. . f. . a. — flexor primi internodii digitorum pedis , v. lumbricales pedis . — flexor secundi internodii digitorum manus , v. perforatus manus . — flexor primi & secundi ossis pollicis manus , t. . m , p , o. — flexor secundi internodii digitorum pedis , v. perforatus pedis . — flexor tertii intermodii digitorum manus , v. perforans manus . — flexor tertii internodii digitorum pedis , v. perforans pedis . — framalis , app. f. . a a. — gasterocnemius externus , t. . e. — gasterocnemius internus , t. . f. — go●●●● , t. . c , d. — genyoglossus , t. f. . e , f , g , i , l , — genyohyoideus , t. ib. & f. ead . o. — glucaeus major , t. . a. — glucaeus medius , ib. d. — glucaeus minimus , t. . c. — gracilis , t. . d. — graphoides , v. digastricus . — hyochyroideus , t. . f. . p. — hypsiloglossus , v. basioglossus , no such muscle in humane bodies . — iliacus externus , v. pyriformis . — iliacus internus , t. . n n. — immersus , v. subscapularis . — indicator , or extensor indicis proprius , t. . n. — infraspinatur , t. . f. — intercostales externi , t. . c , d. — intercostales interni , t. . c , d. — internus auris , ap. f. . l. — interossei manus , t. . d d. — interossei pedis , t. . f. . a a a. — interspinales colli , app. f. . l l. — labiorum sphincter , v. constrictor labiorum . — latissimus dorsi , t. . — laxator externus , v. externus auris . — levator ani , t. . f. . e e. — levator scapulae , t. . g. — lividus , v. pectineus . — longissimus dorsi , v. dorsi longissimus . — longissimus oculi , v. obliquus superior . — longus colli , t. . a a. — longus femoris , v. sartorius . — lumbricales manus , t. . m , n. — lumbricales pedis , t. . f , e. — marsupialis , t. . f , g. — mastoideus , t. . i i. — masseter , t. . f. , . o o. — membranosus , t. . b. — minimi digiti manus abductor , v. abductor minimi digiti . — minimi digiti pedis abductor , v. abductor minimi digiti . — minimi digiti tensor , v. extensor minimi digiti . — mylohyoideus , t. . f. . e e. — nauticus , v. tibieus posticus . — nonus humeri placentini , v. ro●●ndur minor. — obliquus ascendens , t. . f. . r , p. — obliquus descenden● , t. . c , d , e , f , g. — obliquus minor seu inferior oculi , t. . f. . g. — obliquus superior oculi cum trochlea t. . f. . h. — obliquus inferior capitis , t. . f f. — obliquus superior capitis , t. ib. g , h. — obliquus tympani auris , ap. f. . k. — obturator externus , t. . h. — obturator internus , v. marsupialis . — occipitalis , app. f. . y. — oesophagaeus , seu sphincter gulae , app. f. . e. — orbicularis palpebrarum , t. . f. . d d. — orbicularis labiorum , v. constrictor , &c. — palmaris longus , t. . c , f. — palmaris brevis , t. ib. k. — patie●●iae , v. levator scapulae . — pectoralis , t. . h. — pectoralis internus , v. triengularis . — pecti●●ns , t. . l. — pedieus , v. perforatus pedis . — perforans manus , t. . a , b. — perforans manus , ib. f , g. — perforatus pedis . t. . g. — perforans pedis , t. . h. — pero●●us primus , t. . c. — pero●●us secundus , t. ib. b. — plantaris , t. . g. — platysma myoides , v. quadratus genae . — popliteus , t. c. — pronator radii teres , t. . a. — pronator radii brevis seu quadratus , ib. b. — psoas magnus . — psoas parvus . — pierygoideus externus , t. . f. . q. — pierygoideus internus , t. . f. . n. — pierygopalatinus , v. sphenopterygopalatinus . — pierygopharyngeus , app. f. . b. — pyramidalis , app. f. , . — pyriformis , t. . d. — quadragemini , v. pyriformis . — quadratus femoris , t. . n. — quadratus genae , app. f. . — quadratus lumborium , t. . v. — radialis extensor , v. extensor carpi . — rectus abdominis , t. . f. . l , m , n , o , p. — rectus femoris , t. . g. — rectus capitis lateralis , ap. f. . g. — rectus capitis major anticus , v. flexor capitis . — rectus capitis minor anticus , ap. f. . h. — rectus capitis major posticus , t. . a , b. — rectus capitis minor posticus , t. ib. c , c. — rectus palpebrae , v. aperiens , &c. — renuans , v. rectus capitis minor anticus . — retractor alae nasi , seu elevator labii superioris , app. f. . c. — retrahens auriculam , t , . f. . b , c c. — rhomboides , t. . a , b , c , d. rotundus major , t. . d. rotundus minor , v. teres minor. — sacer , t. . m m. — sacrolumbalis , t. ead . a , b , d , e. — sartorius , t. . a , b , c. — scalenus primus , t. . b b. — scalenus secundus , t. . b b. — scalenus tertius , t. . b b. — semifibuleus , v. peroneus secundus . — semimembranosus , t. . d. — seminervosus , t. ib. e. — semispinatus , t. . m m. — serratus major anticus , t. . d , e , &c. — serratus minor anticus , t. . k. — serratus superior posticus , t. . i. — serratus inferior posticus , t. ib. k. — soleus , v. gasterocnemius internus . — sphenopterygopalatinus , app. f. . d d. — sphincter ani , t. . f. . a , b , c , d. — sphincter gulae , v. oesophagaeus . — sphincter labiorum , v. constrictor . — sphincter vaginae uteri , t. . f. . f f. — sphincter vesicae , t. . f. . k. — spinalis colli , app. f. . i i. — splenius , t. . a a. — stapedis , app. f. . q. — sternohyoideus , t. . f. . f f. — sternothyroideus , t. . f. . h h. — stylohyoideus , t. . f. . n. — styloglossus , t. . f. . c. — stylopharyngeus , app. f. . d d. — subclaevius , t. . a. — 〈…〉 c. — subscapularis , t. . e. — succenturiatus , v. pyramidalis . — supraspinatus , seu superscapularis , t. . g. — supinator radii longus , t. . p. — supinator radii brevis , t. . g. — supopliteus , v. subpopliteus . — suspensor testiculi , v. cremaster . — temporalis , t. . f. , . m , k. — tensor seu extensor digitorum manus , t. . g. — tensor pollicis , v. extensor . — teres major , v. rotundus major . — teres minor , t. . f. — thenar , v. abductor pollicis manus . — thyroarytaenoideus , app. f. . f. — tibialis anticus , t. . e. — tibialis posticus , t. . g. — transversalis abdominis , t. . f. . i , k , k. — transversalis colli , app. f. . k. — transversalis dorsi , v. semispinatus . — transversalis lumborum , v. sa●er . — transversalis femoris , v. quadratus . — transversalis pedis placentini , t. . f. . e. — transversalis penis , t. . f. . i. — trapezius , v. cucullaris . — triangularis , t. . f. . b b. — triceps , t. . i. — trochlearis , v. obliquus superior oculi . — vaginalis gulae , app. f. . — vaginae uteri sphincter , v. sphincter , &c. — vastus externus , t. . i. — vastus internus , t. ib. h. — ulnaris extensor , v. extensor carpi , &c. — ulnaris flexor , v. flexor carpi , &c. — zygomaticus , t. . f. . e. n. nails , t. . f. . their origin and composition , ib. nates of the brain , t. . f. . ap. f. . navel , t. . r. navel-string , t. , . f. , . t. , . f. . t. , . its loose membrane , t. . f. . fibres , f. . succiferous tubes , t. . f. . a conjecture of their use , t. . part of its external surface , in cows full of tubercles , t. . its course various , t. . its vessels injur'd , have bad effects ; two strange cases , ib. nerve describ'd by a microscope , t. . f. . fibrillae , and manner of their cohaesion , ib. not tubulated , ib. blood-vessels pass with them , ib. globules in them , and whence deriv'd , ib. fibres proceeding from the brain , t. . f. . from the spinal marrow , t. ead . f. . passing thro' the dura mater , ib. their gangleons , or plexus ganglio form●s , t. . f. , , . ap. f. . — olfactory , t. . f. , . ap. f. . — optick , t. . f. , , . t. . f. , , , , ▪ , . ap. f. , , . their conjunction , t. . f. . blood-vessels , t. . f. . — motory or third pair , t. . f. , , . ap. f. , . — pathetick , t. . f. , . ap. f. , . — fifth pair , t. . f. , . ap. f. , , . ● branch of them making the gustatory , t. . f. . — sixth pair , t. . f. , . ap. f. , . — auditory , t. . f. . ap. f. , . — par vagum , t. . f. . t. . f. . ap. f. , . — accessory spinal , t. . f. . t. . f. . ap. f. . — ninth pair , t. . f. . t. . f. . ap. f. , . branches running to the tongue and larynx , t. . f. . — tenth pair , t. . f. . t. . f. . ap. f. . — all of the spinal marrow , t. . f. . of the neck , ap. f. . several branches of the spinal nerves , viz. axillary , ap. f. . one passing thro' the coracobrachiaeus , t. . running to the fingers , t. . crural , t. , , . ap. f. . trunks on the fore-part of the tibia , t. . running to the bottom of the foot and toes , t. . in the ann , t. . nipple and areola , t. . f. , . view'd with a microscope , f. , . structure of the nipple , f. . how to examine it , ib. observations on the colour of the areola , f. . nose its external parts , t. . f. . nostrils their pituitary membrane , t. . f. . its nature and extent , ib. nutrition , introd . nymphae , t. , . f. . o. occiput , v. bones . olecranon , v. bones , ulna . omentum in situ , t. . — ala superior , ib. inferior , t. . f. . — bursa and how to demonstrate it , t. . f glands , t. . f. . membranes dear'd of f●● , t. ead . f. . blood-vessels , t. . orbiculare os , v. bones of the ear. ovaria entire , t. , . f. . t. . f. , . in a fo●tus , t. . open'd , t. . f. . their external membrane , glands , vesiculae . ib. ligament between them and the tube , ib. t. . f. . their vasa praeparantia , t. . f. , . p. palate its bones , v. bones of the upper-jaw . glandulous membrane , v. membrane . pancreas in situ , t. . f. . t. . external membrane , t. . f. . duct , t. ead . f. , . arteries , f. . its use , f. . pancreas asellii , t. . f. . par vagum , v. nerves . parotid gland , v. glands . passions why they disorder the reason , t. . f. . patella , t. . f. , . its use , ib. penis , t. . f. . t. . f. . its back-part , t. . f. ● . its membrana carnosa , t. . f. . praepuce , t. . f. . how compos'd , t. . f. . cavernous bodies , t. . f. , . t. . f. . their structure , t. . f. , , . gians , t. . f. . t. . f. . infiated , t. ead . f. , . view'd with a microscope , f. . glandulae odoriferae , t. . f. . muscles , v. muscles . arteries , t. . f. . t. . f. . ap. f. . tying them advis'd after excision , t. . f. . veins , t. . f. . t. . f. . nerves , ib. lymphoticks , t. . f. . their origin , t. . f. . pericardium , t. . its origin , composition and use , ib. blood-vessels , lymphe-ducts , glands that separate the humour , evident in some morbid bodies , instan'd in a child , ib. another case where it adher'd to the heart , ib. pericranium , t. . f. . t. . f. . its 〈◊〉 and blood-vessels , their number , whence deriv'd , ib. periostium of the skull , t. . f. . if different from the pericranium , ib. peritonaeu● , t. . f. . its internal surface , t. . made up of divers laminae , t. . gives a membrane to each viscus , ib. vastly extended in dropsies , ib. two cases mention'd , ib. examin'd with a microscope , t. . f. . process of its internal membrane , t. . f. , . external process , ap. f. . perforations describ'd , t. . f. . petrosum os , v. bones of the temples . pi● mater covering the brain , t. . f. . the c●●●bel , t. . f. . the spinal marrow , t. . f. . lining the ventricles , ib. piles , v. haemorrhoids . placenta uterina , its convex surface , t. , . concave , t. , , . f. . cut transver●ly , t. . f. . washe from its blood , t. . f. . twenty-five days after conception , t. . f. . its composition , t. . an hypothesis of its glands and their use , ib. blood-vessels fill'd with war , t. . f. . their ramifications , t. , . re●●ula● ple●●● , t. . f. . reason of removing it after the birth , t. . pla●●ra , t. . p●●xus chorocides , t. . f. . ap. f. . delineated by a microscope , t. . f. . its arteries and veins describ'd , ap. f. . lymphe-ducts and glands , t. . f. . plexus pampiniformis , v. vein spermatick . pomum ad●●● , t. . pons varolii , v. annular procuberance . pores , v. scarf-skin . polypus of the ear , t. . f. . procidentia ani how caus'd , t. . f. . a case , ib. prostates their fore-part divided , t. . f. . t. . f. . back-part , t. . f. . their inside exhibited , t. . f. . inflated , f. . their ostiola , t. . f. . t. ● . f. . pubis os , v. bones . pudendum of women , t. , . open'd , t. . f. . the labia , t. . open'd , t. . f. . how extended , t. . f. . punctum lachrymale , t. . f. . pupil , v. eye . pylorus , v. stomach orifices . r. radius , v. bones . receptacle of chyle , t. . f. . fill'd with mercury , ap. f. , . consist in humane bodies of three trunks describ'd , ap. f. . region of the navel , t. . ribs , v. bones . s. sarum os , v. bones . salival glands , v. glands parotid , maxillary , sublingual . salival ducts , ib. scapula , v. bones . scarf-skin of several parts of the body view'd with a microscope , t. . f. , , , . compos'd of divers strata of scales , f. . how to shew them , ib. scrobiculus cordis , t. . scrotum , t. . septum dividing it , ib. secondine , t. . what it is , ib. sensation by what medium perform'd , t. . f. . introd . sesanoidea ossa , v. bones . shoulders , t. . similar parts , what , t. . f. . sinus longitudinal of the dura mater open'd , t. . f. . dried and open'd , t. . f. . part of it open'd , t. . f. . back-part open'd , t. . f. . blown up and dried , t. . f. . cut transversly , t. ead . f. . orifices of veins in it , t. . f. , . t. . f. . — lateral open'd , t. . f. . dried , t. . f. , . injected with wax , app. f. . its tortuous part open'd , t. . f. . injected with wax , app. f. . cut off below it , app. f. . bylbous part , t. . f. , . its use , ib. transverse ligaments , t. . f. . — fourth , t. . f. . fill'd with wax , app. f. . — falcis inferior dried , t. . f. , . — superior , app. f. . — inferior , ib. — circular , ib. skeleton , v. bones . skin , its outer surface , as it appears to the naked eye , t. . f. . view'd with a microscope , f. . its papillae made up of glands and nerves , t. . f. . sudoriferous glands of two sorts , pyramidal , and miliary , ib. sweat-vessels , arteries , veins , nerves , lymphe-ducts , ib. s●ull , v. bones . smelling how perform'd , introd . s●●ff much of it may be pemicious , t. . f. . spec●● of the vertebrae , v. bones vertebrae . specus of the os petros●um , v. bones of the temples . spina of the back , v. bones skeleton . spines of the vertebrae , v. bones vertebrae . sp●●gins●● os , v. bones of the upper jaw , and ta●● . spleen lower-part in situ , t. . of a foetus , t. . concave part , t. . f. . partly made bare , ib. external membrane , t. . f. . of a quadrupede , f. . proper membrane , ●● in●ide of it , f. . cells in a brute , t. . f. . existent in men , and the difference , ib. fibres . , t. ead . f. , . arteries injected , t. . f. , , . app. f. . veins , t. ead . f. . injected , f. , . nervous plexus , t. . f. . lymphe-ducts , t. ead . f. , . whence they arise , f. . its office , introd . sphaem●●●er os , v. bones . s●yloi●es process , v. bones of the temples , ulna . s●●pe● , v. bones ear. scaggers a disease in b●●tes , the cause and cure of it , t. ● . f. . stomach in 〈◊〉 , t. , ● . taken out , t. . f. . its orifices , t. . f. . t. . f. . instated , f. , . external membrane , t. . f. ● . a p●●ation of it , t. . f. , . muscular membrane , t. . f. , . orders of fishes , ib. inner membrane may be divided into three , viz. villous , and how to demonstrate it , t. . f. . gl●●dalous , how to shew it , ib. tendinous or nervous , f. . superior and inferior coronary blood-vessels , t. . f. . t. . f. . inosculating , t. . f. , . plexus , f. . plexus of blood-vessels on the inside , f. ● nervous plexus , t. . f. . wounds of it not always mental , their symptoms two cases related , t. . f. . 〈◊〉 , v. bones . suture co●●nal , sa●ital , la●doid●l , t. . f. . often irregular , ib. as they appear on the inside of the sk●ll , f. . in infants and children , t. . e e. satures bastard or false , t. . t. ta●● , v. bones . ta●sus , v. bones . tactus organa , introd . tasting how perform'd , ib. testicles , t. , , . f. . t. . f. . divested of their tunicles , t. . f. . t. . f. , . cut transversly , t. . f. . proportionably larger in quadrupedes than men , reason of it , t. . f. . tunica vaginalis , t. . f. , . tunica albuginea , t. . f. . t. . f. , , . glandulous part , t. . f. . t. . f. , , . seminal vessels , t. . f. , , , . epididymis , t. , . f. , . how compos'd , t. ● . f. . t. . f. . vas deferens , t. , . f. . t. . f. , , . t. . f. . t. . f. . its contortions , t. . f. , . t. . f. . vaginal tunick , t. . f. , , . origin , progress , insertion describ'd , t. . f. . arteries , v. arteries spermatick . veins , v. veins spermatick . extremities of both less than in other parts , t. . f. . nerve , t. . f. . t. . f. . lymphe-ducts , t. . f. . their origin , t. . f. . teeth , v. bones . testes of the brain , t. . f. . ap. f. . thalami nervorum optitorum , t. . f. . ap. f. . thighs , f. , , . thoracick-duct fill'd with mercury , ap. f. . its insertion , t. . f. , . fill'd with wax , ap. f. . divisions , and valves , ap. f. . lymphe-ducts entring it , ap. f. . its advantagious situation noted , ap. f. . thorax open'd , t. . in a fo●tus , t. . it s viscera taken out , t. . f. . cavity , t. . wounds in it may be suddenly mortal without hurting the viscaera , reason of it and the cure , t. . external air must be kept out , an observation to confirm it , ib. thymus , in situ , t. . in a foetus , t. . observations of its bigness in different ages and persons , t. . never wanting , ib. its use , ib. tibia , v. bones . tongue , t. . f. . its external covering in brutes view'd with a microscope , t. . f. , , , . subjacent membrane , its superior part , f. . lower-part , f. . small vessels , ib. nervous papillary plexus and glands , f. . appears alike in men , except the horny covering , f. . villous and nervous bodies and glands in a humane tongue , ap. f. . various orders of fibres , t. . f. . muscles , v. muscles . tonsils , in situ , t. . f. . external surface , ap. f. . torcular herophisi , t. . f. . t. . f. . ap. f. . vein emp●ying it self at it , t. . f. . tradaea or wind-pipe its fore-part , t. . f. . t. ● . f. , . t. . f. . ap. f. . back-part , t. . f. . ap. f. , . small glands which appear on it , their use , ap. f. . a portion of it cut off , t. . f. . open'd , ap. f. . external membrane , t. . f. . muscular fassiculi lying between its cartilages , t. ead . f. . glandulous membrane , t. . f. . internal membrane , t. ead . f. . ap. f. . order of its fibres , and their use , ib. trepan to be used with great care , t. . f. . trochlea of the eye , t. . f. . tubae falloppiaenae , t. , . in a foetus , t. . open'd , t. , f. . t. . f. . distended , in c●itu , and afterwards , t. . f. , . by what means , f. . time of it uncertain , ib. orifices , t. . f. . cavity , t. . internal membrane rugous , t. . f. . expanded , t. . f. . f●●riae , t. , . f. . t. . f. . embracing the ovaria , t. ead . f. . number of blood-vessels and colour noted , t. . f. . tumor● milky , how ca●●'d , t. . f. . 〈◊〉 , v. ear. v. vagina uteri open'd , t. . f. , . inverted , t. . f. . strained in c●●ta , and by what means , t. . f. . 〈…〉 and use , ib. other glands their ducts , and use describe 〈◊〉 rugous membrane describ'd , ib. caen●●●l● myrtiformes and hymen , ib. insertion of the meatus urinarius , t. . f. . vapours in expiration whence they proceed , ap. f. . vas deserens , v. testicles . vasa breviae , t. . f. . vasa praeparania in a man , v. artery spermatick , vein spermatick . vasa praeparantiae in a woman , t. , . f. , . valves in the veins , v. veins . valvulae connive●●●e , v. intestines . valvulae tricuspides or mitrales , v. heart . valvulae sigmoides or semilio●●res , v. arteries , aorta , pulmonary . veins their coats , t. . f. , , . valves , t. ead . f. , , , , , , . continued channels from the arteries , ap. f. , . use of the valves , and their number noted , t. . f. . their distance , t. ead . f. . — aryg●● , sc. sine pari its use , introd . — umbilical open'd t. . f. . injected , f. . entring the liver , t. , . — spermatick , t. , . f. . t. . f. , . t. . f. . injected , t. ead . f. . their ramifications on the testes , t. . f. . plexus pampiniformis or varicosus , t. . f. . how they empty themselves , t. . why t●●tnous in men , and straight in quadrupedes , t. . f. . — internal jugular , t. . f. ● . t. . f. , . care must be had of it in c●●ing 〈…〉 necks , ib. if wounded how to be treated , ib. — subclavian wounded , and how cur'd , t. 〈…〉 — on the inside of the arm , t . f. . — in the ham , t. . — of the muscles on the fore-part of the tibia , t. ● . — corresponding to the arteria bronchialis , t. . f. . — pulmonick lying on the bronchia , t. . f. . entring the heart , t. . f. . vena cavae descending trunk , t. . f. . ascending , t. , , , . branches iliack , t. , . emulgent , t. . v. kidneys . vertebral , t. . vena p●●sa it● use , introd . ventricles of the heart , v. heart . ventricles of the brain , t. . f. . ap. f. , . vertebrae , v. bones . vasiculae seminales their fore-part , t. . f. . instated , t. . f. . divided , t. . f. . membrane , t. . f. . vasiculae , f. . seminal-ducts , ib. blood-vessels , t. . f. . vesiculae mi●●● , ap. f. . ulna , v. bones . umbilical rope , v. navel-string . umbilical vessels , v. arteries , veins , urachus , and excretory-ducts . urachus , t. ib. f. , . t. , . an account of it , t. . ureters , in situ , t. . in a foetus , t. . taken out , t. , . their origin , t. . f. , , , , , . insertion , t. . f. . membranes examin'd by a microscope , t. . f. . urethra where it bends under the os pubic , t. . f. . sometimes wounded by ignorant lythoromists , instances given , ib. bulb of the cavernous body , t. . f. . an induration in it hinders erection of the glans , an observation proving it , t. . f. . open'd , t. . f. . t. . f. . caruncle and ostiolae of the prosta● in it , t. . f. . cavernous body open'd after inflation , t. . f. . cut transversly , f. . capsula , t. . f. . where divided in cutting for the stone , t. . f. . urinary passage in women , t. . f. . open'd , f. . uterus , t. . open'd , t. . f. . cavity and thickness before impregnation , ib. fore-part soon after impregnation , t. . f. . blood-vessels more extended than before , ib. back-part of the same , t. ead . f. . blood-vessels injected , ib. after seven months gone with child , t. . the same divided , t. , . veins much dilated , t. . inequalities of the inner surface , t. . vessels inosculate with those of the placenta , t. . external membrane , t. . f. . round ligament , t. , . f. , . their composition and progress , t. . broad ligament , t. , . f. , . what it is , t. . cervix or neck divested of its common membrane , t. . f. . open'd , t. . f. . its orifice , ib. rugae , ib. moisten'd with a serous liquor , t. . f. . stop'd with a glutinous matter after impregnation , ib. grows thicker as the birth grows on , t. ● . 〈…〉 swell'd after the birth , ib. 〈◊〉 , t. . f. . t. . f. . its use in deglutition , introduct . w. wind-pipes its upper-part , v. l●rynx . middle-part , v. trachea . lower-part , v. bronchia . womb , v. uterus . wounds gleeting whence it proceeds , ap. f. . wry necks caution in cutting them , t. . f. . y. yard , v. penis . finis . the manuall of the anatomy or dissection of the body of man containing the enumeration, and description of the parts of the same, which usually are shewed in the publike anatomicall exercises. enlarged and more methodically digested into . books. by alexander read, doctor of physick, a fellow of the physitians college of london, and a brother of the worshipfull company of the barber-chirurgeons. read, alexander, ?- . approx. kb of xml-encoded text transcribed from -bit group-iv tiff page images. text creation partnership, ann arbor, mi ; oxford (uk) : - (eebo-tcp phase ). a stc estc s this keyboarded and encoded edition of the work described above is co-owned by the institutions providing financial 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(eebo-tcp ; phase , no. a ) transcribed from: (early english books online ; image set ) images scanned from microfilm: (early english books, - ; : ) the manuall of the anatomy or dissection of the body of man containing the enumeration, and description of the parts of the same, which usually are shewed in the publike anatomicall exercises. enlarged and more methodically digested into . books. by alexander read, doctor of physick, a fellow of the physitians college of london, and a brother of the worshipfull company of the barber-chirurgeons. read, alexander, ?- . marshall, william, fl. - , engraver. read, alexander, ?- . treatise of all the muscles of the whole bodie. aut [ ], , [ ]; [ ] p., v leaves of plates printed by i[ohn] h[aviland] for f. constable, and are to be sold at his shop under saint martins church neere ludgate, london : . with an additional title page, engraved, signed: will: marshall, sculpsit. printer's name from stc. the first leaf is blank. includes his "a treatise of all the muscles of the whole bodie", , a reissue of stc (signatures a-h¹² (-a - )). reproduction of the original in the british library. lacking part . created by converting tcp files to tei p using tcp tei.xsl, tei @ oxford. re-processed by university of nebraska-lincoln and northwestern, with changes to facilitate morpho-syntactic tagging. gap elements of known extent have been transformed into placeholder characters or elements to simplify the filling in of gaps by user contributors. eebo-tcp is a partnership between the universities of michigan and oxford and the publisher proquest to create accurately transcribed and encoded texts based on the image sets published by proquest via their early english books online (eebo) database (http://eebo.chadwyck.com). the general aim of eebo-tcp is to encode one copy (usually the first edition) of every monographic english-language title published between and available in eebo. eebo-tcp aimed to produce large quantities of textual data 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characters will be marked as illegible. users should bear in mind that in all likelihood such instances will never have been looked at by a tcp editor. the texts were encoded and linked to page images in accordance with level of the tei in libraries guidelines. copies of the texts have been issued variously as sgml (tcp schema; ascii text with mnemonic sdata character entities); displayable xml (tcp schema; characters represented either as utf- unicode or text strings within braces); or lossless xml (tei p , characters represented either as utf- unicode or tei g elements). keying and markup guidelines are available at the text creation partnership web site . eng human anatomy -- early works to . - tcp assigned for keying and markup - spi global keyed and coded from proquest page images - tcp staff (michigan) sampled and proofread - tcp staff (michigan) text and markup reviewed and edited - pfs batch review (qc) and xml conversion the manvall of the anatomy or dissections of the body of man , which usually are shewed in the publike anatomicall exercises . methodically digested into books by alexander read , d ; of physick london , sold by f. constable , at his shop church , neere ● the manvall of the anatomy of dissection of the body of man , containing the enumeration , and description of the parts of the same , which usually are shewed in the publike anatomicall exercises . enlarged and more methodically digested into books . by alexander read , doctor of physick , a fellow of the physitians college of london , and a brother of the worshipfull company of the barber-chirurgeons . london , printed by j. h. for f. constable , and are to be sold at his shop under saint martins church neere ludgate . . carolo magnae britanniae monarchae , hiberniaeque ac galiae regi potentissimo fausta omnia precor . en offero majestati vestrae lucubratiunculas istas anatomicas . munus fate or te minimè dignum , quem deus ad supremum ferè honoris in terris culmen evexit . nihilominus si omnia justo trutinae examine pensentur , quivis aequus arbiter pronuntiabit eas ad te properare debere . cogitaverat pridem apud se majestas vestra quàm utile , imo necessarium huic reipublicae sit multos habere peritos chirurgos , sive pax alma floreat , sive bellum ingruat . quapropter ea sanxit , ut doctus aliquis ac peritus medicus communion is hujus fratribus ex suggestu , singulis aiebus martis , huic exercitio destinatis praecepta artis traderet ab auditoribus excipienda , atque anatomicis dissectionibus temporibus constitutis praecsset . quum ea munia mihi obeunda ante aliquot annos commissa fuissent , animadverti illorum inrebus anatomicis profectum mirè tardatum , quod nullum haberent compendium anatomicum , lingua vulgari emissum . ut huic desiderio occurrerem compendiolum tale inlucem emisi : ex cujus lectione tyrones fructum aliquem percepere . verum quum proficientibus visum fuisset nimis jejunum sumpsi id iterum in manus , ac copiosius de humani corporis partibus disserui . quum itaqque secunda cura refictum in lucem emittendum sit , ad quem potius , quàm ad vestram majestatem tendet , quae primae foeturae autrix fuit . nec est quod verear me audaciae , aut inverecundiae crimen incursurum : quum mihi securitatem promittat eximia vestra comitas atque affabilitas erga omnes , quae omnium amorem conciliant , ut dignitas regia timorem . quae duo sceptra regibus firmant . unum hoc opellae huic ex hac dedicatione promittere possum : eam gratiorem omnibus futuram , quod tanti ac talis regis nomen sibi praescripserit . scribebam londini . calend . octob. anni ab exhibito in carne messia , supra millesimum sexcentesimum tricesimi septimi . vestrae majestatis cultor humilimus alexander reidus scoto-britannus . the number and contents of the bookes . the first booke containeth the description of the parts of the belly , and hath . chap. the second booke containeth the description of the parts of the brest , and hath . chapters . the third booke describeth the head , and hath . chapt. the fourth setteth downe the veines , arteries , and sinews of the limbs , and hath . chap. the fifth setteth downe the bones , and hath . chapters . with the sixth booke of muscles , and a table of the figures . fig. i. fig. ii. the first booke of the lower cavitie called abdomen . cap. i. of the division of the parts of the body of man in generall . anatomy is an artificiall separation of the parts of the body of section , practised to attaine to the knowledge of the frame of it , and the use of each part . in anatomicall exercises first , the whole carcase doth offer it selfe : then the parts . the whole hath foure regions , to wit , the fore and back parts , and the laterall , which are the right and left . i call the whole that which containeth the parts , and a part that which is contained in the whole , according to the most ample acception of the terme part ; for in a more strict acceptation a part is a body solid cohering with the whole endued with life , and framed to performe some function . a part then must bee solid , the humours then cannot bee numbred amongst the parts , because they are fluid . secondly , it must have life , and so the extremities of haires and nailes are not to be accounted parts . thirdly , one part must not nourish another , and so the bloud , fat , and spirits are not parts . fourthly , it must have a circumscription . fifthly , it must bee united with the whole . sixthly , it must have some action and use . the principall differences of parts are taken either from their nature or functions . from their nature , parts are said to be either similary or dissimilary . a similary part is that whose particles are of the same substance and denomination with the whole : as every portion of a bone is a bone . it is otherwise called a simple part . of simple parts there are ten in number , to wit , the skin , a membrane , the flesh , a fiber , a veine , an artery , a nerve , a ligament , a cartilage , and a bone ; they are comprehended in these two lines . cartilago , caro , membrana , arteria , nervus ; vena , ligamentum , cutis , os , lentissima fibra . to these a tendon , which is the principall part of a muscle , may be added ; for the substance of it is simple , without any composition . of the former simple parts some are simple indeed , and these are in number seven ; the skin , a membrane , the flesh , a fibre , a ligament , a cartilage , a bone . the rest are onely simple to the eye or sense , and not to reason , for a nerve ( for example ) is composed of many filaments , covered with a membrane . a dissimilary part is that whose portions are neither of the same substance , nor the same denomination , as a muscle , in the which are flesh , a nerve and a tendon . it is otherwise called a compound part , and an organicall part . in an organicall part foure particles are found ; first , the chiefe particle , as the crystallin humour in the eye . secondly , that particle , without the which the action cannot bee performed , as the optick nerve . thirdly , that which furthereth the action , as are the membranes and muscles . fourthly , that by the which the action is preserved , as the eyelids . of organicall parts there are foure degrees . the first is made onely of the similars , as a muscle . the second receiveth the first kind of organicall parts , and other similaries , as a finger . the third admitteth those of the second degree , as the hand . the fourth is made of the third and other parts , as the arme . parts from their function are said to bee either sustaining or sustained . the bones sustaine the frame of the whole body , the rest are sustained . now these are the cavities or the limbs . cap. ii. of the circumscription , regions , substance , and parts of the abdomen . of all the parts of the body which are sustained , wee are to begin dissection with the cavities : first , because they offer themselves to the view in the fore region of the body . secondly , because they being moyst , and apt to receive the impression of the externall heat , soonest putrefie , and send out noysome smels . the cavities are appointed to receive the principall parts , and those which minister unto them . wherefore there are three cavities according to the number of the principall parts . the head is for the braine , the breast is for the heart , and the belly for the liver . and because this cavity is most subject to putrefaction , you are to begin at it . now foure things concerning it offer themselves . first , the circumscription or bounding of it . secondly , the regions of it . thirdly , the substance of it . fourthly , the speciall parts of it . as concerning the circumscription of it , it is severed from the brest by the midrife . it is bounded above by the cartilago ensiformis , and beneath with the share bones . the regions of it are three , the uppermost , middlemost , and lowermost . the uppermost which is bounded betweene the mucronita cartilago , and three inches above the navell , about the ending of the short ribs , hath three parts : the laterall , which are called hypochondria , or subcartilaginea , because they be under the cartilages of the short ribs . in the right hypochondrium lyeth the greatest part of the liver , but in the left the spleen , and greatest part of the stomack . the third part is that which before lyeth betweene the two laterall parts , and is properly called epigastrium , because the stomack lyeth under it . in this part remarkable is the pit of the brest , which is called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 or scrobiculus cordis , by the moderne writers . the middlemost part extendeth it selfe from three inches above the navell , to three inches under it . the fore part is where the navell is , from whence it is called regio umbilicalis . the two laterall parts have no proper denominations . in the right are contained intestinum caecum with part of colon. in the left part of it , a portion of iejunum and the rest of colon . the rest of iejunum is under the navell . the navell in man is wrinkled , as the forehead of an aged woman ; but in other creatures it is onely a hard knot without haires , having no wrinkle . it hath no laterall parts , having no proper names , although laurentius lib. . histor. anatom . affirmeth it to have , and give them names ; in this region is contained the whole hungry gut . the lower region called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 : this region hath three parts , the laterall , and the middlemost : the laterall which reach to the hypochondria , are called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , because they are the seat of lust , which is called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 . by hippoc . they are termed 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , because they being placed betweene the hanch-bones and ribs , are lanke , and seeme to containe nothing . in latine they are called ilia , because the iliam intestina lieth under them on every side . besides this in the right part are placed portions of the colon , & caecum intestinum , which are tyed together . in the left part are contained a great part of the colon , and the intestinum rectum . the fore part of the hypogastrium by aristot. lib. i. histor. animal . . is called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , which gaza calleth abdomen and sumen . under it lieth the pubes , which word signifieth both the haires , and the place where the haires grow , which appeare to budde in girles the twelft yeere , but in boyes the fourteenth yeere , when way is made for the monethly courses and seed , the skin being there made thinner , the heat increasing in them . at the sides of the pubes appeare 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , or inguina , the groines . under this middle region , are contained the bladder , the intestinum rectum , and the matrix in women . the hindermost parts are called lumbi the loines , and they reach from the bending of the back to the buttocks called nates ab innitenda , because when we sit , we rest upon them . the fleshy part on each side is called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , à palpando , from calling or clapping . in the right loyne , the right kidney ; but in the left , the left kidney is contained . cap. iii. of the common containing parts of the belly . the common containing parts of the belly are foure , the skarf-skin , the skin , the fat , and the membrana carnosa . the skin in man is called cutis , but in beasts aluta , in greeke it is called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , and 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 ; either 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , because it is easily flead off , or from 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , seeing it is the end and superficies of the whole body : of all the membranes of the body , it is the thickest . it hath a double substance ; the one is externall called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , because it is placed upon the skin as a cover , but is termed cuticula in latin ; for it is as large as the skin , and more compact ; for watrish sharp humours passing through the skin are stayed by the thicknesse of this , and so pustules are caused . in man it is as the peelings in onions . it is without bloud , and without feeling . three causes concurre to the generation of it ; to wit , the materiall cause is a viscous and oleous vapour of the bloud . the internall efficient cause , the naturall heat of the subjacent parts , raising it up . the externall efficient cause is the externall coldnes , partly of the aire , partly of the skin it selfe : it is engendered even as the thin skin in milk , and fat broths : it is hardly separate from the skin with a knife ; but easily in living creatures , by a vesicatory , and in dead persons by fire , or scalding hot water . . the use of it is to defend the skin , which is of an equisit sense , from externall immoderate , either heat , or cold . in cold weather it breaketh the cold , that the perspiration should not be altogether hindered : in hot weather by it compactnesse , it hindereth too great perspiration . secondly , to be a middle betweene the skin and the object of feeling . thirdly , to stay the ichorous substance from issuing from the veines and arteries ; for this we see when the cuticula is rubbed off by any meanes . the true skin is six times thicker than the skarfe skin : in children , women , and those which are borne in hot contreyes , it is thinner , but in men , and in those who inhabit cold countries , it is thicker . the negroes become black , because they having a softer skin , and large pores and loose , many vapours of the adjust humours , which are raised with the sweat , the grosser substance whereof by reason of the excessive heat , being dryed and burned , caused the blacknesse of the skin ; for their infants are not borne black , but redish ; and they afterwords become black , the cuticula growing in them as in us . the skin in the forehead and sides it is thin , thinner yet in the palme of the hand , but thinnest of all in the lips and cods . in the head , back , and under the heele it is thickest . under the heele , the cuticula in some will be as thick as a barley corne . the pores will appeare in the skin in the winter time , it being bared ; for where they are , the cuticula will appeare as a goose skin . the skin hath an action , to wit , the sense of feeling . pinguedo , 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , est humor mor oleosus nostri corporis a calore moderato subjectarum illi partium elevatus , ac inter membranam carnosam ac cutem concrescens , quae partes sunt densiores ac frigidiores . ejus . sunt species , axungia 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , & saevum sive 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 . they differ , for first , axungia is in beasts not horned , which are full toothed ; but saevum in beasts not horned , which are not full toothed . secondly , axungia is easily melted , but not so easily congealed ; but saevum is not easily melted , but is easily congealed . thirdly , grease is not brittle , but tallow is . the fat under the skin is grease ; but in the caule , kidneies , the heart , the eyes , and about the joynts it is tallow . the uses of it are these : first , it defendeth the body from the aire ; so apothecaries when they meane to preserve juyces , they powre oyle upon them . secondly , it preserveth the naturall heat . thirdly , it furthereth beauty by filling up the wrinkles of the skin . fourthly , in the muscles it filleth up the empty places , it is under the vessels that they may passe safely ; in the entrals it helpeth concoction , in the buttocks it is as downe in a pillow . membrana carnosa or 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , so called in man , not that it is in him fleshy , but nervous , and so nervea ; but because in beasts , which the ancients used most commonly to dissect , it is endued with fleshy fibers , in the birth it is red , but in those of ripe age white ; in the forehead and neck , it is more fleshy . within it is bedewed with a viseuous humour , to further their motion by keeping the superficies of them , from desiccation , which otherwise might fall out by reason of their motion . it is of an exquisit sense , whereof when it is pricked with sharp humours it causeth groouing : such as are felt in the beginning of ague fits . first , it preserveth the heat of the internall parts . secondly it furthereth the gathering of the fat . thirdly , it strengtheneth the vessels , which passe betweene it and the skin . cap. iv. of the proper containing parts . the proper containing parts are the muscles of the belly , and the peritonaeum . of the muscles we have spoken else where , a pag. ad . & . & . peritonaeum is tyed above to the midrife , below to the share and flanke bones , in the forepart firmly to the transverse muscles , but chiefly to their tendons about the linea alba , behind to the fleshy heads of these muscles loosely and the membrane of the nerves , which come from the vertebrae of the lovnes . the end of this firme connexion is to presse equally the belly , for the expulsion of the ordure and breathing . if this connexion had not beene , the peritonaeum would have become wrinkled , the muscles being contracted . if it had not beene loose tyed to the fleshy parts , the contraction of them in the compression of the belly had beene hindered . as for the proceeding of it , fallopius will have it to proceed from a strong twisting of sinewes , from whence the mesenterium hath its beginning . some will have it to proceed from the ligaments , by the which the vertebrae of the loynes and the ossacrum are tyed together . picolhomineus will have them to be framed of those nerves which spring out of the spinalis medulla about the first , and third vertebrae of the loynes , which are tyed together by both the menings , when they marche further : here it is very thick , because it was to bee much extended . it is double every where , but chiefly about the vertebrae of the loynes , where betweene the duplications lie the vena cava , the aorta , and the kidneies . in the hypagastrium two tunicles are apparently seene , betweene which the bladder and matrix lie . all the parts which receive nourishment from the vena cava , are seated betweene the coats , as the afore named parts ; but those which receive nourishment from the vena porta , as are they which serve for concoction of the nourishment , are not , the umbilicall vessels also are placed in the duplicature of the peritonaeum , that they may march the more safely . to the beginning of the productions of the peritonaeum , the inner coat cleaveth firmly , and shutteth the hole , by the which the spermatick vessels passe from the lower part of the belly . if this be broken , the outer coat is relaxed , and so a rupture is caused . the peritonaeum is thickost ; first , where there are maniest humours , to hinder the breaking of the subjacent part , and issuing out of them , as above the stomack . secondly , where many vessels , and spirits are , as above the spleen . thirdly , where much stretching is required , as above the bladder , matrix and stomack . cap. v. of the omentum . the parts contained serve either for nutrition , or procreation . as for the parts serving for nutrition , they either serve for chylification , or sanguification . the principall efficient cause of chylification , is the stomack ; but the adjuvants , are the caule and the pancreas . the principall efficient causes of sanguification , are the liver , and spleen , but the other parts are the adjuvant causes . of these some receive the excrements of the chylification , as the guts . the excrements of the sanguification are two , choler , and the watrish humour . the thin choler is received by the vesica fellea ; but the grosse choler , by the meatus cholidochus : the watrish humour is turned to the kidnies , and from thence to the bladder , by the vreters . the parts appointed for procreation , are the genitals , both in men , and women . next then to the peritonaeum is the omentum , or caul , in greeke it is called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 because it seemeth to swim above the upper guts . the arabians call it zirbus . it is composed of two membranes . the uppermost doth spring about the bottome of the stomack , from the common coat of it , and is tyed to the hollow part of the liver and spleen . the lowermost doth spring from the peritonaeum , immediatly under the midrife towards the back , and is tyed to the hollow part of the liver , to the midrife , to the duodenum intestinum , to the convex part of the spleen , and last of all , to all that part of the colon which marcheth under the stomack . it hath veines onely from porta gastroepiplois dextra & sinistra : they are inserted into the upper membrane ; but epiplois dextra , & postica in to the inferiour membrane . it hath so many arteries from ramus soeliacus , & mesenteruus . it hath small sinews from the costale branch of the sixt paire . it hath much fat : if it be plentifull , and the caule reach to the os pubis , in women it causeth sterility , by compressing the mouth of the matrix ; in men it causeth a rupture , by relaxing the peritonaeum : this rupture is called epiploenterocele . in figure it representeth a faulkners pouch , according to galen : the mouth is round , and the bottom is made by the two membranes joyned together . this will appeare if you fill it with water , by galens advice . it is then of substance membranous , that it might admit dilatation , and extension . it is thin , that it should not burden the subjacent parts ; it is compact to hinder the dissipation of the internall heat , and to repell the externall cold . the fat is about the veines and arteries , to strengthen them , from being compressed by the repletion of the belly , and other motions . when the stomack is full , and the guts empty , the upper membrane is raised , the lower remaining in its owne place ; but if the guts bee full , and the stomack empty , then the lower membrane riseth up , the upper remaining in is town place . it is tyed to the stomack , being a middle part betweene the colon and the spleen , and that it should not totter from side to side . it is tyed in the right side to the colon and liver , but in the left side to the spleene . it hath its beginning from those parts unto which it is tyed , that it might receive veines and arteries from thence for bloud , and life . the lower part is free and untyed , that sometimes the upper , sometimes the lower membrane might rise up . the uses of it are three : first , it cherisheth the internall heat of the stomack and intestins . secondly , it ministreth nourishment to the parts in time of famine , galen . de us . part . li. . c. ii. the third is to containe the humours flowing from the intestins , which the glandules cannot receive wholly at one time , hippoc. lib. de glandalis . creatures which have no caule , help the concoction , by doubling their hinder legs and resting their belly upon them , as hares and connies . they who have had a portion of it cut off , because it was corrupted , having fallen out , by reason of a wound received in the abdomen , have afterward a weake concoction , and are enforced to cover the belly well . see galen . lib. . de usis . part . . where he proveth this by example . cap. vi. of the guia. the gullet or weazand is an organicall part , which beginneth about the root of the tongue , and passeth from thence directly betweene the wind-pipe , the vertebrae of the neck , and the foure first vertebrae of the brest , upon the which it resteth ; but when it is come to the fift vertebra of the brest , it giveth way to the trunke of the great artery descending by turning a little to the right side : afterward accompanying the arterie to the ninth vertebra , there it is raised up by means of the membranes from the vertebra , and marching above the arterie , it passeth through the nervous body of the midrife , and is inserted into the left orifice of the ventriculus , about the eleventh vertebra of the brest . it is called properly 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , quia angustus & longus . see aristor . i. histor . animal . . it is also called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 quod cibum ad ventriculum vehat . it is framed of three membranes . the first is the uttermost and common compassing the two proper , which it hath either from the peritonaeum according to some , or from the ligaments of the vertebrae of the necke and brest upon which it resteth . the second is the middlemost , and it is fleshie and thicke , and hath only transverse fibres . the third is the innermost , and it is membranous , and hath only small and straight fibres . it is joyned to that membrane which covereth the throat , palat , mouth and lips ; so that before vomiting , signes in the lips will appeare . it hath veins both from the vena cava , and the porta : for it hath sprigs from vena sine pari while it is yet in the brest ; but where it is joyned to the ventricle , it hath some twigs from ramus coronarius , which proceedeth from the porta . it hath arteries from the intercostal arteries , and ramus caeliacus coronarius . nerves it hath from the sixth paire , which are carried obliquely for fafetie , as galen noteth . de usu part . . and are very many ; which is the cause that the parts about the upper orifice of the ventricle are so sensible . it hath foure glandules ; two in the throat , which are called tonsillae , or almonds , common to the weazand and the larynx , which prepare the pituitous humour to moysten them : other two it hath about the middle of it towards the backe about that place , where the aspera arteria is divided into two branches , under which it lieth . the weazand serveth as a funnell to carry meat and drinke to the maw , for it receiveth them by dilating its proper internall coat , and turneth them downe by the constriction of the middlemost coat , and the muscules of the pharynx . cap. vii . of the ventriculus or stomacke . that part which we terme the stomack in english , in latine is called ventriculus , to distinguish it from the great ventricles . in greeke , 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 and 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 from its cavitie . it is placed immediatly under the midrife , which it toucheth , wherfore if it bee too full , it causeth a difficulty of breathing by hindering the motion of it . in the forepart , and in the right side , it is covered with the hollow part of the liver : in the left side by the spleen ; towards the back by the aorta , the vena cava , and the pancreas , which further its heat . the bignesse of it is commonly such , as is capable to receive so much food at one time , as is sufficient for nutrition . it is lesse in women than in men , to give way to the distention of the matrix . they who have large mouths , have large stomacks . it is joined with the gula on the left side , where its upper orifice is ; it is tyed to the duodenum , where the lower orifice is on the right side . the bottome is joyned to the upper part of the caule . the substance of it is membranous , that it might admit distention and constriction . it hath three membranes . the first is common , w ch it hath from the peritonaeum about the upper orifice ; it is the thickest of all those which spring from the peritonaeum , the fibres of it are strait . the second is fleshy , and the fibres of it are transverse , under which a few oblique and fleshy lye . the third is membranous , endued with all kinds of fibres , the straight are most conspicuous and plentifull , to embrace the food firmly , untill chylification be perfected , as the second membrane hath oblique to expell the chylus . it hath also two orifices . the one is in the left side , called sinistrum wider than that in the right , that meat not well chewed might the better passe ; it is called in greek 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , cor , from whence the paines which happen in it are called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 and 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 . 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , because there is a great consent betweene it and the heart , by reason of the twigs of nerves , which proceed from the same branch , which doe spring from the sixth paire communicat to both , so that one being affected primarily , the other must suffer by consent . this hath orbicular fibres , that the meat and drink being once received within the capacity of the stomack , it might bee exactly shut , lest fumes and the heat should break out , which might hinder concoction . the other by the grecians is called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , janitor , or doore-keeper , because it as a porter doth make way for the chylus to descend to the duodenum : it is not wide as the other orifice , because it was onely to transmisse the elaborate chylus : wherefore besides its transverse fibres , it hath a thicke & compact circle representing the sphinter muscule , that it might the more easily open and shut . it hath veines , first from the trunck of vena porta , and this is pytoricus ramus , or from the branches of the same : wherefore from ramus splenicus it hath gastrica , from whence coronaria springeth ; gastroepiplois sinistra , & vas breve , from the ramus mesentericus . before it bee divided it hath gastroepiplois dextra . it hath arteries from ramus coeliacus , which doe accompany every veine . it hath many nerves from the sixt pair , which with the gula passing through the midrife crosse one another ; for the right sinew doth compasse the left and fore part ; but the left , the right and hinder part of the stomacke . so that the upper part of the stomacke is of an exquisite sense . these three vessels passe betweene the common and proper coats , and end in their orifices in the internall membrane . it is the seat of hunger , and soonest doth feele the defect of aliment : for blood being spent in the veins , upon the nourishment of the body , the fibres of the internall membrane of the stomacke are contracted , and so this paine which is called hunger is caused . the action of the stomacke is chylification : now chylus is a white juyce reasonable thicke like barley creame , wrought by the faculty of the stomacke out of the aliments . this is chiefly elaborate by the heat of the stomacke , yet the adjacent parts putting to their helping hands ; as in the right side , the liver ; in the left , the spleene : above the midrife , below the guts , before the caule , behinde the trunckes of vena cava and the aorta . this heat of the stomacke is temperate , and somewhat moist , that this concoction might resemble boyling . of figure , it is round moderately , partly that it should not take too much room , partly that it might receive much . it is somewhat long and hath two orifices higher than the bottome , lest fone should have been in the bottome , the alimēt unconcocted should have issued out of it . cap viii . of the intestines or guts . the guts are called in latine intestina , in greeke 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 . they begin at the pylorus , and end in the fundament . they have a round figure , that they might containe sufficient nourishment . they are of a membranous substance , that they might readily constriction and dilation . in length they are six times as long as the whole body . they have three coats , one common from the peritonaeum , but mediatly ; for in the duodenum , and that part of the colon which cleaveth to the stomack , it proceedeth immediatly from the lower membrane of the caul ; but in the jejunum , ●leum , the rest of the colon , and the thick guts it proceedeth from the membranes of the mesenterium . they have two proper , to retaine , and expell readily ; the outermost is membranous , the innermost nervous , although it seeme to bee fleshy , by reason of the crusty substance , with the which it is lyned ; which is framed of the excrements of the third concoction of the guts themselves . it is also glased with a mucous substance , which is nothing else but an excrementiticus fleamy substance , bred in the first concoction : this furthereth the expulsion of the faeces , and hindereth excoriatiō , which might be caused when sharp humors passe thorow them . this internall membrane in the small guts hath oblique fibres , but the externall transverse , because these are appointed for the retention and expulsion of the chylus . but in the thick guts , the inner membrane hath transverse , but the outer hath oblique and straight , because they are appointed for the expulsion of the excrements : the inner membrane of the small guts is full of wrinkles , to stay the chylus from passing too soone . between the common coat and those which are proper , the vena & arteris mesaraicae march . the veins flow from the porca , although not from the same branch : for the duodenus surculus is sent into the duodenum , and the haemorrhoidalis , to the left part of the colon , and the whole rectum , as the dexter mesentericus is sent to the jejunum , caecum , ileum , and the right part of the colon . epiplois postica , is inserted into the middle part of the colon , which marcheth transversly under the stomacke ; besides these a sprig from the ramus epigastricus of the vena cava is sent to the intestinum rectum , which maketh the externall haemorrhoidal . the arteries spring partly from ramus caeliacus , partly from both the mesentericae , to the duodenum , and the beginning of iejunum , a sprig is sent from the right ramus caeliacus : but to the rest of the iejunum , to ileum , caecum , and the right part of colon mesentericus superior : to the left part of colon , and to the intestinum rectum , mesentericus inferior is sent . at the last , epiplois postica , which riseth from the lower part of arteria spleaica , which is the left branch of arteria caeliaca , is sent to the middle part of colon , which lieth under the stomacke . nerves they have from the sixth paire : the duodenum hath small twigs from the stomack , which goe to the pylorus . the other guts have very many , which spring from the branch , which is bestowed upon the roots of the ribs : but the intestinum rectum , about the podex hath four twigs from the fifth conjugation of those which spring from the os sacrum . this is the cause why so great paine is felt in the colon , & rectum , when they are ill affected . the guts have fat without , and not within . the guts are of two sorts ; for they are either thin or thicke . the thin which have thinner membranes are in number three . the first is duodenum , because it is thought to have twelve inches in length . it doth passe directly under the stomack to the beginning of those guts which begin to bee gathered by the mesentereum , for this is tied with it . the second is iejunum , or the hungrie gut ; for in dead carcasses it is for the most part found emptie ; partly by reason of the multitude of the veins , partly by reason of the acrimony of the choler , which proceedeth pure from the liver . in length it is . hands bredth and three inches , and as broad as the ring finger . the internall membrane is longer than the externall ; for it hath innumerable orbicular , and transverse wrinkles to stay the chylus . it beginneth on the right side , under the colon , where the dnodenum endeth , and the guts begin to be wreathed , and filling almost the whole umbilical region , it endeth into the ileum : of all other guts it hath greatest store of veins and arteries ; and by these you may finde the circumscription of it . meatns biliaerius is inserted into the beginning of this gut which sendeth choler from the gall , which pricketh the guts to hasten expulsion . the third is ileum , it hath thinner membranes than the rest of the tenuia . it is seated under the navell , and filleth both the ilia . it is the longest of all the guts , for in length it containeth . hand-bredth , but it is the narrowest of all , for it is but an inch in bredth . it hath fewer wrinkles than the jejunum , and lesser , which about the end of it scarcely appeare . it beginneth where both smaller and fewer veins appeare , and endeth about the place of the right kidnie , where it is joyned both with the intestinum coecum , & colon . the externall coat of the tenuia intestina is more thin and fleshy than the internall . it hath transverse and orbicular fibres , with a few straight to strengthen the transverse . the internall coat it hath partly straight , partly oblique fibres . yet fewer straight than the crassa intestina have . these guts have a motion inch as wormes have when they crawl , or leeches when they suck , to draw downward the chylus : for it is not in our power to send this away , as we doe the excrements . the crassa intestina have not this motion , and by reason of this motion the upper part of the gut may be wrapped in the lower , which causeth the sicknesse called ileos or convolvulus . now follow the intestina crassa , the great guts , they are three in number also . the first is called coecum 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , the blind gut , because one end of it is shut , so that at the same orifice the chylus passeth , and returneth . in man it is like a thick round worme coyled together . it is bigger in an infant than in a man , foure inches in length and one in bredth . it is not tyed to the mesenterium ; but being couched round , it is tyed to the right kidnie . in sound persons it is alwais empty . in foure footed beast ; it is alwaies full of excrements . apes have it larger than a man , dogs larger than apes ; but conies , squirrels and rats , largest of all , if you consider the proportion of their bodies . the second is colon , 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 : because it detaineth the excrements . it hath it beginning from ileum & coecum , and mounting up by the dextrum ilium , when it comes to the liver , it passeth transversly under the stomack to the left ilium , and from thence to the beginning of os sacrum . it is tied first to the right kidnie in the right side , by the externall membrane , then in the middle to the bottom of the stomack , and at the last unto the left kidney . in length , it is of seven hand bredth , and seven inches . it is the broadest of all others , that it might containe all the excrements . it hath cels , which spring from the internal tunicle of it ; these cels are kept in their figure , by a ligament halfe an inch broad , which passeth thorow the upper and middle part of it all alongst ; this being broken or dissolved , the cels appeare no more . their use is to hinder the flowing of the excrements to one place , which would compresse the parts adjacent . it hath a value where it is joyned with ileum , like to the sigmoides in the sinus of the heart . this value so stoppeth the hole which is common to the ilcon and colon , that flatuosity cannot ascend to the ileum , much lesse excrements regurgitat . if one would find this cut , let him powre in water into the intestinum rectum , and hold up the guts . the water will stay when it is come to the value , if it bee found . if this value be relaxed by sicknesse , excrements may regurgitat , and expelled by vomit and clysters , also come to stomack . the third is intestinum rectum , the straight gut ; it hath its beginning where the colon endeth , & endeth where it maketh the anus : it is of a 〈◊〉 in length , not so wide as the colon , the muscle 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , is at the end of it : it hath thick and fleshy externall coats , and so a solution of unity in it may the sooner be united . it hath many transverse fibres , few oblique , and some straight . it hath veins not from porta onely as the rest ; but from the trunck of the cava descending also , w ch make the externall hemorrhoidall . the guts have a three-fold use , for first they all concoct the chylus sent from the stomack better . secondly , the small guts digest the chylus . thirdly , the thick guts expell the excrements . cap. ix . of the mesenterium . the substance is membranous , first , that it might bee light , and should not presse together the vessell by its weight ; secondly , that it might be extended into all dimensions , by reason of the fibres ; thirdly , that betweene the membranes it might the more readily gather fat . it is of a circular figure , which is most capable , that it might answer the length of the guts , and keepe them within a small compasse and place likewise . it is framed of two proper membranes , one above another , strong enough , and one common , between which & the proper the vessels passe safely to the guts . the veins are called mesaraicae , these spring from ramus mesentericus , dexter & sinister branches of the vena porta . it hath also two arteries , the one superiour , the other inferiour branches of the arteria mesenterica , which passe as the veins doe . as for the nerves , it hath two on each side , springing from the branches of the sixt paire , which goe to the roots of the ribs ; others it hath from those which spring from the spin lis medulla , betweene the first , second , third and fourth vertebra of the loynes . that the vessels might passe safely without ruption , nature hath placed glandules between the divarications of the veines and arteries . the biggest of these is about the center of the mesaraeum , where the distribution of the vessels beginneth . if this become scirrhous , the extenuation of the whole body ensueth , because the passing of the chylus is hindered : leane persons have larger glandules than the fat , because the fat doth sufficiently guard the distribution of the vessels , and preserveth the heat of the vessels . the arteries bring spirit ; but the veins doe bring both the chylus to the liver , and nourishment to the inner parts ; but not at the same time : as wee take breath by , and let it out by the same instruments , but not at the same time : see galen . facult . nat . . & . de us . part . . so at one time the liver draweth from the belly , and at another time the belly from the liver . when the guts are full , the chylus is sent to the liver ; but when they are empty , they draw nourishment . it hath two parts , mesaraeum , 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , and 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , quas ! 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 . the first tyeth the small guts together ; the second the thick . the mesaraeum is in the circumference . yards , but a span in bredth . it springeth from the ligaments of the vertebrae of the loynes , by two roots ; the largest about the first vertebra ; the other lesser , about the third . it was fit that it should be tyed strongly to these ligaments , lest it might have beene torne by violent motions , or bee pulled from thence by the weight of the guts being full . and as plants draw their nourishment by their roots from the earth , so living creatures which have bloud , draw their nutriment from the guts , by the mesaraick veins . wherefore lest they should suffer ruption , nature would have them to passe safely betweene membranes . the use of it then is to cary safely the vessels which passe to the guts . it is tyed before to the small guts ; but behind to the first and third vertebra of the loynes , from whence it springeth . it is called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 & 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , quasi 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 . 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 is that by the which the thick guts are tyed together . hippoc. . epid. & galen . . aphor . . make mention of this . it is tyed in the right side , to the right part of the ileum ; but in the left side to the left part of ileum , and the muscle psoas : before it is tyed to the colon , & rectum intestinum . cap. x. of the venae lacteae . this is the opinion of all the ancient and moderne writers , concerning the mesenterie , and the mesaraicall , if you except caspar asellius , who by his diligence found these veins , which hee calleth lacteas , because they contain a white juice , which is nothing else but the chylus elaborate , which they carry from the smal guts to the liver . their beginning seemeth to bee in the pancreas , for there they all meet , and are strangely implicate and twisted together : from thence they passe upward to the liver , and downeward to the small guts : so that the pancreas is a more excellent part than it hath beene hitherto taken by other anatomists : and as the mothers blood before it be sent by the vasa umbilicalia to nourish the infant , is first committed to the placenta uteri , to draw from it all impuritie : so then these venae lacteae , discharge their impurities before they carry the chylus to the liver in the pancreas . they are inserted into the small guts , and have nothing to doe with the stomack . they passe into the capacity of the guts , and end in the wrinkled crust , with the which the internall membrane of the guts is lined with their spongious heads like to leeches , by the which they draw to themselves the chylus . from the small guts they march between the two membranes of the mesenterium , sometimes severed from the other vessels , sometimes joyned with them , sometimes directly , sometimes over-riding them , making a saint andrewes crosse thorow the glandules , untill they come to the pancreas , where they are inexplicably twisted one with another : from thence having greater branches , they passe by the sides of vena porta to the cavitie of the liver , where they are spent by ending there by small twists : and so it is most likely that sanguification is performed by the substance of the liver , and not by the veins : the grosser part of it being sent to the branches of vena porta , and the subtillest to the branches of vena cava ; they differ from the ordinary masaraicall veins ; first , in bignesse , for these are bigger , but those are more in number , for they are twice as many : for more chylus must bee sent to the liver to make blood of for the nourishment of the whole body , than blood for the nourishing of the inward parts onely . secondly , the values which are seene about the endings of these , are placed from without inwards , but of those from within outwards . the reason of this diversitie is this : the venae lacteae suck the chylus from the guts which ought not to returne , but the ordinary mesaraicall send blood , and sometimes excrementitious humours , which ought not to come back againe . if you would finde out these veins , you must feed a dogge with milke , and five or six houres afterward dissect his belly ; then by stretching the mesenterie you shall perceive them . that the ancients did not find out these veins , the cause is , either because they dissected beasts after they were dead , or after that the chylus was distributed , or they did presently take a view of the mesentery ; but made some stay about the inspection of some other part . they have no trunck , because they were to end in the liver , and to go no further . from this part many diseases spring ; first , because it is composed of two membranes , having innumerable veins and arteries , and so it may containe many impurities ; secondly , because it hath many glandules , which as a sponge imbibe superfluities . cap. xi . of the pancreas . it is called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , and 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 . it is the biggest glandule of the whole body , and very red , like unto soft flesh , from whence it hath its name . in figure it is ovall , three or foure inches in length . it is placed in the left side towards the spleen ; above the stomack resteth upon it : below , the membranes of the peritonaeum lie , unto which it is firmly tied . it doth keep within it selfe ramus splenicus , the left branch of arteria coeliaca ; the nerves which passe from the sixt paire to the stomack and the duodenum . it hath a membrane from the peritonaeum , by the which it is covered and holden up . it hath three uses . first , it staieth the liver lest it being distended by too much meat and drink , should be hurt by the hardnesse of the vertebrae of the back . secondy , to keep the vessels passing through it , from ruption . thirdly , to keepe these same from compression , when the stomack is to much stretched by meat and drink . cap. xii . of the liver . now follow the parts appointed for sanguification , whereof the liver is the chiefest . the substance of the liver seemeth to be a red fleshy masse . in the first formation of the birth , it is framed of bloud wizing out of the veins , and there coagulating about them . the substance of the liver is so set about the branches of the vena porta & cava , that it filleth up all cavities and doth firmly stay them ; keeping them open from pursing together , and in comely order that they be not confounded . it is the thickest and heaviest of all other entrals . it is bigger in man than any other living creature , if you consider the proportion of his body ; for it was fit so to bee , seeing man was to have greatest store of bloud , lest spirits should faile in performing the functions of the soule , wherewith man is most copiously furnished . besides , seeing he hath but one liver , the bignesse was to recompence the number : we may guesse of the bignesse of it by the bignes of the fingers . it is covered with a very thin membrane , which springeth from the second ligament of the liver , which cleaveth firmly to the substance of the liver . if it be separat at any time by a watrish humor issuing out of the vessels frō the fleshie substance , watrish pustulls by the grecians called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , are ingendered . if these doe breake , the water falleth into the cavity of the belly , and causeth that kind of dropsie called ascites . it hath veins as well frō the cava as the porta . the branches of the cava are distributed for the most part thorow the gibbous part ; but those of the porta , into the holow part : yet so that the branches of both are joyned by inosculation to deliver the purest bloud to the vena cava , for the nourishing of the vitall parts , and the grosest by the branches of the porta , or the nourishing of the naturall . there seemeth to be three times more of the twigs of the porta , than of the cava within the liver . amongst the midst of the branches of the porta , some little veins march ; which afterward be comming one twig , end in the vesicula fellea , that the bilious humour may be sent to it , before the bloud enter into the vena cava . it hath onely few arteries , which springing from the right branch of the coeliaca end in the hollow part of the liver , where the vena porta commeth out . it hath two nerves , but very small , because it hath but a dull sense . one commeth from the branch which is sent to the upper orifice of the stomack ; the other from that branch which is dispersed thorow the roots of the ribs of the right side . as for the figure of it , it is almost round , the upper part is arched and smooth ; and so framed that it might not hurt the diaphragma . the lower part is hollow to receive the stomack , which is of a sphericall figure . in the upper and convex part , which is distant but one inch from the diaphragma , to give way to it when it is dilated in breathing , and to the stretching of the stomacke , it is tied first to the diaphragma , by a ligament membranous , broad , and strong , which springeth from the peritonaeum , where it covereth the midrife in the lower part . it passeth transversly by the liver , to the hinder parts , by this ligament ; it is staied from faling downe . it is called the suspensory . secondly , in the fore part it is staied by two ties ; by the first it is tied to the mucronata cartilago , to hinder it from faling to the back parts , when wee stretch our back : this ligament is broad , double , and strong ; and springeth from the peritonaeum , and giveth the liver its coat . into this coat the . sinews are implanted according to galen , lib. . de loc . effect . cap. . . and not into the substance of the liver , so that according to galen , . de us . part . cap. . it hath but a dull feeling , such as plants have to embrace that which is profitable , and to leave that which is unprofitable . by the second it is tied to the navell ; this is the umbilicall veine , which when the infant is borne ●eeseth its hollownesse , and becommeth a ligament . this staieth it from being pulled upwards . thirdly , it is tied to the short ribs , by small fibres , to keep it steady . in the hollow part it is tied by the mesenterium , to the ribs by the vena cava . it differeth from the liver of beasts , in that it hath seldome any lobes , yet the hollow part of it hath a fissure or chink , wherein the umbilicall veine is implanted , and two small bunchings out in the right part where the vena porta marcheth out , which galen calleth 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , gates . besides these there is a little lobe of a softer and thinner substance , than is the rest of the liver , and is covered with a membrane : it is tied to the omentum by this lobe , by the which spigel . de human . corp . fabric . lib. . cap. thinketh that waters may be discharged out of the liver into the caul . it is placed in the lower belly in the right side covered with the ribs for safety , and in the middle of the trunck of the body to send bloud equally to the upper and lower parts . the stomack is cherished by it , and the spleen ; but because it is a more noble part than the spleen , it is placed in the right hypochondrium . the proper action of it is not only to further sanguification , perfected in the veins , as all ancient anatomists aver ; but to sanguifie the chylus , caried to it by vena lacteae , as asellius hath proved . one thing is to be noted , that the substance of the liver , in the convex part , where the vena cava is lodged , is softer than that which is in the hollow part , where the vena partae is : for there it may be more easily separate from the vessels , than here ; and not without cause : for the roots of vena portae ought to bee staied by a harder substance , that they bee kept wider ; but the roots of the cava with a softer , that they might the readier be filled , stretched , and slacked . cap. xiii . of the vena portae . seeing the roots of the veins which nature harh appointed to furnish bloud , the nutriment of the body , have their roots in the liver : having discoursed of it , method doth require to set downe the doctrine of them . although there is but one artery to impart life , yet there are two veines , the vena portae & cava . because come require a grosser bloud for nutrition , as those parts are , which serve the nutritive faculty , which are , the liver , the gall , the stomack , the spleen , the p●●●●us , the ●●●e●●tum , the guts , and the mesentery . for unto the rest as the kidn●ies , bladder , and those which are appointed for procreation , the vena cava sendeth branches . it is fit to begin with the vena portae , because it goeth no further than to the parts contained in the abdomen , and not to all those neither . it is so called because it seemeth to enter into the liver , by the two fleshy bunches , called portae , gates . this doth differ from the vena cava . first , in substance ; for the substance of this is thicker and blacker , because it is nourished with thick and black bloud ; but that of the vena cava , is whiter and thinner , because it is nourished with a thinner and redder bloud . secondly , the substance of the vena portae is harder than that of the cava : which ought to be softer , because it ought to be more apt for dilatation and constriction ; first , because it containeth a more movable bloud ; partly because its thinner , having much serosity mingled with it ; partly because for the most part the branches of it are accompanied with the branches of the great artery , whereas the branches of the porta are farre enough off , if you except ramus splenicus . thirdly , the truncke of vena cava is larger than that of porta , because it nourisheth more parts , as hath been said . fourthly , the porta hath more roots within the substance of the liver than the cava . the roots of the vena portae and cava are joyned by the unition called anastomasis or inosculation . this is performed by two waies : first , when the ending of one doth meet with the end , of the other : as the epigastricae venae meet with the mammariae in the lower side of the muscal recti . secondly , when one branch resting upon an other , doe cleave together , having a hole in the middle . this inosculation is seene in the roots of the vena portae , and the cava . one thing is to be noted , that there are many of the twigs of the vena portae , which touch not those of the cava : because the purest part of the bloud was onely to be caried to the vena cava , and the thickest , to remaine in the vena portae . by reason of these anastomases , in famine nourishment is sent from the habit of the body , by the vena cava , to nourish the internall parts . bauhin affirmeth , that there is a common conduit to the roots of vena portae & cava , which in it cavity will receive a smal probe . in these veins , besides bloud , excrementitious humors are also cōtained in diseased persons , which sometimes are sent from the whole body by the vena cava into the guts , & sometimes communicate to the vena cava by vena portae . to find out the radication and inosculation of these veins , you must boyle the liver untill it become soft , & so with a woodden or bone knife separate the substance from the vessels ; for a sharp knife is not fit . now to come to distribution of vena portae , i hath parts . radices , the roots . . truncus , the trunck . . rami , the branches . . surculi , twigs . as for the roots , first from the circumference of the liver , small capillar veins march towards the inner part of it , and by combination becomming greater , they make up five branches . these about the middle of the hollow part , yet towards the back joyning together make up one root , which at the last comming out of the liver , about the eminences , called portae , fame that trunck which is called vena portae . this trunck parting a little from the liver before it bee severed into brāches , it putteth forth two twigs , the one being small , and springing from the upper and fore part of the trunck , as soone as it parteth from the liver , is inserted into cystis fellis , about the neck of it , and spr●ed by innumerable twigs , thorow the externall coat of it . vesalius affirmeth that there bee two of these twigs , from whence some call them cysticae gemellae : but this is a matter of no great moment . this twig may be called surculus cysticus , or vesicalis . the second twig is bigger , but lower . this springeth from this same forepart , yet towards the right side , and is inserted into the bottome of the stomacke : from hence it sendeth many sprigs toward the hinder part of it towards the backe . it may be called pistaricus more properly than gastricus , seeing there are other branches which are called gastrici . having sent forth these twigs , the trunke passeth down , and bending still a little towards the left side , it is parted into two remarkable branches ; whereof the one is called sinister or the left , seated above the right , but lesser : the other is dexter , or the right , lower than the left , yet larger : the left is bestowed upon the stomacke , the omentum , a part of colon and the splene : the right is spred through the guts and the mesenterium : the left is called vena splenica , but the right vena mesenterica . the vena splenica hath two branches before it come to the splene , the superiour and the inferiour . the superiour is called gastricus or ventricularis . this is bestowed upon the stomacke , the middle twig conspassing the left part of the orifice of the stomacke like a garland , is called coronaria : from the lower branch two twigs doe spring the 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 this doth send other twigs to the right side of the lower membrane of the omentum , and to the colon annexed to it . this is called epiplois , or omentalus dextra : the other is spent upon the lower membrane of the omentum which tieth the colon to the backe , and upon that part of the colon , it is called epiplois , or omentalis postica : when the ramus splenicus hath approched to the splene , it doth send our two other twigs , the uppermost and the lowermost : from the uppermost vas breve springeth which is implanted in the left part of the bottome of the stomacke commonly : from the lowermost two twigs issue . the first is called gastrve piplois sinistra , this comming from the lower part of the splene towards the right side , is bestowed upon the left part of the bottome of the stomacke , and the upper and left part of the omentum . the second springeth most commonly from ramus splenicus , but seldome from the splene ; and passing along according to the length of the intestinum rectum , it is inserted into the anus by many twigs . this is called haemorrhoidalis interna , as that which springeth from the vena cava is called baemorrhodalis externa . now followeth vena . mesenterica , or the right branch of vena fortae ; before it bee divided into branches , it sendeth forth two twigs . the first is called gastroepiplois sinistra , this is bestowed upon the right part of the bottom of the stomacke , and the upper membrane of the caule . the second is called intestinalis , or duodena : it is inserted into the middle of the duodenum , and the beginning of the jejunum , and passeth accordin gtohe length of thē . this branch as soon as it passeth from the backe , it entereth into the mesenterium , and passing betweene the membranes of it , sendeth forth those mesaraicall veins , which send nourishment to the inward parts . it is divided into two branches , to wit , mesenterica dextra , & sinistra : mesenterica dextra , placed in the right side , sendeth a number of branches to feed the jejunumcaecū , and the right part of the colon , which is next to the kidney and liver . it hath foureteen remarkable branches , but innumerable smal twigs . one thing is to be noted , that the greater branches are supported by the greater glandules , and the smaller by the smaller glandules . mesenterica sinistra passeth through the middle of the mesenterium , & that part of colon which passeth from the left part of the stomack , to the intestinum rectum . the chiefe use of the vena portae is to nourish the parts which are appointed for nutrition with thicke and feculent blood : it ought to bee thicke , that it might be the hotter ; for heat in a thicke body is more powerfull . the second use is to further the sanguification of the liver . cap. xiv . of the vena cava , dispersed within the trūk of the body . within the trunck of the body , the vena cava hath two trunkes ; one called ascendens or going up , the other descendens or marching downe . the ascendens passing through the nerves part of the diaphragma , it marcheth upward undicided , until it come to the jugulum : yet by the way from its sides it sendeth two twigs . the first is phrenica , this is inserted into the midrife and heart , from ●ence springeth the coronaria vena which compasseth the basis of the heart as a garland . the second is vena sine pari , so called , because it hath not a fellow in the left side as other veins have . it doth spring about the fift vertebra of the brest from the hinder part of the vena cava in the right side . this going downe , it marcheth towards the spina : when it is come to the eighth or ninth rib above the spina , it is divided into two branches , to wit , the right and the left ; the left is inserted most commonly in the middle of the left emulgent veine . by this branch blood , on watrish or purulent matter may bee discharged by urine ; the right twig is implanted either into the trunke of the cava , or into prims lumbaris . this being done , the vena cava ascendeth up to the jugulum being strengthened by the mediastinum and the glandulous body called thymus . here the vena cava is divided into two remarkable branches , from whence those veins spring which are sent to the head , to the armes , and some muscules of the abdomen . one passeth to the right side , the other to the left ; the one is called subclavius , because it marcheth under the cannel bone with in : the other is called axillaris when it is come to the arme pit , from the upper part of the ramus subclavius two remarkable branches proceed : the internall and externall jugular , in man the internall is biggest , but in beasts the externall . the internall jugular commeth out about the articulation of the cannell bone with the sternum ; then it joyneth it selfe with the soporall arterie , and the recurrent nerve , and with it hinder and greatest branch accōpanied with the soporall arterie , it entereth with the cranium at the hole of the occiput , by the which the sixth paire of nerves commenth downe , it entreth into the first and second sinus of the dura mater . the externall jugular mounteth up to the eare under the skin , and the quadrat muscule which pulleth down the cheek alongst the necke : from this branch spring the veins which are opened under the tongue . from the lower part of ramus subclavius , spring foure branches . the first , intercostalis superior , one on each side ; it is small , and commeth out about the root of the bifurcation : then passing downe by the roots of two ribs , it bestowed twigs upon the distances of these two ribs . the second is mammaria , this marcheth forwards towards the upper part of the brest bone : then it goeth downe by the sides of it , and when it is come to cartilage mucronata about the sides of it , it commeth out : from thence it passeth straight waies under the right muscule to the navell , where by an anastomasis it is joyned with the spigastrica ascendens : from hence commeth that great consent betweene the matrix and paps . the third is mediastina , because it is bestowed upon the mediastinum , together with the left nerve of the diaphragma , according to its length . the fourth is cervicalis , or vertebralis . this passing thorow the holes of the transverse processes of the vertebrae of the neck , is bestowed upon the muscles of the neck which are next to the vertebrae . cap. xv. of the gall. the gall , called in latine vesicabiliaria or folliculus sellis , is a dissimilary part , in figure representing a peare , hollow , and appointed to receive the thin yellow choler . it is about two inches in length . by its upper part it is tied to the liver , which doth afford it a hollownesse to receive it ; but the lower part , which hangeth without the liver , it resteth upon the right side of the stomack , and the colon , and doth often die them both yellow . it hath two membranes , the one cōmon , which is thin and exteriour , without fibres . this springing from the membrane of the liver , it onely covereth that part which hangeth without the liver ; the other membrane is proper . this is thick and strong , and hath three sorts of fibres , the outtermost are transverse , the middlemost oblique , and the inner most straight . this membrane is larder and thicker in the necke ; but thinner in the bottom . within it hath a mucous substance , engendered of the excrements of the third concoction of the membrane , to withstand the acrimony of the choler . it hath two parts , the neck , and the bottom . the necke is harder than the bottom , and higher in situation . it from the bottome by degrees growing narrower and narrower , at last endeth in the ductus communis , or the common passage of the choler , to the beginning of the jejunum . this elongation of the neck of the vesicula fellea , is called meatus cysticus , because it springeth from the cystis . the choler is caried to the neck of the cystis , by many small veins neere to the roots of the vena portae about the midst of them , and is discharged into the cavity of it about the upper part . the meatus cysticus hath three values looking from without inwards to hinder the recourse of the choler to the liver . the other passage which carieth the thick and corrupt choler , as that which is called vitellina , aeruginosa , porracea , &c. is called meatus hepaticus ; because it passeth straightway from the liver to the ductus communis . this passage hath no values , both these discharge their choler by the common passage into the beginning of the jejunum , when the small guts are discharged of the chylus . beasts which want the vesica fellea , have this meatus hepaticus , as harts , hynds , and fallow deere , and those which have a whole hoofe . the meatus hepaticus passeth thorow the roots of the vena cava , by innumerable branches , which being gathered together become one branch and being united with the meatus cyslicus make up the communis ductus , which is inserted into the beginning of the jejunum obliquely betweene the two membbranes of the intestine about the distance of two inches before it perforat the second membrane . the vesica fellea hath for nourishment called cysticae gemellae . for life it hath sprigs of arteries proceeding from the caeliaca . to afford sense it hath a smal threed like a sprig of a sinew from the sixth paire . many times stones are found in it , but they being lighter than those of the bladder , swimme above the water . the use of these two passages , is to draw all superfluous choler from the chylus , and to turne it into the guts , where it affordeth benefits to nature : for first by its sharpnesse it moveth the intestines to turne out the terrestriall excrements in due season . secondly , by reason of its thinnesse it doth cut and cleanse the small guts of fleame , which there is plentifully bred . thirdly , by reason of its drinesse it hindreth the increase of putrifaction . fourthly , it furthereth concoction in the intestines by increasing their heat : neverthelesse , naturally there can bee no passage to carry choler to the bottome of the stomacke . for first , by reason of its acrimonie it would corrode it . secondly , it would cause the crude nourishment to passe into the duodenum . thirdly , it would procure perpetuall vomiting . if it fall out that choler be carried to the bottome of the stomack by any passage than this , the party vomiteth choler , and is termed 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , but if it be inserted into the end of the jejunum , then bilious dejections follow : and such a one is termed 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 . one thing i would have you observe ; that the porus biliarius passeth by a straight course to the ductus communis , and not to the vesicula fellea , which thus you may shew : put a cathaeter into the necke of this passage neere the liver , the guts will be blowne up , and not the vesicula . againe , put the cashaeter into the common passage , and both the cystu fellis , and the meatus chelidochus will be blowne up . if you would finde out the three values of the vesicula fellea , presse the choller with your fingers from the bottome towards the neck : whre you find the choler to stay , there the values are . cap xvi . of the spleene . the spleene or milt in english , in greek is called splen , and lien in latine . the substance of it is flaggie , loose , and spungious , net-like , which is the cause that it may imbibe much superfluitie , and so become exceedingly swelled . this substance is covered with a membrane borrowed from the peritoneum , which is inserted first into the straight line of the milt , and then covereth the whole spleene : it is thicker than that of the liver . first , because it hath a looser substance . secondly , because it hath more arteries which require a strong membrance to defend them . the staight line is in the hollow part , where the vessels of the spleen doe enter into it . in infants new borne it is of a red colour , because they have been fed with elaborate blood : but in those of a ripe age it is somewhat blackish , being boyled , it representeth clareth wine . in man it is bigger , thicker , and heavier , than in beasts ; for it is six inches in length , three in breadth , and one in thicknesse ; yet according to aristotle , . histor . animal . . a convenient little one is better than a big one . in figure it is somewhat long like an oxestongue , it is seated in the left hypochondrium : so hippocrat . . epidem . calleth it the left liver , and aristot . . part . animal . . the bastard liver , but is seated somewhat lower , because it was to draw the terrestriall part of the chylus , before it come to the liver by ramus splenicus , that the blood may be made thinner , and purer , for such blood causeth men to be wiser . . de part . anim . . it is all couched within and under the short ribs ; so that in healthful persons it cannot be felt ; onely if it be inflamed , a pulsation may be felt . it is tied to five parts , to the midrife and left kidney by small membranes , by it hollow part which giveth way to the stomacke being distended to the upper membrane of the omentum , and to the stomacke by vas breve . in its arched part it is tied to the back , so that dints remain in it by the impression of the ribs . it hath veins for nourishment from ramus splenicus ; for life it hath arteries from ramus caeliacus sinister : but five times more than veins ; for great heat is required for the elaboration of thicke blood . these vessels enter into the spleen where the straight line is in the hollow side . they joyne often by anastomoses . the arteries besides life afford unto the spleen two benefits . first , they increase the naturall heat of it , that it may the better concoct the grosser part of the chylus which is sent unto it by the ramus splenicus . secondly , they further the expulsive facultie of it . now the spleene sendeth its superfluities to the kidneys by two wayes . first , by returning of them by ramus splenicus , to the vena portae , and from thence to vena cava , from whence they are sent to the emulgent veins . secondly , by a shorter passage they are sent from arteria caeliaca to the aorta , and from thence to the kidnyes by the emulgēt arteries . last of all , it hath small twigges of nerves from the sixt pair , which are bestowed upon the investing membrane , but are not communicate to the substance : wherefore it must bee but of a small and dull feeling : so that the pains which sundry ascribe to the spleene , are to bee referred to the adjacent parts . the use of the spleen , as also of the liver , is to further the elaboration and concoction of the chylus : for it is a bastard liver according to arist. . de hijtor . animal . . the sanguification of the spleen differeth in two points , from that of the liver . first , in the materiall cause , for the spleen maketh grosse bloud of the more carthy part of the chylus ; but the liver far purer of the thinner and more benigne part of the chylus . secondly , it differeth in the finall cause : for the liver sanguifieth to afford nourishment both to the vitall and animall parts , but the spleene only to maintaine the naturall parts , and not all of them neither . nature would have the naturall parts to bee furnished with grosse bloud by the branches of vena portae , partly to increase their heat ; for heat in a thick body is stronger ; partly to afford them nourishment answerable to their substance , for it is thick . cap. xvii . of the kidnies . the kidny is called in latine ren , from 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 to flow : because the serofity of the bloud doth flow thorow the kidnies , to the ureters , and from thence to the bladder . they are in number two , not so much for the poysing of the body , as for their use and necessity ; that one being stopped , yet the cleansing of the bloud might bee performed by the other . they are seated in the loynes under the liver and spleen , and rest upon the muscles called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , which move the theyght about their heads ; under the which large nerves are couched . which is the cause that a big stone being in the kidny a numnesse is felt in the foot of that side ; the muscle 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 being pressed down by it . they lye behind the guts . the right kidnie hath the coecum ; but the left the colon above it . in man the right kidnie is lowest , by reason of the greatnesse of the liver , and bigger also than the left ; yet it is not so fat as the left , by reason of the vicinity of the liver , whose heat hindereth the increase of fat . in figure they resemble the asarum leafe or kidnie beane , towards the loynes they are gibbous , but hollow towards the guts . as for their connexion , by the externall fat membrane they are tied to the diaphragma , and the loynes : by the emulgent vessels to the vena cava , and the aorta , and by the ureters to the bladder . they are in length about five inches , in breadth three , and in thicknesse one ; yet they are somewhat broader above than under . they are smooth in the gibbous part , but unequall in the hollow part , to let in and out some vessels . the parts are two , to wit , the externall and the internall ; the externall are the membranes ; these are two . the one is common and externall , borrowed from the peritonaeum ; within the reduplication of which , the whole kidnie is lapped ; and therefore it is called renis fascia . this membrane is compassed with copious fat ; so that the kidnie seemeth to be the fattest of all other entrals , according to aristotle . histor. animal . . although each one be exceedingly fat ; yet some part of the kidney will remaine uncovered about the middle . this fat about the kidnie hath a threefold use . first , it is instead of a pillow . secondly , it receiveth as a sponge the excrements . thirdly , it furthereth and keepeth in the heat . before you deprive the kidnies of this tunica adiposa with your nailes , about the upper part of the kidnie you are to observe a large glandule , which hath a sprig from the emulgent veine and artery , for nourishment about the middle of it . in figure it representeth a halfe moone , and is not unlike a kidnie ; from whence it is called ren succenturiatus . there is one on each side in the upper part of the kidnie resting upon the tunica adiposa . it is strongly tyed to the septum transversum . the substance of it is more flaggy than that of the kidnie . it hath nerves from the plexus retiformis , or net-like texture , framed of the twigs of nervus costalis , and stomachicus . it seemeth to be framed , partly to fill up the vacuity which is betweene the kidnies and the diaphragma : partly to bee a pillow to the stomack , in the place about the emulgent vein and artery . the second membrane is that which is internall and proper . this springeth from the common coat of the vessels which enter into the kidnyes ; for as soone as the vessels approach to the kidny they leave their externall coat . it can hardly be separate from the substance of the kidny . the internall parts are those which are contained within the proper membrane . in these sundry things are remarkable . first , the colour of the kidny , which is very red . secondly , the substance of the kidny , which is thick , hard , and compact as the heart almost , but not so fibrous . thirdly , the dispersion of the emulgent vessels throughout it ; first they enter by paires into the hollow part of the kidny . then each branch is divided into foure or five lesser branches , and these againe into lesser , untill at the last they become capillar . these being spred sundrv wayes thorow the substance of the kidny , towards the gibbous part at last they end at the tops of the carunculae papillares , or teat like fleshy substances , into the which they poure the serosity of the bloud , that it may passe thorow the tubuli or water pipes , to the infundibulum . the fourth is that which is called pelvis or infundibulum , the tunnel , which is nothing else but the ample cavity of the vreter within the kidnie . fifthly , the tibuli or fistulae vreterum , the water pipes of the vreters offer themselves which are most commonly in number ten ; foure in each end , two being still joyned together , and two in the middle according to the number of the carunulae papillares . these are placed in the arched part of the infundibulum . now the ends of the pipes about the infundibulum are called cribrum or the sive . these water pipes proceeding from the infundibulum become a little wider , and end in the gibbous part of the kidny , with a wide round mouth receiving the carunculae papillares , by the which their mouths are stopped , and the watrishnesse of the blood issueth out into them , as milk out of the teats . sixthly , carunculae papillares are to bee considered . they are small fleshy bodies , somewhat harder than the substance of the kidny , resembling the teats of womens paps , from whence they have their denomination ; they are of the bignesse of a pease somewhat broad above ; below round . if you divide them thorow the middle , you shall perceive a smooth haire-like passage from the top to the end . they are in number answerable to the number of the tubuli , which receive them . to find out these parts before named , you must divide the kidney in the hollow part , putting a thick probe into the pelvis . incision being made to the infundibulum , first you shall see the tubuli , then the carunculae papillares . the kidnies have two sorts of veins . first , the two called adiposae , because they are spred through the tunica adiposa , and are covered with the fat , and afford matter for the fat . the right of these springeth from the emulgent vein ; but the left from the vena cava . secondly , the two emulgentes , so called from their action . these are large , and spring from the trunck of the vena cava descending between the first and second vertebra of the loynes . these being carried transversly are implanted into the hollow part of the kidnies , being divided into two branches . the left is somewhat higher , as also the left kidney ; but the right is somewhat longer . it hath a value to hinder the return of the serosity to the trunk of the cava . fallopius was of this mind , that a branch of a veine passeth from the vena sine pari to the left kidny , by the which quitiour and water may be discharged by urine . but it is more probable , that these maters are first drawn in into the trunck of the aorta , by its inconspicuous pores , and from thence sent to the kidnyes , by the emulgent arteries . these are in number . one in each side , which accompany the veins , to the kidny slope wayes . whither when they are come , they are divided in two branches , whereof the one is implanted in the lower , the other in the upper part of the hollow part of the kidny . the nerves on each side spring either from ramus stomachicus , and that is but one and smal , and is spred thorow the proper coat ; from hence ariseth the consent betweene the kidnyes and the stomack . so that vomiting is troublesome in nephriticall diseases . one may think that nature hath afforded arteries larger than was requisit to afford life to so small bodies , as the kidnies are : but it was fit so to bee , for the passages were to bee parent , which were to discharge the heart and arteries of serosity . the artery lyeth between the veine and the vreter ; partly to hasten the bloud to the kidney ; partly speedily to discharge the watrishnesse . the veins and arteries are not joyned with the water pipes : for if you put a catheter into the ureter by blowing the vessel will not swell . cap. xviii . of the vreters . the ureters , in latine meatus urinarii , are called in greeke 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , either from 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 to pisse , or 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , because they keepe the urine . there is one in each side . they are white vessels , like to veines , yet they are whiter , thicker , and more nervous . they reach from the kidny to the bladder . they have two coats , the one common from the peritonaeum , the other proper , from the externall or common coat , it hath capillar veins and arteries . it hath few oblique fibres , but most straight . it springeth from the bladder ; for it cannot be severed from it easily , as from the kidnyes . yet it differeth from the bladder in two things . first , in that the bladder hath three coats , but it only two . secondly , the bladder hath all sorts of fibres , but the ureter hath most straight , few oblique . they are inserted in the back and lower part of the bladder not farre from the muscle sphincter , between the two proper coats of it about the length of an inch . this insertion is oblique to hinder the regurgitation of the urin , when the bladder is either compressed , or distended with urine . although the ureter doth not ordinarily exceed in compasse a barley corne ; yet when stones doe passe , it becommeth sometimes as large as a gut . cap. xix . of the bladder . the bladder is seated in the hypogastrium , in the place called pelvis . of substance it is membranous : becanse it was to admit large stretching . the membranes of it are three . the first is from the paeritonaeum : for it is lapped within the reduplication of it . the second is thicker and indued with many straight fibres , which aqua pendens will have to bee a muscle serving for the compression of the bladder , as the sphincter serveth for constriction . the third and innermost is white & bright , of exquisit sense , as they can witnesse who are troubled with the stone . it hath all sorts of fibres . within it is covered with a mucous crust , an excrement of the third concoction of the bladder . this doth mitigate the acrimony of the urine . it is perforat in three parts , to wit , in the sides where the ureters are to let in the urine , and before to let out the urine . the bladder hath two parts , to wit , the bottom and the neck . both these in figure represent a peare . the bottome is upholden by the navell : first , in the middle by the ligament called vrachus , which is the cause sometimes that they who have a great stone in the bladder , complaine of great paine about the navell . secondly , by the umbilicall arteries dryed laterally . if the bladder were not suspended , a man going straight up the bottome of the bladder would compresse the neck , and cause difficulty in making of water . in man it lyeth betweene the os pubis and the intestinum rectum . in women between the neck of the matrix and os pubis . the bladder of man differeth from the bladder of beasts in two things . first , the bladder in man is couched within the redoplication of the peritonaeum , but in beasts it is loose , and onely is tied to the intestinum rectum . secondly , the bladder of man hath fat without ; but the bladder of beasts none . in it stones are promptly engendered , because the heat of it is compact : so red hot iron burneth worse than the flame of fire . there is a great consent betweene the bladder and kidnies . so that in diseases of the kidnies , difficulty in making of water sometimes happeneth : the causes of this consent are two . first , the communion of office , for both serve for the excretion of urine . secondly , the similitude of substance ; for both the inside of the kidnies , and the bladder are membranous . one thing is to be noted , that a bladder is bestowed onely upon such creatures as have bloudy lungs , and the hotter the lungs are the bigger the bladder is . so man according to his stature , hath of all living creatures the biggest bladder . according to aristot. lib. . histor. animal . because the bladder is of a cold temperature ; therefore in deadly diseases of it , sleepinesse oppresseth the patient , according to hippoc. . epidem . in the neck onely the muscle sphincter doth offer it selfe to be considered : whereof read in the doctrine of muscles . it hath veins and arteries called hypogastricae , implanted on every side of the neck , which are immediatly divided into two branches ; wherof the one is bestowed upon the bottome ; but the other upon the neck . it hath remarkable nerves ; partly from those of the sixth conjugation , which passe by the roots of the ribs , partly from those which spring last from os sacrum . the use of the bladder is to containe the urine , like a chamber pot , untill the time of excretion come when the bladder is full . cap. xx. of the generation of blood . first of all every nourishment receiveth a preparation in the mouth . if it be solid , it is chewed by the teeth , from the mouth by swallowing , it is turned to stomack . it being embraced by the stomack , and kept for a while , is turned into chylus , partly by the specricall heat of the stomack it selfe ; partly by the heat of the adjacent parts , but chiefly of the liver , spleen , and caull . the chylus being made light by concoction it riseth up , and passeth to the pylorus , and procureth the opening of it . this being opened the stomack by its transverse fibres , thrusteth the chylus into duodedum . from hence it passeth more and more downwards by degrees . the wrinkles of the small guts hinder the suddaine passage of it , to procure an equall concoction of all the parts of it . in the meane time the venae lacteae draw from the small guts , whatsoever is alimentary of the chylus . while the chylus thus passeth to the liver , and is come to the diverication of the vena portae , the spleen by a naturall faculty by the ramus splenicus , draweth to it selfe the thickest and most terrestriall part , yet the purest onely may come to the liver . when the chylus is come to the liver , the choler is sent either by meatus cysticus , to the gall , or to the jejunum by meatus hepaticus . the bloud being perfected , the grosser part is carried by the branches of the vena portae , and the splenicall to the nourishment of the parts appointed for nutrition ; but the purest part is carried to all other parts for their nutrition ; and because much watrishnesse is mingled with the bloud , that it may passe without difficulty by the narrow passages of inosculations to the vena cava ( seeing the serosity is unapt to nourish ) it is sent by the emulgent veins and arteries to the kidnies , and from thence by the ureters to the bladder . cap. xxi . of vasa praeparantia in man. hitherto wee have handled the parts appointed for nutrition : now it followeth to run thorow the parts ordained for generation to continue man kind . the genitals are of two sorts ; of the male , and female , and so it was requisit for procreation ; for this action requireth an agent and patient : seed and menstruall bloud . the first is the palace of the plasmatick spirit . the second asfordeth supply of matter to the spirit , to draw out the admirable frame of the regions and parts of the little world . in man some of these parts afford matter for the seed , to wit , the foure vasa praeparantia : some elaborate this matter , the corpus voeri coesum : some make the seed fruitfull , as the stones ; some carry the seed back againe , and make it pure , as those which are called vasa deferentia : some containe the seed , and an oleaginous matter , as the vesiculae seminalis , and the prostates ; some discharge the seed into the matrix : this is done by the penis . vasa praeparantia , which prepare matter for the seed , are of two sorts , veins and arteries . the veins are two . the right springeth from the trunck of the vena cava , a little under the emulgent . the left proceedeth from the emulgent . the arteries spring from the trunck of the aorta ; these vessels being a little distant one from another , are tied together by a thin membrane , which springeth from the peritonaeum , and meet often by the way by inosculation . these vessels are greater in men than in women , and the arteries are bigger than the veins : because much heat and plenty of spirits are required for the seed . they enter into the groyne obliquely carried together with the muscle cremaster , betweene the two coats of the peritonaeum . in curing of a rupture by incision , if the muscle cremaster doe fall out to be bound by the ligature , spasmus cynicus ensueth . these vessels do end about the beggining of the testicles , and from hence are called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , and make up that part which is called corpus varicosum , paraslaca , & plexus pampiniformis . from the stones to it many small fibres passe . the corpus varicosum is framed of the twisting of the vasa praeparantia ; which maketh a long , thick , glandulus , but hard welt without any remarkable cavity , which passeth to the bottome of the stone , and from thence to the vas deferens , where it endeth . here the venall and arteriall bloud being elaborat in these admirable windings , is further prepared , a quality being imparted from the seminificall faculty of the stones . cap xxii . of the stones . the stones in latine are called testes , because they testifie one to be a man. they are glandulous bodies , flaggy , soft , and white , without any cavity , full of small veins and arteries , such as are not in any part of the body . they are in number two , and therefore in greeke are called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 . their figure is ovall , the right is hotter , and better concocteth the seed . wherefore by hippocrat . it is called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , a begetter of the male . the left stone is more full , and hath a bigger veine ; yet the seed , which is there eleborat , is more watrish and colder ; because it proceedeth from the emulgent , and is called of hippoc. 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , because it begetteth the female . in the stones there are to bee considered their coats , substance , and use . their coats are foure . first , bursa seroti , and it is nothing else but the skin covered with the cuticula : and because it cleaveth firmly to the membrana carnosa under it , so that they seeme to make but one coat , it commeth to passe that in cold , it doth contract it selfe , and becommeth wrinckled . in the lower part it hath a line according to the length , whereby it is divided into the right and left side ; this line is called sutura , or a seame . the second is called by rufus , dartos , because it may easily bee flead from the tunica vaginalis ; by the ancients it was called erithroides : because it appeareth to be red be reason of the fleshy fibres wherewith it is enterlaced . this ariseth from the membrana carnosa ; which here is more thin and subtile than else where , and stored with veins and arteries . the third is elythroides or vaginalis : because it containeth the stone as a sheath . it is a thick and strong membrane , having many veins . in the outside it is uneven , by reason of the fibres , by the which it is tyed to the dartos ; but in the inner side it is smooth . this is nothing else but the production of the peritonaeum . the fourth is 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , the nervous mēorane , called albuginea form its colour ; it is white , thick , and strong , framed of the externall tunicle of the vasa praeparantia . it is immediatly wrapped in the stone , between these two the water is contained in hernia aquosa . the substance is described in the beginning of the chapter . each stone hath one muscle called cremaster , from 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 or 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , which is to hold up ; because it pulleth up the stone in the act of generation , that the vesses being slacked , may the more readily voyd the seed . this muscle is nothing else but the lower part of the oblique muscle , ascending neere to os pubis , which outwardly wrapping the production of the peritonaeum , is caried to the stone . these muscles in sicknesse and old age become flaggy , and so the scrotum relaxeth it selfe , and the stones hang low . the uses of the stones are three : the first is to elaborate the seed by reason of the seminificall faculty resident in the parenchyma of the stones ; for they turne the bloud , which is brought by the vasa praeparantia into seed , for the most part ; the rest they reserve for their owne nutrition . the second is , they adde heat , strength and courage to the body , as gelding doth manifest ; by the which all these are empaired . thirdly , they receive the superfluous humidity of the seed , by reason of their glandulous substance . cap. xxiii . of the vessels that carry the seed , and those that keepe it . vasa deferentia , the vessels which cary the seed , in colour they are white , in substance sinewy , having an obscure hollownesse ; from hence they are called meatus seminales . they spring from the lower end of the parastatae . these mount up by the sides of the vasa praeparantia . when they are come within the cavity of the belly , they turne back againe , and passe to the backside of the bladder : betweene which and the intestinum recta they passe untill about the neck of the bladder , being somewhat severed , and at last being joyned together , but not united , are inserted on each side in the glandulous bodies called prostatae . before they come thither they are joyned to the vesiculae seminales ; these in figure represent the cels of a pomegranat or hony combe . these containe an oyly and yellow substance ; for they draw unto themselves , that which is fatty in the seed . they are more in number , that the oleous substance should not forcibly and plentifully be powred into the vrethra ; but should gently and slowly passe from one unto another by windings , and at last be powred into the conduit of the yard by a hole which is shut up with a fleshy substance , partly to stay the involuntary effusion of it , partly to hinder the regurgitation of it . it being powred into the urethra chiefly in the time of carnall copulation , doth moysten it that it shrink not , and suffereth not it to be offended by the acrimony of the seed or urine . the vasa deferentia passing by these , go to the glandules called prostatae , by the which they are compassed . when they are come to the urethra a caruncule as a value is set before the orifice of each of them : partly to hinder the comming of the urine into them ; partly to hinder the involuntary effusion of the seed . under and by this caruncule on each side there are three holes thorow which the seed passeth into the urethra . these holes are discerned easily in a gonorrhea inveterat ; although not so easily in a found person . the seed doth passe thorow these inconspicuous passages , as quick silver thorow lether , by drops . the seed having beene made subtill and spirituous by sublimation thorow the vasa deferentia ascending is able to passe thorow in conspicuous passages . prostatae or glandulae seminales , are glandulous bodies , placed between the necke of the bladder and the intestinum rectum . although there is no conspicuous passage , by the which the seed passeth into the urethra : yet the thick membrane which wrappeth in the prostat where it leaneth upon the urethra , is thinner and hath many pores , which are dilated by heat in the act of generation , and may bee seene in an inveterate gonorrhea . a continuall dilatation of these procure an uncurable gonorrhaae . the sphincter of the bladder cōpasseth these glandules . in drawing of a stone , if these parts bee torne , the party becommeth barren . the distance between the root of the cod and the podex is called perinaeum : because it is still moist with sweat . the pubes , scrotum , & perinaeum in men , are furnished with hayre : because glandules are placed there , which receive plenty of superfluous moysture : a part whereof they send to the skin for the generation of hayre . if the seed chance to be corrupted in man it causeth not so fearefull symptomes as in a woman : because the seminary vessels are without the hypogastrium in man ; but in woman within . cap. xxiv . of the yard . it is called in latine penis à pendendo , because it hangeth without the belly , and it is an organicall part , long and round ; yet somwhat flat in the upper part , seated about the lower part of os pubis , appointed for making of water , and conveighing the seed into the matrix . it is framed of such a substance as might admit distention and relaxation . the parts of it are either common or proper . the common are three , the scarfe skin , the skin , and the membrana carnosa . it hath no fat , for it would have hindered the stifnesse of it . the cuticula is of a reasonable thicknesse : the skin is somewhat thick , flaggy when there is no erection ; but stiffe when there is . the membrana carnosa is somewhat sinewy . the proper or internall parts are these : the two nervous bodies , the septum , the vrethra , the glans , foure muscles , and the vessels . the two bodies are long , hard , and nervous . these within are spongious , and full of black blood . the spongious substance seemeth to be a net like texture , framed of innumerable twigs of veins and arteries . this black bloud contained in these laterall ligaments , being full of spirits waxen hot by the sting of venus , doth distend the parts . these two laterall ligaments where they are thick and round , spring from the lower part of the share bone . in their beginnings , they are separate one from another , and represent the two hornes of pithagoras his y , that the urethra may passe betweene them . but as soone as they come to the joyning of the share bone , they are by the septum lucidum everted . it is nervous and white . it ariseth from the upper part of the commissure of the os pubis , and upholdeth the two laterall ligaments and the urethra as a stay . the like is found in women to uphold the cunnus . under these lyeth the urethra . it is of a substance nervous , thick , loose and soft , like to that of the laterall ligaments . it beginneth at the necke of the bladder : yet it doth not spring from it , but is joyned to it onely , and so passeth to the glans . if you boyle the bladder and it , it will separate it selfe from the bladder . it is framed of two membranes , the one is internall with the which the glans is covered , it is bred of the thin membrane , which covereth the nerves of the prick . it is of an exquisit feeling , that it might feele the acrimony of the seed , and cause pleasure ; chiefly in that part of it , which lyeth betweene the prostates . the externall is fleshy and hath many fleshy transverse fibres . the middle substance is fungous and full of blacke bloud , that it might suffer distension and relaxation with the laterall ligaments . at the beginning of it there are three holes , one in the middle largest , and two lesser , in each side one , from the passage , which is sent from the vesicula seminales , to the vrethra . the muscles are two in each side , and so foure in all . of these collaterall muscles , the one is shorter and thicker , and springeth from the appendix or knob of the coxendix . under the beginning of the laterall ligament , and ascending obliquely , is inserted into the same , a little below the beginning of it ; this serveth for erection . the second is longer and smaller , proceeding from the sphincter of the anus fleshy . this passeth straight under the urethra , and is inserted about the middle of it , in the side of the prick . these two muscles dilate the lower part of the urethra for miction and ejaculation of the seed . as the first muscle is termed erector , so this is called accelerator , or hastener . this hath a substance agreeable with that of the penis : for this in erection is drawne towards its beginning , and the erection ceasing , it becommeth lanke . glans is the extreme part ; it is somewhat round compassed with a circle as with a garland . it is soft , and of an exquisit feeling , by reason or the thin skin , with the which it is covered . about the root of it , where it is joyned with the nervous bodies , there is a little pit . in the which if any sharp humour be lodged , as in gonorrhaea virulenta , great paine is caused . the glans is covered with praeputium , the fore skin ; it is framed of the reduplication of the skin . the ligament by the which it is tyed to the glans in the lower part of it , is called fraenum the bridle . of the vessels , some are cutaneous , some passe to the inner parts of penis . the cutaneus veins and arteries spring from the pudendae ; these entering at the root of the prick they passe by the sides towards the back of it , and are conspicuous enough . the vessels which bestowed upon the inner parts of penis , come from the venae and arteriae hypogastricae , about the roots of the laterall ligaments . here the arteries are remarkable , which are wonderfully despersed thorow the body of the penis : for the right artery is bestowed upon the left side , and the left upon the right side . it hath two sinewes from the os sacrum . the lesser is bestowed upon the skin : the largest mounting up under the share bones to the root of the yard , betweene the laterall ligaments , it is bestowed upon the muscles , the rest of the body of the penis and the glans . of the genitals in woman . cap. xxv . of the cunnus . the genitals in a woman have foure distinct parts ; to wit , the cunnus , the matrix , the stones , and the spermatick vessels . cunnus is that part which offereth it selfe to the sight before section . in it eleven particles are remarkable . . pubes , that particle where the haire doth first bud out ; which ordinarily falleth out the fourteenth yeare of a womans age , the upper part of this which buncheth out , and is most hairy , is called veneris mons . . is rima magna , the great chink ; it beginneth at the os pubes , and is but an inch distant from the anus . wherefore it is larger than the cavity of the neck . . the labia or lips , by these the internall parts are covered , as the tongue and teeth by the lips . these are framed of the common integuments of the body , these have prety store of spongious fat . . are the alae , or nymphae , the wings , these appeare when the lips are severed : these are two productions framed of a soft and spongious flesh , and the reduplication of the cutis , placed at the sides of the neck : being joyned above , they compasse the clitoris . in figure and colour they resemble the comb of a cock. . is clytoris , this is a nervous and hard body : within , full of a black and spongious matter , as the laterall ligaments of the yard . it is framed of three bodies . the two laterall are ligaments and spring from the internall knob of the ischium . the third is betweene these , this ariseth from the joyning of os pubis ; at the end of it is the glans , which hath a superficiall hollownesse , and is covered with a very thin skin , as a praeputium , which springeth from the joyning of the nymphae . and as it doth represent the prick of a man , so it suffereth erection , and falling ; it may be called a womans prick . in some women it hath beene as big as a mans . . under the clytoris above the neck a hole is to be seene , by the which a woman maketh water . . after the nymphae foure caruncules resembling the leafe of the mirtle shrub , are to bee seene : whereof that which is uppermost , is largest and forked , that it might receive the end of the neck of the bladder , the other is below : the other are on the sides . all foure keep back the ayre , and all other things , from entring into the cavity of the neck , and by tickling the genital of man cause the greater delight . in women which have not borne children , they are most conspicuous . these caruncules are framed of the reduplication of the fleshy necke of the genitall . . behind the caruncules appeareth a cavity in the lower part of the neck of a reasonable largenesse , framed by nature to stay the seede powred into the necke from too quick slipping out . . in virgins these caruncules are joyned together by a thin and sinewy membrane interlaced with small veins , cleaving orbicularly to the sides of the neck , having a small hollownesse in the middle , which will receive a pease , by the which the menstruall bloud passeth : sometimes it is hollow like a sive , it is called hymen . . behind these caruncules and the hymen appeareth a chink , under the orifice of the bladder betweene the two wings , which is the entrance into the neck . . now the neck is nothing else but that distance , which is between the cunnus , and the mouth of the matrix . in women of an ordinary stature , it is eight inches in length . the substance of this part is hard , without , fleshy ; within membranous , and wrinckled like to the inner skin of the upper jaw of a cowes mouth . first , to cause greater pleasure in the act of generation . secondly , the better to retaine the seed . thirdly , to admit the greater dilatation in travell . the neck is seated in that cavity of hypogastrium , which is called pelvis , betweene the bladder and intestinum rectum . it hath two membranes ; if you cut them transversly , you shall perceive between them a spongious flesh : such as is found in the laterall ligaments of the penis . this causeth it to swell in the act of generation , innumerable sprigs of veins and arteries affording plenty of spirits . the hypogastricall veins are inserted into the neck of the matrix : from thence passing to the mouth of the matrix . as soone as they come to be implanted into the substance of the uterus , they lose their owne coats , which are bestowed upon the first membrane of it . from thence by small pipes ( such as are found in sponges ) but wreathed blood is caried to the matrix : by these veins the termes issue into the neck of the genitall . a large branch passeth from arteria hypogastrica to the neck . a sprig of it , but wreathed is communicate to the resticle , passing thither between the two membranes of the body of the matrix : this sprig is winded to hinder it from ruption , when the matrix is enlarged , a woman being with child . cap. xxvi . of the matrix . the matrix was appointed by nature to be the field of nature , to receive the seeds of man and woman for the procreation of man , and the continuation of mankind . it hath two parts , os uteri , the mouth of the matrix , and fundus the bottome . the mouth is a hole at the entrance of it , which like a mouth may be dilated , or pursed in : this entrance is but a transverse line , which when it is exactly opened becommeth round . this orifice , although in the act of generation it may be so dilated , that it will receive the glans of a mans genitall ; yet after conception it is so closely shut , that it will not admit the point of a bodkin . when a woman is delivered , it so openeth it selfe , that it maketh way for the infant , be it never so big . in those who have been mothers , it is like to the mouth of a whelpe . the cancer of the matrix most commonly beginneth here , because it is somewhat fleshy : within this orifice a long knobby substance is placed , to help the shutting of the orifice the more exquisitly . about this knobby substance , small holes are to be seene , which seeme to be the ends of the ejaculatory vessels . in figure it is like a peare or a cupping glasse . in virgins even of a big stature it exceedeth not the bignesse of a walnut . but in those who are with child , it doth dilate it selfe into that capacity , as is able to containe the child . it was to be small , because the seed in quantity is but little , which it ought to embrace and cherish . it hath no distinct cels as the matrix of a beast hath ; onely a line , as in the tongue and cod , doth separate the right side from the left . in length from the orfice to the extremity of the bottome , it is thought to be three inches . the internall superficies is rough the better to keepe the seed . the matrix is framed of two membranes , the externall springeth from the peritonaeum , and is the thickest of all other , that spring from it . it is smooth and slippery if you except those parts where the spermatick vessell enter into the matrix , and where the ligaments goe out . the internall membrane is full of small holes , where the matrix covereth the intestinum rectum . when the courses flow , they are easily seene ; but not when they cease . the ancients did take these to be the mouths of the veins and arteries . and because they resemble in figure the measure appointed for the selling of vineger , they called them acetabula or cotidones . by these holes the menstruall bloud issueth . above at the sides of the externall membrane two little bunches , such as are seene in stirks or hayfers , when the hornes begin to bud , are to be marked . they are called cornua uteri . for nourishment it hath both veins and arteries . of these the veins are bigger than the arteries : the veins spring from two branches on each side : one branch commeth from the vasa praeparantia : this doth descend , and is spread thorow the whole matrix : but chiefly thorow the bottom : and seeing the sprigs are implanted in each side , the right are coupled with the left by inosculation . the other branch which commeth from ramus hypogastricus , doth ascend from the lower parts , and is sent partly to the orifice , partly to the bottom . these are larger than those which spring from the vas praeparans . both these being despersed thorow the substance of the matrix are united by inosculation also . some will have the menstruall bloud to flow from the twigs , sent from ramus hypogastricus when a woman is with child : being perswaded by the aphorisme of hippocrates lib. . aphor. . that nothing can flow from the cavity , the orifice being so shut that it cannot admit the point of a bodkin ; but the word 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , signifieth only cōnivens , or shut together , as the eye lids are . and although in the first moneths the orifice be exactly closed ; yet when a woman is great with child the orifice gapeth a little , and is shut with a mucous seminall substance , which doth repell the aire , and lubricate the orifice in the delivery . it hath arteries also , which spring from the preparing arteries , and from the hypogastricae , as the veins did ; these accompany the veins , and are distributed as they are . the sinews first doe spring from the sixt conjugation : they are small , and are bestowed upon the bottom : then from the pares which spring from the os sacrum . these are bestowed partly upon the lower part of it , and partly upon the cunnus . these are larger , because in the act of generation great delectation is required . by these vessels , arteries , veins and nerves , the matrix hath a consent with all the rest of the body . and although the veins , and arteries seeme to bee small in women which are not with child ; yet in those who are with child , by the affluxion of bloud , they will sometimes become as thick as a finger . yea in such the matrix which otherwaies is membranous , as hath beene said , becommeth in the last moneths thicker and softer : so that about the upper part of the bottom , unto the which the placenta uteri is tyed , it becommeth almost two inches thick . the matrix is onely tyed to the adjacent parts laterally : for above , fore , and after , it is free that it might admit dilatation , and descend or ascend in the act of generation . now the ligament are in number foure . the two uppermost broad and membranous are nothing else but production of the peritonaeum , which tye the matrix to the ossa ilii . they are loose and soft , that they might admit dilatation with the matrix , when a woman is with child , and constriction when she is not . these carry the vasa praeparantia and deferentia to the matrix , and lap up the stones : they represent the wings of a bat , or the sayles of a ship spred abroad . these keepe the matrix steady in its own place , that it neither ascend not descend . the two lower ligaments are nervous , round , and hollow ; they spring from the sides of the bottom of the matrix , neere to the vasa deferentia , which they touch ; they go down to the groynes , by the production of the peritonaeum strengthned by glandules : and being dilated like a membrane , they bestow one part upon the clytoris : the residue passeth to the knee , in the inside of the thigh by the membrana adiposa , this is the cause why women after conception feele paine in the inside of the thigh . these ligaments ferve not onely to stay the matrix , but because they are hollow , by them noysome humours of the genitals are sent to the glandules of the groines . so after impure copulation , the seminary vessels being infected , the contagious humour , by these ligaments is sent to the groynes : from whence arise bubones venerei . cap. xxvii . of the stones and the seminary vessels . women have stones as men have ; but they differ in eleven things . . in situation , for they are placed not without the hypogastrium , as in men ; but within it : that they might be the hotter and more fruitfull . . in quantity , for they are lesser . . in their frame , for they are composed of five or six bladders , which make them uneven : whereas the stones of men are smooth : these bladders containe an humidity like to whey ; but it is thicker . . the stones of women have no cremasters ; but are stayed by the broad laterall ligaments , called the bats wings . . they have no prostates . . they differ in figure , for in man they are ovall ; but in woman flattish . . they have but one membrane ; whereas mans hath foure . . in substance , for they are more soft and flaggy than in man. . in temperature , for they are more cold than mans stones : and containe a thin and watrish seed . . in women they are tyed to the sides of the uterus by the two upper ligaments , which are loose and membranous . . in women which are not with child , they are placed above the matrix , two inches distant from it . the seminary vessels preparing , are foure , two veines , and so many arteries . the vein of the right side springeth as in man , from the trunck of the vena cava under the emulgent ; but that of the left side springeth from the middle of the emulgent of the same side . both the arteries spring from the descending trunck of the great artery . these veins are not united as in man , before they come to the stones , but are divided into two branches . whereof the greater being stayed by the membranous ligament , is caried to the stone ; but the lesser endeth in the bottome of the matrix in the upper part , for the nutrition of the matrix , and the embryo . these vasa preparantia differ from those in men in these things . first , they are shorter than in man , by reason of the shortnesse of the passage : but they have more wreathings where they make corpus varicosum , about the stone , that the seed may be the better prepared . secondly , they passe not whole to the stones as in man ; but are divided in the mid way , as hath been said . one thing is to be noted , that the spermatick veins receive the arteries as they passe by the sides of the uterus , that the bloud might be the better elaborat : for if you blow up the vena spermatica , both the right and left vessels of the matrix are blowne up . from hence you may perceive the communion of all the vessels of the matrix . the vesa deferentia spring from the lower part of the stones . they are firme , white , and nervous . they passe by the membranous ligament to the matrix , not straight , but wreathed ; that the shortnesse of the way might be recompensed with the multitude of windings . neere the stones they are somewhat broad . when they have marched a little , they become narrow , and about the matrix they become broad againe , and end in the cornua & capacity of it . amongst these vessels the last to be considered is tuba fallopiana . spigeltus calleth it vas coecum , lib. . cap. . because it hath but one orifice , as the intestinum coecum annexed to colon ; this springeth from the cornua or bunches , and resembleth the end of a trumpet , and passeth obliqaely , over against the stone caried by the membranous ligament , and compasseth the stones : but it neither proceedeth from the stones , neither is inserted into them : and as in its beginning it is open ; so in its ending it is shut . riolan will have it to be the end of the ejaculatory vessell , ending within the matrix . he observeth that within it is to be seene a long , white and sinewy body , which he will have to be the continuation of the ejaculatory vessell . he noteth also that a small sprig doth passe but wreathed from the ejaculatory , by the sides of the uterus to the orifice : by the which women with child spend their seed in the act of generation ; which spigelius denieth in the cited place , and checketh laurentius for affirming such a passage . the second book of the brest . cap. i. of the common containing parts of it . hitherto then of the lower belly , the seat of the naturall spirit , and of the parts appointed for nutrition and procreation : now it followeth that we handle the middle cavity the seat of the vitall spirit , which containeth those parts appointed for the cherishing of the naturall heat , the distribution of the same to all other parts of the body , and the cooling of it , if it exceed the naturall degree . this ventricle is seated in the middle , betweene the uppermost , which is the head , and lowermost , which is the belly : for it was fit , that it should be so , that the heat passing thorow all , and bestowing life should equally bee bestowed upon all the parts of the body . it is severed from the head by the neck ; from the belly by the midrife . it is bounded in the forepart by the brest-bone , and cartilages . in the sides by the ribs : behind by the vertebrae of the back . the figure of it is ovall , somewhat flat before and behind , whereas in beasts it is somewhat sharp : so that onely man lieth on his back . it is partly bony , partly fleshy , that it might admit motion , and yet not styfle the heart ; the fleshy parts being suspended by the bony . the fore part of it is called sternum , the sides costae , and the hinder parts dorsum . the parts whereof it is composed , are either containing or contained . the parts containing are either common or proper . the parts containing common are in number foure , cuticula , cutis , pinguedo , and membrana carnosa . the scarfe skin , and skin of it do differ from those in the belly : for it is hairy under the arme pits , and above the pit of the heart : the skin of the back is both harder and thicker , and so is lesse hairy . secondly , the skin of the back part is of an exquisit feeling : first , because many twigs of sinews are bestowed upon it from the nervis , proceeding from the spinalis medulla : secondly , by reason of the muscles of the brest placed there , which have many tendons , and so are very sensible . as for the fat , it is not plentifull here as in the belly : first , because the naturall heat here is sufficiently preserved without it : secondly , because it would have hindered the motion of the brest . onely here it is somewhat yellowish . the membrana carnosa here in the forepart of the neck is more fleshy than in other parts , chiefly where the musculus quadratus is framed , which pulleth downe the cheekes and lips . cap. ii. of the dugs . the proper containing parts are either externall or internall . the externall are in number three , the dugs , the muscles , the bones . the internall proper containing parts are three in like manner , the pleura , the mediastinum , and the pericardium . dugs are granted to both the sexes , in men they are framed of the cutis , the membrana carnosa , fat , and the nipple , and serve onely for beauty , and are called mammillae . if in man a whitish substance representing milk , bee found in the nipples , which hath been seene , as witnesseth aristotel . . histor. animal . . it is unprofitable , and unapt to nourish . the paps in women besides these parts , have remarkable vessels , glandules and pipes , to containe the milk perfected by the glandules . the glandules are many , not one ; that the milk might be the better elabored . there is placed above the rest , one somewhat bigger under the nipple . betweene these are placed innumerable veins and arteries , which receive blood from the matrix the materiall cause of milk . when these are full of bloud , the milk is made by the property of the substance of the glandulous bodies , and their temperament . the milk perfected is sent to the tubuli lactiferi or conduicts of milk , these end in the nipple . the veins are of two sorts , for some are externall , some internall . the externall spring from the axillar branch , and are placed under the skin , which covereth the dugs to nourish it , and are called thoracicae superiores , or the uppermost brest veins . the internall or inferior called mammariae , spring from the rami subclavii . they are in number two , whereof one doth match downward straight by the sides of the brest bone . when they are come to the macranata cartilago , they passe out of the brest , and goe downward by the lower part of the musculi recti . when they are come to the umbilicall region almost , they are joyned with skin , by sundry inosculations , with the venae epigastricae , which meet them there . these venae epigastricae , spring from the externall ramusiliacus , and by a straight way passe upward under these muscles . from this same branch , spring the vena hypogastricae which are inserted into the neck and bottome of the matrix . there are arteriae mammariae in like manner , which spring from the rami subclavii , and goe downe to the navell . whither when they are come , they are united by inosculation with the arteriae epigastricae ascending . they have nerves from the fourth intercostall nerve , which about the middle of the rib , perforating the intercostall muscle , is divided into foure branches , which are sent afterward to the pectorall muscle , the thicker passing to the nipple . betweene these glandulous bodies and vessels plenty of fat is placed to procure smoothnesse & equality to the paps . if this be wasted either by sicknesse of old age , the dugs become flaggy . the paps are of figure round ; both , that they should be more capable of milk , and lesse subject to brufings . in number they are two , that if one should faile , the other should supply the defect . in men , women , and apes , which carry their young ones in their armes , they are seated in the brest : . that the mother should take pleasure by beholding the child . . that by the talking of the mother , the child should learne to speake , and be endued with reason . . that being neere to the heart , they should receive plenty of heat . . for beauty . . for convenient giving of suck , for the child cannot presently goe when it is borne ; but must be borne in the armes and applyed to the teat . . for the commodity of the act of generation . . for the defence of the vitall parts . . for the incitation of lust . . to be a receptacle of excrementitious humours . so women are often troubled with cancers . the nipple is placed in the middle of the dug , where the milky conduits end . it is a round body standing out , that the infant may take hold of it with the lips . it is of a fungous substance , that it may admit distention and contraction . it hath many holes : which appeare when the milk is pressed out . it is rougher than the other parts of the dug , that the infant may the more firmly hold it . it is of an exquisit sense , that the nurse should find some pleasure , when she giveth suck : it is framed of the reduplicatiō of the skin . now the milk which is drawen thorow the holes of it by the infant , is nothing else but a white liquour , engendered of the venall and arteriall bloud , sent from the matrix , and altered by the glandules of the dugs ; in taste pleasant , which is easily cincocted by the stomack , and doth speedily and plentifully nourish . as for the muscles , they are set down in the treatise of muscles , cap. . the bones , which were said to be the third proper externall containing part , are set downe in doctrine of bones . cap. iii. of the proper internall containing parts . these are in number three , the pleura , the mediastinum , and the pericardium . the pleura hath its denomination from the ribs , under which it is placed , and so it may be termed in english the costall membrane . it is a membrane , white , thin , hard , resembling the peritonaeum spigelius de human . corp . fabr. lib. . cap . will have it to be thicker and stronger than the peritonaeum , contrary to the opinion of riolan , who affirmeth the peritonaeum to be thicker and stronger ; because it is appointed for the sustaining the weight of the guts . it is every where double : the inner part is thickest , smoothest , and as it were bedewed with a watrish humour , that it should not hurt the lungs by its roughnesse : this watrish humour doth spring from the vapours raised from the blood condensed , by respective coldnesse of the membrane . the outer part is thinner , yet rougher ; that it should cleave the more firmely to the ribs . as for its figure , without it is arched , within hollow : above it is narrower , below broader , chiefly towards the sides : from it spring some sinewy fibres , by the which the lungs are tied to it . if these be too strait , the motion of the lungs is hindered , and so an uncurable difficulty of breathing procured . above it is perforat in five places , to give way to the vena cava , and the aorta ascending , the gula , the wind-pipe , and the nerves of the sixth paire . below where it covereth the midrife , it is perforat in three places , to give way to vena cava , and the aorta descending , as also to the gula . it is framed of the membranes , covering the spinalis medulla ; for those joyning with the sinews of the brest , growing broader , produce it . it hath veins and arteries for nourishment and life , and nerves for feeling . on each side it hath . veins ; whereof the two uppermost spring from the higher intercostall branch , and the ten lower from the vena sine pari . some many arteries are in like manner ; whereof the foure uppermost proceed from the superior intercostall , and the inferior eight , from the hinder part of the aorta , descending . it hath twelve nerves in like manner ; wherof the fore branches which spring from the vertebrae of the brest , are bestowed upon the forepart ; but the hindermost branches are bestowed upon the muscles , which are placed upon the back . these vessels are placed betweene the duplication of the pleura , and the pleuresie it selfe is not seated in this place onely ; but betweene the pleura also , and the intercostall muscles . it hath two uses : first , to wrap in all the vitall parts : secondly , to defend them from all externall injuries . the second membrane is the mediastinum because it standeth in the middle of the brest , and divideth the right side from the left . in hath not onely a duplication as the pleura hath , but is double also ; for one is in the right side , the other in the left . they are united according to the longitude of the vertevrae of the back ; but severed towards the sternum . in the cavity between these parts of the mediastinum , one may bee deeply wounded , without any great danger of death . such a wound you shall easily discern ; first , if small store of bloud issue out . secondly , if no breath come out . this cavity is seene when the cartilago xiphoides is removed . in the dropsie of the lungs , and when corrupt mattet is gathered , the sternum here may be tripaned . the substance of it is membranous , yet thinner and softer than the pleura . the inner side towards the lungs is smooth , and hath fat about the vessels ; but the exterior is rougher , by reason of the fibres , by the which it is tied to the pleura . it reacheth from the throat to the midrife . as for its vessels , veins and arteries , it hath from those called mammariae , but small , and from vena sine pari . it hath one speciall vein called mediastina , which springeth from the lower part of ramus subclavius . the nerves called stomachici passe by the reduplication of it . it hath three uses : first , it divideth the breast and lungs in two parts , that one being wounded the other should be safe . secondly , it holdeth up the pericardium firmly , wherein the heart is contained , that it should not rest upon the back-bone when we ly upon our back , or that it should fall upon the brest bone when wee bend our selves towards the ground , or touch the ribs when we ly upon our sides . thirdly , it giveth a safe passage to the vessels which passe by it . the third proper containing part is the pericardium , so called because it compasseth the whole heart , whose figure it hath , for it is pyramidall . it is so farre distant from the heart , as is sufficient to give way to the motion of the same , and the containing of the waterish humour . it hath two membranes : . outer from the mediastinum , it is tied before and behind to the pleura ; from whence both the mediastinum and pericardium originally spring . . inner from proceeding from the externall tunicles of the vessels of the heart : for within the pericardium the vessels lack their common tunicle , it having beene spent upon the pericardium . the externall membrane is fibrous ; but the internall is slippery , but firme and thick . the motion of it is secondary from the heart . it leaneth more to the left side than to the right , and more to the fore than back part . it cleaveth so firmly to the nervous circle of the midrife , that it cannot be separat from it without renting , to direct the motion of the heart . it is perforat in five places . in two for the entering in , and passing out of the vena cava . in three for vena arteriosa , and arteria venosa , and the passing out of the aorta . it hath small veins from the phrenicae , the axillar . no arteries appeare , because it is neere enough to the heart . it hath two uses : first , to keepe the heart in its owne place , whether we bend our body backwards , forwad , or to either side . secondly , to containe the watrish humour , which is sundry waies profitable : for first , it tempereth the heat of the heart : secondly , it moystneth the same : thirdly , it maketh it slippery : last of all the pericardia defendeth the heart as an armour from all externall injuries . the watrish humour which is contained in the pericardium , is like urine : yet not sharp or saltish . if it be thock and slimy , is causeth the heart to be hairy . if it be too copious , it causeth the painting of the heart , which is cured by phlebotomy . it is too plentifull in those who have obstructions of the mesaraicall veins , liver , or spleene : for in such the thinnest part of the chylus onely is drawne for nourishment , and so the bloud becommeth watrish . some thinke it to proceed from a seminall aquosity , even from the first generation : as the aire within the eares is from a flatuous . others think that it is engēdered of vapours raised from the bloud , and waterishnesse of the veins and arteries of the heart , and condensed by the respective coldnesse of the membrane , and by his meane the peritonaeum and the pleura seeme alwaies bedewed with moysture . it seemeth that the first beginning of it is a seminall humidity , and that is maintained afterward by the vapours . sometimes also there is contained in the capacity of the brest , a bloody water to moysten , and temper the heat of the lungs . it is caused partly of the vapours raised from the vessels , partly of that portion of drink , which passeth to the lungs : and by reason of this , water and bloud did flow from the side of our saviour , pierced . cap. iiii. of the truncke ascending from the vena cava . now the parts contained in the brest , are either vasa or viscera , the vessels or the entrals . the vessels are in number foure , the vena cava , the vena arterialis , the arteria venosa , and the aorta or arteria magna . the first is the vena cava or magna , because the hollownesse of it is great . it hath its beginning from the liver . the orifice of it is three times as large as that of the aorta : being received by the right care of the heart , it is expanded into the whole right ventricle of the same . about the orifice of it are placed three values called trifulcae or tri●uspides : because arising from a large foot , they end into a narrow top representing barbed arrowes . their situation is from without inward , so that the bloud may be let in , but not returne . they proceed from a membranous circle , annexed to the orifice : they cleave to the septum of the heart , towards the point of it bee strong fibres ending in round caruncules . if you would see these as the rest of the values , cut transversly the ventricles of the heart neere to the basis , and then they will appeare . it hath two trunkes , one descending , and this is that which is caused of a number of small veins , appearing in the hollow part of the liver , which meet about the middle of it in one trunck still decreasing in number , and increasing in bignesse . the other ascending , this is procured by a number of small veins , springing from the convex part of the liver , which end in like manner into one trunck about the middle of it . this is bigger than the descending , because all the upper parts are fed by this onely ; whereas most of the parts contained in the abdomen , are nourished by the vena portae . although it bee not divided into branches untill it come to the throat ; yet it doth send forth sundry sprigs from the sides . the first is called phrenica , one in each side it is inserted into the diaphragma , which is called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , by a number of twigs , and from thence it bestoweth twigs upon the pericardium , and mediastinum . the second is called coronaria , so called because like a garland it compasseth the basis of the heart . it sendeth sundry twigges to the outer parts of the heart ; but chiefly to the left : because it needeth greater store of nourishment , by reason of its stronger motion . this hath a value which hindereth the returne of the bloud , to the vena cava . this springeth from the cava , before it enter into the heart , and the bloud is somewhat thick , and not attenuat in the ventricles of the heart ; for the substance of the heart , being hard , and firme , was to be nourished by bloud somewhat grosse . the third is called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 or sine pari , without a mate , because it hath not a fellow as other veins have in the left side , if you except those beasts which chew the cud . this springeth from the cava , as soone as it is come out of the pericardium . it passeth out of the hinder and right part of the vena cava , about the fift vertebra of the brest . it doth not descend straight way : but comming a little forward , it returneth towards the spina . when it is come to the eighth or ninth rib above the spina , it is divided into two branches , to wit , the right and the left : then passing by the division of the midrife , which is between the two productions of it , they are spread thorow the abdomen . of these two , the left is inserted into the left emulgent . by this way fallopius will have watrish , pu●ulent and bloudy substances to be discharged , which sometimes are contained in the brest ; while these branches march downeward : in each side ten sprigs bud out , which march thorow so many distances of so many of the inferior ribs . in the lower part of the rib , there is a groop to receive the sprig . wherefore when you make incision in an empiena , come not neere to this part . from this vein other small twigs also proceed ; which afford nourishment to the spinalus medulla . these are called costales inferiures , or the lower intercostals . the vena sine pari thus being framed , the cava ascendeth to the jugulum , strengthned by the media stinum and the thymus ; which is placed in the uppermost part of the brest . here the vena cava is parted into . remarkable branches : from whence all those veins spring , which are sent either to the head or armes . one branch marcheth to the right , another to the left side , while they remaine within the brest , they are called subclavii , because they march under the cannell bones ; but when they are come to the arme pit , they are called axillares . before they come to the arme pit , sundry sprigs spring from them . the first is intercostalis superior , . this ariseth from the root of the divarication , and passing by the roots of two ribs , bestoweth twigs upon the distances of the two upper ribs , as the vena sine part did : there is one in each side . the second is called mammaria ; this marcheth forwards towards the upper part of the bone of the brest . from thence it goeth downe by the sides of it , and when it is come to the cartilago mucronata , about the sides of it , it passeth out of the brest , and marcheth by a straight way under the straight muscles to the navill , where it is joyned with the vena epigastrica ascendens by inosculation : which is the cause of that great consent , which is betweene the paps and the matrix . this before it leave the brest , it bestoweth one branch upon the cartilaginous distances of seven of the costae verae , where the sprigs of the vena sine pari end . from these branches proceed some other remarkable twigs , which are bestowed upon those muscles , which are seated upon the brest , and the dugs . the third is called mediastina , because it is bestowed upon the mediastinum together with the left nerve of the midrife , according to the length of it . the fourth is called cervicalis or vertebralis . it is large in each side , marching upwards obliquely towards the back part , it commeth to the transverse processes of the vertebrae of the neck , where passing thorow the holes of them , it bestoweth branches upon the muscles , which lye above the vertebrae . the fifth is called muscula inferior , because it is spent upon the lower muscles of the neck , which stretch out the neck and head . the sixth is the internall jugular , this ariseth where the cannell bone is articulat with the sternum . this joyned with the nerve recurrent , and the soporall artery , marcheth by the side of the wind-pipe , to the throat . the seventh is the externall jugular , this marching up under the skin , and the qoadrat muscle , which pulleth downe the cheeks , commeth to the eare . this in beasts is bigger than the internall : otherwise than it is in man. cap. v. of vena arterialis , and arteria venalis . the second vessell in the brest is vena arterialis . it is a vein from its office : for it carrieth naturall blood to the lungs by the right side of the wind pipe : it is called an artery , because the coat of it is double , not single as that of veins . it doth spring from the upper part of the right ventricle of the heart , and is implanted into the substance of the lungs by the right side of the wind-pipe . the third vessell is arteria venalis . it is called an artery , because is carrieth arteriall bloud ; but a vein , because it hath a single coat as a vein . it ariseth from the upper part of the left ventricle of the heart , and is implanted into the substance of the lungs by the left side of the wind-pipe . the vena arterialis hath three values called sigmoides , from the figure of the great sigma , which answereth the latine s. the figure is this c. they looke from within outwards , to let out the bloud ; but to hinder the returne of the same . the arteria venalis hath two values called mitrales , because they are like a bishops miter . they looke from without inward , to let in bloud carried from the vena arterialis . they are bigger than those of vena cava , and have longer filaments , and to strengthen them many fleshy snippets are joyned to them . it hath two values only , that the fuliginous vapours might the more readily be discharged . it hath also but a single thin coat , partly for the same purpose , partly because the bloud sent from the vena arteriosa is cooled by the bronchia of the lungs before it entereth into arteria venalis it needeth not so thick a coat as an artery , and because veins only carry in bloud , and arteries carry out , therefore arteria venalis is placed in the left ventricle , and vena arterialis in the right . both these vessels not farre from their beginning , are divided into two branches , whereof the one passeth to the right part of the lungs , and the other to the left ; and each of these is subdivided into other branches , untill at the last they end in small threeds . the greater branches accompany one another , so that the vein still marcheth with the arteriae joyned together by many inosculations or anastomoses . betweene them the branches of aspera arteria march . these vessels are great , because the lungs by reason of their perpetuall motion require much nourishment . first , the bloud is carried into the lungs by vena arterialis , and from hence to arteria venalis , by sundry anastomoses , and from hence to the left ventricle of the heart . where being made spirituous , it is sent by the aorta , to impart life to the whole body . one thing is to be noted , that no aire in its proper substance is carried to the heart : for the bloud contained in these two vessels , is sufficiently cooled by the bronchia passing between them . the bloud is cooled , first , by staying in the lungs while it is in passing . secondly , by touching the bronchia cooled by the attraction of fresh aire : and thirdly , by the continuall motion of the lungs . one thing is to be noted , that in arteria venosa a little below the values there is found a little value ever open . it being removed , there appeareth a hole , by the which the blood passeth freely from the vena cava to it , and returneth by reason of this anastomosis ; that the bloud in the veins may be animat . cap. vi. of the great artery , and first of the trunke ascending of the same . the fourth vessell is the great artery called aorta ; because it receiveth the aire . it springeth from the upper part of the left ventricle of the heart , where it is largest and hardest . before it come out of the pericardium , it sendeth two small twigs , from each side one : which compasse the basis of the heart like a garland , and send down according to the length of the heart other twigs : these are called coronariae . these twigs are more in number , and larger about the left ventricle than the right , because it requireth greater plenty of nourishment , by reason of its stronger motion , which digesteth much bloud . it is placed between the wind pipe , and the vena cava , tied to the mouth of the stomack , passing under the trunk of vena arteriosa upward , when it hath pierced the pericardium , it is divided into two trunks ; whereof the one is called truncus ascendens , the ascending trunk : the other descendens , the descending . of these two the descending is largest , because it ministreth life to more parts . this ascending trunk before it passe to the armes , is divided into two branches , whereof one passeth to the right , the other towards the left arme ; they are called subclavii rami , because they march under the canell bones . when they are gone out of the brest , they are called axillares . from both the lower and upper part of both these branches , sundry sprigs doe spring . from the upper part proceedeth intercostalis superior , which bestoweth twigs upon the distances of the uppermost foure ribs . from whence others are sent to the adjacent muscles and the spinalis medulla . from the lower springeth that branch , which is called cervicalis , but more fitly vertebralis ; for it springeth behind where the vertebrae ; from thence marching upwards it bestoweth twigs upon the spinalis medulla , which enter by the passages , by the which the nerves , as also upon the muscles , which are placed in the hinder part of the neck , and at the last entereth into the cranium , by that hole , by the which the spinalis medulla descendeth from the braine . this with its fellow whē it is come to the sell of the wedge-like bone on each side of it , betweene the first and second paire of sinews , having beene divided , cause plexus choroides . the second , the arteria mammaria , which accompanying the vena mammaria is joyned with the epigastrica arteria , ascending by inosculation about the navell . the third is that called muscula , and is distributed upon the muscles of the neck . the fourth is the soporall , one on each side ; so called , because if they be stopped , sleep doth immediatly follow . these soporall arteries when they are come to the throat , they are divided in two branches , to wit , the externall , which is lesser , and the internall , which is larger . the externall bestowed twigs upon the muscles of the face , upon the roots of all the teeth of the lower jaw , having entered into the cavity of the mandible , and going out upon the chin . the internall branch when it hath about the throat , it hath bestowed twigs upon the tongue and larynx , about the lower part of the skull , it is divided into two branches , whereof the lesser and hindermost accompanying the branch of the internall jugular marcheth toward the hindermost part of the skull , and entering at the second hole of the nowle entereth into the hollownesse of the dura mater . the formost and the largest , when it hath entered into the cavity of the skull thorow it proper hole in the parietall bone , and is come to the sell of the wedge-like bone , it maketh rete mirabile , which in beasts is large , but in man very obscure . cap. vii . of the descending trunke of the aorta . the descending trunke of the aorta about the fifth vertebra of the breast bending towards the left side marcheth downwards towards the last vertebra of the loynes . in this march it sendeth forth sundry branches , which are these : . intercostall inferior arteries in number eight . . phraenicae two . . caeliaca one . . mesenterica superior . . emulgentes two . . spermaticae two . . mesenterica inferior . . lumbares . the inferior intercostall arteries , accōpanying the veins and nerves of the same denomination march according to the length of the lower part of the ribs , where there is a hollownesse to receive them , and in the true ribs end where the cartilages begin ; but in the short ribs they goe a little further , even to the sides of the lower belly . these send sprigs by the holes of the nerves to the marrow of the back , and to the muscles which rest upon the vertebrae of the back . these not only afford spirits and bloud , to the intercostall muscles ; but carry also quittour and water gathered in the cavity of the brest , sent by the trunk of the aorta to the bladder , by the emulgent arteries , according to spigelius lib. . cap. . whereas fallopius will have these m●ters to be sent by vena sintpari ; but this a shorter way . phrenicae are two , one on each side : they spring from the trunk as soone as it is come out of the cavity of the brest , and being spread into many twigs , whereof the most are bestowed upon the lower part of the midrife , where the vertebra of the back are ; and some also upon the upper part , which afterward passe to the pericardium , where it cleaveth to the midrife . caeliaca is one , so called because it sendeth twigs to the stomack . this springeth from the fore-part of the trunk . this bestoweth branches upon the stomack , liver , gall , caule , the duodenum , the beginning of the jejunum , to a part of colon , to the pancreas , and spleene . mesenterica superior doth arise a little below the caeliaca , accompanying the vena mesaraica . it bestoweth many twigs upon the hungry and ilium gut , as also upon that part of colon , which lieth betweene the hollow part of the liver , and the right kidny . so that this branch is bestowed upon the upper part of the mesentery . the emulgent arteries are two ; the right and the left . they spring from both the sides of the trunk under the former , where the first and second vertebra of the loines are coupled by a ligament . the left is lower than the right . these when they are come to the kidnies are divided into two branches , which are inserted into the cavities of the kidnies , and by innumerable small twigs are spent upon the substance of the kidnies . the use of these , besides the common , is to discharge the serosity of the arteries , whereof they have great store . spermatica or seminales , the seminary ; they are in like manner two , which spring from the forepart of the trunk . the left artery doth not spring from the left emulgent artery as the vein doth . these marching downward , accompany the veins of their side . in men they are carried to the stones by the productions of the peritonaeum ; but in women when they are come neere to the stones , they are divided in two branches , whereof the one is bestowed upon the stones , and the other upon the bottome of the matrix , in the sides of it . mesenterica inferior , it springeth about the os sacrum , from the trunk a little above before it sendeth forth the rami iliaci . it is bestowed upon the left part of the colon , and the rectum , and accompanieth the hemorrhidicall veins to the anus . lumbares rami , the loyne branches , in number foure ; they spring from the back-part of the descending trunk of the aorta . these passe to the vertebrae of the loynes , and their marrow by their holes , as also to the adjacent muscles . some things here offer themselves to be observed . . that when either the colicke is changed into the gout , or cōtrariwise the gout into the colick ; if the lest happen , then the humours are sent from the crurall arteries to the trunke , and from thence to the mesentericall branches of the arteries ; and from thence to the guts . if the first happen , then the humours passe the contrary way , read hip. . epid. sect. . . if the colick turn either to a palsey , or falling sicknesse , as it may fall out , according to aegenet . lib. . cap. . then the humour doth returne from the colon by the mesentericall arteries , to the trunke , and from hence to the lumbares , which being filled compresse the adjacent nerves : from whence difficulty of going insueth ; which may be called an imperfect palsey . if the falling sicknesse be pr●cured , the humour is sent to the groyne arteries , and thence to the braine . . clysters may purge the whole body : for the clyster moistning the whole colon , may by the twigs of the arteries draw noysome humours from the trunk , and when purgation is caused by anointing the navill ( which often falled out in using the unction for the pox , ) or vomiting by ministring a clyster , wherein white hellebore is , first the arteries draw the force of the medicaments , and this same faculty againt doth purge by the arteries . . arteriae sacrae , or those branches which goe to the os sacrum . they spring from the lower part of the trunk , before it sendeth out the rami ili●ci . they are somewhat large . they marching downeward , and leaning upon the os sacrum , enter into the holes of it , and so passe to the marrow and hinder part of the same . by these the matter which causeth the colick may passe to procure the palsey of the legs . iliace arteriae , these arising below the former about the lower vertibra of the loynes , and mount above the vein , lest it should be hurt by the hardnesse of the os sacrum , in their continuall motion . they being in number two large branches , called arteriae iliaca or flancke arteries , and marching downward to the thigh obliquely they represent the greeke y. inverted . these a little below the division of the trunk are subdivided into two branches , to wit , the internall or lesser iliaca , and the externall or greater . the internall hath two branches : the one is called glutaea , and with a vein of the same denomination , and is bestowed upon the muscles , which make up the buttocks : the other is called hypogastrica . this is large , this being carried directly to the lower part of the os sacrum , in men it bestoweth twigs to the bottom and neck of the bladder , and to the straight gut ; but in women wherein it is larger , it sendeth plenty of twigs upon the bottome and neck of the matrix besides the former parts . the externall or greater hath two branches . the first is called epigastrica . it springeth from the outer part of the artery a little before it passe thorow the peritonaeum , and turning upwards it mounteth upwards by the inner side of the straight muscle of the belly : and about the navill it is inosculat with the arteries descending . the second is called pudenda , this is but a small branch , and when it is come out of the peritonaeum , it passeth obliquely by the joyning of the os pubis , and is bestowed upon the skin of the secret parts . one thing is to be noted , that the arteria umbilicalis springeth from the internall iliaca , and going alongst the great artery , is firmly tyed to the bladder by strong membranes . when the child is in the belly , it is hollow ; but without hollownes when the infant is come . about the orifice of these vessels . ii. values are to be seene , if the ventricles of the heart be dissected transverse neere to the bajis . of these some are called trisulcae , and resemble a barbed arrow , some semilunares or sigmoides , because they resemble a halfe moone , or the greeke leetter called c. those bend inwards , because they are set before the vessels which carry in bloud . these bend outward , because they are appointed for the vessels which carry out the bloud . the vena cava hath three trisulcae ; but the arteria venosa two . the aorta , and vena arteriosa have three sigmoides . so much then concerning the vessels of the brest : now follow the entrals . cap. viii . of the heart . of these there are foure : the heart , the lungs , the wind-pipe , and part of the gullet . in the explication of the heart ; first , the swadler is to bee considered , and then the substance of the heart it selfe . the swadler , called pericardium or capsula cordis , is a membrane wrapping in the whole heart , having the figure of the same , having such distance from the heart , and to containe the watrish humour . it is perforat in five places for the comming in , and going out of the vena cava , and for egresse of the other three . the substance of it is thicke and firme . the outer superficies is fibrous ; but the inner , smooth and slippery . it is tyed to the mediastinum , and adjacent parts by sundry fibres . it doth cleave firmly to the sinewy circle of the midrife ; but not so in dogs . it hath its beginning from the tunicles , which compasse the vessels which proceed from the pleura ; for between the heart and the pericardium , the membrane from the pleura is wanting . it containeth a watrish substance , not sharpe for the refrigeration and humefaction of the heart : as in the cavity of the brest a moysture is found like water and bloud , mingled together . so from the side of our saviour pierced , water and bloud did flow . the pericardium hath veins from the phrenicae and axillar . no arteries appeare ; because it is neere enough to the heart . it hath small nerves from the left recurrent . as for the heart , the substance of it is compact and firme , and full of fibres of all sorts . the upper part is called hath a small nerve from the sixt conjugation for feeling ; but not motion , for it moveth of it selfe : of all the parts of the body , it is the hottest ; for it is the well spring of life , and by arteries communicateth it to the rest of the body . the heart hath two motions , diastole , and systole . in diastole or dilatation of the heart , the conus is drawne from the basis , to draw bloud by the cava to the right ventricle , and aire by arteria venosa to the left ventricle . in systole or contraction , on , the conus is drawne to the basis . first , that the vitall spirit may be thrust from the left ventricle of the heart into the aorta . secondly , that the arteriall bloud may bee thrust into the lungs , by arteria venalis . thirdly , that the bloud may bee pressed to the lungs , in the right ventricle by vena arterialis . the parts of the heart are either , externall or internall . the externall are the eares . the eares are annexed to the firme substance of the heart about the basis of it , before the mouths of the vessels . they are of a nervous substance for strength , yet thin and soft , for the easier contraction and dilatation : the left is thicker than the right . when they are distended , they are smooth ; but being contracted they are wrinckled . they are storehouses of the heart : for they first receive the aire and bloud , lest they immediatly rushing into the heart might offend it , and they strengthen the vessels . these eares are two in number : the right which is greatest , this is before the vena cava , and the left the lesser , before the arteria venosa . they are called eares not from the office of hearing , but from the likenesse ; they representing the figure of an eare . death approaching , when the heart is immoveable , they move ; so we see that a small gale of wind , which moveth not the tree moveth the leaves . the internall parts of the heart are the ventricles or cavities , and the septum . the ventricles are in number two , the right and the left . the right is larger than the left , yet the left hath thicker sides , and within is more unequall than the right . the right ventricle receiveth bloud from the vena cava , to be sent by vena arteriosa to the lungs , and reacheth not to the conus . the left ventricle is not so wide as the right : yet the fleshy circumference is thrice as thick as that of the right . it doth elaborat the vitall spirit of the blood and aire drawne in by arteria venosa . the septum , so called because it separateth the right ventricle from the left , is that thick and fleshy substance set between the two cavities . riolan will have the matter of the vitall bloud to passe thorow the holes or porosites of it , from the right to the left ventricle , but that hardly any instrument can shew them : first , because they goe not straight , but wreathed . secondly , because they are exceeding narrow in the end . he affirmeth that they are more easily discerned in an oxe heart boiled . cap. ix . of the lungs , wind-pipe , and gullet . as for the lungs , the substance of them in infants , whilest they are in the wombe , is red and compact ; but after birth because they begin to move with the heart by heat and motion , this substance beginneth to be more loose and spongious , and of a pale yellow colour , that they may the more easily rise , and fall to receive the aire , and expell superfluities . the substance of the lungs is covered with a membrane communicated by the pleura : for the vessels as soone as they enter into the substance of the lungs , they leave the coat which they borrowed of the pleura , and leave it for covering of the lungs . this membrane is porous , to give way to impurities , contained in the cavity of the brest , to passe thorow the loose substance of the lungs , to be discharged by expectoration . when the lungs are blowne up , they fill the whole cavity of the brest . in figure they are like to an oxes hoofe . the outer part is gibbous ; the inward hollow : the lungs are divided into the right and left part , each of these hath two lobes , seldome three , with the which as with fingers they embrace the heart . nature hath ordained this division , that if one side of the lungs should be hurt , the other might discharge the office . the lungs and brest are divided by the benefit of the mediastinum , which is a double membrane framed of the pleura ; for the pleura beginning at the back , passeth to the sternum by the sides : when it is come to the middle of the sternum , it directly from thence passes to the back againe . the cavity which the reduplication of the pleura leaveth here is above wider , but towards the back narrower and narrower , untill the membranes be united . penetrating wounds going no further than this cavity , are not deadly . the mediastinum is softer than the pleura . the lungs are joyned to the sternum by the mediastinum , behind the vertebra of the back : towards the sides to the pleura by fibres sometimes they are tyed , which causeth difficulty of breathing . it is joyned to the heart by vena arteriosa , and arteria venosa . the lungs have three vessels , vena arteriosa , arteria venosa , and trachaea arteria : these two marching together have betweene them inserted a branch of the trachaea arteria , carying aire to coole them . on this is to be noted , that the vessels of the lungs differ from those in other parts of the body : for the veins have the coats of arteries , that no alimentary moysture should breathe out : and the arteries have the coats of veins , that the vitall bloud might the more speedily passe , with the fuliginous excrements , and the pure aire come in more plentifully . the lungs have no faculty of themselves to move , but follow the motion of the brest , to shunne vacuity ; for when the brest doth dilate it selfe , the lungs are filled with aire and raised up ; and when the brest contracteth it selfe they fall . that the lungs follow the motion of the brest , this experience sheweth : let one receive a penetrating wound in the brest , if the aire enter in , the lungs cannot move , because the vacuity of the brest being filled with aire , the motion of the brest ceasing , the motion of the lungs ceaseth also . a few twigs of sinews come to the membrane ; but none to the substance : for they might have caused paine in the motion of the lungs . cap. x. of the wind-pipe . the third entrall contained in the brest is trachaea , or aspera arteria , fistula and canna pulmonis , the wind-pipe . it is a pipe by the which the lungs as bellowes draw the aire , for the refreshing of the heart , and send out fuliginous vapours , turned out from the heart by arteria venosa . the substance of it is cartilaginous , because by it living creatures cause their noises , and soundings , and so it must have beene hard ; yet not so hard as a bone , because the motion had beene painfull . it is not framed of one whole piece , for then it would have remained still in one positure , and could not have suffered contraction and dilatation . wherefore it is made up of sundry round cartilages , which are tyed together by ligaments , which in men are more fleshy , is beasts more membranous . the fourth part of these cartilaginous ringes towards the gullet is wanting , and is supplied by a membranous substance , that swallowing of solid things might not be hindered . it consisteth of two parts : the upper is called larynx , the lower bronchus ; because it is bedewed with some part of the drinke : for if you give to a dogge saffron disolved in milk , if you presently kill him , and open the lungs , you shall find some part of this mixture . the branches of the wind-pipe disseminat thorow the lungs , as placed middle between vena arteriosa , which is in the hinder part , and arteria venosa , which is in the forepart : which are joyned by anastomosis or inosculation . it is girt with two membranes . the externallis thin , and cleaveth fast to the ligaments of the rings , and guideth the recurrent nerves thither . the internall is thicker , and preceedeth from the membrane , which covereth the roofe of the mouth . this being strong , is not so easily offended by salt rheumes , and shin liquours . it is very sensible , that it might be the more easily moved to send forth things offensive . it is also bedewed with an unctuous humour , to withstand the injury of sharp things , and to cause the voyce to be more pleasant . so if salt rheumes bedew this membrane , the voyce becomes hoarse ; if this humour be dryed in fevers , squeeking . larynx is the upper part of the wind-pipe . when the gullet bendeth downward in swallowing , this starteth upwards to give way to swallowing ; it hath five cartilages . . scutiformis , or buckler-like , for within it is hollow , but without embossed . that part which sticketh out is called pomum adami , adams apple . . annularis , because it is like a turkish ring , and compasseth the whole larynx : in the hinder part it is broad , and thick . . and . guttalis , because it resembleth that part of the pot , which is called gutturnium . these two being joyned together , make the chinke , which fashioneth the voyce . this chinke is called glottis , or lingula , the little tongue . . is epiglottis , being set above the glottis ; it shutteth it . it is of a soft substance resembling a tongue , or the leafe of the wood-bind , and on every side bound with a membrane , proceeding from the mouth . the larynx hath veins from the externall jugular , arteries from the soporall , and nerves from the recurrent branches of the sixt paire . the glandules of the larynx are either superior or inferior . the superior are two , one on each side of the uvula or gargareon , which are called vulgarly amigdalae or the almonds ; these receive humidity from the braine , which they turn in flegme to moisten the larynx , throat , tongue , and gullet , and to be a meane for tasting : for tasting cannot be performed without moysture . they are seated about the root of the tongue , covered with the skin of the mouth , and receive veins from the jugulars . the inferior are in number two , one on each side of the lower part of the larynx , they are fungous , and larger in women than men . the larynx is framed for the voyce , the remote instruments of the voice are the brest and lungs ; the neerer , either prepare , as the wind-pipe ; or helpe , as the sinews and muscles ; or keepe it , as the throat and mouth ; or immediatly forme the voyce , and that is glottis , for the aire being blowne out forcibly by the lungs , it beating upon the chinke , shut reasonably , procureth the voyce . cap. xi . of the gullet . oesophagus or gula , the gullet , is that part by the which as a funnell , meat and drink are turned down into the stomack . it is framed of three tunicles . the first is very thin , and appeareth destitute of fibres ; this it hath from the peritonaeum , common also to the stomack ; the other two are proper : whereof the middlemost is more fleshy , thick and soft ; it hath straight and long fibres . the innermost is more sinewy , and harder , the fibres of it are transverse and circular . veins some it hath from ramus coron rius , or round branch of the porta , and some from cava . arteries it hath from the caeliaca , and the truck descending of the aorta . nerves it hath two sprigs of the sixt paire it is joyned with the throat and larynx by the skin of the mouth which is communicate to it , and the stomack : to the spondils of the back , the wind-pipe , and the parts adjacent by membranes , which arise of the ligaments of the back . to the hinder part a glandule groweth to cause more easie swallowing by moystning the part . it hath foure muscles . the first is the circular called by galen , sphincter , whereof we have spoken . the second and third are but small ones , seated in the throat , and proceeding from the palat of the mouth , are implanted into the beginning of the gullet . the fourth proceedeth from the inner part of the chin , & is inserted into the gullet . in swallowing , then first of all the circular muscle purseth it self , from whence it commeth to passe that the oblique fibres of it , which passe from the gullet to the wind-pipe , are made transverse , and so the larynx is lifted up , and the gula goeth downe . so that as this muscle doth embrace the which is to be swallowed , and beareth it downe ; so the fourth seconding this , doth receive it and send it further towards the stomack , that it returneth not . about the top of the brest , there is a glandulous body , spongious , white and soft , called thymus and lactes : in a calfe a dainty morsell . it holdeth up the branches of the vena cava , and aorta ascending ; which passe to the armes , and saveth them from touching the bones . cap. xii . of the neck . the neck , cellum , joyneth the brest and head together . it is long , to helpe the voyce : so those living creatures which make no noyse , have no neck , as fishes ; but those who have a long necke , make a huge noyse , as geeses and cranes . the inner parts are the vessels which passe to the head , the wind-pipe , and the gullet with others . the outer are the parts common of the body , and the muscles of these , i will speake in the discourse of muscles . the parts remarkable in section are these . . the soporall arteries . . internall jugulars . . the recurrent nerves betweene these . . the larynx or wind-pipe-head , framed of five cartilages . . glottis the chinke of it . . epiglottis the cover of the chinke . . vvula , which is a red , fleshy , and fungous substance . it is covered with the reduplication of the skin of the roofe of the mouth . . gula or favus , the mouth of the stomack . . tonsillae , the almonds , these moisten the mouth for chewing , and tongue for tasting . the description of the recurrent nerves , you shall find where the sixt conjugation of nerves , proceeding from the braine , is set downe , cap. . of the head . the third book , of the uppermost cavity of the body , the head , caput in latine . cap. i. of the braine . fig. iii. the scalp hath foure parts . . sinciput , the forepart beginning at the forehead , and reaching to the coronall suture . . occiput , the hinder part possessing the di●●●●ce betweene the future lambdoides , and the first vertebra of the neck . . vertex , the crown , that which is betweene the former two , somewhat arched . . tempora , the temples , which are the laterall parts , betweene the eyes and the eares . the parts whereof the scalpe is framed , are either containing or contained . the parts containing are either common or proper . the common are the scarfe skin , the skin , the fat , and membrana carnosa . the proper are either soft or hard . the soft are two : the muscles and pericranium . of the muscles we will speake in their proper place . pericranium is a membrane thin and soft , proceeding from the dura mater , passing thorow the futures of the head , covering the scull . the hard containing part is the scull . looke for it in the treatise of bones . the parts under the skull contained , are the meninges , the membranes , which wrap the braine , and the braine it selfe . the membranes are two . the first is called dura meninx or dura mater , the hard membrane , it doth loosely lap in the whole braine and there is some distance betweene it and the skull , to give way to the motion of the braine . it hath two membranes . that next to the skull is harder , rougher , and of lesse sense , because it was to touch the skull . the inner is smooth , whiter , and bedewed with a waterish humidity : it seemeth to spring from the lower part of the skull , because it cleaveth fast to it . it is tyed to , with the pia mater and the braine by the vessels : but to the skull by small fibres arising of it selfe , passing thorow the sutures , and framing the pericranium it is fourefold where it parteth the cerebrum from the cerebellum . in the crowne of the head , where it parteth the braine into the right and left part , it is doubled ; and because this reduplication in the hinder part is broader , and forwards becomming narrower representeth a sicle , it is called falx . by these foldings the sinus or ventricles are framed , which are receptacles of plentiful bloud and spirits . they are in number foure . the first and second begin about the b●●sis of the occiput at the sides of lamb doides , where the veins and arteries discharge themselves . the third is long , and passeth to the nose , and is framed of the former two joyned together . the fourth is short , and betweene the cerebrum and cerebellum goeth to the penis : this ariseth where the former three meet . this beginning is of some called t●r●ular . from hence veins do passe for the nourishing of the braine ; for from the sinus , veins creepe upward to the cranium , and by the futures to the pericranium , and downeward to the pia mater , cerebrum , and cerebellum . these veins cleave by a thin tunicle to the sides of the sinus ; seeing these cavities have pulsation , these veins supply the office both of veins and arteries . these containe great plenty of bloud , seeing the braine being large , and in continuall lacketh much nourishment . the great bleeding at the nose happens by reason of the third sinus opened . pia mater or dura meninx immediatly wrappeth and keepeth in the braine . whereofore it is thin , soft , and of exquisite sense . cerebrum or the brain , is of a substance moyst and soft to receive the impression of similitudes : for it is the place of imagination and memory . the life is not in the whole body , of colour it is white . it hath the figure of the skull . in the forepart it hath bunchings out , called precessus mammillares . in the upper part it is full of foldings , as the guts have , to carry safely the vessels . in weight it containeth . or . lib. and is as big again as an oxes braine . the parts of the brain are these , the outer , and the inner . the outer of a grayish colour , or betweene white and yellow , is of a softer substance , and compasseth the inner . the inner is more solide and whiter , called corpus callosum . this hath two parts : the one is somewhat round which hath the figure of the skull : the other is that which proceedeth from it . in the large round part , the three ventricles are contained . the other proceedeth of the round , and containeth the fourth ventricle called calamus scriptorius . in this ventricle the animall spirit seemeth to be made , for it is pure and cleane ; but the other ventricle , full of impurities , having under them the glandula pituitaria , for evacuation of them . the braine is the towre of the sensitive soule . in contraction it sendeth the animall spirits into the nerves dispersed thorow the whole body : by the which it communicateth the faculty of feeling and moving . in dilatation it draweth the vitall spirits from the soporall arteries , and the aire by the nostrils , so that the matter of the animall spirit is arteriall bloud , furnished with the vitall spirit and aire . it may ●e thought that the animal spirit for sense , is contained in the outer are softest part of the braine but for moving in the inner more solide and white part . the braine hath five branches of veins , from the internall jugulars : whereof some enter into the ventricles of the dura mater , others are spred thorow the menings , and the substance of the braine , out of the cavities of the dura mater . it hath foure arteries from the soporals , and those of the neck . the portions which proceed from the inner part of the braine are cerebellum , and spinalis medulla . cerebellum or the little braine , is composed of two round laterall parts , making up as it were a globe , it hath two worme-like processes , one is seated at the forepart , the other at the hinder part of it , to hinder the obstruction of the fourth ventricle , by the compression of the cerebellum . the spinalis medulla is of a harder substance than the braine . it is divided into two parts , the right and the left , as the braine is : which are severed by the dura mater immediatly wrapping it , so that the palsie sometimes invadeth but one side . about the sixt and seventh vertebra of the brest , it beginneth to be separate into divers twists , which ending into small haire like substances , represent a horse-taile . this will appeare if the marrow of a beast or man newly killed , be put in water , & suffered to stand for a while . it is compassed with . membranes : the next to it is from the pia mater , the middlemost from the dura mater , and the outmost from the ligament which bindeth the forepart of the vertebrae . one portion of the spinalis medulla is within the skull , foure inches in length , above the great hole of the occiput ; from whence all the sinews spring , which are ascribed to the braine : the other is without the skull , from whence the . paire doe spring . cap. ii. of other parts to be seene in the braine . besides those parts named , sundry others are to be shewed : whereof , . is rete mirabile , so called from the wonderfull knittings of the twigs of arteries , proceeding from the soporall about the basis of the braine at the sides of the sell of os sphaenoides : in this is the first preparation of the animall spirit . . glandula pituitaria so called because it receiveth the thick pituitous excrements from the ventricles by the infundibulum , and so is placed at the end of the infundibulum in the sell of the sphaenoides . it is harder than ordinary glandules ; above it is hollow , below round : it is covered with the pia mater : the excrements which come to it sometimes it turneth downe to the palat of the mouth : somtimes it suffereth to slip down by the holes , seated in the lower part of the cranium . by shutting the infundibulum it keepeth in also the animall spirits . . septum or speculum lucidum divideth in the upper part the ventricles : it is loose and wrinckled , but if spred out it is cleere : some will have it to be a reduplication of the pia mater , some a thin portion of the braine it selfe . . fornix or testudo is the lower white part , where the ventricles are joyned . it is triangular and under the corpus callosum . . nates are the two portions of the roots of spinalis medulla , proceeding from the cerebellum : these are uppermost and largest . . testes are the two small portions proceeding of the roots from the braine : these are lowermost . . vulva is the long chinke between the prominences . . anus , is nothing else but that space which is caused of the meeting of the foure trunkes of the spinalis medulla . . glandula pinealis or penis , so called from the figure : for it is like a seed of the pine apple , or a little pricke : it is set about the beginning of the hole , which passeth from the middle ventricle to the fourth . it is of a substance somewhat hard , and is covered with a thin skin . . plexus choroides vel reticularis . it is a texture of small veins and arteries placed between the fore ventricles , and the testudo or fornix . as the animall spirit is first prepared in the rete mirabile , so it is more elaborat here , and perfected in the fourth ventricle : but kept in the whole braine , as in a storehouse . cap iii. of the seven paires of sinewes . before i set downe these paires , i advertise you of one thing : that all the sinewes of the body spring from the spinalis medulla as it is rooted within the skull , or extended to the spina , and not from the braine . the first paire is made up by those which are called optici or visorii : so called because they bring the opticke spirits to the eye . they spring from the nates , they meet about the sell of os sphaenoides : not by simple touching or intersection , but by confusion of their substances , and mutuall penetration . then being divided , they passe to the center of the eye : these are big , thick , and soft . the second paire is framed of those called motorii oculorum , this paire springeth from the innermost part of the beginning of the prolongation of the spinalis medulla . in the beginning it is like to one cord : which is the cause that when one eye moveth , the other moveth also . this paire is lesser and harder than the visorii : it accompanieth them . this together with one branch of the third paire which passeth to the jaw , passeth thorow the long hole , not the round ; and is inserted into the muscles of the eye and eye-lids . the third paire is made up by those called gustatorii , because the twigs of this paire being carried to the membran of the tongue , cause the sense of tasting . this paire proceedet from the root of spinalis medulla . as it ariseth it is divided into two large branches , whereof one is carryed to the orbit of the eye , by the hole of the second : the other being carryed out of the skull , by the holes of the lower jaw bestoweth twigs upon the muscles of the lower lip , and every tooth . the fourth conjugation beginneth about the place of the former but being lesse and harder , accompanying the other , and passing thorow the same hole , is implanted into the membrane of the palat of the mouth ; this serveth also for tasting . the first conjugation , the auditorii make up : this paire beginning somewhat below the other , it marcheth by the sides of the basis of the braine , and entring into os petrosum , is divided into two branches ; the greater being inserted into the end of cochlea or the hole of hearing , is the instrument of hearing . the lesser being carried downe to the first and second vertebra of the neck , it sendeth twigs to the proper muscles of the larynx : from hence ariseth a dry cough somtimes when we pick our eares somewhat deeply . the sixt paire is called vagum , because it bestoweth branches to sundry parts : & amongst the rest to all the parts of the belly , which require sense . for these being soft parts , did not require hard sinewe from the spinalis medulla . it riseth a little below the former , each filure being straitwayes united ; it passeth out of the cranium , by the hole of the backe part of the head , by the which the internall jugular entereth : then going down by the sides of the wind-pipe , above the throat it is divided into two branches , whereof the one is bestowed upon the upper muscles of the larynx , the bone of the tongue and throat . the other marching further , is separat into two branches , to wit , the right and the left ; each of these have branches ; the recurrens and stomachicus . the recurrent are called also reversivi or recursivi , and vocales , because they descend and ascend againe , and being cut , hinder the voyce . the right is winded about the axillar artery , as about a pully : the left about the trunke of the aorta descending , afterwards doth mount up to the beginning of the muscles of the larynx . the seventh conjugation , which moveth the tongue , is the hardest of all : it hath it beginning , where the cerebellum endeth , and the spinalis medulla beginneth . in its beginning it hath divers sprigs , which afterward are united , and passing thorow it owne oblique hole , is annexed to the former paire ; not mingled by strong membrans for safety . then being severed it sendeth most of its twigges to the tongue ; but fewest to the muscles of the larynx . to these . two more may be added . the first of them beginning from the side of the beginning of the spinalis medulla by a smal twig , marcheth forwards betweene the second and third conjugation ; and by the hole of the second conjugation ; on passeth to the orbit of the eye , and is spent upon the muscles which draw the eyes upward . the second conjugation may be called olfactoria , the cause of smelling . the finews of this paire slip out of the braine about the cell of os sphaenoides . then to these are annexed processus mammillares or papillares , teat-like processes : they are in number two , and are white , soft , broad , and long , bigger in beasts of exquisit smelling than in man , as dogs . these are instruments of smelling , and not the nose , or the inner tunicle of it . cap. iiii. a new way to find out the parts within the skull . by lifting up the braine , and beginning at the lower part , first appeareth the beginning of spinalis medulla yet within the skull . the cavity of this is called calamus scriptorius . to this cerebellum is annexed . these being seene about the conjunction of the opticke nerves there appeareth , . retemirabile . . glandula pituitaria . . infundibulum , whose top is called pelvis . septum luciduduos primos ventricule dirimens . fornix sivet to studo corpori calloso conjuncta , above the third ventricle . nates are two round knobs of the roots of spinalis medulla which spring from the cerebellum , under these is anus . testes are two small prominences of this same medulla , as it riseth from the braine . these are lower , and smaller ; the other are higher , and bigger . vulva , is a long pit between the eminences . plexus ●horoides or reticularis , it is a frame or twisting , made of small veins and arteries betweene the foure ventricles , and the testudo . at the beginning of the hole which passeth from the third ventricle to the fourth , glandula pinealis or penis is seated . cap. v. of the face , and first of the parts containing of it . i have spoken of that part of the head which is decked with haire . now am i to speak of that part which is not altogether garnished with haire : in latine it is called facies , because it causeth one to be knowne : and vulius , because it discovereth the will. the face beginneth , where the haire ceaseth to grow in the head , & reacheth in the end of the chin . the upper part is called from the forehead , because it bewrayeth the mind which in greeke is called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 . according to the order of dissection it is divided into the parts containing and contained . the parts containing common , are the cuticula and cutis . it hath no membrana carnosa , nor fat ; but onely betweene the muscles . the two muscles of the forehead , about the eye browes are thickest , and seeme to be united : but above they are a little separat . the sides adhere to the temporall muscles ; and because the skin doth firmly cleave to them , therfore the eye browes , and skin of the forehead are moveable . of the second proper parts , the bones , they are set downe in the doctrine of bones . the parts contained are the foure instruments of the senses , to wit , the eyes , the eares , the nose , and mouth , wherein is the tongue the organ of tasting . cap. vi. of the outer parts of the eyes . the eye in latine is called oculus , because it is hid within the eye-lids . the hole wherein the eye is placed is called capsa , or cava , but barbarously orbita : for this is nothing else but the print which a wheele moving leaveth in dirt or dust . the eyes are in number two , that if one should be lost , yet we should not be blind . the parts of the eye , are either externall , or internall . the externall are in number one , the eye-browes , the hairy arches where the forehead endeth , the seats of disdain and pride . each eye-brow is framed of the skin , the muscle , fat , and haire . they are in figure oblique , the end towards the nose is called cap●● or the head : the other towards the temples is called cauda or the taile . . the eye-lids , palpebrae . they are framed of the skin , the musculous fleshy , the pericranium , and the grasely welt . the haires in them are called cilia : they hinder the falling of small bodies into the eyes ; those in the upper eye-lid turne upwards , those in the lower eye-lid downward . in man the upper eye-lid which moveth , is biggest ; but in birds the lower is largest . . the corners of the eye . the larger is towards the nose , the lesser towards the temple . in the larger corner the glandula or caruncula lachrymalis , the fleshy glandule is placed ( which stayeth the involuntary shedding of teares ) before the hole which passeth into the nose . the fistula in it is called aegylops . cap. vii . of the muscles of the eye . the inner parts of the eye are six in number ; the fat , the glandule , the muscles , the coats , the humoun and vessels . the fat is placed about the eye for three causes first , it defendeth the eye from cold . secondly , it keepeth it from the hardnes of the bone . thirdly , it filleth up the distances of the muscles to further the quick motion . the glandule is seated in the upper part of the outer corner , and lodged in the fat , still full of a dewy substance , wherewith the eye is moystned to further the nimble motion of it . the muscles of the eye are in number six , whereof foure are straight , and two oblique . . of the straight , is attollens or superbus , in the upper part . . opposit to this is called deprimens or humilis . . about the greater corner , is called adducens or bibitorius . . is about the lesser corner , and is called abducens or indignatorius . all the strait muscles proceed from the brims of the bone , making the hole for the opticke nerve , and cleave fast to the cornea , by a broad and thin aponeurosis . the first of the oblique is called superior , or trochlearis . it riseth neere the hole of the opticke nerve , it endeth in a small corde , which passeth thorow the cartilago trochlearis , or pully-like cartilage , and endeth obliquely in the upper part of the cornea , it draweth the eye towards the bigger corner . the second of the oblique is called obliquus minor , or gracilis , and teres , and brevis : it ariseth about the chink joyning the two bones of the mandible , and passing from the greater corner transversly compasseth the eye , and almost meeteth the tendon of the other oblique muscle in the upper part . it draweth the eye towards the lesser corner . when all the muscle move alike , they keeps the eye immoveable the oblique muscles sorowling of the eye are called amatorii , and circumactores . cap. viii . of the tunicles of the eye . the tunicles of the eye are accompted six . . conjunctiva or adnata , so called because it cleaveth fast to the eye , and the eye is kept firme by it within the orbit , that in violent motions it be not thrust out . it covereth the halfe of the eye circularly . . is cornea , so called because it is like a lanterne horne in firmnesse and brightnesse . in the hinder part it is thick , and dark , towards the forepart it groweth thin , that it may be the more bright . as the conjunctiva proceedeth from pericranium ; so this springeth from the dura mater . . is uvea , because it is like to the huske of a grape , which is smooth without , and rough within . this is of sundry colours , that it might represent to the crystallinal colours . the inner side is very black , that a weake light might the better bee seene by the crystallin humour : for light in a dark place shineth more brightly . this blacknesse is onely the excrement of bloud . this membrane covereth not the whole eye , as cornea doth ; but being hollow in the forepart , doth make the pupilla , so called from pupula : because when we behold our selves in the apple of ones eye wee seeme babes . it is nothing else but the hole of uvea . the circle about the pupilla is called iris , from the diversity of colours which it hath . from this circle proceedeth the dilatation and constriction of the pupilla . the going and comming of the light , causeth these motions . if you boyle an oxes eye you may separate the iris from the uvea , with the point of your knife : from this circle under the uvea , small threeds spring , compassing the waterish humour : which being let out , these threeds vanish away , and are dissolved , the circle remaining . beneath in the compasse of the uvea , by reason of these threeds , a cataract groweth . this texture of filaments , is called by some tunica ciliaris ; but improperly : and by some interstitium ciliare . these filaments are so called , because in figure they are like to the haires of the eye-lids . . is membrana pupillaris , the membranous circle compassing the pupilla : for first it may be separate from the uvea , as hath beene said : secondly , it hath it peculiar fibres : thirdly , it hath its peculiar motion , whereby the pupilla is dilated in cleare light , and contracted in obscure . . is tunica cristaloides , which is nothing else but a membranous congelation , covering the forepart of the crystalline humour : it is very thin and bright as a looking glasse , that in the superficies of it , the visible formes might appeare as in a looking glasse . . is aranea or retina because it resembleth a spiders web or net : this is nothing else but some filaments , wherewith the vitreous humour is interlaced , and kept together . these filaments being by incision much separated , the vitreous humour runneth as thin water . cap. ix . of the humours of the eye . the humours of the eye are in number three . . is humor aqueus , the watrish humour . it is not onely set before the crystallin humour ; but it compasseth also the vitreous humour round about : for if you cut the eye in the hinder part , it runneth out no other wayes , than if the forepart were incised . where it is placed before the crystallin humour , it is a defence to it , to weaken the brightnesse of the externall light by hindering the suddaine entering of it . and it is as a spectacle to it , to represent to the crystallin the species visibiles . although it be a spermaticke part , yet part of it in man may be let out ( as we see in the cowching of a cataract ) without any great hurt to the sight . in a chicken if it be let out by pricking , it will bee repaired in fifteene daies . . is humor crystallinus , the crystall-like humour : it is of a compact watrish substance , somewhat plaine before , that some space might be for the receiving of objects ; but round behind where it sticketh in the vitreous humour . it is seated neerer to the pupilla , that the sight might be more cleere and full . . is humor vitreus , so called , because it is like to moulten glasse . in quantity it doth exceed the other two : that it might afford nourishment to the crystallin , the chiefe instrument of the sight . first , it is like a soft pillow to the crystallin . secondly , it staieth the visible formers which might escape the crystallin , and so it is placed hindermost . last of all the vessels of the eye are to bee touched : the veins externall appointed for the nourishment of the eye , proceed from the externall jugulars : the internall from plexus choroides . the arteries externall spring from the externall branches of the soporall on each side : the internall proceed from rete mirabile . there be two nerves appointed for the eye : one serveth for sight , called opticus ; the other for motion , called motorius : whereof sufficiently hath beene spoken before . cap. x. of the eare , and first of the outward eare . it hath two parts , the outer part called auricula , and the inner cavities with their furniture . of the auricula , some parts are common , and some proper . the common are cuticula , cutis , membrana nervea , caro , and pinguedo in the lobe . the cutis is tyed to the cartilage by a membrane : in the lobe it is more fleshy and fatty , in the rest of the eare betweene the skin and cartilage , there is but small store of fat . the proper parts are the muscles , veins , arteries , sinews , and the cartilage . the muscles of it are either common or proper . the common are three . . is a part of the frontall muscle , which rising from the end of it , and passing above the temporall muscle , is inserted in the upper part , to draw it upward . . is a part of the cutaneous muscle , ascending to it above the parotides , to draw it downe side-wayes . . is a portion of the occipitall muscle , reaching to the eare , and implanted in the back part of it to pull it backward . it hath but one proper muscle proceeding from the processus mammillaris . which lurking under the ligament of the eare is inserted in the root of the eare , to pull it backward . the last proper part of the eare , is the cartilage . if it had been bony it had been subject to breaking ; if fleshy , it had not beene so sit to beat back the sound : this cartilage is tyed to os petrosum , by a strong ligament , which riseth from the pericranium , towards os mammillare , to stay it up : in man the ligament is but one and continual ; but in beasts there bee two or three , according to the bignesse of the eare . the veins come from the externall jugulars : the arteries from the carotis or soporall : the sinews from the second paire of the neck . it is here to bee noted that a branch of the soporall passeth by the antitragus of the eare , to the upper jaw , from whence the vitall spirit is carried to each tooth . in horrible tooth-aches , if this branch bee cut a sunder , immediatly the paine ceaseth , the sharp humour being intercepted . the outward eare is alwayes open , because we have ever need of this sense . it is a beauty to the head , it is a defence to the braine , by mode rating the sounds , that they may gently move the tympanum , and it gathereth the sounds dispersed in the ayre . cap. xi . of the foure cavities of the eare . all those foure cavities are seated in ospetrosum . the first is called meatus auditorius , the passage for hearing . it hath turnings to hinder the violent rushing in of any thing to the tympanum . it is oblique , that the vehemercy of a strong sound might bee moderat : it is lastly narrow to hinder the going in of small creatures . wherefore it hath also haires and earewax , to be as lymed twigs to entangle them . it marcheth obliquely upward , that if anything should goe in , it might the more easily returne , or bee brought out : it endeth at the tympanum . this membrane is very dry , that it might give the better sound . it is thin and cleare , that the sounds may the more readily be sent to the internall ayre . it is strong , that it might be the more able to resist externall violence . it hath a cord , for strength and stretching , no other wayes than the military drum . the second cavity , is called by vesalius pelvis , the tunnel of the eare ; and by fallopius concha , the perwinkle from its figure . the furniture of this cavity serveth for three purposes : for motion , for transmission of the sounds , and for expurgation of the excrements . for motion the three little bones , the ligament , and muscles do service . the three little bones are these , malleolus , incus , stapes , having their names from the likenesse of other externall things . malleolus or the little hammer is somewhat long and cleaveth to the tympanum by the ligament . the second is incus the anvill , not onely for the figure , but for the use also ; because like an anvill it receiveth the strokes of the malleolus moved . the third is stapes , the stirrop . it is in figure triangular . in the middle hollow , to give way to the passing of the aire to the labyrinth . these cleave together on following another in order . these little bone serve for uses . . they strengthen the tympanum that it be not torne by the violence of the ayre . therefore the hammer with one of the feet of the anvill , leane upon the drumme . . that these beating against the tympanum , might the better deliver the sound to the auditory sinew . . that these bones being shaken and beaten against the drum , might frame the diversities of sounds , as the teeth , the distinction of words and letters . these bones have neither cartilage nor marrow . . they have no periostium . . in infants they are as big and perfect as in men . . they are paced up by a ligament the second instrument for motion , that being shaken by the internall aire moved by the externall , the sharper sound might be caused : of the instruments appointed for motion , the muscles are the last . whereof the one is without the drum above in meatus auditorius , whose tendon is inserted into the center of the tympanum , against the which , the malleolus is inserted , to draw it outward together with the hammer . the other is within the drum in os petrosum , inserted by a double tendon into the hammer to draw it back . neere the tympanum above , a narrow hole appeareth , which is an enterance to a cave , having many partitions not unlike to the hony combes . this is full of internall aire . about the end of this cavity directly against the tympanum , there are two perforations called fenestellae , or little windowes : wherof the one is ovall , the entrance to the labyrinth : the other lesser , the beginning of cochlea . last of all , there is in this cavity a small cartilaginous passage from the eare to the palatum : to purifie the internall aire . this cavity hath a value , that there might be egresse , but no regresse . the third cavity is called labyrinthus , having sundry windings , from whence it hath its name : all which returue to this same cavity . there are six semi-circles in this cavity . the end of these windings is to cause the aire passing thorow narrow slreits to make the greater sound , or to mitigate the sound , which was redoubled within the pelvis as an eccho , by passing thorow these circulations . the fourth cavity is called cochlea , or the wilke of the eare , from the figure : because it hath three , sometimes foure wreathings ; within these there is a chinke by the which the sound passeth to the braine and the bilious excrement falleth into the eare . hearing is thus caused . first , the aire received in the first cavity , doth gently move the tympanum , which being shaken tosseth the three small bones joyned to it ; then the kind of sound is impressed into the internall aire , which having the quality of the sound , and circular by the windings of the labyrinth , to make it pure is conveighed thorow the cochlea , and delivered to nervus auditorius , that the animall spirit may present it to the common sense , the judge of all species and formes . cap. xii . of the nose . the skin cleaveth so fast to the muscles and cartilages , that it can hardly bee severed without renting . the muscles are seven : whereof one is common and six proper . they onely move the cartilages of the nose . the veins come from the enternall jugular . the arteries from the soporals , and the finews from the third pairs . the bones of the nose are in number foure : the cartilages five : the inner membrane which covereth the sides of the nose proceedeth from the dura mater , passing thorow the holes of the ethmoides . the muscles membrane , draweth in the nostrils . the haires straine ( as it were ) the aire , and keepe out insects . from the red and spongious fleshy portions , with the which the distances of the spongious bones are filled , the polypus springeth . the upper part of the nose which is bony , is called dorsum nasi : the ridge , spina : the laterall parts , where the cartilages are , are called alae or pinnae : the tip of the nose , globulus , orbiculus , and pyrula : the fleshy part next to the upper lip , columna . the uses of the nose are eight . . by it the aire is taken into the braine , for the generation of the animall spirits . . the lungs draw in by it the aire , for the refreshing of the heart , and the generation of the 〈◊〉 tall spirits . . that by it smels might be carried to precessus mammillares . . by it the braine dischargeth excrements . . it furthereth the speech . . it beautifieth the face . . it parteth the eyes that the one should not see the other : which would have hindered the sight . it is a defence into them also , and staigth the visible species . . by fleering up it expresseth anger : and in the hebrew tongue is taken for anger . cap. xiii . of the mouth . it is called os , from the letter o : in pronouncing of which it openeth it selfe . the mouth that serveth for breathing : secondly , for receiving of food : thirdly , for speaking and lastly , to discharge the excrements of the braine , lungs , and stomack : it beginneth at the lips , and reacheth to the throat . the parts of it are either externall or internall : the externall are labia or the lips , from lambo . they are in number two : to wit , the upper , and lower ; they have to further motions , thirteen muscles , whereof eight are proper , and five common to the cheekes and lips . the lips are of a fungous substance ; the skin doth firmly cleave to the muscles . they are covered within with a tunicle common to the mouth and stomack . and from hence commeth the trembling of the lower lip before vomiting . the lips serve first for the conveniency of eating and drinking . secondly , for the beautifying of the face , if they bee well fashioned . thirdly , to containe the spittle in the mouth : fourthly , to keepe the gums and teeth from externall injuries . fifthly , to keepe the gums and teeth from externall injuries . fifthly , to serve for the framing of the speech . sixthly , to serve for kissing . the conjuction of the lips make the laterall parts of the mouth , which are called buccae , the cheeks . the inner parts of the mouth are these . . gingivae or the gums . they are fleshy , destitute of motion , to keepe the teeth in their sockets . . the teeth , which are bony , both to chew the meat , and to fashion the speech : each tooth hath two parts ; one without the gum , called basis ; the other within , called radix , or the root . the root below receiveth a little veine , artery , and nerve . the incisores and canini have but one fang : the lower molares have two fangs ; but the upper molares , three . in children from the seventh moneth , untill two yeeres be compleat , twenty teeth come out , now one , then another . of these teeth some are called incisores ; the first fore teeth in number foure in each gum : some canini adjacent to these , on each side one . the rest are called molares . . the third internall part of the mouth is palatum , or the roofe of the mouth : it is vauted , that the aire being repercussed the voice should be the sharper . it is wrinckled and rough above the bone , that it might more firmly cleave to it , and it might the better keepe the meat , while it is a chewing . . and . of the almonds , and uvula , i have spoken in the discourse of the neck . . of the internall parts is the tongue , in latine called lingua à lingendo , from licking . the flesh of it is spongious , that it might receive the qualities of the sapors , and judge of them . in figure it is pyramidall . the tunicle with the which it is covered , proceedeth from the dura mater . veins it hath from the externall jugulars . under the tongue they are called ranulares , from their colour . the arteries come from the carotides . sinews it hath from the third and seventh paire . the muscles which move it are six . it is divided into two parts by a line going along it , and so in hemiplegia , onely one halfe may bee affected . of the ligaments , the lower is called fraenum , and franulum . if it bee extended to the top of the tongue , it hindereth sucking in children : and from this they are said to be tongue-tyed . in this case the ligament is to be cut . the tongue hath foure uses . . it is the instrument of tasting . . it uttereth the speech . . it helpeth chewing by gathering of the meat , and tossing it to and fro , and turning it downe to the stomack . . it serveth for licking . the fourth book . a description of the veins , arteries , and sinewes of the lims . cap. i. of the veins of the arme. ramus subclavius , or the branch of the vena cava , ascending under the cannell bone , when it is come to the arme-pit , it is called axillaris ; and it parteth it selfe in two veins , the cephalica , and basilica . the cephalica in beasts doth wholly spring from the externall jugular ; but in man it receiveth only a spring from the externall jugular . wherfore in diseases of the head , it is not without cause opened . it passeth thorow the upper and outward part of the arme , to the bending of the elbow : where it is divided into two branches ; of the which one , joyning with a branch of the basilica , makes the mediana . wherefore the slope branches , which usually are opened about the bending of the elbow , are only branches of the cephalica , and basilica , which meeting make the median . the other branch of the cephalica marching , according to the length of the radius , reacheth to the hand , thorow which it is spred ; but chiefly that part which is betweene the ring finger and the little finger . there the salvatella is placed , which is to be opened in melancholy diseases . the basilica passeth thorow the inner and lower part of the arme , accompanied with the artery and nerves . about its beginning it maketh the thoracica , which having three or foure sprigs , and passing under serratus major , and the subscapular muscle , it is tyed to the upper intercostall , and about the spina dorsi is inosculat with the twigs of vena sine pari . basilica about the bending of the elbow is divided into that which is called subcutanea , and that which is called profunda . profunda the deeper , is annexed to the artery about the bending of the elbow , not under . then passing betweene the focils it is carried to the hand by the outer part of the ulna . the subcutanea or the shallowest branch neere to the bending of the arme , being turned off to the outer part of the ulna by the length of it , it is carried to the hand . the modiana passed to the inside of the hand by the middle part of the ulna . cap. ii. of the arteries of it . ramus subclavius so called , as that of the vena cava , when it is come to the arme-pits , it is called axillaris . it accompanieth the basilica : for there is no cephalicall artery . neere to the arme holes , it yeeldeth that artery , which is called thoracica , from thence being carried to the bending of the arme , it is parted into two branches , which passe to the inner side of the hand : for the outside of the hand hath neither muscles nor artery . the one of these resting upon the radius , is that which is felt about the wrest . the other marching by the ulna is with its fellow spread thorow the hand . cap. iii. of the sinewes of the arme. out of the perforations of the foure lower vertebrae of the neck , and of the first two of the back , six sinew : spring , which by the muscle called scalenus , are carried under the cannell bone to the arme-pit , where they are twisted together ; from these the foure uppermost accompanying the basilica and the artery under the deltoides muscle , are scattered thorow the inner side of the arme . the fift and sixt , turning up under the rotundus major , are inserted into the hinder muscles of the shoulder blade . foure remaine which passing along the arme , are spred into the elbow and hand . . being carried under the inner side of the biceps doth joyne it selfe with the cephalica . . being undivided and thicker , goeth down to the bending of the elbow , being covered with fat , and there is under the artery and the basilica ; but about the wrest it is above the veine . about the wrest it is divided into ten branches , imparting to every finger two sprigs , which passe along the sides . . being entire also , is carryed all along the elbow by the wrest to the little finger : where divided into foure twigs , it is bestowed upon the outside of the hand . . being thickest of all is carried from the artery and veins by the backe side of the arme to the radius ; where being joyned with the cephalica , it endeth at the wrest . cap. iv. of the veins of the foot. the crurall veine sendeth a branch to musculus triceps called tschia , and is divided into foure branches : of the which two are in the inside of the thigh , and so many in the outside . the one of the externall is sent to the fat of the thigh , the other passing according to the length of musculus suterius to the ham , and from thence to the inner anckle , maketh the saphena . of the inner branches the one lying high is joyned with the crurall artery , and passing thorow the outside of the ham , is carried to the outer anckle : the other lying deeper , as it passeth bestoweth twigs to the adjacent parts , and about the ham , maketh the poplitea ; from thence being carried between the focils by the chinke of the inner anckle , is bestowed upon the soale of the foot , as the saphena was upon the outward parts . the veins have values within like to a halfe moone ; without they are like knots : they are most commonly two together , one on each leaving some distance between , partly to strengthen the coats of the veins , partly to rule the motion of the bloud . the arteries have no values in their progression , that the vitall spirit may speedily as the beames of the sunne passe to the furthermost parts . cap. v. of the arteries of the foot. arteria cruralis or the crurall artery , a little below the groyne doth send two branches thorow the muscle triceps to the gloutii , or muscles of the buttocks . afterward it sendeth two to the forepart of the thigh ; then undivided , it passeth to the ham ; where it is divided into two branches , whereof the one passeth by the side of the outward part of tibia above the muscle peroneus , and is bestowed upon the upper part of the foot : the other entring into the solaeus , and passing to the pterna , is dispersed thorow the soale of the foot . the saphena is not accompanied with an artery , and the nerve is not very neere unto it , so that it may be safely opened . cap. vi. of the nerves of the foot. from the three lowermost vertebrae of the loynes , two sinews spring in the forepart of the thigh , severed first , and then being united , passe to the groyne . there it is divided into five branches , compassed with a membran , which dispersing themselves on every side into the muscles of the forepart of the thigh , even to the rotula , there being cannot be discerned , unlesse the muscle psoa bee rent ; within the which they lye hid . then besides these you shall see another small nerve passing the ovall cavity of os pubis , to bee spent upon the triceps . thorow the back part of the thigh , a great and thick nerve passeth , framed of three , which spring out of the three upper holes of os sacrum , and being carryed by the sinus of os isthium , thorow the inner and backe muscles of the thigh , to the ham , there it is parted into two branches . the one goeth down by the belly of the tibia unto the pterna , bestowing twigs as it goeth , passing by the chinke of the inner ankle to the soale of the foot , it is severed into as many branches as there are toes . the other branch marching upon the perone , is carryed to the instep of the foot by the outer ankle . by reason of this great nerve , they who are troubled with the sciarica , find paine not onely about the joynt of the thigh ; but in the leg also , and foot . about the beginning of this nerve , another issueth out of the third hole of the os sacrum , and being carried above the ridge of the os sacrum , it brancheth it selfe into the muscles of the buttocks , and those which bend the tibia . cap. vii . of the nerves of the spinalis medulla . if you invert the braine , you shall perceive . roots of the spinalis medulla , . from cerebrum , & so many from cerebellum : these joyned together make it up . it is of the like substance with the braine , but besides the two membranes , wherewith the cerebrum is compassed , this hath a third strong and nervous , proceeding either from os occipitis , where it is joyned with the spondils ; or from the ligaments of the vertebrae ; this strengthneth the spinalis medulla , and keepeth it from tearing in violent motions . from the beginning to the end it groweth narrower and harder , so that when it is come to the end of dorsum , it endeth in small threeds like a horse taile , that no danger should bee in that part where the whole spina is bended . the nerves of the spinalis medulla , are framed of sundry filaments twisted together , and covered with a thin membrane ; and as they come out of the holes of the back-bone nature doth compasse them with a thick and firme substance , which so firmely clip the fibres of the sinews , that they cannot be severed . beside the sinew commeth not out of that hole , directly opposit to its beginning ; but out of the lower . and when it hath passed thorow this hole , it doth not enter presently into the rib , which is next ; but into the lower . which when it hath touched being divided , it turneth the lesser twig towards the spina , and the greater towards the forepart . out of this spinalis medulla twenty eight paires of sinews spring , seven from the neck , twelve from the back , five from the loins , and foure from the os sacrum . the first conjugation of the neck , doth not spring from the sides of the spina as the rest ; but from the fore and hinder part , and commeth out betweene the occiput and first vertebra . the fore branch is bestowed upon the muscles of the back side of the head , and the muscles of the vertebra of the neck . the second conjugation , by the hindermost branch turned up , ascendeth to the skin of the head , the eares , and the muscles , but by the foremost branch it is carried unto those muscles which are common to the second spondill , and the occiput . the third conjugation sendeth its foremost branch to those muscles which bend the necke : but the hindermost to the muscles which raise up the neck and head . the fourth conjugation sendeth its lesser , and hindermost branch to the muscles of the neck ; but the foremost and largest to the muscles which lift up the shoulder blade and the arme . the fift conjugation with it lesser twig turneth to the hindermost muscles of the neck : and with the greater joyneth it selfe with the twigs of the fourth paire . the sixt paire by the lesser and hindermost branch passeth to the hindermost muscles : but with the foremost and biggest to the arme , and the diaphragma . the seventh with the greater branch passeth to the arme , but with the lesser to the hindermost muscles . as for the nerves of the backe , each of them hath two branches ; one lesser , which is sent to the muscles of the back , and one greater , which is bestowed upon the intercostall muscles . one thing is to be noted , that the sinews which proceed from the vertebrae of the short ribs are bigger than those which are communicate to the upper intercostall muscles . those about the middle of the rib , are divided into two twigs , whereof the uttermost is carried outward ; but the innermost inwardly along the rib . these nerves were to bee biggest , because they are distributed both to the muscles of the belly , and to the parts contained in it . as for the nerves of the loynes , each paire of these hath anterior and posterior branches , which are spent partly upon the muscles of the loyns , and hypogastrium ; partly upon the legs . the lumbares nervi or sinews of the loyns meet , and are mingled with the costales . whereby it commeth to passe , that the parts which are contained within the peritonaeum , have their strength from the spinalis medulla , as their sense from the braine : for according to galen , cap. . lib. . de us . part . the costall nerve is a sprig of the sixt conjugation . as for the nerves of os sacrum , the first paire hath two branches , as those of the loynes , to wit , the anterior and posterior ; but the rest of the paires before they come out , are double on each side : and on each side one nerve marcheth forward , and another backward . the uppermost three , which are anterior , goe to the leg : the two lowermost passed to the muscles of the anus and bladder . fig. iv. fig. v. booke v. of the bones . cap. i. of the nature of a bone. foure causes concurre to the perfecting of a bone . first , the efficient cause is the ossifick faculty of the spirit ; unto whom the naturall heat ministreth . secondly , the materiall cause is twofold ; the one is of generation , the other of nutrition . the matter of generation is the seed , which doth consist of a thick humor and the spirit . the matter of nutrition is double , the remote is bloud , with the which all parts of the body are nourished : the immediat cause is the marrowy juice in the spongious bones , and the marrow it selfe , which is contained in the cavities of big bones . in the small cavities of the smaller bones , the marrow is white ; but red in the ample cavities of the large bones . the marrow is not covered with a membrane , as the marrow of the back : and therefore it is unsensible contrary to parrey . by the small holes in the ends of the bones , the veins and arteries enter , but no nerves : for they onely feele by the benefit of the periostium . thirdly , the forme of the bone is twofold , the essentiall is its dry and cold temperature . the accidentall is its figure , which for the most part is round or flat . fourthly , the finall cause is double : the generall is that which serveth the whole body , & it is threefold . . is to establish the soft parts . . is to give figure to the parts . . is to further the motion of the body . the speciall is that which is proper to every particular bone . of the premisses such a description of a bone may be gathered . a bone is a similary part most dry and cold , unflexible , compacted of the thickest part of the seed by the spirit ; the naturall heat concurring to afford stablenesse , and figure to the whole body . cap. ii. an enumeration of the bones of mans body : and first of the bones of the head. all the bones of the body of man belong either to the head , the truncke of the body , or to the lims . the bones which make up the head united are called cranium , from 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 a helmet , because as a helmet it defendeth the braine . it is also called calva , and calvaria . the bones of the head are either proper or common . the proper bones are in number six . . os frontis , coronale , inverecundum , os puppis , the bone of the forehead , it reacheth to the coronall future above . there are two cavities in this bone , betweene the tables above the eye-browes . wounds in these hardly admit cicatrization . this bone hath three holes , one internall in the scull , above the spongious bone , two outward about the middle of the eye-brows , to give way to the sinews , which passe to the forehead . . and . are called ossa syncipities , vel verticis , to other , parietalia , arcualia , bregmatis . . os occipitis , basilare , os prorae , os memoriae , os pixidis , to the gracian 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , the noddle . it is the thickest of all , and hath five holes . one big neere the first vertebra of the neck . the other foure serve for letting out of sinews , & letting out of veins & arteries . . and . are ossa temporum petrosa , parietalis . these have six holes . the two externall , which make the passage to hearing are biggest , the rest are small . within the passages of hearing are seated three bones on each side ; malleus , incus , stapes : the hammer , anvill , and stirrop . os iugale or zygomatis placed under the eye , is no severall bone , but is framed of the processes of two bones , to wit , petrosum , and the maxilla united by an oblique suture . the bones common to the head and upper jaw , are two . . os spoenoides , cuneiforme , or wedge-like bone , to others paxillare , os colatorii , palati , basilare . it hath sundry holes for vessels to passe . . os spongoides , spongiosum , spongiforme , 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , cribriforme , or cribrosum , the spongious or sive-like bone . it filleth the cavitie of the nostrils . the jaw-bones are two , the upper , and the lower . in these are placed the sockets for the teeth , called alucoli , loculi , fostulae , praesepiola , mortariola . the upper jaw is framed of . bones , five on each side fellowes , and one without a fellow . . is almost triangular , it maketh up the lower part of the orbit of the eye , the lesser corner , a part of the os jugale , and mala . . maketh up the greater corner of the eye from whence there is a hole that passeth to the cavity of the nostrill . this bone is small , thin , cleere , slightly cleaving to the other : so that it is seldome found in sculs digged out of the ground . here fistula lachrymalis is seated . . maketh up the greatest part of the roofe of the mouth , and the arched part , wherein the teeth are inserted . . with his fellow maketh up the bony part of the ridge of the nose . these two are severed by a suture . within they are rough to receive the cartilages ; within these there is a bone cleaving to the processe of the spongious bone , dividing the nostrils : it is called septumnarium . . is placed at the end of the palat of the mouth where the holes of the nostrils passe to the throat . to these columbus addeth a tenth . hee will have it to be like unto a plough , and to disjoyne the lower part of the nostrils . of the lower iaw . the lower jaw hath but one bone . it resembleth the greek letter 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , or a bow . it hath two holes , the one is more backward and larger : thorow this passe some nerves from the fift paire to the roots of the teeth , as also a small veine and artery . the other is more outward , not so round ; thorow the passe some sprigs of the sinews to the lower lip . you may passe thorow these holes a brissell . cap. iii. of the teeth . there be three ranks of teeth . those of the first ranke are called incisores incisorii , cutrers , and 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , because they shew themselves when we laugh ; there be most commonly foure of them in each jaw , they have but one fang , and so easily fall out . these first make way out of the gums ; because the tops of them are sharpest . those in the second ranke are called canini or dogs teeth , from their length above the rest , hardnesse , and sharpnes . in each jaw there are but two , on each side of the grinders one . they are called oculares , or eye-teeth , not that they reach to the orbit of the eye : for they mount not higher than the nostrils ; but because sprigs of the nerves , which move the eyes , are carried to them . these in the third rank are called molares , grinders , because like milles they grind the meat . most commonly they are twenty in number , five in each side of every jaw . of these the two hindermost are called genuini , and denta sapientiae , because they shew not themselves untill man come to the yeares of discretion , to wit , the , , yea even to old age it selfe . in some they never appeare . those of the upper jaw have more fangs than those of the lower . first , because they hang. secondly , because the substance of the upper jaw is not so firme , as that of the lower . the teeth come out in man the seventh moneth , and sometimes more slowly , but in beasts sooner , because they are to eat solid meat . of these teeth ten in each gum , to wit , the foure grinders , the two dogs teeth , and foure grinders , doe cast . the fore teeth cast the foure , five , and six yeare of the age , the hinder flower . the teeth as they are worne by use , so they grow againe , untill the decrepit old age : for if a tooth fall out , and grow no more , the tooth answering it groweth logner : nature labouring to fill the space of the lost tooth . as concerning the feeling of the teeth , first of all , they rather receive the impression of the first qualities , to wit , heat and cold , and rather of cold than heat , contrary to the fleshy parts . secondly , not the whole tooth ; but the inner part towards the root , which is more soft by reason of the sinew in the cavity of it , and the membrane . the hard outer part is insensible . cap. iv. of the bones of the trunke of the body . these may be divided into those which are seated betweene the bones of the head and the rump bone , and those which are placed betweene the last vertebra of the spina and the thigh bone . those which are seated betweene the head bones , and the rumpe bone , are either anterior , laterall , or posterior . the bone in the forepart is called os pectoris , the brest bone , and os ensiforme , because being long and broad , and ending into a pointed cartilage , it representeth the daggers of the ancients . it is called also sternum , because it is laid above the ribs , and leaneth upon them . it is composed of three parts . . is the highest bone , large , thick , plaine , yet unequall , above arched , resembling the pummill of the dagger . it is called by some iugulum , and superior furcula . it hath two cavities . . is in the upper part , to receive the tops of the cannell bone . . is within , about the middle , to give way to the wind-pipe going down . the second bone is narrower , and hath sundry cavities for the receiving of the grissils of the ribs . the third is broader , and endeth into the cartilage , which is called cartilago , 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 or sword-like cartilage , and mucronata , because it is pointed . the pit , which here appeareth outwardly is favea or scrobuculus cordis , the pit of the heart . the bones of the sternum are distinguished by transverse , and are joyned together by cartilages . the ribs are in number . whereof some are called vera , genuinae , legitimae , lawfull , and ribs indeed : because they are more arched , and reach to the sternum : some are called nothae , spiriae , adulterae , illegitimae , short or bastard ribs . the true ribs are in number seven , they are round and bony where they are joyned eith the vertebrae of the back ; but grisly and broad where they are joyned to the brest bone . in the lower part they are hollow , to receive a vein and an artery . in making incision there to discharge quittour out of the cavity of the brest we must shun this part . the inner side is smoother than the outer by reason of the pleura . the bastard ribs are in number five , so called because they are shorte lesse arched , touch not the sternum , and are softer they onely are joyned with the vertebrae of the back , and end in long cartilages , which turning upwards cleave together , except the last , which cleaveth to none , to give way to the liver , spleene , and upper guts . all the short ribs give way to the distention of the belly . the bones of the back part of the trunks joyned , are spina dorsi : so called because the hinder part of it is sharp . it reacheth from the head to the rump bone . it is composed of . verterae . of the neck , . of the back , and five of the loynes . every vertebra is hollow within to receive the spinalis medulla , and at the sides to give way to the sinewes . the first two vertebrae of the neck are joyned to the head by ligaments . the first is called atlas , because it stayeth the head . it hath no spina . the second is called the tu●ner because a processe like unto a dogs tooth round and long rising from it , and inserted into the first vertebra , is the cause that the head and first vertebra , turne about it . if a luxation fall out here , it is incurable . the third vertebra of the neck is called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , the rest has no names . the vertebrae of the back are in number . receiving so many ribs : these are full of holes , but small to give way to the nourishing vessels . the processe of the eleventh is straight , and the twelfth is called the girter . the vertebrae of the loynes are five . these are more apt to move , than those of the back , that wee may the more easily bend our selves towards the ground . now the bones which are betweene the lowest vertebra of the loynes , and the thigh bone are in number three . . ossacrum , the great bone , the stay of the back ; it is triangular , broad and immoveable : smooth , and hollow in the forepart ; but bunched and rough in the hinder part . it is framed of five bones called vertebrae , not for that they serve for motion as the vertebrae , but because they are like to them ; in aged persons they seeme one bone , but in children they may be separated . the holes in this are not in the sides , but before and behind , which are greater , because the sinewes that passe are greater . . is os coccycis , the cuckoes bill , from the likenesse of it , or the rump bone . it is framed of three of foure bones , and two cartilages . the connexion of it is loose . in men it is bent inward to stay the intestinum rectum ; in women outward , to make way in the time of birth . . is os coxae or innominatum . it is at the sides of os sacrum , and is framed of three bones os ilii , pubis , and ischii joyned together by cartilages , untill the seventh yeare ; in aged persons it seemeth one bone . os ilii , so called because it receiveth the small gut called ilium , it is the first part uppermost and broadest , joyned to os sacrum by a strong membranous ligament , although a cartilage goe betweene . the unequall and semicircular circumference of it , is called spina : the inner part hollow and broad , is called costa : the outer part having unequall lines , is called dorsum . this is more large in a woman , than in a man. os pubis or pectinis , the share bone ; it is the fore and middle part . the two , being one on each side , are joyned with a cartilage more loosely in women , so that in the time of birth they gape , and give way to the infant . these with the os sacrum , make that cavitie with is called pelvis . wherein the bladder , the wombe , and some guts are contained . ischion or coxendix is the lower and outward part of os coxae , wherein is the cavity which receiveth os semoris . the cartilagineous proces of this bone is called supercilium . the ends of this bone are further a sunder in women than men , and so the pelvis is larger . cap. v. of the cannell bone , and the shoulder blade . the bones of the trunke are either those of the armes or of the legs . the bones of the arme are either above the joynt of the shoulder , or under : above the joynt are two . . 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , because they shut the brest , and like a key locke the shoulder blade , with the brest bone . it is also called ligula , the binder , os furcale , or furcula superior , the upper bended bone , the cannell bone . these two bones , one in each side , are seated at the top of the brest bone transversly . in figure the represent the great romane s. for they seeme to be framed of two semicircular bones ; but placed one opposit to another . towards the throat they are arched ; but below hollow . . 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , because it maketh the broadnesse of the shoulder ; the barbarous authors call it spatula , the shoulder blade . it leaneth upon the upper ribs , towards the back . it is almost triangular . the outer part is arched : the inner hollow . that part of the shoulder which is joyned with the clavicula is called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , or humeri mucro , the point of the shoulder . the adjutorium is joynted in the superficiall cavity of the neck of this bone . cap. vi. of the bones of the arme. the arme hath three parts , the shoulder , the elbow and the hand . the shoulder hath but one long , round , and strong bone , called os humeri , the shoulder bone . the upper part of it is joynted with the shoulder blade , but the lower part with the two bones of the elbow . the elbow hath two bones . . ulna , the yard , because we measure with it . in the upper part it is joyned with the lower part of the shoulder bone : in the lower part it is articulat with the wrest , by a cartilaginous substance . the barbarous authors call this bone focile majus , the greater focill . . radius , the small bone , called by the barbarians focile minus , the small focill . in the midst it is a little parred from ulna , betweene which there is a small ligament . above the ulna receiveth radius but below the radius receiveth ulna . the upper part of this bone is joyned with the outer processe of the shoulder bone ; but the lower part is joyned with the wrest bone at the greatest finger . the upper part of this bone is smaller than the lower , quite contrary to the frame of the ulna . the hand hath . parts . . carpus , by the arabians rasetta , the wrest bone . it is framed of a cluster of eight bones , which have no proper names ; yet differing in bignesse and figure . they are so tied with strong ligaments arising from the processes of ulna , and radius , that they seeme but one bone . first , they are cartilages , & afterward becom spongious bones . of these bones foure are above joynted with ulna and radius : but the lower foure are joyned with the bones of metacarpium . here you are to observe the ring-like ligaments appointed for the safe carrying of the tendons of the muscles , which move the fingers . the inner strengtheneth the tendons w ch bend the fingers ; but the outer the tendons which extend . . metacarpium , the distance between wrest and fingers . this hath five bones reckoning amongst these the first of the thumb . these bones are joyned with the bones of the wrest by ligaments , but with the fingers by articulation . they are within hollow , and containe marrow . about the middle they are a little parted , to give way to the muscles called interossei . the fingers have fifteen bones , for in each finger there are three . and although the first bone of the thumb hath beene reckoned amongst the rasettae , yet because it hath a more plyant articulation , it serveth for the first bone of the thumb . in the bones of the fingers , the first is bigger than the second , the secōd than the third . about the joynts they are thicker ; the knobs there are called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , and nodi . in the inside of the fingers , there are ligaments pipe-like , by the which they are united . the points of the bones towards the nailes have no processes . cap. vii . of the bones of the legs . the leg as the arme hath three parts : the thigh , the shanke , and the foot . the thigh hath but one bone , which is the biggest and longest of all the bones of the body . the forepart is somewhat arched . above it is articulat with the coxendix : and it is kept in by a round ligament . the neck of this bone hath two processes for the insertion of muscles . rotator magnus & parvus , the greater and lesser rowler : it is articulat below with the tibia , for the strengthning of this joynt , that the thigh bone may be kept in the forepart , there is appointed a bone . it is called mola rotula patella , the whirle-bone . in children it is grasly . it resembleth the bosse of a bucklar : for it is bunched without , and hollow within , where it is lyned with a cartilage . it is strengthned by the tendons of some of the muscles of the thigh , unto the which it cleaveth . the shanke hath two bones . . tibia , focile majus , canna major , the greater focill . in the upper part it hath a processe , which is received by the hollownesse of the thigh bone . it hath also two long cavities for the receiving of the two prominences of the thigh bone . to make these cavities deeper , there is joyned by ligaments a moveable cartilage , soft , slippery , and bedewed with an unctuous humour . it is called cartilago lunata , the moone-like cartilage . these cavities are separat by a knob ; from the top of which ariseth a strong ligament , which is fastned to the cavity of the thigh-bone . the sharp forepart of this bone is called spina . in the lower part of this bone there is a processe without flesh , which maketh the inner anckle malleus internus . . perone fibula , or brace , because it seemeth to unite the bones of the shanke , focile minus , the small focill , cann●s minor sura ; the upper round part of this bone reacheth not to the knee , but the lower part reacheth further than the tibia . in the middle these two bones are parted to receive muscles which move the foot . the fleshlesse appendix of the lower end , causeth malleolus externus , the cuter anckle . the foot hath three parts . the first is that which reacheth to the bones articulat with the toes , called pedium seu taulus : the second comprehendeth the bones articular to the toes called metapedium or metatarsus : the third comprehendeth the bones of the toes . the bones of pedium are seven . . talus , os balistae . it is articulat with the appendix of tibia . it receiveth the top of os calcis . . calx , calcaneu , the heel-bone , it is the greatest and thickest of the bones of the foot . it is joyned to talus , and os cubiforme : into this the great tendon , composed of the tendons of three muscles of the shanke , is inserted . . scaphoides , naviculare , the boat-like bone , it is joyned with talus , and the three hinder bones . . cuboides , ostessarae , it is larger than the rest . it is set before the heele-bone , and is joyned to it . the other . are called cuneiformia , wedge-like bones . they are joyned with the naviculare . motapedium hath five bones joyned to the bones of pedium . the bones of the fingers are fourteen , because the great toe hath but two bones : they answer those of the hand . of the seed bones . these are like to the seeds of sesamum , and therefore are called sesamoidea or sesamina : they are round and somewhat flat . they cleave to the ligaments under the tendons . they are reckoned to be twelve in every hand and foot : but it is hard to find a certaine number of them . the two which are found about the first joynt of the great toe are most remarkable . two are found in the hamme about the beginning of the two first muscles , which move the shanke . they are found also in the carpus , metaoarpium , pedium , and metapedium . cap. viii . of the sundry wayes by the which the bones of mans body are coupled together . they are coupled either by joynting or growing together . joynting is either for manifest or obscure motion . the joyntings which serve for manifest motion are three . . enarthrosis is when a large head of a bone is received into a deepe cavity , as the thigh bone with the hip-bone . . arthrodia , is when the cavity which receiveth is shallow , and the head of the bone flat , such is the articulation of the lower jaw with the temple-bone . . cynglymus , is when the same bone receiveth , and is received . this falleth out three manner of wayes . . is when a bone is received by a bone , and receiveth the same . this is seene in the articulation of the shoulder-bone with the elbow-bone . . is when a bone receiveth one bone , & is received of another . so in the spōdils of the back : for the bone in the middle receiveth the upper , and is received by the lower . . when the processe of the bone being long , and round , is inserted into another bone , and so is turned about in the cavity , as if it were an axel tree : so is the second vertebra of the neck with the first . articulation for obscure motion may be observed in the joyning of the ribs with the spondils , and in the bones of the wrest and anckle . bones grow together either without some middle substance , or with it . without some middle substance they are coupled three manner of wayes . . by a line , as the bones of the upper jaw and nose are coupled ; this is called , harmonia . . by a suture as the bones of the scull are united . . when one bone is fastned within an other as a naile in wood : this is called , gomphosis , and so are they fastned in the gums . if bones grow together by a middle substance , it is either by a cartilage , this unition is called synchondrosis , so are the share bones joyned ; or by a ligament , which is called synneurosis , and so the thigh bone is joyned to the hip-bone ; or by flesh which is termed syssarcosis , and so is the bone of the tongue joyned to the shoulder . cap. ix . of a cartilage . a cartilage is a similary part dry and hard , yet not so as a bone , flexible , which a bone is not , framed to stay the soft parts , and to repell the injuries of externall hard bodies . . then it staieth the soft parts . . it defendeth them . . they cover the ends of the bones , which have a loose articulation . . they knit bones together : as is seene in the share-bone . the differences are taken first , from the figure ; so the cartilage of the brest-bone is called ensiformis , and those of the larynx sigmoides like c. . some are solitary not joyned with other bodies , as those of the eares and eye-lids : some are joyned , as most of the rest . . some still continue cartilages , some degenerat into bones : as in women , the cartilages of the ribs , which ly under the brests : for these growing very big , they become bony , the better to hold them up . they are in sundry parts of the body . . in the head there are foure , to wit , of the eye-lids , nose , and eares ; and the trochlea of the eye . . in the brest there be three , to wit , the cartilages of the larynx : the small pipes of the wind-pipe , dispersed thorow the lungs , and cartilago ensiformis . . the long ribs are joyned to the sternum by cartilages . . the vertebrae of the back are joyned together by cartilages . last of all sundry are seene in the articulations , which are loose , and in the conjunction of bones . cap. x. of a ligament . a ligament is a similary part without feeling , in substance meane betweene a cartilage and a membrane appointed firmly to knit the joynts . of the ligaments some are membranous ( such are those who inviron the joynts ; ) some cartilagineous , as those which are betweene the joynts , as is seene in the articulation of the thigh-bone with the coxendix . ligaments are to bee found in divers parts of the body . . the bone of the tongue hath two strong ligaments , one on each side . besides on each side it hath round ones by the which it is tyed to the adjacent parts to stay it in the middle of the mouth . secondly , the tongue hath a strong membranous ligament in the lower part about the middle of it . about the end of it the fraenum is to be seene , which if it come to the fore-teeth , it hindereth the motion of the tongue and speech . children being so troubled , are said to bee tongue-tyed , and must have it cut . . the ligaments which tye the vertebrae of the brest and loynes , the ribs with the vertebrae , and the ribs with the brest-bone , are membranous . . sundry are to bee seene in the belly . the first tyeth the os ilium to os sacrum . the second tyeth the os sacrum to the coxendix . the third joyneth the share bones , and is cartilaginous . the fourth compasseth them circularly , and is membranous . the fift compasseth the hole of os pubis , and is membranous . . in the arme these appeare . . five tye the adjutorium to the shoulder blade . . the bones of the elbow , ulna and radius , are tyed first one to another , secondly to the shoulder-bone , and thirdly to the wrest , by membranous ligaments . . there are two annular ligaments , which being transverse , direct the tendons which passe to the fingers . they are two . one in the outside for the tendons of the extending muscles ; the other in the inner side , for the tendons of the contracting muscles . . the bones of the wrest , back of the hand , and fingers , have membranous ligaments . . in the leg these may be found out . first , the thigh-bone is tyed to the coxendix , by two ligaments . secondly , the lower end of it is tyed to tibia and fibula by six ligaments . thirdly , the tibia is joyned to the fibula , by a membranous ligament . fourthly , tibia and fibula are joyned to the ankley by three ligaments . fifthly , the ankley is tyed with the bones of the foot by five ligaments . sixthly , the bones of the instep and toes are tyed with such ligaments as those are which are seene in the hand . an explication of some termes which are found in anatomicall authors in the doctrine of bones . cotulae , or 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , not cotyledones , acetabula , are called deepe cavities in the articulations of the bones . if the hollownesse be shallow , they are called glenae or glenoides , from the forme of the cavities of the eyes , which appeare when the eye-lids are shut . epiphysis , appendix , adnascentia , additamentum , is called a bone which groweth to the end of another bone . it is of a spongious substance , and at the first gristly for the most part ; but in time groweth bony . it may bee seene in the shoulder blade , both the focils of the legs both at the knee and foot , and in the thigh-bone where the rotator magnus is . apophysis , in some bones caput , in some cervix , in some tuberculum , in some spina , in some mucro , is a part of a bone not added , but bunching out above the smooth superficies . it is also called ecphysis , processus , productio , extuberantia supercilia or labra , are called the upper brim● of the cavities of the joynts . as for the number of the bones of the body of man. commonly they are holden to bee . accoding to this distich . adde quater denis bis centum senaque , habebis quàm te multiplici condidit osse deus . the head hath . the upper jaw . the lower jaw one . the teeth are . sometimes . the spina hath . os sacrum hath most commonly . the ribs are . the brest-bone is composed of . the cannell bones are . the shoulder blades are . the flanck bones are . in the armes there are . in both the feet . os hyoides of the tongue . the small bones of the eares . the two great toes have foure great seed bones . the number of the small feeed bones is uncertaine . if with some anatomists you reckon twenty foure small seed bones in the two hands , and so many in the two feet , besides the two great ones of both the great toes ; if you adde in like manner the two small bones in each ham , and the eighth bone in each hand , betweene the carpus and metacarpium , and the bony substance annexed to the cuboides in both the feet in old persons , you shall have fifty foure more , which being joyned to . make up . expressed thus : ter centum & binis compactum est ossibus istud , quod cernis corpus ; non est quod plura requires . if you find one more , that breakes no square . finis . the explication of the first figure . . the hairy scalp . . the fore-head . . the eare . . the eyes . . the nose . the mouth . . the chin . . the temple . . the cheeke . . the arme . . the hand . . the brest . . the sides . . the belly . . the genitals . . the thighs . . the knees . . the legs . . the feet . the explication of the second figure . . the back part of the head . . the shoulder . . the elbow . . the back . . the buttocks . . the hams . . the calies of the legs . . the ankles . . the insteps . . the heele . these two figures are to be placed as they stand in order immediatly after the title before the first chapter . the explication of the third figure . . the musculous skin of the head . . the muscles of the arme . . the muscles of the brest . the muscles of the belly . . the muscles of the thigh . . the muscles of the legs . this figure is to be placed before the first chapter of the treatise of the muscles . the explication of the fourth figure . . the bones of the head . . the bones of chaine of the back . . the shoulder-blade . . the ribs . . the os sacrum . . the thigh bone . . the bones of the knee . . the bones of the legs . . the bones of the feet . the explication of the fift figure . . the shoulder-bone . . the elbow bones . . the bones of the hand . . the bones of the back . . the heele-bone . these two figures are to bee placed in their order immediatly before the first chapter of the book of bones . notes, typically marginal, from the original text notes for div a -e the description of anatomy . the regions of the whole . what the whole and a part signifie . things required in a part being strictly taken . the differences of parts . what a similary part is . the number of simple parts . of a tendon . the differences of simple parts . what a dissimilary part is . things to be observed in an organicall part . the degrees of an organicall part . the differences of parts taken from their function . the lower region . ilia . inguina . the hindermost parts . culitula . . of fat . its kinds . membrana carnosa . its uses . of the parts contained in the lower belly . it s substance . it s connexion . its veines . its arteries . its sinews . it s figure . . de anat. administ . the reason of the frame of it . the fat . it s beginning an observation . another . the marching of it . the names of it . it s structure it s connexion . the vessels . its glandules . the use of it . it s denomination . it s situation . it s bignesse . it s connexion . it s substance . its orifices . its veines its arteries . the cause of hunger . it s action chylus . it s figure . the etymon . the figure . their substance . their length . their coats . the fibres . their veins . the arteries . the nerves the fat . the differences of the guts . the thin . the thick guts . glandules . the biggest . the bignesse of the mesaraeum . it s beginning . mesocolon . why so called . their beginning . their insertion . their progress . the difference between them and the ordinary mesaraicall veins . their values . how to find them out . why the ancients did not find these out . why they have no trunck . it s bignesse . its veins . its arteries . its nerves . it s figure . its ties . its differences from the liver of beasts . a little lobe . it s situation . it s action . a note . the veins of it . vena portae . why so called . how it differeth from vena cava . how inosculation is performed . a note . how the inosculation of these veins is found out . the distribution of vena portae . its roots . its branches . branches of vena splenica . vena mesenterica the uses of it . the branches of vena sine pari . the branches of ramus subclavius . sprigges springing from the lower part of ramus subclavius . the description of it . it s bignesse . it s connexion . its membranes . the fibres of the proper membrane . the parts of it . how the choler is caried to the gall . its values . meatus hepaticus . what beasts have this passage only . its vessels . of the stones in it . the use of the passages . the uses of the choler . why choler is not carried to the stomacke . a note . how the values are found out . it s substance . it s membrane . why it is red in infants . it s figure . it s seat . it s connexion . its vessels . the uses of the arteries of the spleene . by what waies the spleen sendeth it superfluities to the kidnyes . the use of the spleene . how the sanguification of the spleene differeth from that of the liver . why the naturall parts are nourished with grosse bloud . their denomination . their number . their places . their figure their connexion . their bignesse . their parts their membranes . the uses of the fat of the kidnies . renes succenturiati . their figure . their connexion . their nerves . the proper membrane of the kidnyes . the internall parts . the colour of them . their substance . the emulgent vessels . how these parts are to be found out . their vessels . how matters gathered in the cavity of the brest are discharged into the ureters . the arteries the nerves the place of the arterie . their number . their substance . their coats . its fibres . how the ureter differeth from the bladder . why the insertion is oblique . it s place . it s substance its membranes . its fibres . it s crust . it s perforation . its parts . it s figure . how it is upholden . why mans bladder is snspended . it s heat in man and woman . how the bladdes of man differeth from the bladder of beasts . why stones are ingendered in it . why there is a consent between the bladder and kidnies an observation . why the bladder in man is big . the muscle sphincter . its vessels . its nerves . how the chylus is made . the differences of the genitals . the parts of the genitals in man. vasa praeparantia . the arteries . the ending of the vessels . corpus varicosum . their substance . their number . their figure their coats the line . vesiculae seminales . their substance . the use of the caruncule in the urethra . the holes by the which the seed passeth to the urethra . prostatae . perinaeum . why these parts in man are hairy . why corrupt seed is worse in a woman than in a man. the description of it . its parts . why it hath no fat . the cuticula & culis . the membrana carnosa . the internall parts . the two bodies . their beginning . septum lucidum . the urethra it s frame . its muscles . glans . praeputium . fraenum . the vessels its sinewes . the particles of the cunnus . the neck . it s length . it s substance . it s seat . its vessels . the parts of it . the month of it . it s figure . it s bignesse . why it is small . no distinctcelles in it . it s frame . acetabula . cornua uteri . its vessels . the veins . arteries . the sinewes iti connexion . its ligaments . the differences betweene the stones of a woman and of a man. its veins . its arteries . the difference betweene these and those in men . an observation . vasa deferentia . tuba fallopiana . notes for div a -e the situation of it . the limitation of it . the figure of it . the substance of it . the parts of it . the common containing parts . . . cuticula . . pinguedo . . the membrana carnosa . the parts of the brest . the paps of men . the parts of the paps in woman . the glandulous bodies . the veins . the arteries . nerves . the fat . the figure of the dugs . their number . their situation . of the nipple . what milk is . it s substance . its parts . it s figure . its holes . it s beginning . the vessels . veins . arteries . nerves . the seat of the vessels and the pleuresie . its uses . of the mediastinum . observation it s substance . it s largenesse . its veins . its arteries . its nerves . of the pericardium . its membranes . it s connexion . it s beginning . it s situation . its holes . its vessels . its uses . the watrish humour in the pericardium . it s generation . the bloudy water in the capacity of the brest . the vena cava . its values . the trunk ascending . the laterall sprigs of the trunk ascending . . phrenica . . vena sine pari . by which way matters in the brest are discharged . the divarication of the vena cava . sprigs proceeding from the cava within the brest . . intercostalis superior . mammaria . . mediastina . . cervicalis . . muscula inferior . . the internall jugular . vena arterialis . arteria venalis . the values of these two vessels . how the bloud is carried to the left ventricle of the heart . how the bloud is cooled . coronaria arteria . the situation of the aorta . its trunkes . the branches of the trunk ascending . from the upper part . from the lower part . the branches of the trunke descending . . the inferior intercostals . by what way quittour and water is sent from the br 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 the 〈◊〉 . . phrenicae . . caeliaca . a note . the values . notes for div a -e how bones feele . the description . the description . the surgions directorie, for young practitioners, in anatomie, wounds, and cures, &c. shewing, the excellencie of divers secrets belonging to that noble art and mysterie. very usefull in these times upon any sodaine accidents. and may well serve, as a noble exercise for gentle-women, and others; who desire science in medicine and surgery, for a generall good. divided into x. parts. (whose contents follow in the next page.) / written by t. vicary, esquire, chyrurgion to hen . edw. . q. mary. q. eliz. vicary, thomas, d. . approx. kb of xml-encoded text transcribed from -bit group-iv tiff page images. text creation partnership, ann arbor, mi ; oxford (uk) : - (eebo-tcp phase ). a wing v thomason e _ estc r this keyboarded and encoded edition of the work described above is co-owned by the institutions providing financial support to the early english books online text creation partnership. this phase i text is available for reuse, according to the terms of creative commons . universal . the text can be copied, modified, distributed and performed, even for commercial purposes, all without asking permission. early english books online. (eebo-tcp ; phase , no. a ) transcribed from: (early english books online ; image set ) images scanned from microfilm: (thomason tracts ; :e [ ]) the surgions directorie, for young practitioners, in anatomie, wounds, and cures, &c. shewing, the excellencie of divers secrets belonging to that noble art and mysterie. very usefull in these times upon any sodaine accidents. and may well serve, as a noble exercise for gentle-women, and others; who desire science in medicine and surgery, for a generall good. divided into x. parts. (whose contents follow in the next page.) / written by t. vicary, esquire, chyrurgion to hen . edw. . q. mary. q. eliz. vicary, thomas, d. . [ ], p. printed by t. fawcet dwelling in shoo-lane, at the signe of the dolphin. . and are to be sold by j. nuthall, at his shop in fleetstreet at the signe of herculus pillers, london : [ ] title page printed in red and black. annotation on thomason copy: "may. .". reproduction of the original in the british library. created by converting tcp files to tei p using tcp tei.xsl, tei @ oxford. re-processed by university of nebraska-lincoln and northwestern, with changes to facilitate morpho-syntactic tagging. gap elements of known extent have been transformed into placeholder characters or elements to simplify the filling in of gaps by user contributors. eebo-tcp is a partnership between the universities of michigan and oxford and the publisher proquest to create accurately transcribed and encoded texts based on the image sets published by proquest via their early english books online (eebo) database (http://eebo.chadwyck.com). the general aim of eebo-tcp is to encode one copy (usually 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as <gap>s. understanding these processes should make clear that, while the overall quality of tcp data is very good, some errors will remain and some readable characters will be marked as illegible. users should bear in mind that in all likelihood such instances will never have been looked at by a tcp editor. the texts were encoded and linked to page images in accordance with level of the tei in libraries guidelines. copies of the texts have been issued variously as sgml (tcp schema; ascii text with mnemonic sdata character entities); displayable xml (tcp schema; characters represented either as utf- unicode or text strings within braces); or lossless xml (tei p , characters represented either as utf- unicode or tei g elements). keying and markup guidelines are available at the text creation partnership web site . eng human anatomy -- early works to . medicine -- formulae, receipts, prescriptions -- early works to . surgery -- early works to . - tcp assigned for keying and markup - apex covantage keyed and coded from proquest page images - emma (leeson) huber sampled and proofread - emma (leeson) huber text and markup reviewed and edited - pfs batch review (qc) and xml conversion the surgions directorie , 〈◊〉 young practitioners , 〈…〉 shewing , 〈◊〉 excellencie of divers 〈◊〉 belonging to that noble art and 〈◊〉 very usefull in these times upon any sodaine accidents . and may well serve , as a noble 〈…〉 for gentle women , and others ; who desire science in medicine and surgery , for a generall good. 〈…〉 ( whose contents follow in the next page . ) written by 〈…〉 esquire , chyrurgion to hen. . edw. . q. mary . q. eliz. london , printed by 〈…〉 dwelling in shoo-lane , at the signe of the dolphin . . and are to be sold by j. nuthall , at his shop in 〈…〉 at the signe of 〈…〉 pillers . the contents of this booke , with its severall parts . viz. part . i. of chyrurgerie , and anatomy of mans body , &c. by t. vicary esquire . and published by w. clowes , w. beton rich. story , and ed. baily , chyrurgions ▪ to st. bartholmewes hospitall , london . ii. of the theorick and practicke parts , and observations for letting of blood. iii. of the judgement of divers urines , &c. iv. the definition of wounds in severall parts of the body , and their cures . v. of the making of severall emplaisters . vi. the making of divers unguents . vii . distilling and making of waters , with their severall vertues and uses . viii . the excellency of our english bathes , and the use of them , written by d. turner , doct. of physicke , and published by w. bremer ▪ practitioner in physick and surgery , for the benefit of the poorer sort of people , &c. ix . for perbreaking and flux . as also , the g●eat operation and vertue of severall herbes , plants , and drugs &c. for divers uses in physick and surgery , &c. x. of medicines , remedies and cures , belonging to severall diseases and infirmities , incident to all parts of the body of man &c. as also remedies for the french p. otherwise called morbus galicus ; and , preservatives to bee used against the plague , in the time of divers visitation , &c. to all the vertuous ladyes and gentlevvomen , of this common-wealth of england , whose goodnesse surpassing greatnesse , and desires to exercise themselves ( as nursing mothers ) in the art of medicine and surgery , ( especially in the remote parts of this kingdome ) w ere is neyther physitian nor surgion to bee had when ●od●ine accidents happen ; whereby the poorer sort of people many times perish for want of advice . courteous ladyes , and gentlewomen , as this little treatise is a messelin of divers hidden secrets ; so likewise you must observe the use of them in practice . as first , the use and knowledge of the severall parts of anatomie ; so likewise doe of the rest , as physicke , surgerie , medicine , waters , vnguents , emplaisters , remedies , &c. the rare vertue of our english bathes , the iudgement of divers vrines ; the vertue and operation of divers herbes , plants , and drugs , &c. all tending to the benefit and use of man ; yet various and different in their effects and workings , according to the severall humours and dispositions of men in their cures . for as st. paul doth say , the guift of healing is the guift of the holy spirit . which thing may partly satisfie any rationall judgement from despising of all for the failings of some , it being the gleanings of divers who made tryall of them for good , and hath left them to posterity . thus leaving you ladies and gentlewomen , to your charitable acting and doing good when need shall require , the lord no doubt will requite you or yours with a blessing . farewell . t. f. a table to find the severall contents of this booke . part . . containing the anatomy of mans body , &c. chap folio . the anatomy of the simple members , folio . the anatomy of the compound members , &c. folio . of five things contained within the head , folio . the anatomy of the face , folio . the anatomy of the necke , folio . the anatomy of the shoulders and armes , folio . the anatomy of the lungs , folio . the anatomy of the haunches and their parts , folio . the ana●omy of the thighes , legs , and feet . folio . ● part , of severall things belong ng to yong practitioners in surgery , to have in a readinesse , &c. folio , times convenient for ●etting of b lood , folio . dyet after blee●ing , folio . of the nine tastes . folio . signes of sicknesse by egestion , folio . signes of life or death by the pulses , folio . of the foure humours , folio . ▪ . signes of sicknesse by blood , folio . ibid . signes of melancholy sicknesses , folio . . signes of cholerick diseases . folio . ibid . signes of flegmatick diseases . folio . cer●aine observations for women . &c. folio . part , . of vrines , a briefe treatise of vrines , aswell of mans vrine as of womans , and to judge by the colour which betokeneth health , and which betokeneth weaknesse , and also death . folio part. . definition of wounds by their causes , folio an the curing of greene wounds consists a five-fold scope o● intention , folio . how man should dyet himselfe being wounded . folio . o● wounds and their cures happening in severall places of the body , folio . of infirmities incident to souldiers in a campe , folio . ibid. a rare 〈◊〉 the which this author did send to a very friend of his being in the warres : the which helpeth all wounds eyther by cut , thrust , galling with arrowes , or hargubush shot , or otherwise , folio . of wounds in the head , with fracture of the bone , folio . wounds in the head , where the bone is not offended . of concussions or bruises , as well in the head as any other place , folio . of wounds in the necke , and the order to be used in curing ●hem . folio . of wounds in the armes , and their importances and medicines , folio . of wounnds in the legs , and their parts , folio . a discourse upon old wounds , which are not thorowly healed , with their remedies , folio . a rare secre●●o heale wounds of gunshot , &c. folio . to heale a wound quickly , folio . ibid. to heale a wound quickly , that is in danger of any accidents , folio . ibid. to stay the fluxe of bloud in wounds , folio . a defence to be laid upon wounds , folio . a secret powder for wounds , folio . ibid. a composition of great vertue against all vlcers and sores ▪ folio . ibid. a note of a certaine spanyard , wounded in the head at naples . folio . for to heale hurts and wounds , folio . to stanch the blood of a cut , folio . for to staunch the blood of a wound , folio . ibid. a healing salve for any greene wound , folio . ibid. the lord capel salve for cuts or rancklings comming of rubbings , &c. folio . for to draw and heale a cut , folio . ibid ▪ a salve for fresh wounds . folio . a salve that cleanseth a wound and healeth it , folio . ibid. to kill dead flesh . folio . ibid. a playster for old sores , folio . ibid. for a canker , fistula , or wounds , new or old , folio . a salve for any wound , folio . ibid. to helpe the ach of a wound , folio . to heale wounds without plaister , tent or oyntment , except it be in the head , folio . ibid. to heale a wound that no scarre or print thereof shall be seene , folio . ibid. part , . emplaisters , folio of severall emplaisters . from folio , to . part , . vnguents , folio . of severall vnguents . from folio . to . part. . waters , folio . of severall waters . from folio , to folio . part , . the vertue and excellency of our english bathes , written by d. turner doctor of physicke , &c. from folio , to folio . part , . of herbes , and drugs , &c. folio the vertue of certaine herbes , and drugs , &c. folio . the excellent vertues of cardus benedictus , folio . a good drinke to strengthen the heart and all the members of a man , to drinke halfe an egge shell full of it morning and evening , with as much good wine , folio . a speciall medicine to cause sleepe , folio . ibid. a discourse concerning cornes in the feet , or elsewhere with their remedies , folio . part , . medicines . of medicines , remedies , and cures &c. folio . the cause of our sciatica , and how to help it , folio . ibid for hoarsnesse , folio . if a man stand in feare of the palsie , folio . ibid. a medicine for the goute , folio . ibid. stubbes medicine for the goute , folio . another plaister for the goute , folio . ibid. another for the same . folio . ibid. for a pricke of a thorne , or any other thing , folio . a remedy for burning and scalding , folio . ibid. to kill a tetter or ring●worme , folio . ibid. for a winde or a collicke in the belly , folio . against the shingles , folio . ibid. to heale a wound in ten dayes , &c. folio . ibid. for ache in the backe , folio . ibid. to heale scalding with water , or other liquor , &c. folio . to heale the itch , folio . ibid to heale sores or tetters , folio . ibid. for the hardnesse of hearing , folio . an easie remedy for the tooth-ache ▪ folio . ibid. for the swelling in the throat , folio . ibid. to cause a womans speedy deliverance , folio to make a womans milke increase , folio . ibid. for the rickets and weakne●se of children , &c. folio . ibid. to fasten the gums or loose teeth , folio . ibid. for one that cannot hold his water , folio . for the dropsie by d. adryan , &c. folio . ibid. for the stinging of waspes and bees , folio . ibid. for the falling downe of the tull , folio . ibid. for the swelling of the legges , folio . for the canker in the mouth , folio . ibid. to make the face faire and cleare &c. folio . ibid. a remedy to qualifie the coppered face , folio . a speciall good dyet for all fiery faces . folio . ibid. an easie remedy to make the teeth white , folio . ibid. to take away the stinking of the mouth ▪ folio . a remedy , for sore eyes , folio . ibid ▪ a medicine for the bleeding at the nose , &c. folio . ibid. against a stinking breath , folio . for an evill breath , folio . ibid. for the head ache , and clensing of the fame , folio . ibid. to heale a swolne face , &c. folio . ibid. to make an aking tooth fall out of himselfe , folio . to kill lice and nits in the head , folio . to helpe blood shotten eyes &c. folio . ibid. to take away the tooth-ache . folio . a medicine to purge the head , folio . ibid. a medicine for a scald head , folio . for the head ache , folio . ibid. for paine of the head , folio . ibid. for deafenesse in the eares , folio . to make honey of roses , &c. folio . ibid. for the pockes , folio . ibid. a true medicine for the iaundies , folio . ibid. for the liver that is corrupted and wasted , folio for heate in the liver , folio . ibid. remedies for the collicke , folio . another for the same , folio . ibid a most excellent medicine for the colick , &c. folio . for the collicke and stone , folio . for the collicke and stone , folio . ibid remedy for the stone , folio . ibid a powder for the stone , folio . to make the stone slip downe &c. folio . ibid a posset drinke against the stone , folio . to make haire g●ow ▪ folio . for to take away haire , folio . ibid to make a barren woman beare children , folio . ibid to make a woman have a quicke birth , folio . ibid for all manner of lamene●●e of swellings , folio . for to stay the laxe or fluxe , folio . ibid for the sweating of sicknesse , folio . for him that pi●●eth blood , folio . ibid for the canker in the mouth , folio . ibid a powder for the same , folio . ibid to know the fester and canker , folio . for canker in the body , folio . ibid for a canker in a womans pappes . folio . ibid a good powder ●or the canker , folio . to kill the canker or marmo●e , folio . ibid for the canker in the mouth , folio . to make red water to kill the canker , folio . to take away the canker , folio . ibid a powder for the canker , folio . ibid a good medicine for the canker and sores , folio . for a canker old or new , or marmole , folio . ibid for the canker , folio . for a canker in a mans body , &c. folio for the head-ache , folio . ibid for the head ache , and tooth-ache , folio . a d●inke for the head-ache , folio . ibid for the he●●-ache , folio . ibid for the head-ache , folio . to cleanse the head , folio . for the head-ache comming of the stomacke , folio . for ache in the hinder part of the head , folio . ibid a principall medicine for the head , folio . ibid for a man that is diseased in the liver &c. folio . a drinke to be used after this oyntment , folio . ibid a plaister for the spleene , folio . ibid a drinke for the spleene , folio . to dissolve the hardnesse of the spleene , folio . a soveraigne medicine for the spleene , &c. folio . ibid for ache in the backe folio . ibid to stay the backe , and helpe a consumption , &c. folio . to take away the paine of the reynes &c. folio . for ache in the backe and legges , folio . ibid for the bladder and the reynes , folio . a plaister for the reynes , folio . ibid for all diseases , in the backe , folio . ibid for paine in the bladder , &c. folio . against running of the reynes , folio . ibid a syrope for the backe , folio . remedies to provoke menstruum mulieris , folio . to stop white menstruum and red , folio . another for the white , folio . ibid the vertue of fearne , folio . to take away heate and inflamation , &c. folio . ibid a locion for a sore mouth , folio . a preparative , folio . ibid to make vergent milke by d. y●xley . folio . ibid a comfortable powder for the heart , folio a remedy that breaketh the stone , folio . ibid another remedy for the stone , &c. folio . ibd a proved medicine to avoid the vrine &c. folio . ● a very good water for the stone proved , folio . ib●● to breake the stone , folio . ibid doctor argentines medicine for the stone , folio . ibid divers medicines for the stone &c. folio . excellent remedies for the stone &c. folio . for the stone in the reynes , or bladder , folio . an injection for the stone , folio . ibid for any evill in the bladder , folio . ibid a powder to breake the stone , folio . to ●ase the paine of the stone , folio . ibid against the new ague , by doctor langdon , folio . for an ague . by doctor turner , folio . ibid a very good drinke for an ague , if one shake , folio . ibid for a cold ague , folio . a plaister to take away the ague &c. folio . to kill the palsie , folio . ibid a remedy for the dropsie , folio . ibid against stopping of the pipes , folio . ibid against hoarsenesse , folio . ● for the yellow iaundise . folio . ibid for wormes in the bellie , folio . ibid a proved remedy for a womans throvves &c. folio . a powder for the strangury , folio . ibid for the collicke and stone , folio . ibid for a megrim in the head. folio . i●●d for the tooth-ache , folio . ● for a sore brest , folio . ibid for a fore eye that burneth and is watrie , folio . ibid for to stoppe the bloody fluxe , folio . ibid a remedy for a fellon , folio . a medicine well proved for the megrim , folio . ibid for to heale a sore eye , hurt with small pocks . folio . ibid for a sore eye with a pinne or a web , folio . for a sore eye that itcheth and pricketh , folio . ibid for a sciatica or ache in the bones , folio . ibid for sore eyes ▪ folio . ibid to stoppe a great laske , folio . to cause one to make water , folio . ibid for the wind collicke . folio . ibid for to make a water for the same , folio . for to bind one from the laske , folio . ibid for to skin a sore finger , folio . ibid for a vehement cough in young children &c. folio . ibid for a broken head , folio . ibid for chilblaines in the feete or hands , folio . to kill the tooth-ache , &c. folio . ibid for a stitch , folio . ibid for an ache or a bruise , folio . ibd to make white teeth . folio . for a swelling in the cheeke , folio . ibid to make a perfume suddenly in a chamber where a sicke man lyeth , folio . ibid to make a cleere voyce , folio . for the mother , folio . ibid for the stitch or bruise , folio . ibid for the bloody fluxe , folio . remedies for the i●c● , folio . ibid to kill lice or itch , folio . to cure the crampe , folio . ibid for a paine or swelling in the privie parts , folio . ibid remedies for burning or scalding , folio . ibid remedies for the piles , folio . to cure the cappes , folio to kill a tetter or ring-worme , folio . remedies for the shingles , folio . ibid fgr griping● in the belly , folio . a pla●ster for the same , folio . ibid for a scurfe in the body , folio . ibid for a wilde running scab , folio . ibid for a timpany , folio . for one in a consumption , folio . ibid for one tha● is broken bellied , folio . for the shrinking of the sinewes , folio . for the staying of the fluxe , folio . ibid a medicine for a sore throat , folio . ibid for weaknesse in the backe , folio . ibid for the carbunckle or impostume &c. folio . to take w●y pock-holes , or any spot &c. folio . ibid for faintnesse in the stomacke , or the morphew , folio . ibid to care the french pox , &c. folio . preservatives against the plague , &c. folio . the svrgions directory : or , an exercise for gentlewomen . part . i. containing the anatomie of mans body , compiled by t. v. esquire , for the use and benefit of all unlearned practitioners in the art and mystery of chyrurgerie . chap. i. . to kn●w what chyrurgerie is . . how a● hyrurgion should be● chosen . . with what properties hee should be indued . for the first , which is to know what chyrurgerie is . herein j doe note the saying of lanfranke , whereas hee saith ; all things that man would know , may be knowne by one of these three things : that is to say , by his name , or by his working ; or else by his very being and shewing of his owne properties . so then it followeth , that in the same manner we may know what chyrurgery is , by three things . first , by his name , as thus : the interpreters write , that chirurgerie is derived out of these words . apo tes chiros , cai tou ergou ▪ that is to be understood : a hand-working , and so it may be taken for all handy arts : but noble hypocrates saith , that chirurgerie is hand-working in mans body , for the very end and profit of chirurgerie is hand-working . now the second manner of knowing what thing chyrurgerie it , it is the saying of avicen ; to be knowne by his being , for it is verily a medicinall science . and as galen saith , he that will know the certainty of a thing , let him not busie himselfe to know onely the name of that thing , but also the working and the effect of the same thing . now the third way to know what thing chirurgerie is , it is also to be knowne by his being or declaring of his own properties , the which teacheth us to worke in mans body with hands , as thus : in cutting and opening those parts that be whole , and in healing those parts that be broken or cut , and in taking away that that is superfluous , as warts , wennes , skurfulas , and other of like effect . but further , to declare what galen saith chirurgery is , it is the last instrument of medicine : that is to say , dyet , potion , and chirurgery : of the which three saith he , dyet is the noblest , and the most vertuous : and thus he saith . whereas a man may be cured with diet onely , let there be given no manner of medicine . the second instrument , is potion : for and if a man may be cured with diet and potion , let there not be ministred any chirurgery , through whose vertue and goodnesse , is removed and put away many grievous infirmities and diseases , which might not have beene removed nor yet put away , neither with diet nor with potion . and by these three meanes , it is knowne what thing chirurgery is . and this sufficeth us for that point . now it is knowne what thing chirurgerie is , there must also be chosen a man apt and meete to minister chirurgery ▪ or to be a chirurgion . and in this point all authors doe agree , that a chirurgion should be chosen by his complexion , and that his complexion bee very temperate , and all his members well proportioned . for rasis saith : whose face is not seemely , it is vnpossible for him to have good manners . and aristotle the great philospher , writeth in his epistles to the noble king alexander ) as in those epistles more plainly doth appeare ) how he should choose all such persons as should serve him , by the forme and shape of the face , and all other members of the body . and furthermore they say , hee that is of an evill complexion , there must needs follow like conditions . wherefore it agreeth , that he that will take upon him to practice as a chyrurgion , must be both of a good and temperate complexion● as is afore rehearsed : and principally , that he be a good liver , and a keeper of the holy commandements of god , of whom commeth all cunning and grace , and that his body be not quaking , and his hands stedfast , his fingers long and small ▪ and not trembling : and that his left hand be as ready as his right , with all his limmes , able to fulfill the good work●s of the soule . now as here is a man meete to be made a chirurgion : ( and though he have all those good qualities before rehearsed ) yet is he no good chirurgion , but a man very fit and meete for the practice . now then to know what properties and conditions this man must have before he be a perfect chirurgion . j doe note foure things most specially , that every chirurgion ought for to have : the first , that he be learned : the second , that he be expert : the third , that he be ingenious : the fourth , that he be well mannered . the first ( j said ) he ought to be learned , and that he know his principles , not onely in chirurgery , but also in physicke , that he may the better defend his chirurgery ; also hee ought to be seene in naturall philosophy , and in grammar , that he speake congruity in logicke , that teacheth him to prove his proportions with good reason : in rhetoricke , that teacheth him to speake seemely and eloquently : also in theoricke , that teacheth him to know things naturall , and not naturall , and things against nature . also he must know the anatomie : for all authors write against those chirurgions that worke in mans body , not knowing the anatomy : for they be likened to a blind man , that cutteth in a vine tree , for he taketh more or lesse then he ought to doe . and here note well the sayings of galen , the prince of philosophers , in his estoris , that it is as possible for a chyrurgion ( not knowing the anatomy ) to worke in mans body without error , as it is for a blind man to carve an jmage and make it perfect . the second , j said , he must be expert : for rasus saith : he ought to know and to see other men worke , and after to have use and exercise . the third , that he be ingenious and witty : for all things belonging to chirurgery may not be written ▪ nor with letters set forth . the fourth , j said , that he must be well mannered , and that he have all these good conditions here following . first , that he be no spouse-breaker , nor no drunkard . for the philosophers say , amongst all other things , beware of those persons that follow drunkennesse , for they be accounted for no men , because they live a life bestiall : wherefore amongst all other sorts of people , they ought to bee sequestred from the ministring of medicine . likewise , a chirurgion must take heed that he deceive no man with his vaine promises , for to make of a small matter a great ▪ because he would be accounted the more famous . and amongst other things , they may neither be flatterers nor mockers , nor privie back-biters of other men . likewise , they must not be proud , nor presumptuous : nor detracters of other men . likewise , they ought not to be covetous , nor no niggard , and namely amongst their friends , or men of worship , but let them be honest , courteous , and free both in word and deed . likewise , they shall give no counsell except they be asked , and then give their advice by good deliberation , and that they be well advised before they speake , chiefly in the presence of wise men . likewise , they must be as privie and as secret as any confessor , of all things that they shall either heare or see in the house of their patient . they shall not ta ke into their cure any manner of person , except hee will be obedient vnto their precepts : for he cannot be called a patient , unlesse he be a sufferer . also that they doe their diligence as well to the poore as to the rich . they shall never discomfort their patient , and shall command all that be about him that they doe the same , but to his friends speake truth as the case standeth . they must also be bold in those things whereof they be certaine , and as dreadfull in all perils . they may not chide with the sicke , but be alwayes pleasant and merry . they must not covet any w oman by way of villany , and specially in the house of their patient . they shall not for covetousnesse of money , taken in hand those cures that be uncurable , nor never set any certaine day of the sicke mans health , for it lyeth not in their power : following the distinct conusell of galen , in the aphorisme of hypocrat●s ▪ saying : oporter seipsum non solum . by this galen meaneth , that to the cure of every sore , there belongeth foure things : of which , the first and principall belongeth to god : the second , to the surgion : the third , to the medicine : and the fourth , to the patient . of the which foure , if any one doe faile , the pa●ient cannot be healed : then they to whom belongeth but the fou●th part , shall not promise the whole but be first well advised . they must al●o be gracious and good to the poore , and of the rich take liberally for both . and see they never praise themselves , for that redoundeth more to their shame and discredit , then to their fame and worship . for a cunning and skilfull chirurgion , need not vaunt of his doings , for his works will ever get credit enough . likewise , that they dispi●e no other chirurgion without a great cause : for it is meete , that one chirurgion should love another , as christ loveth vs all . and in thus doing , they shall increase both in vertue and cunning , to the honor of god , and worldly fame . thus farre for his parts . of the anatomie . chap. ii. the anatomie of the simple members . and if it bee asked you how many simple members there be , it is to be answered , eleven , and two that be but superfluities of members : and these be they , bones , cartilages , nerves , pannicles , ligaments , cordes , arteirs , veynes , fatnesse , flesh and skinne : and the superfluities bee the haires and nailes . j shall begin at the bone , because it is the foundation and the hardest member of all th● body . the bone is a consimile member , simple and spermaticke , and cold and dry of complexion , insensible , and inflexible : and hath divers formes in mans body , for the diversity of helpings . the cause why there be many bones in mans body , is this : sometime it is needfull that one member or one limbe should move without another : another cause is , that some defend the principall members , as both the bone of the brest ▪ and of the head : and some to bee the foundation of divers parts of the body , as the bones of the ridge and of the legges : and some to fulfill the hollow places , as in the hands and feet , &c. the gristle is a member simple and spermaticke , next in hardnesse to the bone ▪ and is of complexion cold and dry , and insensible . the gristle was ordained for sixe causes or profits that j find in it : the first is , that the continuall moving of the hard bone might not be done in a juncture , but that the gristle should be a meane betweene the ligament and him . the second is , that in the time of concussion or oppression , the soft members or limbes should not be hurt of the hard . the third is , that the extremity of bones and joynts that be grisly , might the easier be foulded and moved together , without hurt . the fourth is , for that it is necessary in some meane places , to put a gristle , as in the throat-bowle for the sound . the fifth is , for that it is needfull that some members be holden up with a gristle , as the lids of the eyes . the sixt is , that some limbes have a sustaining and a drawing abroad , as in the nose and the eares , &c. the ligament is a member consimple , simple , and spermaticke , next in hardnesse to the gristle , and of complexion cold and dry , and is flexible and insensible , and bindeth the bones together . the cause why hee is flexible and insensible , is this : if it had beene sensible , he might not have suffered the labour and moving of the joynts : and if it had not beene flexible of his bowing , one limme should not have moved without another . the second profit is that he be joyned with sinewes , for to make cordes and brawnes . the third helpe is , that he be a resting place to some sinewes . the fourth profit is , that by him the members that be within the bone be sustained , as the matrix and kidneys , and divers other , &c. the sinew , is a consimilier member , simple and spermatick , a meane betweene hard and soft , and in complexion cold and dry , and he is both flexible and sensible , strong and tough , having his beginning from the braine , or from mynuca , which is the marrow of the backe . and from the braine commeth seaven paire of nerves sensative , and from mynuca commeth thirty paire of nerves motive , and one that is by himselfe , that springeth of the last spondell . all these sinewes have both feeling and moving , in some more , and in some lesse , &c. a corde or tendon , is a consimple or officiall member compound and spermaticke , sinewie , strong and tough , meanely betweene hardnesse and softnesse , and meanly sensible and flexible and in complexion cold and dry . and the corde or tendon is thus made : the sinewes that come from the braine and from mynuca , and goe to move the members , is intermingled with the lygaments , and when the sinewes and lygaments are intermingled together , then is made a corde . and for three causes j perceive why the cordes were made . the first is , that the sinew alone is so sensible , that hee may not suffer the great labour and travell of moving , without the fellowship and strength of the ligament that is insensible , and that letteth his great feeling , and bringeth him to a perfit temperance . and so the cordes move the limbes to the will of the soule . and this corde is associated with a simple flesh , and so thereof is made a brawne or a muskle , on whom he might rest after his travell : and this brawne is called a muskle . then when this corde is entred into this brawne , he is departed into many small threeds , the which be called will : and this will hath three properties : the first , is in length , by whose vertue that draweth it hath might . the second in breadth , by whom the vertue that casteth out hath might . the third , in thwartnes , in whom the vertue that holdeth hath might : and at the end of the brawne those threeds be gathered together to make another muskle , &c. now j will begin at the arteir . this arteir is a member consimile , ●imple and spermaticke , hollow and sinowie , having his springing from the heart , bringing from the heart to every member , blood and spirit of life . it is of complexion cold and dry . and all these arteirs have two coates , except one that goeth to the lungs , and he hath but one coate that spreadeth abroad in the lungs , and bringeth with him to the lungs , blood with the spirit of life to nourish the lungs withall : and also that arteir bringeth with him from the lungs ayre to temper the fumous heate that is in the heart . and this arteir is he that is called arteria venalis , because he hath but one coate as a veyne , and is more obedient to be delated abroad through all the lungs , because that the blood might the sooner sweat through him : whereas all other arteirs have two coates , because one coate may not withstand the might and power of the spirit of life . divers other causes there be , which shall be declared in the anatomie of the breast , &c. the veyne is a simple member , in complexion cold and dry , and spermaticke , like to the arteir ▪ having his beginning from the liver , and bringeth from the liver nutritiue blood , to nourish every member of the body with . and it is so to be understood , that there is no more difference betweene these two vessels of blood , but that the arteir is a vessell of blood spirituall or vitall . and the veyne is a vessell of blood nutrimentall , of the which veynes , there is noted two most principall , of the which , one is called vena porta : the other is called vena celis , of whom it is too much to treat of now , untill we come to the anatomy of the wombe , &c. the flesh , is a consimile member , simple , not spermaticke , and is ingendred of blood congealed by heat , and is in complexion hot and moyst . of the which is noted three kinds of fleshes : that is to say , one is soft and pure flesh : the second is musculus , or hard and brawny flesh : the third is glandulus , knotty , or kurnelly flesh . also the commodities of the flesh , be indifferent , or ●ome be common to every kinde of flesh , and some be proper to one manner of flesh alone . the profits of the flesh be many , for some defend the body from cold as doth cloathes : also it defendeth the body from hard things comming against it : so through his moysture he rectifyeth the body in summer , in time of great heate . wherefore it is to be considered , what profitablenesse is in every kind of flesh by himselfe . and first of simple and pure flesh , which fulfilleth the concavities of voyd places , and causeth good forme and shape : and this flesh is found betweene the teeth , and on the end of the yard . the profits of the brawny flesh or musculus flesh , shall be spoken of in the anatomy of the armes . the profits of the glandulus flesh are these . first , that it turneth the blood into a colour like to himselfe , as doth the flesh of a womans pappes turne the menstruall blood into milke . secondly , the glandulus flesh of the testikles , turneth the blood into sparme . thirdly , the glandulus flesh of the cheekes , that engendreth the spettle , &c. the next is of fatnesse , of the which j find three kinds . the first is pinguedo , and it is a consimiler member , not spermaticke , and it is made of a subtill portion of blood congealed by colde : and it is of complexion cold and moyst , insensible , and is intermingled amongst the parts of the flesh . the second , is adeppes , and is of the same kind as is pinguedo , but it is departed from the flesh besides the skin and it is as an oyle heating and moystning the skin . the third is auxingia , and it is of kind as the others be , but he is departed from the flesh within foorth about the kidneyes , and in the intrailes , and it helpeth both the kidneyes and the intrailes , from drying by his unctiosity , &c. then come wee to the skin . the skin is a consimile member or officiall , partly spermatick , strong and tough , flexible and sensible , thin and temperate : whereof there be two kinds : one is the skin that covereth the outward members : and the other the inner members , which is called a pannicle , the profitablenesse of whom , was ●poken in the last lesson : but the skin is properly woven of threeds , nerves . veynes , and arteirs . and he is made temperate , because he should be a good redeemer of heate from cold , and of moystnesse from drynesse , that there should nothing annoy or hurt the body , but it giveth warning to the common wits thereof , &c. the haires of every part of mans body , are but superfluity of members , made of the grosse ●ume or smoake passing out of the viscous matter , thickned to the forme of haire . the profitablenesse of him is declared in the anatomy of the head , &c. the nayles likewise , are a superfluity of members ▪ engendred of great earthly smoke or fume resolved through the naturall heate of humors , and is softer then the bone , and harder then the flesh . in complexion they be cold and dry ▪ and are alwayes waxing in the extremity of the fingers and toes . the utility of them are , that by them a man shall take the better hold : also they helpe to claw the body when it needeth . lastly , they helpe to divide things for lacke of other tooles , &c. chap. iii. the anatomie of the compound members , and first of the head. because the head of man is the habitation or dw●lling place of the reasonable soule of man , therefore with the grace of god , j shall first speake of the anatomie of the head . galen saith in the second chapter de juvamentes , and avicen rehearseth the same in his first proposition and third chapter , proving that the head of man was made neither for wits , nor yet for the braines , but onely for the eyes . for beasts that have no heads , have the organs or instruments of wits in their breasts . therefore god and nature have reared up the head of man onely for the eyes , for it is the highest member of man : and as a beholder or watchman standeth in a high tower to give warning of the enemies , so doth the eye of man give warning vnto the common wittes , for the defence of all other members of the body . now to our purpose . if the question be asked ▪ how many things be there contained on the head , and how many things contained within the head ? as it is rehearsed by guydo , there be five containing , and as many contained , as thus : the haire , the skin , the flesh , the pannicles , and the bone ; neither rehearsing veine nor artier . the which anatomy cannot be truly without them both , as thou shalt well perceive both in this but especially in the next . and now in this lesson j shall speake but of haire , skin , flesh , veynes , pannicles , and bones , what profit they doe to man , every of them in his kind . of the haire of the head , ( whose creation is knowne in the anatomy of the simple members ) j doe note foure utilities why it was ordained . the first is , that it defendeth the braine from too much heat , and too much cold , and many other outward noyances . the second is , it maketh the forme or shape of the head to seeme more seemelyer or beautifuller . for if the head were not haired , the face and the head should seeme but one thing , and therefore the haire formeth and shapeth the head from the face . the third is , that by colour of the haire , is witnessed and knowne the complexion of the braine . the fourth is , that the fumosities of the braine might ascend and passe lightlyer out by them . for if there were a sad thing , as the skinne , or other of the same nature , as the haire is , the fumosities of the braine might not have passed through it so lightly , as it doth by the haire . the skin of the head is more lazartus , thicker , and more porrus , then any other skinne of any other member of the body . and two causes j note why ; one is , that it keepeth or defendeth the braine from too much heat and cold as doth the haire . the other , that it discusseth to the common wits of all things that noyet h outwardly , for the haire is insensible . the third cause why the skinne of the head is more thicker then any other skinne of the body , is this ; that it keepeth the braine the more warme , and is the better fence for the braine , and it bindeth and keepeth the bones of the head the faster together . next followeth the flesh , the which is all musculus or lazartus flesh , lying upon pericranium without meane . and it is made of subtill will , and of simple flesh , sinewes , veynes and arteirs . and why the flesh that is all musculus or lazartus in every member of a mans body was made , is for three causes . the first is , that by his thicknesse ▪ he should comfort the digestion of other members that lye by him . the second is , that through him every member is made is the formelier , and taketh the better shape . the third is , that by his meanes every member of the body , drawing to him nourishing , the which others with-hold to put forth from them , as it shall be more plainlyer spoken of in the anatomy of the wombe . next followeth pericranium , or the covering of the bones of the head. but here it is to be noted of a veyne and an arteir that commeth betweene the flesh and this pericranium , that nourisheth the utter part of the head , and so entreth privily thorow the commissaries of the skull bearing to the braine and to his pannicles nourishing : of whose substance , is made both duramater , and also pericranium , as shall be declared in the parts contayned in the head. here it is to be noted of this pannicle pericranium , that it bindeth or compasseth all the bones of the head , vnto whom is adjoyned duramater , and is also a part of his substance , howbeit they be separated , for duramater is neerer the braine , and is vnder the skull ▪ this pericranium was made principally for two causes : one is , that for his strong binding together , hee should make firme and stable the feeble commissaries or seames of the bones of the head. the other cause is , that it should be a meane betweene the hard bone and the soft . flesh . next , is the bone of the pot of the head , keeping in the braines , of which it were too long to declare their names after all authors , as they number them and their names , for some name them after the greeke tongue , and some after the arabian : but in conclusion all this to our purpose . and they be numbred seven bones in the pan or skull of the head . the first is called the coronall bone , in which is the orbits or holes of the eyes , and it reacheth from the browes unto the midst of the head , and there it meeteth with the second bone called occipissiall , a bone of the hinder part of the head called the noddle of the head , which two bones coronall and occipissiall , be divided by the commissaries , in the middest of the head. the third and fourth bones be called parietales , and they be the bones of the sideling parts of the head , and they be divided by the commissaries , both from the foresaid coronall and occipissiall . the fift and sixt bones be called , pet rosa or medosa : and these two bones lye over the bones called , parietales , on every side of the head one , like skales , in whom be the holes of the eares . the seventh and last of the head is called paxillarie or bazillarie , the which bone is as it were a wedge vnto all the other seaven bones of the head , and doth fasten them together . and thus be all numbred . the first is , the coronall bone : the second , is the occipissiall : the third and the fourth , is parietales : the fifth and the sixth is petrosa , or mendosa . and the seventh is paxillarie , or bazillarie . and this sufficeth for the seven bones containing the head. chap. iiii. in this chapter is decl●red the sive things contayned within the head. next under the bones of the head within forth , the first thing that appeareth is duramater , then is piamater , then the substance of the braine , and then vermi formes and letemirabile . but first we are to speake of duramater , whereof , and how it is sprung and made : first , it is to be noted of the veyne and arteire that was spoken of in the last chapter before , how privily they entered through the commissaries , or seames of the head , and there by their union together , they doe not onely bring and give the spirit of life and nutriment , but also doe weave themselves so together , that they make this pannicle duramater . it is holden up by certaine threeds of himselfe , comming through the said commissaries , running into pericranium or pannicle that covereth the bones of the head. and with the foresaid veine and artier , and these threeds , comming from duramater , is woven and made this pericranium . and why this pannicle duramater is set from the skull , j note two causes . the first is , that if the duramater should have touched the skull , it should lightly have beene hurt with the hardnesse of the bone. the second cause is , that the matter that commeth of wounds made in the head piercing the skull , should by it the better be defended and kept from piamater , and hurting of the braine . and next unto this pannicle , there is another pannicle called piamater , or meek-mother , because it is soft and tender unto the braine . of whose creation , it is to be noted as of duramater : for the originall of their first creation is of one kind , both from the heart and the liver , and is mother of the very substance of the braine . why it is called piamater , is for because it is soft and tender to the braine , that it nourisheth the braine and feedeth it , as doth a loving mother , unto her tender childe or babe , for it is not so tough and hard as is duramater . in this pannicle piamater is much to be noted of the great number of veines and arteirs that are planted , ramefying throughout all his substance , giving to the braine both spirit and life . and this pannicle doth circumvolue or lay all the substance of the braine : and in some plaec of the braine ▪ the veynes and the artiers goe forth of him , and enter into the divisions of the braine , and there drinketh of the braines substance into them , asking of the heart , to them the spirit of life or breath , and of the liver nutriment . and the aforesaid spirit or breath taketh a further disgestion , and there it is made animall by the elaboration of the spirit vitall , and is turned and made animall . furthermore , why there be no more pannicles over the braine then one , is this : if there had beene but one pannicle onely , either it must have beene hard or soft , or meane , betweene both : if it had beene hard , it should have hurt the braine by his hardnesse . if it had beene soft , it should have beene hurt of the hard bone. and if it had beene but meanly , neyther hard nor soft , it should have hurt the braine by his roughnesse , and also have beene hurt of the hard bone. therefore god and nature hath ordained two pannicles , the one hard , and the other soft , the harder to be a meane betweene the soft and the bone : and the softer to be a meane betweene the harder and the braine it selfe . also these pannicles be cold and dry of complexion , and ●permaticke . next is the braine , of which it is marvellously to be considered and noted , how this piamater divideth the substance of the braine , and lappeth it into certaine selles or divisions , as thus : the substance of the braine is divided into three parts or ventricles , of which the foremost part is the most . the second or middlemost is lesse : the third or hindermost is the least . and from each one to another be issues or passages that are called meates , through whom passeth the spirit of life to and fro . but here ye shall note , that every ventricle is divided into two parts , and in every part god hath ordained and set singular and severall vertues , as thus ; first , in the foremost ventricle , god hath founded and set the common wittes , otherwise , called the five wits , as hearing , seeing , feeling , smelling , and tasting . and also there is one part of this ventricle , the vertue that is called fantasie , and he taketh all the formes or ordinances that be disposed of the five wittes , after the meaning of sensible things . in the other part of the same ventricle , is ordained and founded the imaginative vertue , the which receiveth of the common wittes the forme or shape of sensitive things , as they were received of the common wittes without-forth , representing their owne shape and ordinances unto the memorative vertue . in the middle sell or ventricle , there is founded and ordained the cogitative or estimative vertue : for he rehearseth , sheweth , declareth , and deemeth those things that be offered vnto him , by the other that were spoken of before . in the third ventricle and last , there is founded and ordained the vertue memorative : in this place is registred and kept those things that are done and spoken with the sences and keepe them in his treasury vnto the putting forth of the five or common wittes , or organes , or instruments of animall workes , out of whose extremities or lower parts springeth mynuca , or marrow of the spondels : of whom it shall be spoken of in the anatomy of the neck and back . furthermore , it is to be noted , that from the foremost ventricle of the braine , springeth seven paire of sentative or feeling sinewes , the which ●e produced to the eyes , the eares , the nose , the tongue , and to the stomacke , and to divers other parts of the body : as it shall be declared in their anatomies . also it is to be noted , that about the middle ventricle is the place of vermiformis , with kurnelly flesh that filleth , and retemirabile , a wonderfull cau●e vnder the pannicles , is set or bounded with arteirs onely which come from the heart , in the which the vitall spirit by his great labour , is turned and made animall . and yee shll understand , that these two be the best kept parts of all the body : for a man shall rather dye , than any of these should suffer any manner of griefes from without forth , and therefore god hath set them farre from the heart . heere j note the saying of haly abba , of the comming of small artiers from the heart , of whom ( saith he ) is made a marvellous net or caule , in the which caule is inclosed the braine , and in that place is laid the spirit of feeling , from that place hath the spirit of feeling his first creation , and from thence passeth other members , &c. furthermore yee shall understand , that the brain is a member cold and moist of complexion , thin , and meanly viscous , and ● principal member , and an officiall member and spermaticke . and first , why he is a principall member , is , because he is the governour or the treasury of the five wittes : and why he is an officiall member , is , because he hath the effect of feeling and stirring : and why he is cold and moyst , is , that he should by his coldnesse and moystnesse , abate and temper the exceeding heate and drought that commeth from the heart . and why it is moyst , is , that it should be the more indifferenter and abler to every thing that should be reserved or gotten into him . and why it is soft , is , that it should give place and favour to the vertue of stirring . and why it is meanly viscous , is , that his sinewes should not be letted in their working , through his overmuch hardnesse . heere galen demandeth a question , which is this : whether that feeling and moving be brought to nerves by one or by divers ? or whether the aforesaid thing be brought substantially or rather judicially ? the matter ( saith he ) is so hard to search and to be understood , that it were much better to let it alone and passe over it . aristotle intreating of the braine , saith : the braine is a member continually moving and ruling all other members of the body , giving unto them both feeling and moving : for if the braine be let , all other members be let : and if the braine be well , then all other members of the body be the better disposed . also , the braine hath this property , that it moveth and followeth the moving of the moone : for in the waxing of the moone , the braine followeth upwards , and in the wane of the moone , the braine discendeth downewards , and vanisheth in substance of vertue : for then the braine shrinketh together in it selfe , and is not so fully obedient to the spirit of feeling . and this is proved in men that be lunaticke and mad , and also in men that be epulenticke or having the falling sicknesse , that be most grieved in the beginning of the new moone and in the latter quarter of the moone . wherefore ( saith aristotle ) when it happeneth that the braine is either too dry or too moyst , then can it not worke his kind , for then is the body made cold : then are the spirits of life melted and resolved away : and then followeth feeblenesse of the wittes , and of all other members of the body , and last death . chap. v. the anatomy of the face . the front or the forehead , containeth nothing but the skin and musculus flesh , for the pannicle underneath , it is of pericranium , and the bone is of the coronall bone . howbeit there it is made broad as if there were a double bone , which maketh the forme of the browes . it is called the forehead or front , from one eare to the other , and from the rootes of the eares of the head ▪ before unto the browes . but the cause why the browes were set and reared up , was , that they should defend the eyes from noyance without-foorth : and they be ordained with haire , to put by the humor or sweat that commeth from the head . also the browes doe helpe the eye-liddes , and doe beautifie and make faire the face , for he that hath not his browes haired , is not seemely . and aristotle sayth , that over-measurable browes betokeneth an envious man. also high browes and thicke , betokeneth cowardise : and meanly , signifieth gentlenesse of heart . incisions about this part , ought to be done according to the length of the body , for there the muscle goeth from one eare to the other . and there if any incision should be made with the length of the muscle , it might happen the brow to hang over the eye without remedy ▪ as it is many times seene , the more pitty . the browes are called supercilium in latine , and under is the eye-lids , which is called cilium , and is garnished with haires . two causes j find why the eye-lids were ordained . the first is , that they should keepe and defend the eye from dust and other outward noyances . the second is , when the eye is weary or heavie , then they should be covered and take rest nnderneath them . why the haires were ordained in them is , that by them is addressed the formes or similitudes of visible things vnto the apple of the eye . the eare is a member seemely and gristly , able to be holden without , and is the organ or instrument of hearing : it is of complexion cold and dry . but why the eare was set up out of the head , is this , that the sounds that be very fugitive , should lurke and abide under his shadow , till it were taken of the instruments of hearing . another cause is , that it should keepe the hole that it standeth over , from things falling in that might hinder the hearing . the sinewes that are the organs or instruments of hearing , spring each from the braine , from whence the seven paire of sinewes doe spring , and when they come to the hole of the eare , there they writhe like a winepresse : and at the ends of them , they be like the head of a worme , or like a little teate , in which is received the sound , and so carryed to the common wits . the eyes be next of nature unto the soule : for in the eye is seene and knowne the disturbances and griefes , gladnesse and joyes of the soule ; as love , wrath , and other passions . the eyes be the instruments of sight . and they be compound and made of ten things : that is to say ▪ of seven tunicles or coates , and of three humours . of the which ( sayth galen ) the braine and the head were made for the eye , that they might be in the highest as a beholder in a tower , as it was rehearsed in the anatomy of the head. but divers men hold divers opinions of the anatomy of the eyes : for some men account but three tunicles , and some sixe . but in conclusion , they meane all one thing . for the very truth is , that there be counted and reckoned seven tunicles , that is to say , selirotica , secondina , retyna , vnia , cornua , araniae , and conjunctiva : and these three humours . that is , to say , humor , virtus , humor albigynus , and humor chrystallinus . it is to bee knowne how and after what manner they spring : you shall understand , that there springeth of the braine substance of his foremost ventricles , two sinewes , the one from the right ●ide , and the other from the left , and they bee called the first paire ; for in the anatomie , they be the first paire of sinewes that appeare of all seven . and it is shewed by galen , that these sinewes be hollow as a reede ▪ for two causes . the first is , that the visible spirit might passe freely to the eyes . the second is , that the forme of visible things might freely be presented to the common wittes . now marke the going forth of these sinewes . when these sinewes goe out from the substance of the braine , he commeth through the piamater , of whose substance he taketh a pannicle or a coate : and the cause why he taketh that pannicle ▪ is to keepe him from anoying , and before they enter into the skull , they meete and are united into one sinew the length of halfe an inch : and then they depart againe into two , and each goeth into one eye , entring through the braine-panne , and these sinewes be called nervi optici . and three causes j finde why these nerves are joyned in one before they passe into the eye . first , if it happen any diseases in one eye , the other should receive all the visible spirit that before came to both . the second is , that all things that we see should not seeme two : for if they had not beene joyned together , every thing should have seemed two , as it doth to a worme , and to other beasts . the third is , that the sinew might stay and helpe the other . but hereupon lanfranke accordeth much : saying , that these two sinewes came together to the eyes , and take a pannicle both of piamater and of duramater , and when they enter into the orbit of the eye , there the extremities are spread abroad , the which are made of three substances : that is to say , of duramater , of piamater , and of nervi optici . there be engendred three tunicles or coates , as thus : of the substance that is taken from duramater , is engendred the first coate that is called secondina : and of nervi optici , is engendred the third coate , that is called retina : and each of them is more subtiller then other , and goeth about the humours without meane . and it to be understood , that each of these three tunicles be divided , and so they make sixe : that is to say ▪ three of the parts of the braine , and three of the parts outwards , and one of pericranium , that covereth the bones of the head , which is called conjunctiva . and thus you may perceive the springing of them , as thus : of duramater springeth clirotica and cornua . of piamater , springeth secondina and vnia . and of nervi optici , springeth conjunctiva . now to speake of the humours which be three , and their places are the middle of the eyes ; of the which , the first is humor vltrus , because he is like glasse , in colour very cleere , red , liquid , or thin , and hee is in the inward side next unto the braine ; and it is thin , because the nutritive blood of the christaline might passe , as water through a spunge should bee clensed and made pure , and also that the visible spirit might the lightlier passe through him from the braine . and he goeth about the christaline humour , untill he meet with albuginus humour , which is set in the ●ttermost part of the eye . and in the middest of these humours , vltrus and albiginus , is set the chrystaline humour , in which is set principally the sight of the eye . and these humours be separated and involved with the pannicles as aforesaid , betweene every humour a pannicle ; and thus is the eye compound and made . but to speake of every humour and every pannicle in his due order and course , it would aske a long progresse , and a long chapter ; but this is sufficient for a chyrurgion , at present . now to begin at the nose ; you shall understand , that from the braine there commeth two sinewes to the holes of the braine-pan , where beginneth the concavity of the nose , and these two be not properly sinewes , but organs or instruments of smelling , and have heads like teats or paps , in which is received the vertue of smelling , and representing it to the common wits : over these two , is set colatorium t hat which wee call the nosthrils ; and is set betweene the eyes , under the upper part of the nose . and it is to bee noted , that this concavity or ditch was made for two causes ; the first is , that the ayre that bringeth forth the spirit of smelling might rest in it , till it were taken of the organs or instrument of smelling . the second cause is , that the superfluities of the braine might be hidden under it , untill it were clensed : and from this concavity there goeth two holes down into themouth , of which there is to be noted three benefits . the first is , that when a mans mouth is close , or when he eateth or sleepeth , that then the ayre might come through them to the lungs , or else a mans mouth should alwayes bee open . the second cause is , that they helpe to the relation of the forme of the nose ; for it is said , a man speaketh in his nose , when any of these holes be stopped . the third cause is , that the concavity might bee clensed by them , when a man snuffeth the nose , or draweth into his mouth inwardly . the nose is a member consimple or official , appearing without the face , somewhat plyable , because it should the better be clensed . and it is to bee perceived ▪ that it is compound and made of skin and lazartus flesh , and of two bones standing in manner tryangle-wise , whose extremities bee joyned in one part of the nose with the coronall bone , and the nether extremities are joyned with two gristles , and another that divideth the nosthrils within , and holdeth up the nose . also there be two concavities or holes , that if one were stopped the other should serve ; also there is in the nose two muscles to help the working of his office . and gal●n saith , that the nose shapeth the face most ; for where the nose lacketh ( saith he ) all the rest of the face is the more unseemly . the nose should be of a meane bignesse , and not to exceed in length or bredth , nor in highnesse . for aristotle saith , if the nostrils be too thin or too wide , by great drawing in of ayre , it betokeneth great straitnesse of heart , and indignation of thought . and therefore it is to be noted , that the shape of the members of the body , betokeneth and judgeth the affections and will of the soule of man , as the philosopher saith , the temples are called the members of the head , and they have that name because of continuall moving . and as the science of the anatomie meaneth , the spirit vitall is sent from the heart to the braine by arteirs , and by veynes and nutrimentall blood , where the vessels pulsatives in the temples be lightly hurt . also , the temples have dents or holes inwardly , wherein he taketh the humour that commeth from the braine , and bringeth the eyes a sleepe ; and if the said holes or dents bee pressed and wrung , then by trapping of the humour that continueth , hee maketh the teares to fall from the eye . the cheekes are the sideling parts of the face , and they containe in them musculus flesh , with veynes and arteirs , and about these parts be many muscles . guido maketh mention of seaven about the cheekes and over-lip . and haly-abbas saith , there be twelue muscles that move the neither jaw , some of them in opening , and other some in closing or shutting , passing under the bones of the temples : and they be called temporales : and they be the right noble and sensatiue , of whose hurt is much perill . also , there bee other muscles for to grinde and to chew . and to all these muscles commeth nerves from the braine , to give them feeling and moving . and also there commeth to them , many arteirs and veynes , and chiefly about the temples , and the angles or corners of the eyes and the lips. and as the philosophers say , the chiefe beauty in man is in the cheekes , and there the complexion of man is most knowne , as thus : if they be full , ruddy , and medled with temperate whitenesse , and not fat in substance , but meanely fleshie ▪ it betokeneth hot and moyst of complexion : that is , sanguine and temperate in colour . and if they be white coloured , without medling of rednesse , and in substance fat and soft , quavering ▪ it betokeneth , excesse and superfluity of cold and moyst : that is flegmaticke . and if they be browne in colour or cytron , yellow , redde and thinne , and leane in substance , it betokeneth great drying and heate : that is cholericke . and if they be as it were blowne in colour , and of little flesh in substance , it betokeneth excesse and superfluity of drynesse and cold : that is melancholy . and as avicen saith , the cheekes doe not onely shew the diversities of complexions , but also the affection and will of the heart : for by the affection of the heart , by suddaine joy or dread , he waxeth either pale or red . the bones or bony parts , first of the cheekes be two : of the nose outwardly two : of the upper mandible , two : within the nose three , as thus : one deviding the nosthrils within , and in each nosthrill one , and they seeme to be rowled like a wafer , and have a hollownesse in them , by which th● ayre is respired and drawne to the lungs , and the superfluity of the braine is purged into the mouthwards , as is before rehearsed . but guido and galen saith , that there be in the face nine bones , yet j cannot find that the nether mandible should be of the number of those nine : for the nether mandible accounted there , proveth them to be ten in number : of which thing j will hold no argument , but remit it to the sight of your eyes . the parts of the mouth are five , that is to say , the lippes , the teeth ▪ the tongue , the uvila , and the pallet of the mouth . and first to speake of the lips , they are members consimile or officiall , full of musculus flesh , as is aforesaid , and they were ordained for two causes , one is ; that they should be to the mouth as a doore to a house , and to keepe the mouth close till the meat were kindly chewed . the other cause is , that they should be helpers to the pronouncing of the speech . the teeth are members consimile or officiall , spermaticke , and hardest of any other members , and are fastned in the cheeke bones , and were ordained for three causes . first , that they should chew a mans meate , ere it should passe downe ▪ that it might be the sooner digested . the second , that they should be a helpe to the speech : for they that lacke their teeth , doe not perfectly pronounce their words . the third is , that they should serve to beasts as weapons . the number of them is uncertaine : for some men haue more , and some lesse : they that have the whole number , have two and thirty : that is to say , ●ixteene above , and as many beneath , as thus : two dwallies , two quadripulles , two canniens , eight morales , two causales , the tongue is a carnous member , compound and made of many nerves . ligaments , veynes and artiers , ordained principally for three causes . the first is , that when a man eateth , the tongue might helpe to turne the meat till it were well chewed . the second cause is , that by him is received the tast of sweete and sowre , and presented by him to the common wittes . the third is , that by him is pronounced every speech . the fleshie part of the tongue is white , and hath in him nine muscles , and about the roote of him , is glandulus , in the which be two welles , and they be ever full of spettle to temper and keepe moyst the tongue , or else it would waxe dry by reason of his labour , &c. the uvila is a member made of spongeous flesh , hanging downe from the end of the pallet over the gullet of the throat , and is a member in complexion cold and dry , and oftentimes when there falleth rawnesse or much moystnesse into it from the head , then it hangeth downe in the throate , and letteth a man to swallow , and it is broad at the upper end , and small at the nether . it was ordained for divers causes . one is ▪ that by him is holpen the sound of speech : for where the uvila is wanting , there lacketh the perfect sound of speech . another is , that it might helpe the prolation of vomits . another is , that by him is tempered and abated the distemperance of the ayre that passeth to the lungs . another is , that by him is guided the superfluities of the braine , that commeth from the coletures of the nose , or the superfluities would fall downe suddenly into the mouth , the which were a displeasure . the pallet of the mouth containeth nothing else but a carnous pannicle , and the bones that bee underneath it hath two divisions , one along the pallet from the division of the nose , and from the opening of the other mandible under the nether end of the pallet , lacking halfe an inch , and there it divideth overthwart , and the first division is of the mandible : and the second , is of the bone called pixillary or bazillary , that sustaineth and bindeth all other bones of the head together . the skinne of the pallet of the mouth is , of the inner part of the ●tomacke and of myre , and of isofagus , that is the way of the meate into the stomacke . the way how to know that such a pannicle is of that part of the stomack , may be knowne when that a man is touched within the mouth , anon he beginneth to tickle in the stomacke , and the neerer that he shall couch unto the throat , the more it abhorreth the stomacke , and oftentimes it caufeth the stomacke to yeeld from him that is within him , as when a man doth vomit . also , in the mouth is ended the uppermost extremity of the wesand , which is called myre , or isofagus : and with him is contayned trachia arteria : that is , the way of the ayre , whose holes be covered with a lap like a tongue , and is griftly , that the meat and drinke might slide ov er him into isofagus : the which gristle when a man speaketh is reared up , and covereth the way of the meate , and when a man swalloweth the meate , then it covereth the way of the ayre , so that when the one is covered , the other is uncovered . for if a man open the way of the ayre , when he swalloweth , if there fall a crum into it , hee shall never cease coughing untill it be up againe . and this sufficeth for the face . chap. vi. the anatomie of the necke . the necke followeth next to be spoken of . galen proveth , that the necke was made for no other cause but for the lungs , for all things that have no lungs , have neyther necke nor voyce , except fish . and you shall understand , that the necke is all that is contayned betweene the head and the shoulders , and betweene the chin and the breast . it is compound and made of foure things , that is to say , of spondillis , of servicibus , of gula , and of gutture , the which shall be declared more plainly hereafter : and through these passe the way of the meate and of the ayre , but they be not the substance of the necke . the spondels of the necke be seaven : the first is joyned unto the lower part of the head called paxillary , or bazillary , and in the same wise are joyned every spondell with other , and the last of the seaven , with the first of the backe or ridge : and the lygaments that keepe these spondels together , are not so hard and tough as those of the backe : for why ? those of the necke bee more feebler and subtiller . the cause is this , for it is necessary other while that the head move wtthout the necke , and the necke without the head , the which might not well ▪ have beene done if they had beene strong and boystrous . of these aforesaid seaven spondels of the necke , there springeth seaven paire of sinewes , the which be divided into the head and into the visage , to the shoulders and to the armes . from the hole of the first spondell springeth the first paire of sinewes , between the first spondell and the second , and so forth of all the rest in like manner as of these . also these sinewes receive subtill will of the sinewes of the braine : of which the will , and sinewes , and flesh , with a pannicle , make the composition of muscles lazartes , and brawnes , the which three things are all one , and be the instruments of voluntary moving every member . the muscles of the necke after galen , are numbred to be twenty , moving the head and the necke . likewise it is to be noted , that there bee three manner of fleshes in the necke : the first is pixwex , or servisis , and it is called of children , goldhaire , or yeallow haire , the which are certaine longitudinals , lying on the ●ides of the spondels , from the head downe to the latter spondell . and they are ordained for this cause , that when the sinewes be weary of overmuch labour with moving and travell , that they might rest upon them as upon a bed. the second flesh is musculus , from whom springeth the tendons and cords that move the head and the necke , which be numbred twenty , as is before declared . the third flesh replenisheth the void places , &c. the third part of the necke , is called gutture , and it is standing out of the throat boll . the fourth part is called gula , and the hinder part cervix and hath that name of the philosophers , because of the marrow comming to the ridgebones . it is so called , because it is as it were a servant to the braine : for the necke receiveth and taketh of the braine , influence of vertue of moving , and sendeth it by sinewes to the other parts of the body downewards , and to all members of the body . here you shall understand , that the way of the meat , mire , or isofagus , is all one thing : and it is to be noted , that it stretcheth from the mouth to the stomacke , by the hinder part of the necke inwardly fastned to the spondels of the neck , untill he come to the first spondell , and there hee leaveth the spondell and stretcheth till he come to the foremost part of the breast , and passeth through diafragma , till hee come to the mouth of the stomacke , and there he is ended . furthermore , it is to be noted that this weasand is compound , and made of two tunicles or coates ( that is to say ) of the inner and of the outer . the outer tunicle is but simple , for he needeth no retention but onely for his owne nourishing : but the inner tunicle is compound , and made of musculus longitudinall will , by which he may draw the meate from the mouth into the stomack , as it shall be more plainly declared in the anatomy of the stomacke . furthermore , cana pulmonis , via , trachia , arteria , all these be one thing ( that is to say ) the throat-boll , and it is set within the neck , besides the wesand , towards gula , and is compound of the gristle , knit each with other ▪ and the pannicle that is meane betweene the wesand , and the throat-boll , is called i●mon . also yee shall understand , that the great veynes which ramefie by the sides of the necke , to the upper part of the head , is of some men called gwidege , and of others , venae organices : the incision of whom is perillous . and thus it is to be considered , that the neck of man is compound ▪ and made of skinny flesh , ligaments , and bones : and this susficeth for the neck and the throat . chap. vii . the anatomie of the shoulders and armes . and first to speake of the bones : it is to bee noted , that in the shoulder there be two bones , ( that is to say ) the shoulder-bone , and the kannell-bone , and also the adjutor bone of the arme , are joyned with the shoulder-bones , but they are numbred amongst them , but they are not numbred amongst the bones of the armes . in the composition of the shoulder , the first bone is ; os spatula , or shoulder-blade , whose hinder part is declined towards the chine , and in that end it is broad and thin , and in the upper part it is round , in whose roundnesse is a concavity which is called the box or coope of the shoulder , and which entreth the adjutor bones , and they have a binding together with strong flexible sinewes , and are contained fast with each bone called clavicula , or the cannel-bone . and this cannell bone stretcheth to both the shoulders ; one end to the one shoulder , and another to the other ▪ and there they make the composition of the shoulders . the bones of the great arme ( that is to say ) from the shoulders to the fingers ends , bee thirty ; the first is , the adjutor bone , whose upper end entreth into the concavitie or box of the shoulder bone : it is but one bone ( having no fellow ) and it is hollow and full of marrow , and it is also crooked , because it should be the more able to gripe things ; and it is hollow , because it should be lighter and more obedient to the stirring or moving of the brawnes . furthermore , this bone hath two eminencies , or two knobs in his nether extremity , or in the juncture of the elbow ( of the which , the one is more rising then the other ) and are made like unto a pulley to draw water with , and the ends of these bones enter into a concavitie proportioned in the uppermost ends of thetwo focklebones , of which two bones , the lesse goeth from the elbow to the thumbe , by the uppermost part of the arme , and the greater is the nether bone from the elbow to the little finger . and these two bones be contained with the adjutor bone , and be bound with strong ligaments , and in like manner with the bones of the hand . the which bones be numbred eight , the foure uppermost bee joyned with the foure nethermost towards the hands : and in the third ward of bones be five , and they are called ossa patinis , and they are in the palme of the hand . and to them be joyned the bones of the fingers and the thumbes , as thus ; in every finger three bones , and in the thumbe two bones , ( that is to say ) the fingers and thumb of every hand fourteen , called ossa digitorum : in the palme of the hand five , called patinis ; and between the hand and the wrist eight , called rasete : and from the wrist to the shoulder , three bones : all which being accounted together , yee shall find thirty bones in each hand and arme. to speake of sinewes , ligaments , cords , and brawnes : here first ye shall understand , that there commeth from mynuea , through the spondels of the necke , foure sinewes , which most plainly doe appeare in sight , as thus : one commeth into the upper part of the arme , another into the nether part , and one into the inner side , and another into the outer side of the arme , and they bring from the braine , and from mynuca , both feeling and moving into the armes , as thus : the sinewes that come from the braine and from the marrow of the backe that is called mynuca , when they come to the juncture of the shoulder , there they are mixed with the ligaments of the same shoulder , and there the ligaments receive both feeling and moving of them , and also in their mingling together , they are made a cord or a tendon . three causes j find why the finewes were mingled with the lygaments . the first cause is , that the littlenesse of the sinewes , which many wayes bee made weary by their continuall moving , should bee repressed by the insensiblenesse of the ligaments : the second is , that the littlenesse of the sinewes should bee through the quality of the ligaments : the third is , the feeblenesse of the sinew , that is in sufficient , and too feeble to use his office , but by the strength and hardnesse of the ligaments . now to declare what a cord is , what a ligament , and what a muscle , or a brawne , it is enough rehearsed in the chapter of the simple members : but if you will through the commandement of the will or the soule , draw the arme to the hinder parts of the body , then the outer brawne is drawne together and the inner inlarged , and likewise inwards , when the one brawne doth draw inwards , the other doth stretch : and when the arme is stretched in length , then the cords be lengthened : but when they passe the juncture of the shoulder and of the elbow , by three fingers breadth or thereabout ▪ then it is divided by subtill will , and mingled with the simple flesh , and that which is made of it is called a brawne . and three causes j finde , why that the simple flesh is mingled with the chord in the composition of the brawne . the first is , that the aforesaid will might draw in quiet through the temperance of the flesh . the second is , that they temper and abate the drought of the chord with his moystnesse , the which drought he getteth thorow his manifold moving . the third is , that the forme of the brawne members should be the more faire , and of better shape : wherefore god and nature hath cloathed it with a pannicle , that it might the better bee kept : and it is called of the philosophers , musculus , because it hath a forme like unto a mouse . and when these brawnes come neere a joynt , then the chordes spring forth of them , and are mingled with the ligaments againe , and so moveth that joynt . and so yee shall understand , that alwayes betweene every two joynts , is engendred a brawne , proportion●d to the same member and place , unto the last extremity of the fingers , so that as well the least juncture hath a proper feeling and moving when it needeth , as hath the greatest . and after guido , there be numbred thirteene in the arme and hand , as thus ; foure in the adjutor , moving the upper part of the arme ; and foure in the fockles moving the fingers . now to speake somewhat of the veynes and artiers of the arme : it is to be understood that from venakelis there commeth two branches , the one commeth to the one arme-pit , and the other commeth to the other . and now marke their spreading , for as it is of the one , so it is of the other , as thus ; when the branch is in the arme-pit , there it is divided into two branches : the one branch goeth along in the inner-side of the arme , untill it come to the bough of the arme , and there it is called bazilica , or epatica , and so goeth downe the arme till it come to the wrist , and there it is turned to the back of the hand , and it is found betweene the little finger and the next , and there it is called salvatella . now to the other branch that is in the arme-hole , which spreadeth to the outer side of the shoulder , and there he divideth into two , the one goeth spreading up into the carnous part of the head , and after descendeth through the bone into the braine , as it is declared in the anatomie of the head. the other branch goeth on the outward side of the arme , and there hee is divided into two also , the one part is ended at the hand , and the other part is folded about the arme , till it appeare in the bought of the arme , and there is called sephalica , from thence it goeth to the backe of the hand , and appeareth betweene the tumbe and the foremost finger , and there it is called sephalica ocularis . the two branches that j speake of , which be divided in the hinder part of the shoulders , from each of these two ( j say springeth one ) and those two meete together and make one veyne which appeareth in the bough of the arme , and there it is called mediana , or cordialis , or commine . and thus it is to be understood , that of vena sephalica , springeth vena ocularis , and of vena bazilica , springeth vena mediana , and in ramefying from these five principall veynes springeth innumerable , of the which a chyrurgion hath no great charge : for it sufficeth us to know the principals . to speake of arteirs , you shall understand , that wheresoever there is found a veyne , there is an arteir under him : and if there be found a great veyne , there is found a great artier , and whereas is a little veyne , there is a little artier : for wheresoever there goeth a veyne to give nutriment , there goeth an artier to bring the spirit of life . wherefore it is to bee noted , that the artiers lye more deeper in the flesh then the veynes doe : for they carry and keepe in them more precious blood then doth the veyne , and therefore hee hath need to bee further from dangers outwardly : and therefore , god and nature have ordained for him to be closed in two coates , where the veyne hath but one . the breast or thorax , is the arke or chest of the spirituall members of man , as saith the philosopher : where it is to bee noted , that there be foure things containing , and eight contained , as thus . the foure containing , are , the skinne , musculus flesh , the pappes and the bones . the parts contained , are , the heart , the lungs , pannicles , ligaments , nerves veynes , artiers , myre , or isofagus . now the skin and the flesh are knowne in their anatomie . it is to be noted , that the flesh of the pappes differeth from the other flesh of the body ; for it is white , glandulus , and spongeous , and there is in them both nerves , veynes and artiers , and by them ▪ they have coliganes with the heart , the liver , the braine , and the generative members . also , there is in the breast ( as old authors make mention ) lxxx , or xc . muscles ; for some of them be common to the neck , some to the shoulders , and to the spades ; some to diafragma or the midriffe ; some to the ribs , some to the back , and some to the breast it selfe . but j find a certaine profitablenesse in the creation of the pappes , aswell in man as in woman ; for in man it defendeth the spirituals from annoyance outwardly , and another by their thicknesse they comfort the naturall heate in defiance of the spirits . and in women , there is the generation of milke ; for in women there commeth from the matrix into their breasts many veynes which bring into them menstruall blood , the which is turned through the digestive vertue , from red colour into white , like the colour of the paps even as chilley comming from the stomack to the liver is turned into the colour of the liver . now to speake of the bones of the brest : they be said to be triple or three-fold , and they be numbred to the seaven in the brest before , and their length is according to the bredth of the brest , and their extremities or ends be gristly as the ribbes be . and in the upper end of thorax is a hole or a concavity in which is set the foot of the fockle-bone or cannel-bone , and in the nether end of thorax , against the mouth of the stomack , hangeth a gristle called ensiforme , and this gristle was ordained for two causes . one is , that it should defend the stomack from hurt outwardly . the second is , that in time of fulnesse it should give place to the stomack in time of need when it desireth , &c. now to speake of the parts of the backe here following ; there bee twelve spondels through whom passeth mynuca , of whom springeth twelve paire of nerves , that bringeth both feeling and moving to the muscles of the brest aforesaid . and here it is to be noted , that in every side there bee twelve ribs , that is to say , seaven true and five falfe , because these five be not so long as the other seaven be : and therefore called false ribs , as it may be perceived by the sight of the eye . likewise , of the parts that bee inwardly , and first of the heart , because hee is the principall of all other members and the beginning of life : hee is set in the middest of the brest severally by himselfe , as lord and king of all members . and as a lord or a king ought to bee served of his subjects that have their living of him ; so are all other members of the body subjects to the heart : for they receive their living of him , and they all doe service many wayes unto him againe . the substance of the heart is as it were lazartus flesh , but it is spermatick , and an officiall member , and the beginning of life , and hee giveth to every member of the body , both blood of life , and spirit of breath , and heate : for if the heart were of lazartus flesh , his moving and stirring should be voluntary and not naturall , but the contrary is true : for it were impossible that the heart should be ruled by will onely , and not by nature . the heart hath the shape and forme of a pine-apple , and the broad end thereof is upwards , and the sharpe end is downewards : depending a little towards the left side . and heere it is to be noted , that the heart hath blood in his substance , whereas all other members have it but in their veynes and arteries : also the heart is bound with certaine ligaments to the backe part of the breast , but these lygaments touch not the substance of the heart , but in the over-part they spring forth of him , and is fastened as is aforesaid . furthermore , the heart hath two ventricles , or concavities , and the left is higher then the right , and the cause of his hollownesse , is this : for to keepe the blood for his nourishing , and the ayre to abate and temper the great heate that hee is in , the which is kept in concavities . now heere it is to be noted , that to the right ventrickle of the heart , commeth a veyne from the great veyne called venakelis , that receiveth all the substance of the blood from the liver . and this veyne that commeth from venakelis , entreth into the heart of the right ventricle , as j said before , and in him is brought a great portion of the thickest blood to nourish the heart with , and the residue that is left of this , is made subtill through the vertue of the heart , and then this blood is sent into a concavity or pit in the midst of the heart , betweene the two ventricles , and therein it is made hot and purified , and then it passeth into the left ventricle , and there is ingendred in it , a spirit , that is cleerer , brighter , and subtiller , then any corporall or bodily thing , that is engendred of the foure elements : for it is a thing , that is a meane betweene the body and the soule . wherefore it is likened of the philosophers to be more liker heavenly things , then earthly things . also it is to be noted , that from the left ventricle of the heart springeth two arteirs : the one having but one coate , and therefore is called arteria venalis : and this arteir carryeth blood from the heart to the lungs , the which blood is vaporous , that is tryed and and left of the heart , and is brought by this artery to the lungs , to give him nutriment , and there he receiveth of the lungs ayre , and bringeth it to the heart to refresh him with . wherefore galen saith , that hee findeth that mans heart is naturall and friendly to the lungs : for hee giveth him of his owne nutrimentall to nourish him with , and the lungs rewards him with ayre to refresh him with againe , &c. the other artier that hath two coats , is called vena arterialis , or the great artery , that ascendeth and descendeth , and of him springeth all the other artiers that spread to every member of the body ; for by him is united and quickned all the members of the body . for the spirit that is retained in them , is the instrument or treasure of all the vertue of the soule . and thus it passeth untill it come to the braine , and there hee is turned into a further digestion , and there he taketh another spirit and so is made animall ; and at the liver nutrimentall , and at the testicles generative : and thus it is made a spirit of every kind , so that hee being the meane of all manner of operations and workings , taketh effect . two causes j find , why these artiers have two coates . one is , that one coat is not sufficient nor able to withstand the violent moving and stirring of the spirit of life , that is carried in them . the second cause is , that the thing that is carried about from place to place , is of so precious a treasure that it had the more need of good keeping . and of some doctors , this artier is called the pulsative veyne , or the beating veyne ; for by him is perceived the pow●r and might of the heart , &c. wherefore god and nature have ordained , that the artiers have two coates . also , there is in the heart three pellikles , opening and closing the going in of the heart blood and spirit in convenient time . also , the heart hath two little eares , by whom commeth in and passeth out the ayre that is prepared for the lungs . there is also found in the heart a cartilaginous auditament to helpe and strengthen the same heart . the heart is covered with a strong pannicle , which is called of some capsula cordes , or pericordium , the which is a strong case , unto whom commeth nerves as to other inward members . and this pannicle pericordium , springeth of the upper pannicle of the midriffe . and of him springeth another pannicle called mediastinum , the which separateth the brest in the midst , and keepeth it that the lungs fall not over the heart . there is also another pannicle that covereth the ribbes inwardly , that is called plura , of whom the midriffe taketh his beginning . and it is said of many doctors , that duramater is the originall of all the pannicles within the body , and thus one taketh of another . chap. viii . the anatomie of the lungs . the lungs is a member spermatick of the first creation , and his naturall complexion is cold and dry , and in his accidentall complexion hee is cold and moyst , wrapped in a nervous pannicle , because it should gather together the softer substance of the lungs , and that the lungs might feele by the meanes of the pannicle , that which hee might not feele in himselfe . now to prove the lungs to bee cold and dry of kind , it appeareth by his swift stirring , for hee lyeth ever waving over the heart , and about the heart . and that hee is cold and moyst in operation , it appeareth in that hee receiveth of the braine many cold matters , as catarres and rheumes ▪ whose substance is thin . also , j find in the lungs three kinds of substance . one is a veyne comming from the liver , bringing with him the crude or raw part of the chylle to feed the lungs . another is , arteria venealis comming from the heart , bringing with him the spirit of life to nourish him with . the third is , trachia arteria , that bringeth in ayre to the lungs , and it passeth through all the left part of them to doe his office . the lungs is divided into five lobbes or pellikles , or five portions , ( that is to say ) three in the right side , and two in the left side . and this was done for this cause , that if there fell any hurt in the one part , the others should serve and doe their office . and three causes j find , why the lungs were principally ordained . first , that they should draw cold wind and refresh the heart . the second , that they should change and alter , and purifie the ayre before it come to the heart , lest the heart should be hurt and annoyed with the quantity of the ayre . the third cause is , that they should receive from the heart the fumous superfluities that hee putteth forth with his breathing &c. behind the lungs towards the spondels , passeth myre or isofagus , of whom it is spoken of in the anatomic of the neck . and also there passeth both veynes and artiers , and all these with trachia arteria , doe make a stoke , replete unto the gullet with the pannicles , and strong ligaments , and glandulus flesh to fulfill the voyd places . and last of all , is the midriffe , and it is an officiall member made of two pannicles and lazartus flesh , and his place is in the midst of the body overthwart , or in bredth under the region of the spirituall members , separating them from the matrix . and three causes j find , why the midriffe was ordained . first , that it should divide the spirituals from the nutrates . the second , that it should keepe the vitall colour or heat to descend downe to the nutrates . the last is , that the malicious fumes reared up from the nutrates , should not annoy the spirituals or vitals , &c. the wombe is the region or the city of all the intrailes , the which reacheth from the midriffe downe unto the share inwardly , and outwardly from the reines or kidnies , downe to the bone peeten about the privie parts . and this wombe is compound and made of two things ( that is to say ) of syfac , and myrac ; syfac is a pannicle and a member spermatick , officiall , sensible , sinewie , compound of subtill will , and in complexion cold and dry , having his beginning in the inner pannicle of the midriffe . and it was ordained , because it should containe and bind together all the intrailes , and that he defend the musculus , so that he oppresse not the naturall members . and that he is strong and tough , it is because he should not be lightly broken , and not those things that are contained goe not forth , as it happeneth to them that are broken , &c. myrac is compound , and made of foure things ( that is to say ) of skinne outwardly , of fatnesse , of a carnous pannicle , and of musculus flesh . and that it is to bee understood , that all the whole from syfac outward , is called myrac , it appeareth well ( by the words of galen ) where hee commandeth , that in all wounds of the wombe , to sewe the syfac , with the mirac , and by that it proveth , that there is nothing without the syfac but mirac . and in this mirac , or outer part of the wombe , there is noted eight muscles ; two longitudinals , proceeding from the shield of the stomacke , unto os pecten : two latitudinals comming from the back-wards to the wombe : and foure transverse , of the which , two of them spring from the ribbes on the right side , and goe to the left side , to the bones of the hanches , or of pecten : and the other two spring from the ribs on the left , and come over the wombe to the right parts , as the other before doth . heere is to be noted , that by the vertue of the subtill will that is in the musculus longitudinall , is made perfect the vertue attractiue : and by the musculus transverse , is made the vertue retentive : and by the musculus latitudinall , is made the vertue expulsive . it is thus to be understood , that by the vertue attractive , is drawne downe into the intrailes , all superfluities , both water , winde , and dyet . by the vertue retentive , all things are with-holden and kept , untill nature have wrought his kind . and by the vertue expulsive is put forth all things , when nature provoketh any thing to be done . galen saith , that wounds or incisions be more perilous in the midst of the wombe , then about the sides ; for there the parts be more tractable then any other parts bee . also he saith , that in wounds piercing the wombe , there shall not bee made good incarnation , except sifac be sewed with mirac . now to come to the parts contained within : first , that which appeareth next under the sifac is omentum , or zirbus , the which is a pannicle covering the stomacke and the intrailes , implanted with many veynes and arteirs , and not a little fatnesse ordained to keepe moyst the inward parts . this zirbus is an osficiall member , and is compound of a veyne and an arteir , the which entreth and maketh a line of the outer tunicle of the stomacke , unto which tunicle hangeth the zirbus , and covereth all the guts downe to the share . two causes j find , why they were ordained . one is , that they should defend the nutratives outwardly . the second is , that through his owne power and vertue , he should strengthen and comfort the digestion of all the nutrates , because they are more feebler then other members bee , because they have but a thinne wombe or skin , &c. next zirbus appeareth the intrails or guts , of which galen saith , that the guts were ordained in the first creation to convey the drosse of the meate and drinke ▪ and to clense the body of superfluities . and here it is to be noted , that there be fixe portions of one whole gutte , which both in man and beast beginneth at the nether mouth of the stomacke , and so containeth forth to the end of the fundament . neverthelesse hee hath divers shapes and formes , and divers operations in the body , and therefore he hath divers names . and hereupon the philosophers say , that the lower wombe of a man , is like unto the wombe of a swine . and like as the stomacke hath two tunicles , in like manner have all the guts two tunicles . the first portion of the guts is called duodenum ; for he is . inches of length , and covereth the nether part of the stomacke , and receiveth all the drosse of the stomacke : the second portion of the guts is called iejunium , for he is evermore empty , for to him lyeth evermore the chest of the gall , beating him sore , and draweth forth of him all the drosse , and clenseth him cleane : the third portion or gut , is called yleon , or small gut , and is in length fifteene or sixteene cubits . in this gut oftentimes falleth a disease called yleaea passio . the fourth gut is called monoculus , or blind gut , and it seemeth to have but one hole or mouth , but it hath two , one neere unto the other , for by the one all things goe in , and by the other they goe out againe . the fift is called colon , and receiveth all the drosse deprived from all profitablenesse , and therefore there commeth not to him any veynes miseraices , as to the other . the sixt and last , is called rectum or longaon , and he is ended in the fundament , and hath in his nether end foure muscles , to hold , to open , to shut , and to put out , &c. next is to be noted of senterium , the which is nothing else but a texture of innumerable veynes miseraices , ramefied of one veyne called porta epates , covered and defended of pannicles nnd lygaments comming to the intrails , with the back full of fatnesse and glandulus flesh , &c. the stomacke is a member compound and spermaticke , sinnowy and sensible , and therein is made perfect the first digestion of chile . this is a necessary member to all the body , for if it faile in his working , all the members of the body shall corrupt . wherefore galen sayth , that the stomacke was ordained principally for two causes . the first , that it should be to all the members of the body , as the earth is to all that are ingendred of the earth , that is , that it should desire sufficient meate for all the whole body . the second is , that the stomacke should bee a sacke or chest to all the body for the meate , and as a cooke to all the members of the body . the stomacke is made of two pannicles , of which the inner is nerveous , and the outer carneous . this inner pannicle hath musculus longitudinals , that stretcheth along from the stomacke to the mouth , by the which he draweth to him meate and drinke , as it were hands . and hee hath transverse will , for to with-hold or make retention . and also the outer pannicle hath latitudinall will ▪ to expulse and put out : and that by his heate he should keepe the digestive vertue of the stomacke , and by other heates given by his neighbours , as thus . it hath the liver on the right side , chasing and beating him with his lobes or figures : and the splene on the left side , with his fatnesse and veynes , sending to him melancholy , to exercise his appetites : and about him is the heart , quickning him with his artiers : also the braine sending to him a branch of nerves to give him feeling . and he hath on the hinder part , descending from the parts of the backe many lygaments , with the artiers joyned to the spondels of the backe . the forme or figure of this stomack is long , in likenesse of a goord , crooked : and that both holes bee in the upper part of the body of it , because there should be no going out of it unadvisedly of those things which are received into it . the quantity of the stomack commonly holdeth two pitchers of water , and it may suffer many passions , and the nether mouth of the stomacke is narrower then the upper , and that for three causes . the first cause is , that the upper receiveth meate great and boysterous in substance , that there being made subtill , it might passe into the nether . the second is , for by him passeth all the meates , with their chilosity from the stomacke to the liver . the third is , for that through him passeth all the drosse of the stomack to the guts . and this sufficeth for the stomacke , &c. the liver is a principal member , and official , and of his first creation spermatick , complete in quantity of blood , of himself insensible , but by accidence he is insensible , & in him is made the second digestion , & is lapped in a sinowie pannicle . and that he is a principal member , it appeareth onely by the philosophers , by avicen and galen . and it is officiall as is the stomacke , and it is of spermatick matter , and sinowie of the which is ingendred his veines . and because it was like in quantity , nature hath added to it cruded blood , to the accomplishment of sufficient quantity , and is lapped in a sinowie pannicle . and why the liver is crudded , is because the chile which commeth from the stomacke to the liver , should should be turned into the colour of blood . and why the liver was ordained , was because that all the nutrimentall blood be engendred in him . the proper place of the liver is under the false ribbes in the right side . the forme of the liver is gibbous or bunchie on the backe side , and it is somewhat hollow like the inside of an hand . and why it is so shapen , is , that it should bee plyable to the stomacke ( like as a hand doth to an apple ) to comfort her digestion , for his heate is to the stomacke , as the heate of the fire is to the pot or cauldron that hangeth over it . also the lungs is bound with his pellikles to the diafragma , and with strong ligaments . and also hee hath coliganes with the stomacke and the intrailes , and with the heart and the reynes , the testikles and other members . and there are in him five pellikles , like five fingers . galen calleth the liver messa sanguinaria , containing in it selfe foure substances , naturall and nutrimentall . the naturals is sent with the blood to all parts of the body , to be engendred and nourished . and the nutrimentals be sequestrate and sent to places ordained for some helpings . these are the places of the humours , the blood in the liver , choller in the chest or gall , melancholy to the splene , flegme to the lungs and the junctures ▪ the watery superfluities to the reynes and vesike . and they goe with the blood , and sometime they putrifie and make fevers , and some bee put out to the skinne , and be resolved by sweat , or by scabs , by pushes , or by impostumes . and these foure naturall humours ( that is to say ) sanguine , choler , melancholy , and flegme , be engendred and distributed in this manner : first , yee shall understand , that from the spermaticke matter of the liver inwardly , there is engendred two great veynes , of the which , the first and the greatest is called porta , and commeth from the concavity of the liver , of whom springeth all the small veynes miseraices : and these miseraices , be to vena porta , as the branches of a tree bee to the stocke of a tree . for some of them bee contained with the bottome of the stomacke : some with duodenum , some with jejunium , some with yleon , and some with monoculus , or saccus . and from all these guts they bring to vena porta , the succosity of chiley , going from the stomacke , and distribute it into the substance of the liver . and these veynes miseraices , be innumerable . and in these veynes begins the second digestion and endeth in the liver , like as it doth in the stomacke the first digestion . so it proveth that vena porta , and vena miseraices , serve to bring all the succosity of all the meat and drinke that passeth the stomacke to the liver , and they spread themselves thorough the substance of the liver inwardly , and all they stretch towards the gibous ( or bowing part of the liver , ) and there they meete , and goe all into one unity , and make the second great veyne , called vena vlis , or concava , or vena ramosa : all is one , and hee with his roots draweth out all the bloud engendred from the liver , and with his branches ramefying upwards and downewards , carryeth and conveyeth it to all other members of the body to bee nourished with , where is made perfect the third digestion . and also there goeth from the liver veynes , bearing the superfluites of the third digestion to their proper places , as it shall be declared hereafter . now to speake of the gall , or of the chest of the gall : it is an osficiall member , and it is supermaticke and sinowie , and hath in it a subtill will , and it is a purse or a panniculer vesikle in the hollownesse of the liver , about the middle pericle or lobe , ordained to receive the cholericke superfluities which are engendred in the liver : the which purse or bagge hath three holes or neckes ; by the first he draweth to him from the liver the choller , that the blood be not hurt by the choler . by the second necke hee sendeth to the bottome of the stomacke choler , to further the digestion of the stomacke . and by the third necke hee sendeth the choler regularly from one gut to another , to clense them of their superfluities and drosse : and the quantity of the purse , may containe in it halfe a pinte , &c. and next is the splene , or the milte , the which is a spermaticke member , as are other members : and osficiall , and is the receptory of the melancholious superfluities that are engendred in the liver : and his place is on the left side , transversly linked to the stomacke , and his substance is thinne . and two causes j ▪ find , why hee was ordained there . the first is , that by the melancholious superfluities which are engendred of the liver which hee draweth to him , hee is nourished with . the second cause is , that the nutritive blood should by him be made the more purer , and cleane , from the drosse and thickning of the melancholy , &c. and next of the reynes and kidneyes : it is to be understood , that within the region of the nutrites backwards , are ordained the kidneyes to clense the blood from the watry superfluities , and they have each of them two passages or holes , or neckes ; by the one is drawne the water from venakelis , by two veynes which are called vencae aemulg●ntes , the length of the ●inger of a man , and issueth from the liver : and by the other is sent the same water to the bladder , and is called p●ros vrithides . the substance of the kidneyes is lazartus flesh , having longitudinall will , and their place is behind on each side of the spondels , and they are two in number , and the right kidney lyeth somewhat higher then the left , and is bound fast to the back with lygaments ▪ the philosopher saith , that mans kidneyes are like the kidneyes of a cow , full of hard concavities ; and therefore the sores of them are hard to cure . also , they are more harder in substance , then any other fleshly member , and that for two causes . one is , that hee be not much hurt of the sharpnesse of the urine . the other is , that the same urine that passeth from him , might the better bee altered and clensed through the same . also , there commeth from the heart to each of the kidneyes , an artier that bringeth with him blood , heat , spirit , life . and in the same manner there commeth a veyne from the liver , that bringeth blood to nourish the kidneyes , called blood nutrimentall . the grease of the kidneyes or fatnesse , is as of other members , but it is an officiall member , made of thin blood , congealed and cruded through cold , and there is ordained the greater quantity in his place ; because it should receive and temper the heat of the kidneyes , which they have of the byting sharpnesse of the water . now by the kidneyes upon the spondels passeth venakelis , or venacua , which is a veyne of great substance ; for hee receiveth all the nutrimentall blood from the liver , and from him passeth many small pipes on every side , and at the spondell betweene the shoulders , hee divideth himselfe whole in two great branches , the one goeth into the one arme , and the other into the other , and there they devide themselves into many veynes and branches , as is declared in the armes . chap. ix . the anatomie of the haunches and their parts . the haunches are the lower part of the wombe , joyning to the thighes and the secret members . and three things there are to be noted thereof . the first is , of the parts containing : the second is of the parts contained , and the third is of the parts proceeding outwards . the parts containing outwardly , be myrac and syfac , the zirbus and the bones . the part contained outwardly , are the vezike , or bladder : the spermaticke vessels , the matrix in women , longaon , nerves , veynes , and artiers , descending downewards ; the parts proceeding outwards , are the buttocks and the muscles , descending to the thighes , of which it is to bee spoken of in order . and first of the parts containing : as of myrac , syfac , and zirbus , there is enough spoken of in the anatomy of the wombe . but as for the bones of the hanches , there bee in the parts of the back three spondels of ossa sacri , or of the hanches : and three cartaliginis spondels of ossa cande , called the taile-bone . and thus it is proved , that there is in every man thirty spondels , and thus they are to be numbred : in the necke seaven , in the ridge twelue ▪ in the reynes five : and in the hanches sixe : and it is to be noted , that every spondell is hollow in the middest : through which hollownesse passeth nuca from the braine , or the marrow of the backe . and some authors say , that mynuca is of the substance that the braine is of : for it is like in substance , and in it self giveth to the nerves both the vertue of moving and feeling . and also every spondell is holden on every side , through the which holes , both artiers and veynes doe bring from the heart and the liver both life and nourishment , like as they doe to the braine ; and from the pannicle of mynuca , or the marrow of the back , through the holes of the sides of the spondels , springeth forth nerves motives , and there they intermingle themselves with the strong lygaments that be insensible , and so the lygaments receive that feeling of the nerves , which the nerves taketh of mynuca . and by this reason many authors prove , that mynuca is of the same substance that the braine is of , and the pannicles of the nuca is of the same substance of the pannicles of the braine , &c. and each of these spondels bee bound fall one with another , so that one of them may not well bee named without another . and so all these spondels together , contained one by another are called the ridge-bone , which is the foundation of all the shape of the body . they with the la●t spondell be contained or joyned to the bones of the haunches , and they be the upholders of all the spondels . and these bones bee small towards the taile-bone , and broad towards the hanches , and before they joyne and make os pectinis . and so they bee broad in the parts of the jles , and therefore some authors calleth it ylea . and each of these two bones towards the liver hath a great round hole , into which is received the bone called vertebra , or the whorlebone . also besides that place there is a great hole or way , thorow the which passeth from above musculus veynes and artiers , and goe into the thighes . and thus it is to bee noted , that of this bone pecten , and the bone vertebra , is made the juncture of the thigh . now to speake of the parts contained , the first thing that commeth to sight is the bladder , the which is an officiall member , compound of two nervous pannicles , in complexion cold and dry , whose necke is carnous , and hath muscles to with-hold , and to let goe : and in man it is long , and is contained with the yard , passing through peritoneum , but in women it is shorter , and is contained with the vulva . the place of the bladder , is betweene the bone of the share and the tayle-gut , called longaon , and in women , it is betweene the aforesaid bone and the matrix . and in it is implanted two long vessels comming from the kidneyes , who●e names be porri vrikcides , bringing with them the urine or water from the kidneys to the bladder , which privily entreth into the holes of the pannicles of the bladder , by a naturall moving betweene tunicle and tunicle , and there the urine findeth the hole of the nether tunicle , and there it entreth privily into the concavity of the bladder , and the more that the bladder is filled with urine , the straiter bee the two pannicles comprised together ; for the holes of the tunicles , be not even one against another ; and therefore if the bladder be never so full , there may none goe backe againe . the forme of it is round , the quantity of it is a pitcher full , in some more , in some lesse , &c. also there is found two other vessels , called vaza seminaria , or the spermaticke vessels . and they come from venakelis , bringing blood to the testikles , as well in man , as in woman , the which by his further digestion it is made sperme or nature in men : they be put outward for the testikles be without ▪ but in women it abideth within , for their . testikles stand within : as it shall be declared hereafter . next followeth the matrix in women : the matrix in women is an officiall member , compound and nerveous , and in complexion cold and dry : and it is the field of mans generation , and it is an instrument susceptive , that is to say , a thing receiving or taking : and her proper place is betweene the bladder and the gut longaon , the likenesse of it , is as it were a yard reversed and turned inward , having testikles likewise , as aforesaid . also the matrix hath two concavities or selles , and no more , but all beasts have as many selles as they have pappes-heads . also it hath a long necke like an urinall , and in every necke it hath a mouth , that is to say , one within , and another without . the inner in the time of conception is shut , and the outer part is open as it was before : and it hath in the middest a lazartus pannicle , which is called in latine tengit● : and in the creation of this pannicle , is found two utilities . the first is , that by it goeth forth the urine , or else it should bee shed throughout all the vulva : the second is , that when a woman doth set her thighs abroad ▪ it altereth the ayre that commeth ▪ to the matrix for to temper the heate . furthermore , the necke that is betweene these two aforesaid mouthes , in her concavity hath many involusions and pleates , joyned together in the manner of rose-leaves before they be fully spread or ripe , and so they be shut together as a purse mouth , so that nothing may passe forth but urine , untill the time of childing . also about the middle of this necke be certaine veynes in maydens , the which in time of deflowring , be corrupted and broken . furthermore , in the sides of the outer mouth , are two testicles or stones , and also two vessels of sperme , shorter then mans vessels , and in time of coyt the womans sperme is shead downe in the bottome of the matrix . also from the liver there commeth to the matrix many veynes , bringing to the child nourishing at the time of a womans being with child : and those veynes , at such time as the matrix is voyd , bring thereto superfluities from certaine members of the body , whereof are engendred womans flowers , &c. and forasmuch , as it hath pleased almighty god to give the knowledge of these his misteries and workes unto his creatures in this present world. heere j suppose to declare what thing embreon is , and his creation . the noble philosophers , as galen , avicen , bartholmeus ▪ and divers others , writing upon this matter , say : that embreon is a thing engendred in the mothers wombe , the origin all whereof is , the sperme of the man and of the woman , of the which is made by the might and power of god , in the mothers wombe a child : as hereafter more at large shall bee declared . first , the field of generation called the matrix , or the mother , is knowne in the anatomy , whose place is properly ( betwixt the bladder and longaon ) in the woman , in which place is sowne by the tillage of man , a covenable matter of kindly heate : for kindly heate is cause efficient both of doing and working , and spirit that giveth vertue to the body , and governeth and ruleth that vertue : the which seed of generation commeth from all the parts of the body , both of the man and woman , with consent and will of all members , and is shead in the place of conceiving , where thorow the vertue of nature , it is gathered together in the celles of the matrix or the mother , in whom by the way of the working of mans seede , and by the way of suffering of the womans seed mixt together , so that each of them worketh in other , and suffereth in other , there is engendred embreon . and further it is to bee noted , that this sperme that commeth both to man and woman , is made and gathered of the most best and purest drops of blood in all the body , and by the labour and chafing of the testikles or stones , this blood is turned into another kind , and is made sperme . and in man it is hot , white , and thicke : wherefore it may not spread nor runne abroad of it selfe , but runneth and taketh temperance of the womans sperme which hath contrary qualities : for the womans sperme is thinner , colder , and feebler . and as some authors hold opinion , when this matter is gathered into the right side of the matrix , then it happeneth a male-kind , and likewise on the left the female , and where the vertue is most , there it favoureth most . and further it is to bee noted , that like as the renet of the cheese hath by himselfe the way or vertue of working , so hath the milke by way of suffering : and as the renet and milke make the cheese , so doth the sperme of man and woman make the generation of embreon , of the which thing springeth ( by the vertue of kindly heate ) a certaine skin or caule , into the which it lappeth it selfe in , wherewith afterwards it is tyed to the mothers wombe , the which covering commeth forth with the byrth of the childe : and if it happen that any of the skinne remaine after the byrth of the child , then is the woman in perill of her life . furthermore , ( it is said ) that of this embreon is ingendred the heart , the liver , the braynes , nerves , veynes , arteirs , chords , lygaments , skins , gristles , and bones , receiving to them by kindly vertue the menstruall blood , of which is engendred both flesh and fatnesse . and as writers say , the first thing that is shapen , be the principals : as is the heart , liver , and braine . for of the heart springeth the artiers : of the liver , the veines : and of the brain , the nerves : and when these are made , nature maketh and shapeth both bones and gristles to keepe and save them , as the bones of the head for the brain : the breast bones , and the ribbes , for the heart and the liver . and after these springeth all other members one after another : and thus is the child bred forth in foure degrees , as thus . the first is , when the said sperme or seed is at the first as it were milke . the second is , when it is turned from that kind into another kind , is yet but as a lumpe of blood , and this is called of hypocrates , fettus . the third degree is , when the principals be shapen , as the heart , liver , and braine . the fourth and last , as when all the other members bee perfectly shapen , then it receiveth the soule , with life and breath , and then it beginneth to move it selfe alone . now in these foure degrees aforesaid , in the first as milke , it continueth seven dayes ▪ in the second as fettus , nine dayes : in the third , as a lumpe of flesh engendring the principals , the space of nine dayes : and in the fourth , unto the time of full perfection of all the whole members , is the space of eighteene dayes : so is there fixe and forty dayes from the day of conception , unto the day of full perfection and receiving of the soule , as god best knoweth . now to come againe to the anatomy of the haunches : then come wee to longaon , otherwise called the taile-gut , whose substance is pannicular , as of all the other bowels : the length of it is of a span long stretching nigh to the reynes , his nether part is called annis , ( that is to say ) the towell : and about him is found two muscles , the one to open ▪ the other to shut . also there is found in him five ve●nes or branches of veynes , called venae emoraidales , and they have colliganes with the bladder : whereof they are partners in their grieves . and when this longaon is raised up , then ye may see the veynes and artiers , and sinewes , how they bee branched and bound down to the nether parts : the parts proceeding outwardly , are didimus peritoneum , the yard , the testikles , and buttocks . and first , it shall be spoken of the yard , or of mans generative members , the which dureth unto that part that is called peritoneum , the which place is from the coddes , unto the fundament , whereupon is a seame . wherefore saith the philosopher , mans yard is in the end and terme of the share . the yard is an officiall member , and the tiller of mans generation , compound , and made of skin , brawnes , tendons , veynes , arteirs , sinewes , and great lygaments : and it hath in it two passages , or principall issues , one for the sperme , and another for the urine . and as the philosophers say , the quantity of a common yard , is eight or nine inches , with measurable bignesse proportioned to the quantity of the matrix . this member hath ( as avicen saith ) three holes , through one passeth insensible polisions and wind , that causeth the yard to rise : the other two holes is declared before . also the yard hath a skinne , and about the head thereof , it is double , and that men call praeputium ; and this skinne is moveable , for through his consecration the spermaticke matter is the better , and sooner gathered together , and sooner cast forth from the testikles ; for by him , is had the most delectation in the doing . and the foremost part of the head of the yard before , is made of a brawny flesh , the which if it bee once lost , it is never restored againe , but it may be well skinned , &c. the coddes is a compound member , and an officiall , and though it bee counted amongst the generative members , yet it is called a principall member , because of generation . this purse was ordained for the custody and comfort of the testikles and other spermaticke vessels : and it is also made of two parts , of inner and of the outer . the outer is compound and made of skinne , and lazartus . longitudinall and transversall , in like manner as the myrac . the inner part of the cods is of the substance of the sifac , and are in similitude as two pockets drawne together by themselves , and they differ not from the syfac : and there bee two , because if there fall any hurt to the one , the other should serve . the testikles or stones bee two , made of glandulus flesh , or curnelly flesh . and furthermore , through the didimus , commeth the testikles from the braine , sinewes , and from the heart artiers , and from the liver veynes , bringing unto them both feeling and stirring , life , and spirit , and nutrimentall blood , and the most purest blood of all other members of the body , whereof is made the sperme by the labour of the testikles , the which is put forth in due time , as is before rehearsed . the groynes bee knowne : they bee the empty junctures , or purging place unto the liver , and they have curnelly flesh in the plying or bowing of the thighes . the hippes have great brawny flesh on them , and from thence descend downwards , brawns , chords , and lygaments , moving and binding together the thighes , with the haunches themselues . chap. x. the anatomie of the thighes , legges , and feet . the legge reacheth from the joynt of the thigh unto the extremity of the toes , and j will divide it in parts , as the armes were divided . one part is called coxa , or thigh , and that is all that is contained from the joynt of the haunch unto the knee . the second part is called tibia , and that reacheth from the knee to the ankle . the third is the little foot , and that is from the anckle , unto the end of the toes . and heere it is to bee noted , that the thigh , legge , and foot , are compound , and made as the great arme or hand , with skin , flesh , veynes , artiers , sinewes , brawnes , tendons , and bones whereof they are to be spoken of in order . of the skinne and flesh there is enough spoken of before . and as of veynes and arteirs in their descending downwards , at the last spondels they bee divided into two parts , whereof the one part goeth into the right thigh , and the other into the left : and when they come to the thigh , they be divided in other two great branches : the one of them spreadeth into the inner side of the legge , and the other spreadeth into the outer side , and so branching , descend downe to the legge , to the anckles , and feet , and bee brought into foure veynes , which be commonly used in letting blood , as hereafter followeth . one of them is under the inner ankle toward the heel , called soffena , and another under the outer ankle , called siarica , and another under the hamme , called poplitica , the fourth , betweene the little toe , and the next , called renalis . and it is to be noted of these foure great veynes in the legges , of the manifold dangers that might fall of them as oft it happeneth . there bee many other branches which a chirurgion needeth not much to passe upon . the sinewes spring of the last spondell , and of os sacrum , and passeth through the hole of the bone of the hippe , and descendeth to the brawnes , and moveth the knee and the hamme , and these descend downe to the ankle , and move the foot , and the brawnes of the feet move the toes in like manner , as is declared in the bones of the hand . the first is called coxa , that is the thigh-bone , and he is without a fellow , and he is full of marrow , and is round at either end . the roundnesse that is at the upper end , is called vertebrum , or whyrlebone , and boweth inwards , and is received into the concavities of the bone of the legge at the knee , called the great fossels . there is also at the knee a round bone , called the knee-panne . then followes the legge , wherein is two bones , called focile major , and focile minor , the bigger of them passeth before making the shape of the shinne , and it is called the shin-bone , and passeth downe , making the inner ankle . the lesse passeth from the knee backwards , descending downe to the outer anckle , and there formeth that ankle , &c. the bones of the feet are sixe and twenty : as thus . first , next the ankle bone , is one called in latine orabalistus : next under that , towards the heele is one , called galeani : and betweene them is another bone , called os nauculare . in the second ward there be foure bones called raceti , as be in the hands . in the third and fourth wards be foureteene , called digitori : and five called pectens , at the extremities of the toes , next to the nailes . and thus be there in the foot , sixe and twenty bones , with the legge from the ankle to the knee , two in the knee , and one round and flat bone , and in the thigh , one . and thus you shall find in the whole leg and foot thirty bones . and this may serve for young practitioners in the anatomie . veynes in mans body perfect , is — . bones . teeth . for that in us all things may vaine appeare , a veyne wee have for each day in the yeare . for practice . it is necessary to know what letchcraft and chyrurgerie is , with their severall parts thereto belonging in the theorick and practick . very usefull for young practitioners . part . ii. letchcraft is chyrurgerie ; that is , to heale a man of all manner of sicknesse and to keepe him whole , so farre as craft may . know that in letchcraft , is contayned two things ; that is , both physicke and chyrurgerie . likewise , letchcraft and chyrurgerie , hath each of them two parts , viz. theoricke , and practicke . theorick to know , and practicke to worke . the ground of the theoricke , is to know the elements , and humours that proceedeth from them , which is for mans health or against it . letchcraft , teaches us causes , effects , and signes : signes to know the causes and effects ; and therefore j treat of signes , and many signes doth belong to physicke and chyrurgerie , as crisses , urine , pounces , vomits , sege , and other , &c. chyrurgerie , is in wounds , impostumes , and algebra ; and chyrurgerie holdeth foure parts , viz. wounds , and impostumes , algebra , and anatomie . and antidotary is the fift ; which is a kind of salves against all kind of sores that belongeth to chyrurgerie . algebra is broken bones , and bones out of joynt . antidotary of chyrurgerie , is in waters , powders , oyles , oyntments , and emplaisters most principall , some must bee repercussive , some moleficative , some maturative , some generative , and some corosive . anotomie is to know the body of man throughout , and all his members within and without . two members hath every manner of man , viz. principall , and officiall ; and foure principall every man hath , viz. braine , heart , liver , and stones ; the braine hath the head and necke : the heart , hath the lungs , brest , and midriffe : the liver hath the stomacke , and other members downe to the reynes , as guts , gall , and the kelle veyne , and milt , the milt upon the left side , and the gall upon the liver : the stones , hath reynes , bladder , and other privities : and these are the foure principall members , braine , heart , liver , and stones ; and without braine , heart and liver , no man can live ; and without stones can no man engender , three things in the stones is cause of engendring ; heat , wind and humours , heat commeth from the liver , spirit from the heart , and humours from the braines that man is made of , if any of these foure be faulty , that man can not as he should kindly engender . these sixe vertues are rooted in the liver , viz. attractive , digestive , diminusive , expulsive , retentive , and a simulative , that is in our english tongue ; drawing , and breaking out , putting , holding , and liking : for first , nature draweth in that which it needeth to live by , and then all to breake it ; and then departeth the good from the bad , and holdeth to it the good , and then dispierseth the good to all the members of the body . officiall members bee those that have certaine offices in mans body , where ever they be ; as the eye to see , the eare to heare , the hand to touch , the mouth to speake , the feet to goe , and many such other , &c. also such are called members as branches from the principall to the officiall , as the arme , or legge , that rooteth in the principall and brancheth to the officials : and so nerves , artiers , veynes , lygaments , chords , bones , pannicles , and gristles , flesh and skin to teach them ▪ their office : but nerves , veynes , and artiers bee most needfull , for they bee wells and rootes of all other nerves comming from the braine , and artiers from the heart , and veynes from the liver into all the body : nerves giveth to the body feeling , and moving , and artiers leaving , and veynes increasing . a veyne hath but one tunacle , and an artier hath two , in the one runneth bloud , and in the other spirits , and all beating veynes bee artiers , the which j call pulses , and all other be simple veynes ; and all such members saving flesh alone are melancholious , and their nature is sperme , but flesh is sanguine ; and therefore it may be sodered be it never so much cut , but the other said members because their matter is sperme , may never be sodered if they be much cue . now will j speake of wounds , which is the second part of chyrurgerie . one of these intentions hath every surgion . the first is , to containe that , that i● evill , loosed ; the second is , to loose that , that is evill contained ; the third is , to take away that , that is too much ; the fourth is , to increase that , that is too little . in these foure entents standeth all chirurgery . the first is in wounds , the second is impostumes , the third and fourth alg●br● holdeth . wounds be in many manners simple , and compound : simple in the flesh alone , and compound in seven manners . there be seven things that letteth a wound not lightly to heale , viz. empostumes discrased , hollownesse , or bitten by a venemous beast ; and these letteth a chirurgion suddenly to heale a wound ; and if a sinew bee cut or pricked , or wounded to the bone , or if the wound bee hollow , or else discrased with a fever , or bruised , or made by venemous beasts , then mayest thou not as thou wouldest close up a wound . and if a wound lacke all these seven things , then it is simple . thus medicine is letchcraft ; that is both physicke and chirurgery . and every one of them hath first his theoricke , perfectly to know , and afterwards his practique , cunningly to worke : the grounds of both which qualities , are elements , and humours , and ●●●nes most needfull both of urine and pulses . thus much for the theoricke . divers things very necessary for every practitioner in surgerie to have in a readinesse . and first , for instruments , viz. novacula . sp●●ill●● . s●alp●ll●● . lat●● sp●●ill●● ▪ for●icis . stylu● . volsell● . acu● . ca●●li●ula forata . fas●i● . hab●●● ad membra laqu●● intepcipi●●d● . panni●uli linei ad v●l●●ra abliga●●● . lint●a conc●rpta . a●ris●alpiu●● . forcip●s ad d●●tes ●v●ll●nd●s . ferra●entu● qu●●r●●i d●ntes , ●rad●●tur . ●n●inus , or ( as c●lsu● calleth it , ) hamul●●●●●●sum . . for sodaine accidents . he must have in readinesse , powders , unguents , and emplasters ; they serve to stop bleeding , to conglutinate wounds , to clense foule and rotten ulcers , to mollifie hardnesse , to produce a cicatrix , and skinne , to remove away all excrescent and corrupt flesh , to cease paine , to strengthen fractures and luxations . . for powders . they are of three sorts : the first , is to stay ▪ bleeding , as that which is framed of bolus ▪ armoniae , of rosis , of mastickes , and pollin . the second is , for fractures of the scull , and hurts of other bones , and is called pulvis cephalicus , and is framed of radicibus ir●os , of arist●l●●●iae , of myrrhe , aloes , and such like . the third is , to remove away excrescent and corrupt flesh ; as alumen ustu● , of pul ▪ prae●ipit . mer●urii , and such like . . for vnguents . he must have vnguentum basilicon , which doth humect , digest , and cease paine . vnguentum album ▪ rhasis , which doth refrigerate , coole and dry . vnguentum aureum called of some regis , which doth incarnate and conglutinate wounds together . vnguentum dialthea simplex , which doth calefie , soften , humect , and also cease paine . vnguentum apostolorum , which doth deterge , mollifie , dry , and remove away corrupt and superfluous flesh : and of like faculty almost is mundificativum ex api● , and aegyptiacum . . for emplasters . diachilon compositum , which doth ripen apostumes , and doth mollifie and resolve hardnesse , and doth digest , and also absterge . diacalciteos , commonly called diapalma , which doth conglutinate ulcers , produceth cicatrix and skinne , and according to the opinion of galen , is very fit for the curing of phlegme . emplastrum de betonica , which is also called de janua , it doth unite and joyne together the fractures of the skull , it covereth the bones with flesh , it draweth out spels and splinters of bones , it doth also absterge , digest and dry , with the like . of five h●arbes which a good chyrurgion ought alwayes to have . there be five herbes that a good chirurgion ought to have all the yeare , and they be good for wounded men ; and these herbes must be dryed and made into powder , and so kept all the yeare , viz. mouse-eare , pimpernell , avence , valerian , and gentian , of each a like quantity , but take of mouse-eare the weight of all the other hearbes , when they be dryed , take d●mi . spoonfull in untiment , or in some other liquor which is according to the sicknesse , and let him drinke it , and the medicine is as good as a salve for any wounded man , as may be had for to heale him . also the herbes that draweth the wound , are o●●ulus christi , mather , buglosse , red coleworts , and orpine . these be the soveraigne pepper hearbes for the fester , h●arbe robert , buglosse , sannacle , hempropes , morrell , rew , and savorie , but sake good heed of these hearbes in the use of them , and yee shall worke the better . some physicall observations tending to physicke and surgerie , and times convenient for letting of blood. to preserve health . if a man will observe , hee may governe himselfe at foure times in the yeare , so that hee shall have little need of let●hcraft , as thus ▪ in the spring , from march till may at which time increaseth the good sweet ▪ 〈…〉 blood , through good meates and 〈…〉 good wholsome savours . in summer , from may till june , at which time beginneth the bitter juyce of choller ▪ then use coole meats , and drinkes , and bee not violent in exercise , and forbeare women . in harvest , from june till november , at which time increaseth melancholy ; then bee purged by a medicine laxative , and afterward use light meats and drinkes , such as will increase good blood. in winter , from november till mar●h ▪ at which time increaseth flegme , through weaknesse of humours , and corruption of ayre ; then the pose beginneth to grow , then heat is in the veynes , then is pricking in the sides , then is time to use hot meats and good drinkes ▪ and spices , as pepper , ginger , &c. but doe not wash thy head. for as a learned physitian saith ; hee that taketh much physick when he is young , will much repent it when he is old . for letting of blood. as in all other parts of physicke so great care ought to be had in letting of blood. first , skilfully and circumspectly is to be considered and certainly knowne the cause . as whether it be needfull and good for the patient , to purge his body of some unnaturall and naughty , and superfluous humour . for otherwise , letting of bloud is very dangerous , and openeth the way to many grievous infirmities . and note generally ▪ that it is not convenient , eyther for a very leane and weake man , or for a very fat and grosse man to be let bloud , neither for a child under . yeares of age , nor an old man above . especially , in decrepit old age . now there remaineth to be considered , how it standeth with the patient inwardly , for his complexion and age , and outwardly , for the time of the yeare , time of the day , and also for dyet . for complexion . let bloud the phlegmatick , the moone being in aries or sagitarius . let bloud the melancholick , the moone in libra or aquarius . let bloud the cholerick , the moone being in cancer or pisces . let blood the sanguine , the moone in eyther of the aforesaid signes . for age. let blood youth ; from the change to the second quarter . middle-age , from the . quarter to the full . elder-age , from the full to the last quarter . old-age , from the last quart ▪ to the change . time of the yeare . spring good . autumne different . time of the moneth . let not blood , the moone in taurus , gemini , leo , virgo , or capric●rne . the day before nor after the change and full . twelve houres before and after the quarters . the moone with jupiter , or mars , evill aspected . time of the day . morning after sun-rising fasting ; afternoon , after perfect digestion ; the ayre temperate , the wind not south , if it may be . dyet after bleeding . sl●●pe not presently , stirre not violently ; vse no venery , feed , thou warily . notwithstanding , for the phrensie , the pestilence , the squinancy , the plurisie , the apoplexi● , or a continuall head-ach growing of cholerick blood , a hot burning feaver , or any other extreame paine ; in this case , a man may not tarry a chosen time , but incontinently with all convenient speed ▪ hee is to seek for remedy ; but then blood is not to bee let in so great a quantity , as if that a chosen and fit time were to be obtained . good to — prepare humours , the moon in gemini , libra , or aquarius . vomit , the moon in aries , taurus , or capr. purge by neezing , the moone in cancer , le● , or virgo . take clysters , the moone in aries , librae , or scorpio . take gargarismes , the moone in cancer , or stop rheumes and flux , the moon in taurus , virgo , or capric●rn● . bathe for cold diseases , the moone in aries , l●● , or sagitarius . bathe for hot diseases , the moone in cancer , scorpio , or pisces . purge with electuaries , the moon in cancer . purge with potions , the moone in scorpio . purge with pilles , the moon in pisces . for an unguent or plaister , is best to bee applyed , when the moone is in the imaginary sig●e attributed to the members whereunto it is applyed . of the nine tastse . salt , sharpe , and bitter , sower , savory , and eager , sweet , walloweth , and fatty-three of them bee of heat , three of cold , and the last three be of temperature . a cut chafeth , heateth , and fleyeth : temperature delighteth , lycorise , annis , ginger , wormewood , and suger : these bee examples : a cut raweth , heateth , and fleyeth , and nature there against ripeth , and twineth , and putteth out : make your medicine such , that for one putting out , double twining , and foure riping . melancholy is dry and cold , sower and earthly coloured , his urine is thinne and discoloured , his pulse is straight , and short in digestion , and a full stomacke , loathsomenesse , and sower belching , a swelling wombe , and sides , heavie , dead , and sluggish limbes , and melancholious urine commeth of a young wench that faileth in her flowers , or have them not as shee ought to have . fleame , cold and moyst , white , and weake in colours , his urine is discoloured and thicke , his pulse is short and broad ; raw stomacke ; and full , loathsome , and unlusty , watry mouth , much spitting , heavy head , sluggie , and slumbry , with cold hands and feete , and chiefly in the night . sanguine is moyst , and hot , sweet , and ruddy coloured , alway his body is full of heate , namely in the veynes , and they bee swelling , and of face he is ruddy , and in sleepe hee seemeth fiery : medicine for him is bloud let upon the currall or liver veyne , and simple dyet , as tyson , water grewell , and sower bread . choller is hot , and dry , yellow , greene and bitter , urine is discoloured , and thinne , his pulse is long and straight , much watch , heavy head ache , and thirst , bitter mouth , and dry , singing cares , and much gnawing in the wombe , and other while costiffenesse , and burned sege , and vomit , both yellow and greene , as is that colour . each humour may cause a fever or an impostume , and then the urine is more coloured , and the liquour thinner : and ever as that sicknesse defieth , the urine waxeth thicker , and the colour lower , till it come to cytrin or subrufe . melancholy causeth a quartaine , and fleame a quotidian . sinec and causon have ever continues , the other three may be so , and otherwhile interpolate , continue ever holdeth on , and interpolate resteth otherwhile ; continue is with the veynes , and interpolate is without the veynes , both two wayes may bee simple and also compound , simple of one matter , and one place , or compound of divers places . the tertians of these fevers be such , as the same humors be of , and also urine and pulse : all saving they bee stronger in fevers and impostumes then they be without , and therefore their medicine must bee more discreet , but generally dyet thus : sowre bread , and water-grewell , and tyson , and fleyed fish and wine , and almond milke , and all white meate saving whay , generall digestive in summer , and in hot time , as in oxizacia ; and generall digestive in winter and all cold time , as oxcineil● : and generall expulsive is , d● s●cca r●sarum , a cut with turbit , and scamony , ana . scruple two , and generall dormitary is insquiamany , and double medled with populions , and foment him with roses , ●●a , double sugar flaketh thir●● . signes of sicknesse by eg●stion . if the meat come from a man in manner as hee did eate it , the stomack is weake , and the bowels be lubricated , it is an evill signe . if the egestion looke like earth , it is ● s●gne of death . if the egestion doe not stinke , it is an evill signe . if the egestion doe looke like lead , it is an evill signe . if the egestion bee blacke as inke , it is an evill signe . if the egestion bee blacke , and looke like sheepes trickles , there is abundance of adu●● choller , and paine in the spleene . if the egestion be yellow , and no saffron eaten before , the body is r●pleat with choller and cytren water . if the egestion have straines of bloud , there is impediment in the liver and the bowels . if the egestion bee bloudish , there is ulceration in the guts . if the egestion looke like shaving of guts , beware then of an extreame fluxe and debility of the body . if a man be too laxative it is not good , for in such persons can be no strength but much weaknesse . if a man be costive and cannot have a naturall egestion once a day , he cannot be long without sicknesse . signes of life or death by the pulses . spigm●s is named the pulses , and there be twelue pulses the which doe take their originall at the vitall spirits : three of which belong to the heart , the one is under the left pap , the other two doe lye in the wrists of the armes directly against the thumbs . the braine hath respect to seaven pulses , foure be principall ; and three be minors , the foure principall are thus scituate ; in the temples two , and one going under the bone called the right furkcle , and the other doth lye in the corner of the right side of the nose , one of the three minor pulses in the corner of the left side of the nose : and the other two lye upon the mandibles of the two jawes , the liver hath respect to the two pulses which lye upon the feet . by these pulses , expert physitians and chyrurgions by their knocking and clapping , doe judge what principall member is diseased or whether the patient be in danger . if any of the principall pulses doe beate truely , keeping an equall course as the minute of a clocke , then there is no perill in the patient , so be it they keepe a true course ; or pulse without any pause or stopping ; which is to say , if the pulse give five knockes and cease at the sixth knocke : or else seven and pause at eight , or else knocke tenne and lea●e over the eleventh , and begin at the twelfth , the patient is in perill , else not ; for it is not in the agility , as too swift or tardie beating of the pulse , but in the pausing of the same contrary to its course , that the patient is in perill . in such causes let the physitian be circumspect , and carefull , for sincopies in the patient , let him sit upright in his bed with pillowes , and let one sit at his backe to give him drinke , and let the patient smell to amber greece or rosewater and vin●ger , or else rub the pulse with aqua vitae . also , when you touch the pulse , marke under which finger it strikes most strongest , as thus ; if the pulse under the little finger , be feeble and weake , and under the rest more weake , it is a token of death : but contrariwise , if under the little finger strong , and under every finger stronger it is a good signe . and if you feele the pulse under the fore-finger strike untill the eleventh stroke and it faile in it , is a good signe , but if he beate swift and unorderly , an evill . of the foure humours . . signes of sicknesse by blood. slownesse , idlenesse , dulnesse , yawning or gaping , stretching forth the armes , no delight or pleasure , sweet spittle mingled with bitternesse , much heavie sleepe with dreames of red colour , or bearing of burthens great and heavie , perturbation of the sences , red face with much sweat , little or no appetite to meat with red grosse stinking urine . of these signes are knowne , stinking feavers , pestilence , squinancie , and bloody-fluxe . for remedy , if the blood be distempered , helpe it with things cold and dry ; for blood is moist , hot , and sweet . . signes of melancholy sicknesses . pale colour in the face , sowrenesse in the mouth , belching wind , little sleepe , that horrible , and infernall dreames , much thought , pensivenesse and care , a desperate mind , more leaner then before in the body , straitnesse in the stomack ▪ elvishnesse in countenance , snappish in words ; starting , coldnesse , and fearefull , white and thin urine . these signes testifie ▪ quartaine , morphew , lepre , canker , madnesse , and hardnesse of the spleene . for remedy , if it bee of red choller , give things cold , moist and sweet ; for red choller is bitter and fiery . . signes of cholerick diseases . yellow colour in the skin , bitterness in the mouth , pricking in the mouth of the stomacke , supernaturall heat , loathsomnesse to meat , lamentation or great griefe of mind . drinesse , coveting drinke of divers kinds , vomits of yellow and greene , small or no sleepe , but fearefull and fiery dreames of strife . these bee signes of the jaundies , tertians , plurisies , madnesse , and collicks . for remedy , if it bee of blacke choller , or melancholy , give things hot and moyst , and sweet ; for adust choller is sharpe and cold . . signes of flegmatick diseases . sluggishnesse and dulness of memory , forgetfulnesse , much spitting , 〈…〉 , paines in the head , especially in the hinder part , swelling in the face and cheeks , evill digestion ▪ white dropsie-like in colour , patience with doltishnesse , lacking lively quickne●se , dreaming of going naked , drowning , or of snow . the diseases , quotidians , dropsies , palsey , and the falling sicknesse . for remedy , if the disease be of salt flegme give things sweet , hot and dry , thus saith soramis . and thus much for remedies against the distemperance of each humour . notwithstanding , where there is abundance of cold flegme not mixt with choller , there things very sharpe and hot bee most convenient ; as tart vineger with hot roses and seeds , or wines , strong and rough honey , being boyled in the one and in the other . or where choller is mixt with flegme , sirrop made with vineger and suger , boyled sometimes with seeds , herbes , and rootes , which may dissolve flegme and digest it is very good . certaine observations for women . when womens brests diminish being with child , is a token the child is dead . if a woman with child bee sodainly taken with any grievous sicknesse , her life is in great danger . if a woman with child be let blood , it killeth the child , the nearer the birth the greater is the danger . it is perilous for a woman with child to have a great lax , or loosenesse . a woman having a convultion in temperate times of her termes , is perilous . the c●alx of egge-shels ministred in broth asswageth the paine and griping in a woman , after her deliverance of child . of urines . a briefe treatise of urines , aswell of mans urine as of womans , to judge by the colour which betokeneth health , and which betokeneth weaknesse , and also death . part . iii. of bubbles resident in vrine . it is shewed , that in the fore-parts of the body dwelleth sicknesse and health : that is , in the wombe , in the head , in the liver , and in the bladder , in what manner thou maist know their properties and thereof mayest learne to judge the better . when bubbles doe swim on the top of urine , they proceed of windy matter included in viscous humidity , and signifie rawnesse and indigestion in the head , belly , sides , reynes , and parts thereabouts , for in these especially , hu●ours are multiplied and doe ascend to make paine ▪ in the head. re●ident bubbles doth signifie ventositie in the body , or else a sicknesse that hath continued long and will continue , unlesse remedy be found ; but bubbles not resident but doth breake quickly , signifieth debility or weaknesse . bubbles cleaving to the urinall , signifieth the body to be repleat with evill humours . bubbles doth also signifie the stone in the reynes of the backe . a circle which is greene of colour of urine , doth signifie wavering in the head , and burning in the stomacke . this colour in a feaver doth signifie paine in the head , comming of choller . and if it continue it will cause an impostume , the which will ingender the frenzi● . a blacke circle in urine , signifieth mortification . if any filthy matter doe appeare in the urine , it commeth from the lungs and sometimes from the liver , and it may come from breaking of some impostume , but for the most part it commeth from the vlcers of the bladder or the reynes , or from the passages of the urine , then the urine is troubled in the bottome and stinketh , he hath a paine in his lower parts and especially in the parts aforesaid , when he maketh water , and chiefly in the end of the yard , and commonly there is with this the strangurie which is hardly to be cured , unlesse it be in the beginning . if it come from the reynes , there is paine in the loynes , the backe and the flanke . if from the liver , the paine is onely in the right side . if in the lungs , the paine is from the brest with a cough and the breath stinketh . if from the bladder , the paine is about the share . if a mans urine be white at morning , and red before meate , and white after meate , he is whole : and if it be fat and thicke it is not good . and if the vrine be meanly thicke , it is not good to like : and if it be thicke as spice , it betokeneth head ache . vrine that is two dayes red , and at the tenth day white , betokeneth very good health . vrine that is fat , white , and moyst , betokeneth the fever quartaine . vrine that is bloody , betokeneth that the bladder is hurt by some rotting that is within . a little vrine all fleshie , betokeneth wasting of the reynes : and who pisseth bloud without sicknesse , he hath some veyne broken in his reynes . urine that is ponderous , betokeneth that the bladder is hurt . urine that is bloody in sicknesse , betokeneth great evill in the body , and namely in the bladder . urine that falleth by drops , above , as it were great boules , betokeneth great sicknesse and long . if white gravell doth issue forth with vrine , it doth signifie that the patient hath or shall have the stone ingendred in the bladder , and there is paine about those parts . if the gravell be red , the stone is ingendred in the reynes of the backe and kidneyes , and there is great paine in the small of the backe . if the gravell be blacke , it is ingendred of a melancholly humour . note , that if the gravell goe away , and the patient find no ease , it sheweth that the stone is confirmed . also know yee , that if the gravell goe away , and the paine goe away likewise , it signifieth that the stone is broken and voydeth away . womens vrine that is cleare and shyning in the vrinall like silver , if shee cast oft , and if she have no talent to meate , it betokeneth she is with child . womens urine that is strong and white and also stinking , betokeneth sicknesse in the reynes , in her secret receipts , and her chambers is full of evill humours , and sicknesse of her selfe . womens vrine that is bloody and cleere as water underneath , betokeneth head-ache . womens urine that is like to gold , cleere and mighty , betokeneth that she hath lust to man. womens urine that hath colour of stable cleansing , betokeneth her to have the fever quartaine , and shee to be in danger of death . womens urine that appeareth as colour of lead , if shee bee with child , betokeneth that it is dead within her . to know a mans urine from a womans , and a womans or mans from a beast urine . first a mans water the nearer you hold it to the eye the thicker it doth shew , and when you hold it further off the thinner it doth appeare ; but in beasts urines it is not so ; for the nearer you hold it to the sight the thinner it is , and the further the sight the thicker , also beast water is more salter and of a stronger savour , and of a more simple complection , and smelleth more raw , then the urine of a man ; also mixe the water of a beast with wine and they will part a sunder . hereafter followeth all the vrines that betokeneth death , as well the vrine of man as of woman . in a hot axes , one part red , another blacke another greene , another blew , betokeneth , death . urine in hot axes , blacke , and little in quantity , betokeneth death . urine coloured all over a● leade , betokeneth the prolonging of death . urine that shineth raw and right bright , if the skin in the bottome shine not , it betokeneth death . urine that in substance having fleeting above as it were a darke sky , signifieth death . urine darkly shyning , and darke with a blacke skin within , betokeneth a prolonging of death . urine that is the colour of water , if it have a darke sky in an axes , it betokeneth death . urine that hath dregges in the bottome medled with blood , it betokeneth death . urine blacke and thicke , and if the sicke loath when he goeth to the stoole , and when he speaketh overthwart , or that he understandeth not aright , and these sicknesses goeth not from him , it betokeneth death . of vvounds ▪ part . iv. a definition of wounds by their causes . a wound is a solution , seperation and recent breach of unity , of that that before was a continuity with out putrified matter , which corruption giveth the name of an ulcer to the solution , and no more a wound . the causes of wounds are duall , viz. first by the violence of bodies without life , as we simply call an incised wound , as when it is caused by edged instruments . secondly , we call it a stab or puncture , caused by theforce of daggers and the like . thirdly , we call those contused wounds , caused by violent use of the object , being some weighty thing ( cast as a stone , or stroake with a staffe , or their similies ) against the subject receiving their forces , differing in their appellations by the diversity of their causes . or secondly , wounds are caused by living things , as a wound that is of biting , scratching and the like , and for these causes they differ in their appellatious . also the differencie of wounds , are taken eyther from their causes by which they are inflicted , or from their accidents , viz. the indication of the place wherein they are scituated . also , the place maketh difference thus : eyther they happen in the similar parts , as the flesh , artery , veyne , &c. or in the organicall or instrumentall parts , as some intire and whole bulke , truncke , or fully compleat member , or limbe , viz. the head , necke , brest , belly , &c. wounds of the head grow more particular , because that parts belonging thereto be of more note ; as the face , nose , lippes , eyes , and eares : wounds of the limbes , arc of the shoulders , armes , thighes , and legs . of the similar parts also , some are sanguine , as the flesh , whose wounds are eyther simple , deepe , hollow , plaine , or proud with flesh . the spermaticke likewise , are eyther hard or soft ; the soft parts , as the veynes , arteries , and sinewes , being wounded , we call them wounds of the hurt part ; the hard are the bones , a breach of which , we call a wound in the bone. so wounds derive their nominations from the cause , place and simisitudes thereof . what wounds are . wounds are these , which in latine are called vulnus , of the vulgar vulner , and they are of two kinds , that is , simple and compound : the simple are those , that are onely in the flesh : the compound are those , where are cut sinewes , veynes , muscles , and bones , and these are of divers and sundry kinds , and the difference that is among them , is by the variety of the place where they are wounded , and by the difference of the weapon wherewith they were hurt . for some goe right , some overthwart , that offend divers places of the body : the simple are of small importance , if they keepe them cleane and close shut nature will heale , them , without any kind of medecine : but those where veynes are cut , had neede of some art or practise , with the which they must stop the blood , and in any wise not to suffer the wound to remaine open but to sow it up very close , so that the veyne may heale , and those where sinewes are hurt are of great importance , and would be healed with great speed , so the sinewes may joyne with more ●ase . but those where bones are hurt , are of great importance , for if the bone be seperated from the other , of necessity it must be taken forth before the wound be healed : so that by this meanes every one may know , what wounds are and their kinds . in the curing of greene wounds consists a five-fold scope or intention . the first , is to draw out that which is sent into the body , whether by bullet , wood , bone , or stone ; or arrowes , darts and such like . the second , is a conjunction and united of parts divided . the third , is a retaining of those parts united in their proper ▪ seate . the fourth , is a conservation of the parts of the substance . the fifth , is a prohibition and mitigation of accidents . for the first intention , it is performed eyther with fit and convenient instruments , or with attractive medicines , whereby things that are infixed are drawne out . which medicines are these . radix aristolochiae , ammoniacum . arundis . saga poenum . anagallis . dictamnum . thapsia . ranae combustae , or emplastrum avicennae , so much commended by guyd● . the second and third intention , is performed by binding and ligature , if the wound be simple and small , and in a place where it may fitly be performed , yea , although it be large , so it may be easily bound , as in the muscles of the arme , and such like ; but if it happen that ligatute will not serve , then must be added the helpe of the needle , being very carefull to handle the party gently , and to place it in his due seate . the fourth intention , is performed and accomplished , by appointing of a fit and convenient dyet , according to the strength of the patient , and greatnesse of the affect and disposition of the whole body : for a thin dyet and cold , doth very much availe in resisting of symptoms , we also adde blood-letting and purging of humors to avoide accidents , also the part is to be contained in his due place , and a cataplasme framed with the whites of egges , and other cooling things , are to be applyed , and sometimes to be fomented with astringed wine . the fifth intention , is the correcting of accidents , which is flux of blood , dolour , tumor , paralysis , convulsion , fever , syncope , delerium , and itching . but this is to observed in the fluxe of blood : whether it hath flowne sufficiently or no ; if otherwise the fluxe is to be suffered ; for after a sufficient fluxe , the wound doth remaine dry , and is so much the neerer cured and the lesse symptomes follow , as phlegmon and such like : and if the wound bleed not sufficient , we must open a veyne for revulsion ▪ according to the greatnesse of the affect , and the nature of the wound : especially when through paine or other cause wee feare inflamation or a feaver . how a sicke man should dyet himselfe being wounded . a wounded man , or a man sore beaten being sicke , must be kept from milke , butter , cheese , hearbes , fruites , fish , ( except fre●h-water fish ) women , garlicke , onions , leekes , peason , &c. also divers sorts of meats must he not eate , as fresh beefe , water fowles , goose , or duck , nor drinke too much strong wine . but he may eate porke , mutton , chicken , henne , or capon . of wounds and their cures happening in severall places of the body . and first , of infirmities incident to souldiers in a campe. commonly , there are three infirmities that offend souldiers in a campe above all the rest , the which are these : feavers , wounds , and fluxes of the body ▪ the which thou mayst helpe in this order following with these medicines . quintessence of wine , balsamo , magno licore , quintessentia , and spice imperiall ; and as for the order to use them is thus . when any hath a feaver or flux , then presently when the disease beginneth , let him blood in one of the two veynes underneath the tongue , cutting it overthwart , and this thou shalt doe in the evening , then the next morning , take a doze of your imperiall powder mixt with wine , and this you may doe without any dyet or strict order : that being done , give him three mornings together , halfe an ounce of our quintessence solutive , with broath : but if it bee a fluxe , and that the patient is not cured , let him stand in a cold bath of salt-water of the sea , three or foure houres or more , and he shall be perfectly ho●pe . then as concerning wounds , as well as cuts as thrusts , and as well galling with arrowes , as harquebush shot , and other sorts , thou shalt cure them thus . the first thing that thou shalt doe to them is to wash them very cleane with wine , and then dry them well , then put thereinto quintessence of wine , and presently joyne the parts together , and sowe or stitch them close , then put thereupon five or sixe drops of our balsamo , and upon the wound lay a cloth wet in our magno licore as hote as yee may suffer it , and this yee shall do the first day : then the next day follow this order . first , put thereon our quintessence , and a little of our balsamo , and then our magno licore very hote , and never change that medicine . and this done , the wound shall be whole with great speed and in a quarter of the time that the common chirurgions is able to doe it , by the grace of god. a rare secret , the which this author did send to a very friend of his being in the warres : the which helpeth all wounds eyther by cut , thrust , galling with arrowes , or hargubush-shot , or otherwise . the first thing that yee shall doe , is to wash the wounds very cleane with urine , and then dry it very well : then put therein quintessence of wine , and presently joyne the parts close together , and stitch or sow them well ; but in any wise sowe nothing but the skinne : for otherwise it will cause great paine : then put thereon five or sixe drops of our balsamo , and upon the wound ▪ lay a cloth wet in our magno licore ▪ as hote as they can suffer it , and this doe the first day . then the next day follow this order . first , put thereon our quintessence , and then a little of our balsamo : and then annoint it very well with our magno licor● , as hot as it may be suffered : never changing this medicine untill it be whole . this is very certaine and approved . of wounds in the head , with fracture of the bone. vvounds of the head with fracture of the bone , of the common physitians and chirurgions , are counted difficile to be healed , because thereunto belongeth great art or cunning : for they open the flesh , and raise the bone , with many other things , of which j count it superfluous to intreat of , because that many be holpen without them . for alwayes when the physitians or chirurgions doe offend the wound for alteration or corruption ▪ nature it selfe will worke very well , and heale it without any ayde . but with our medicines they may be holpen with much more speed , because they let the alteration , and defendeth them from putrifaction , and mittigateth the paine . and the order to cure those kind of wounds are thus . the first thing that is to be done in those wounds , is to joyne the parts close together , and dresse them upon the wound with our oleum benedictum , and upon the oyle lay cloathes wet in our magno licore , as hot as you can suffer it : and so with the remedies thou shalt helpe them quickly : because our oleo benedicto taketh away the paine , and keepeth it from putrifaction and resolveth . our magno licore digesteth , mundifieth , and incarnateth and healeth . and therefore this is the best medicine that can be used in these wounds . for hereof j have had an infinite of experiences , the which hath beene counted miracles : and therefore j have let the world to understand thereof , that they may helpe themselves if need shall serve . of wounds in the head , where the bone is not offended . vvounds in the head , where the bone is not hurt , are not of such importance , but are easily to be holpen : for you shall doe nothing , but keepe it from putrifaction , and defend it from inflamation , which are easie to be done , and so nature will worke well with great speed . to keepe the wound from putrifaction , you must annoynt it round about with our oleum philosophorum , deterebinthina , and sera . and to keepe it from inflamation , you shall wash it with our quintessence , and upon the wound dresse it with our magno licore ; thus doing , thy cure shall prosper happily , and shall not need to take away any blood , nor yet to keepe any dyet , no● yet to keepe the house , but to goe where you thinke good , without any perill or danger : and this order have j used a long time , as divers of my friends can testifie . of concussions or bruises , as well in the head as any other place . concussions or bruises in the head or any other place of the body , of the antient physitians hath beene counted dangerous to heale , for they say , that concussions must be brought to putrifaction , and turned into matter , which opinions j doe allow , for by me those concussions or bruises is very easie to bee dissolved without maturation : and that j doe with our oleo benedicto , and magno licore , as much of the one as of the other mixt together , and made very hote as you can suffer it , and then wet cloathes twice a day , and in three or foure dayes at the most they shall be dissolved : and this it doth , because this remedy assubtiliateth the humours , and openeth the pores , and draweth forth the matter that is runne into the place offended , and so by those meanes they shall be holpen with this remedy : j have cured hundreds , when j was in the warres of africa , in anno. . when a whole city was taken and destroyed by the campe of charles the fifth , emperour . of wounds in the necke and the order to be used in curing them . vvounds in the necke are very hard to be cured , and long before they heale , and this commeth , because next are all the ligaments of the head , as bones , sinewes , veynes , flesh , and skinne , all instruments that hold the head and the body together , without the which a man cannot live ; and therefore those wounds are so perillous to be healed , seeing thereunto runneth so great a quantity of humours , that they will not suffer the wound to be healed . the true way therefore to helpe those wounds , is to stitch them well in his place , and dresse it upon the wound , with cloathes wet in oleum benedictum one part , and magno licore three parts , mixt together , as hote as you can suffer it . and upon the cloath lay the powder of mille-foyle , and this thou shalt doe once in houres , and so that shall helpe them quickly : giving you great charge that you change not your medicine ; for it mundifieth , incarnateth , and healeth the wound without any further helpe , for j have proved it an infinite and many times . of wounds in the armes , and their importances and medicines . vvounds in the armes are dangerous , for that there also are a great number of sinewes , cartylagines , veynes , muscles , and other dangerous things , as it is well seene in wounds in that place , how that thereunto runneth abundance of humours , and there commeth alteration , inflamation , and impostumation which hurteth the patient much . therefore in this case , j will shew thee a rare secret , where-with thou shalt helpe any sort of wound in the arme , without any alteration , and with a little paine , and the secret is this , dresse the wound upon the upper parts with our magno licore , very warme , without any tenting at all , and this doe once a day , and no more , and in no wise change your medicine ; for with this thou mayest helpe all wounds in the armes with great speed ▪ and it is one of the greatest secrets that can be used for the wounds in the armes : and proved by me infinite times . of wounds in the legs , and their parts . vvounds in the legs are in a manner of the same quality as those in the armes , because the legs are of their proper quality and nature , compounded of the like substance that the armes are : that is , in skinne , flesh , muscles , veynes , sinewes , and bones : and these , when they are offended or wounded , are very perillous , because unto them runneth great quantity of humours , and in the legges are certaine places deadly ( as men say ) as the hinder part of the calfe of the leg , nnd the middle of the inner part of the thigh , the ankle , and the foote , are all places troublesome and curious to heale when they are wounded , and therefore to heale them according to the manner of the antients , it were great trouble to the chirurgion : and pity to see the paine of the patient . wherefore in any wise use not the medicines of the antients . but when thou hast occasion , joyne unto the skill of thy art the use of these medicines , our quintessentia , balsamo , magno licore , oleo di rasa , olea benedicto , ole● philosophorum . any of these , or such like , which are incorruptible , which by their proper quality assubtiliateth concussions , pierceth to the bottome of the wounds , keepeth the flesh in his naturall caliditie and humidity , perserveth from putrifaction , and naturally maketh the flesh to joyne and grow together , and that in a short space . therefore consider well , which worketh better effect , ours , or the antients , and use them at thy discretion . a discourse upon old wounds , which are not thorowly healed ; with their remedies . vvhen that wounds are ill healed , and that therein commeth impostumations , and that the part of the wounds be indurated and full of paine , then use this secret of our invention , which was never yet seene nor heard of the antients , nor yet of our time , but of us . when thou findest such a cause , wash the wound well , and make it cleane round about , and then wash it with our quintessentia vegetabile , and bathe it well thorow , for that the said quintessentia doth open the pores , and assubtiliateth the matter , and causeth the humour to come forth . this being done , annoynt it all over with our magno licore ▪ and this done , within three dayes the patient shall feele great ease , and in short time after he shall be whole . this is one of the most noblest medicines that can bee made : for it takes away the hardnesse healeth the wound , and comforteth the place offended . a rare secret to heale wounds of gunshot , arrowes , or such like , in the wars , when hast is required . if thou wilt cure these wounds presently , joyn the parts together with speed , washing it with aqua coelestis , and oleum balsam● , of our invention , and lay a cloath wet to the same very close thereon . to heale a wound quickly . vvash the wound well with our aqua balsamo , and close it up , and thereupon lay a cloth of the oyle of frankensence , and so by this meanes thou shalt heale any great wound quickly : for j have proved it infinite times to my great credit . to heale a wound quickly , that is in danger of any accidents . wounds in some parts of the body are very dangerous of life , and especially where the sinewes or veynes bee ( cut or pierced ) or veynes or muscles be hurt , or bones broken , and by an infinite of other particulars , which being open or ill healed , the patient may be in danger of life , because the winde entreth in , and causeth paines and inflamation ; and therefore to avoyd all these aforesaid matters , so that the wound shall have no detriment use this remedy . first joyne the parts close together , and put therein our quintessence , and lay a cloth wet in our baulme , and binde it fast that the ayre come not in , for it is very hurtfull . you shall understand that these be two of the best experienced medicines that may be found : because our quintessence doth assubtiliate the blood , and taketh it forth , and taketh away the paine . and the baulme doth warme and comfort the place offended . and will not suffer any matter to runne thereinto by any meanes : for this is most true , as j have proved it divers and sundry times , and alwayes have had very good successe . to stay the fluxe of bloud in wounds . vvhen there is a fluxe of blood in any wound by reason of some veyne that is cut , and that the chirurgion would stop it , it is necessary , that he put into it our quintessence , and then to stitch it up very close and hard , and upon the wound strow the blood of a man dryed , made in powder , and lay upon the wound a cloath wet in our baulme artificially , very warme , and upon that binde the wound very straight with ligaments , and twice a day wash it with our quintessentia , and round about it annoynt it with our baulme , and also cast thereon our secret powder for wounds , and that doe , morning and evening every day without opening the wound , and in short time it will remaine well , giving you charge that the wounded person doe keepe no straight dyet , because nature being weake relaxeth the veynes , and that causeth the fluxe of blood . another for the same . first , stitch the wound close , then cast thereon mans blood , and bind it somewhat hard , so let it remaine . houres : and when you unbind it , take heed you remove nothing , and cast thereon more dried blood , and annoint it round about with oleum philosophorum , deteribinthina and cera , and bind it againe other . houres , and bind it gently , and annoynt the wound with oyle of frankensence , and in short time it will be perfectly whole . a defence to be layd upon vvounds . take perfect aqua-vitae of good wine , what quantity you will , and put therein hipericon , mill-foyle , viticella , and bitony , and then let it stand certaine dayes close stopped , and when ye will use it , wet a cloth therein and lay it round about the wound , and thou shalt have thy intent , to the great satisfaction of the patient . a secret powder for wounds . take hipericon flowers and leaves , millfoyle , and viticella , and stampe them well together , and so strew it upon the wound , and round about the wound , when it is dressed , and that doth defend it from accidents . a composition of great vertue against all vlcers and sores . take the oyle of vitrioll that is perfect , as much as you will , and put it into a glasse , with as much oyle of tartar made by dissolution , and so let it stand ten dayes : then take one scruple of that , and one ounce of pure aqua vitae , and mixe them together , and therewith wash the hollow ulcers and they will heale in short time . it helpeth any crude kind of scab or sore that is caused of the evill quality or nature . a note of a certaine spanyard , wounded in the head at naples . there was a certaine spanyard called samora , of the age of . yeares , of complexion cholericke and sanguine , the which was wounded in the left side of the head , with incision of the bone. now yee must understand , that in naples the ayre is most ill for wounds in the head , by reason that it is so subtill , and for that cause the doctors did feare the cure : neverthelesse , j dressed him with our magno licore , and balsamo artificio , keeping the wound as close as was possible , annoynting it onely upon the wound , and so in . dayes he was perfectly whole , to the great wonder of number of chyrurgions in that city . for to heale hurts and vvounds . take mallowes and seeth them well , and when they be boyled , take and stampe them , and take old barrowes grease and clean barley meale , and mingle the juyce , the meale and the grease all together , and make a salve thereof , it is a ready healer . to stanch the blood of a cut. take a good handful of nettles and bruise them , and then lay them upon the wound hard bound with a cloth , and it will stanch it presently . another for the same . take hogs-dung hot from the hog , mingle it with suger and lay it to the wound will stay the bleeding . for to staunch the blood of a vvound . take a linnen-cloth , and burne it to powder , and bind it to the wound or veyne that is hurt , and it helpeth . a healing salve for any greene vvound . take two yolkes of egges , halfe a pound of turpentine , half a quarter of an ounce of mastick , half a quarter of an ounce of nitre and halfe a quarter of an ounce of wearick , two ounces of bucks-tallow , halfe a gille of rose-water , and half a quarter of an ounce of saffron , mixe all these together and make of them a salve , and keepe it for your use . the lord capels salve for cuts or rancklings comming of rubbings : it is also a very good lip-salve . take a pound of may-butter and clarifie it , then take the purest thereof : also take three ounces of english wax , and two ounces of rozine , and clarifie them by themselves , then boyle them all together , and when it is well boyled , coole it , and after keepe it in the cake , or otherwise as your salve . for to draw and heale a cut. take the juyce of smalledge , the juyce of bugle , of each a like quantity ; take also waxe , rozen unwrought , sheepes suet , deeres suet , of each a like quantity , of sallet oyle ▪ and turpentine but a little ; fry them all , and scrape a little lint , and lay a little salve upon the lint , and put it in the cut , and then lay a plaister over it . a salve for fresh wounds . take harts-grease and turpentine , of each foure ounces : oyle of roses , frankensence and masticke , of each one ounce , and so make your salve , and lay it to the sore . a salve that cleanseth a wound and heal●th it . take white turpentine unwashed foure ounces , the yolke of an egge , and a little barley meale , and so make a salve . to kill dead flesh . take the juyce of smalledge , and the yolke of an egge , wheaten flower , a spoonfull of honey : and mingle all these together , and drop it into the sore , or otherwise make a plaister : fine suger scraped into powder will doe the same . a playster for old sores . take litarge of gold , one pound , oyle of roses two pound , white wine a pinte , urine a pinte , vineger halfe a pinte , waxe , frankensence , and myrrhe , of each two drams , and so make your plaister according . for a canker , fistula , warts , or wounds , new or old . take a gallon and a halfe of running water , and a pecke of ashen ashes , and seeth them , and make thereof a gallon of lie , and put thereto a gallon of tanners woose ▪ and powder of roch allome , and madder a pound : and seeth all these , and let your panne be so great , that it be little more then halfe full , and when it riseth in the seething , stirre it downe with a ladle , that it runne not over , and let it stand three or foure houres till it be cleere , and all that is cleere straine it through a good thicke canvasse , and then wet therein a ragged cloth , and long lint , and lay it on the sore , and this is good for all the diseases aforesaid . a salv● for any wound . take housleeke , marigold leaves , sage ▪ betonie , and garden mallowes , of each one handfull , stampe them , and straine them , then take the juyce , and half a pound of fresh butter , one penny worth of fine turpentine , ●ery well washed , one penny worth of aqua composita , and an oxe-gall , mixe them all together , and boyle them moderately upon the imbers , and so make a plaister . to h●lp● the ach of a wound . for ache of a wound , stampe fennell , with old swines greace , and heate it and binde it thereto , r●cip . the juyce of smallage , honey , old swines greace , and rye meale , and apply it plasterwise . to heale wounds without plaister , tent or oyntment , except it ●e in the head. stampe fennell , yarrow , buglosse , an● ▪ white wine , and drinke it . or . times a day till you be well . mixe swines greace with honey , rye meale , and wine , and boyle it and use it , but if it heale too fast , put in the juyce of bryonie a little , or bruise jsop and put in while the wound is raw is very good . to heale a wound that no scarre or print thereof shall be seene . rost lilly roots , and grinde them with swines greace , and when the wound is healed , anoynt it therewith often . thus much for vvounds . of plaisters ▪ part . v. to make a resolutive plaister of great vertue . this plaister is to resolve tumours and hardnesse , if it be laid thereon very hot , and when it cold , to lay on another , and this you shall doe till the hardnesse be resolved : and it is made in this order . take common wood ashes that are well burnt and white , and finely searced one pound , clay beaten in fine powder , halfe a pound , carab one ounce : mixe all these in an earthen dish , on the fire , with oyle of roses , in forme of a liquid unguent , and that yee shall lay upon the place grieved , as hot as yee may suffer it , and change it morning and evening ▪ and yee shall see ▪ it worke a marvailous effect . moreover , when the pelichie commeth forth a diseased , let him bee folded in the same remedy very hot , and in foure and twenty houres yee shall be holpe , if yee be first well purged : for this is a great secret which j have revealed . this word pelichy , is ( as it were certaine spots ) like those which we call gods tokens , the which commonly come to those that have the pestilent feaver . to make a maturative plaister of great vertue . this maturative doth open an impostume without instrument and paine : and the order to make it , is this . take the yolkes of egges , two ounces , white salt finely ground , one ounce , hens dung that is liquid and red like honey , one ounce : mixe all these well together without fire , and when you will bring an impostume to seperation , and breake it , lay on this plaister morning and evening , a little , and in short time it will draw forth the impostume , and breake it , and heale it without any other helpe . keepe this as a great secret , for j have oftentimes made proofe thereof , and it never failed . a plaister called bessilicon . take white waxe , rozen , pine , cowes suet , stone-pitch , turpentine , olibany , of each of these one ounce , and of good oyle as much as will serve the turne , and make it into a plaister another plaister for the same . take balme , bittony , pimpernell , of each of them a handfull , lay them in a fuse in a pottle of white-wine vinegar two dayes , then let them be boyled strongly , till the third part be consumed , put thereto rozen one pound , white waxe foure ounces , masticke one ounce , turpentine one pound , and so make your plaister . the mellilote plaister . take mellilote tenne handfuls , let it be small stamped , and laid in fuse foure dayes in a pottle of white wine , and then boyl it strongly , till the third part bee consumed , then let it coole , and put thereto rozen two pound , perosine one pound , and waxe one pound , deere suet one pound , masticke one ounce , frankensence foure ounces , and so make your plaister according to art. the musilage plaister . take march mallow rootes , fenecricke , and linseed , of each one pound , lay them in fuse in three quarts of water three dayes , then boyle it over the fire a little , and so straine it to a musilage , and then take thereof one pound , and of lytarge of lead foure pound ▪ of good oyle sixe pound , put all over the fire in a great vessell , and so let it boyle with a soft fire , ever stirring it till it come to the forme of a plaister accordingly . another plaister for the same . take the juyce of bittony . planten , and smalledge , of each one pound , waxe , rozen , and turpentine , of each one pound , pitch foure ounces , and so make your worke and dissolve it to a plaister . a plaister of camphere . take common oyle one pound , waxe foure ounces , seruse one ounce , camphere one ounce , and so make it into a plaister , it is a very soveraigne thing . a spiced plaster . take white waxe one pound , perosine one pound , colophony foure ounces , rozen one pound ▪ deere suet one pound , cloves and mace foure ounces , saffron one ounce , red wine and water of each a quart boyle these altogether till they come to a plaister . a plaister called apostolicum . take white lead and red , of each one pound , oyle foure pound , stirre them altogether , and boyle them with a soft fire , to the forme of a plaister , according to art. a drying plaister . take oyle of roses , deeres suet , of each one pound , terra sigillata , lapis calaminaris , seruse , of each one pound , sanguis draconis , three ounces , and incense of each one ounce , turpentine foure ounces , camphere halfe an ounce , and so by art make a plaister . a plaister for the gowt arteticke . take oxium , and saffron , of each one dram in fine powder , tempered in the yolkes of three egges hard boyled , and oyle of violets , or roses , plaister-wise , applyed to the painfull place upon a little sheeps leather , and let it lye on till it come off of it selfe . probatum est . a plaister to stake paine . take crummes of white bread foure ounces temper them with sweet milke , and the yolkes of foure egges hard boyled : and take of oyle of roses three drams , and in the making put thereto a little turpentine and saffron two drams in fine powder , and so use it . a plaister against the coldnesse of the nerves . take waxe two ounces , euforbium , castoris , of each halfe an ounce , sheepes suet , and pitch of each one ounce , turpentine a dram : and so make your worke according to art. a good cold drying plaister . take oyle one pound , waxe ten ounces , seruse and lytarge of gold , of each foure ounces , boyled with a soft fire in a furnace , will turne to a plaister . a red plaister . take waxe , deeres suet , of each one ounce , lapis calaminaris , bole-armony of each one ▪ dram , turpentine one ounce , camphere a dram : mixe all these together , and so make a plaister . a blacke plaister . take of waxe and oyle , of each a pound , ceruse and litarge , of each five ounces ; terra sigillata , one ounce : boyle altogether till it be blacke , and like a plaister . a blacke plaister for old sores . take litarge of gold , and ceruse , of each one ounce , the cinders of jron , quilled story fererie , fixe drams , oyle of roses foure ounces , new waxe one ounce , strong vineger two drams : mixe them well together , and so make it according to art. a plaister to dissolve hard things . take gum armoniack , serapine , bdelium , oppoponacie , of each one ounce , oyle of spike five drams , turpentine two drams , the mell of fennicrick , and linseed , of each one ounce , the mell of lupianes , as much as needs , and so make your plaister . another blacke plaister for the same . take oyle one pound , waxe and ceruse of each halfe a pound , and so make a plaister according to art. a plaister against old sores . take oyle twelve ounces , litarge of gold halfe a pound , vineger sixe ounces , ceruse , colophonie , perosine , pitch , goates suet , of each two ounces , dragons bloud , terra sigillata , of each one ounce , waxe two ounces and a halfe : and so with a soft fire make a plaister , it is an approved remedy . a cooling plaister . take litarge of lead one pound , oyle foure pound , wine vineger two pound , and so boyle them to a plaister and apply it . a plaister to draw an impostume . take galbanum and gum armoniack , of each one pound , dissolved in vineger and foure pound of suger , for foure dayes together , and then boyled untill the vineger bee consumed with a soft fire , and so make your plaister . a plaister made for the lord marke de wise . take virgin-wax two pound , of perosine so much , galbanum and gum-armoniack , of each halfe a pound , pitch foure ounces , deeres suet and ceruse , of each halfe a pound ▪ cloves and mace foure ounces , saffron to the weight of twelve pence , red wine and water of each two pintes ; boyle all these things together till the liquor be wasted away , and so make a plaister thereof , it is very good for to breake an impostume . the white musilage plaister . take pure good oyle eight pound , litarge of lead five pound and a halfe , musilage of march mallow rootes , of fennicrick and linseed two pound ; boyle all these together to the forme of a plaister with a soft fire , ever stirring it well , then take and wash it in three or foure waters and it will be very white , it is good to ripen and draw . a spiced plaister for the same . take wax and perosine of each one pound cressine halfe a pound , colophonie two ounces , frankinsence and goats suet of each foure ounces , cloves and mace , oyle of turpentine , and oyle of spike of each one ounce , saffron halfe an ounce , red wine two pound ; dissolve them over a soft fire , and so make your plaister . an excellent plaister for old sores . take litarge of gold one pound , oyle of roses two pound , white wine a pint , urine a pint , vineger half a pint , waxe , frankensence and myrrhe of each two drams , set them on the fire to boyle , and so make your plaister according to art . a sparadrope for the same . take oyle of roses a pound , white waxe three ounces , litarge of gold foure ounces , boyle all these in forme of a plaister . a very good drying plaister . take of jacobs plaister halfe a pound , of vnguentum lapis caluminaris one pound , mixe them and so make a plaister . oliver wilsons plaister . take a pottle of oyle , wax two pound and a quarter , white lead in powder . pound , of storax callamitick one ounce , bengawin one ounce , labdanum one ounce , mastick one ounce , of camphere foure drams , dissolve them and so make a plaister . to make another sparadrope . take oyle a quart , white lead one pound , the grounds of urine foure ounces , of white copperas two ounces , white wax three ounces , vineger a pint , camphere three penny-worth , boyle all these together , and so make a plaister . to make the mellilote plaister . take rozin eight pound , wax two pound , sheepes suet one pound , the juyce of mellilote a gallon cleane strained , let your rozen and sheepes suet be molten , and cleane strained into a faire panne , and then put to your juyce of mellilote , and set it over the fire and stirre it well together till it be like a plaister , then take it off the fire and put unto it a pottle of red wine , by a little and a little , ever stirring it till it bee almost cold , and then labour it well in your ●ands for feare of heaving out the wine , and so make it up in rolles and keepe it for your use . to make a seare-cloath . take waxe one ounce , and a dram of euforbium , and temper it with oyle olive at the fire , and make thereof a seare-cloath to comfort the sinewes . to make a plaister called flowesse . take rozen , and perosine of each halfe ● pound , virgin-wax , and frankensence of each a quarter of a pound , mastick one ounce , harts-tallow a quarter of a pound , camphere two drams , beat all these to a powder , and boyle them together , and straine it thorow a faire cloth into a pottle of white wine , and boyle them all againe together , and letting it coole a little , then put to it foure ounces of turpentine , and stirre them all together till it be cold , and so make it in rowles according to art. another plaister for the same . take two pound of waxe , two pound of rozen , foure pound of perosine , a quarter of a pound of deeres suet , two ounces of cloves , two ounces of mace , a quarter of an ounce of saffron , one pound and a halfe of olibanon , and a gallon of red wine , and put all these into a faire panne , and set it over the fire foure or five houres , till yee suppose that the wine be sodden away , and then take it off the fire , and stirre it till it be cold , and rowle it in balls and keepe itto use . to make the playster occinicione . take a quarter of a pound of comin , as much waxe as much pitch , as much rozen , and of saffron one ounce and a halfe , of masticke one quarterne , galbanum halfe a quarterne , turpentine one ounce , incense halfe an ounce , myrrhe but a quarter , sal-armoniac a little ; first take the salt , and let it lye in good vineger , and stamped in a morter till it be well moystned all night and more , then take the vineger , and the gums therein and set it on the fire , till the gummes be well melted , then straine it and set it on the fire againe ▪ and let it seeth untill the vineger the second part thereof be wasted , and so that there be but the third part left , then melt the pitch and scumme it , and put thereto the liquour that is left , then melt the waxe and put it to the rozen , and the turpentine , and then take the masticke incense , and myrrhe : but looke that all the gums be beaten into powder , before that you cast it in , and see that you stirre it apace ; when that they be well molten and medled , looke that you have a faire bason of hot water , and sodainely cast it in , then wring it out of the water , then chafe it against the fire as if it were waxe : and annoynt your hands with oyle of bay , and looke yee have the saffron in fine powder : and the other that was not put in before , and when you have put in all the eight powders , make it up in rowles , this is an excellent plaister for divers occasions . to make a plaister inplumhie . take oyle one pound , litarge halfe a pound : and looke that the litarge bee fine , then set it on the fire : and let it boyle untill it waxe browne , but not so long that it waxe blacke : then take it from the fire , and make it in balles and so keepe it . a plaister of camphere . take camomill oyle halfe a pound , white waxe foure ounces , ceruse one pound , camphere ▪ halfe an ounce , and so make your plaister . to make a noble plaister , that as soone as th● plaister is warme and laid to the place th● paine will be gone , and it is called a spic● plaister . take waxe two pound , deere suet one pound , perosine foure pound , cloves and mace two ounces , saffron one ounce , rozen two pound , pitch foure ounces , now melt that which is to be molten , and powder and serse that which is to be powdered and sersed , and melted altogether over a soft fire , except your cloves and saffron ; and then take a quart of red wine , and by a little and a little poure it to the salve , stirring it well together , and when it is cleane molton , straine it into a cleane pan , and then put to it your powder , of cloves , mace , and saffron , casting it abroad upon the said ingredience , and stirring it well till it be cold , then make it into rolles . this is a very comfortable plaister . to make a speciall plaister for all manner of cold aches . take perosine foure pound , rozen , and waxe of each two pound , galbanum as much , olibanon as much , masticke , and myrrhe , of each two ounces , red wine foure pound , put in your masticke , myrrhe and wine , in the cooling , it hath beene often times proved , and when you need it , spread it on a leather and let it lye on a day or two before you change it . to make a plaister that sir william farrington let a squire that was his prisoner goe for , quit without ransome . take one pound of litarge of gold , and make thereof small powder , and serse it well , then take a quart of oyle of roses , and a pinte of white wine , and halfe a pinte of old urine , very well clarified , and halfe a pinte of vineger , and boyle all these on the fire , but put in the urine last , this plaister will heale a marmole , or a canker , and a fester , as also wounds , and all other sores , if thou put thereto one ounce of waxe , ollibanon , and myrrhe , of each a dram . probatum est . to make coulman plaister . take oyle olive foure pound , red lead , and white , of each one pound , boyle them together till it waxe blacke , and then put thereto pitch one pound , and make it into rolles for your use . to make the mellitote plaister . take the juyce of mellilot , and camomill ▪ of each one pound , of waxe one pound , rozen three pound , sheepes suet a pound and a halfe , white wine two pound and a halfe , and so make them all in a plaister according to art , for it is good . to make the deaguloune plaister . take oyle two pound , strong vineger one pound and a halfe , litarge of gold one pound , verdigreace one ounce , boyle them together till they be red , and so make it into rolles for your use . a plaister for all manner of sores , and especially for all greene sores . take of fine suger and burnet , of each of them alike much , and bruise them in a morter , and wash the wound with the juyce of the same , then take the hearbes finely beaten , and mingle with them and the juyce , a quantity of english honey , and unwrought waxe , so boyle them together till it be allof one colour , then take them from the fire , and let them stand a while : then put it into a bason of faire water , and so worke it out into rowles , and lay it on plaisters once or twice a day . another for the same approved . take the hearb sellendine , and houseleeke , of each equall quantity , then bruise them in a morter ▪ and take the juyce of them , and put it into the wound , and annoynt the same therewith : that done , fill the wound with part of the bruised hearbe , and so bind it up , and in short time it will heale the sore , as by proofe hath beene seene . a plaister for the stitch. anoynt your side with the oyle of mellilote , then make a plaister of the same mellilote upon a piece of leather , and change it but once a weeke . a playster for the plurisie . stampe well in a morter , foure ounces of the roots of wild mallowes well sodden , put to it an ounce of butter ▪ and an ounce and a halfe of honey , of pigeons dung two drams , mingle all together , and lay it very hot upon the paine , and soone after the corruption will breake out . a plaister for the collick and stone . take peritory , camomill , ground-ivie leaves , cummin : stampe them , and boyle them in white wine , and make a plaister thereof , and put it about the reines of the back as hot as may be suffered , and see that it lye close round about behind and before and you will find great ease in it . a plaister for the head-ache , and for hot agues . take red mintes , leavened bread of wheate , and white vineger : make thereof a plaister , and lay it to your fore-head , for it helpeth diseases in the head , and also hot agues . a hot drawing plaister , called flowis . take rozen , perosine , of each halfe a pound , white wax four ounces , and frankensence foure ounces , and mastick one ounce , deere suet foure ounces , turpentine foure ounces , camphere two drams , white wine a pottle : and so make a plaister and give him time to draw . a plaister called the vertue of our lord. take oyle olive one pound , white waxe two drams , galbanum , ermony , and opponacke two ounces , litarge halfe a pound , almonds one dram , verdigreace one ounce , aristoligiam longuam one dram , myrrhe , and mastcke , of each one ounce , lawrell bayes two drams , incense white one dram : make the plaister in this manner : take and temper the galbanum , opponack , and ermony , in good vineger , two dayes naturall , and the other things to bee provided each by himselfe : then take the wax , and melt is with the oyle in a kettle , and the gummes dissolved in vineger , in another vessell upon the fire , till the vineger be sodden away : then straine it upon the said oyle , as strongly as you can stirre it well : and then put in the verdigreace , the astrologium , and the other gummes that were not put in before , then it is made . it healeth all wounds new or old , and it doth heale more then all other plaisters , or oyntments doth . a plaister for weaknesse in the backe . take the juyces of comfrey , plantane , and knotgrasse , mingled with bole-armoniack , and made in a plaister spread upon a piece of sheeps leather and layd to the backe . a plaister for any ache , lamenesse , or sciatica . take a pound of the leanest part of a leg of mutton , put to it a quart of the grounds of muskadine , or sweet sacke , and one pound of oyle de bay , mince your mutton very fine , and boyle them together into the forme of a plaister , and so apply it to the place as hot as you can suffer it . d. r. a plaister for a sore brest that must be broken . take one handfull of groundsill , a pinte of sweete milke , and a handfull of oate-meale , and seethe them together . make a plaister thereof , and lay it to the brest as hot as the patient may suffer it , and at every dressing put to more milke : this use no longer then it breakes . a plaister to heale it . take one pound of bores-grease , and three garlick heads , stampe them in a morter till they bee fine , put them both into a box , and put thereto of beane flower , the quantity of two egges , beat them well together and so lay them to the brest . to make another seare-cloath . take rozen , and perosine of each foure ounces , wax two ounces , ollibanum so much ▪ masticke half an ounce , turpentine two ounces , dissolve them on the fire and so make your seare-cloath . of unguents . part . vi. the making of oyntments , and first of vnguentum aegyptiacum . take honey a pint , vineger a pint , allom half a pound , verdigreace foure ounces in fine powder ; boyle all these together till they bee red ; for if you boyle it too much it will be blacke , and if you boyle it too little it will be greene ; therefore when it is boyled enough it will be perfectly red , and so make your unguent . to make vnguentum apostolorum . take yellow rozen two pound , verdigrease three ounces , wax one pound , oyle a pint , you must set the oyle , wax and rozen over the fire , then put to your verdigreace made into fine powder ▪ and stirre it till it be cold , and so it is finished . vnguentum basilicum . take oyle halfe a pound , waxe , colophonie , of each two ounces , turpentine , pitch , perosine , and cowes suet , of each two pound and a half , frankensence , and myrrhe , of each halfe an ounce , and so make your unguent . the golden vnguent , called vnguentum aureum . take yellow waxe foure ounces , oyle one pound , turpentine , colophonie ▪ and rozen , of each one ounce , frankensence and masticke , of each halfe an ounce , saffron a dram , and so make an unguent . to make a drying vnguent , called vnguentum calaminaris . take the stone called lapis calaminaris , deeres suet , and waxe , of each foure ounces , oyle of roses halfe a pound , camphere two drams , and so make your unguent according to art. to make the white oyntment , called vnguentum album rasis . take oyle of roses halfe a pound , waxe two ounces , ceruse sixe ounces , the whites of three egges , and camphere a dram : and after these things be melted and commixed together , you must wash it with rose-water . to make vnguentum lytargerii . take oyle of roses one pound , litarge of lead one pound , vineger halfe a pound , camphere two drams : and so make your unguent . to make vnguentum lypeione . take the juyce of honey-suckles a quart , honey a pinte , white copperas halfe a pound : and so make your unguent . to make the incarnative vnguent . take oyle of greene balme two pound , waxe , and perosine , of each halfe a pound ▪ deeres suet foure ounces , frankensence and myrrhe , of each two ounces , of turpentine foure ounces , the yolkes of foure egges , and so make your unguent . another incarnative vnguent . take deeres suet , oyle of roses , rozen , pitch , litarge of gold , frankensence and myrrhe of each foure ounces , and so make your unguent . to make vnguentum viride . take ossingie porsine one pound , verdigreace two ounces , sall gemme , halfe an ounce , and so make your unguent . another vnguent . take burnt allom and vineger , of each two ounces , ossingie porsine sixe ounces , and so make an unguent . a drying vnguent . take oyle of roses one pound , waxe sixe ounces , litarge of gold and silver , bdelium , gum armoniack , red corall , dragons bloud , deeres suet , masticke , of each two ounces , camphere halfe an ounce , and so make your unguent . an vnguent against the morphew . take quicke brimstone sixe drams , oyle of tartary , foure drams , ceruse , unguentum cytrium , of each two drams , oyle of roses , sixe drams , the white of an egge , as much vineger as needs , and so make your unguent . an vnguent called rosye . take rozen , turpentine , and honey , of each halfe a pound , linseed and fenecrick ▪ of each one ounce , myrrhe one ounce . sercoll one ounce : let them all be made in fine powder , and so make an unguent thereof . an vnguent for vlcers in the arme. take litarge of gold and silver , ceruse , of each two ounces : bole-armoniac half an ounce , lapis calaminaris , dragons blood , of each one ounce , frankensence , and mastick , of each halfe an ounce , tartarie , sall-gemme and camphere , of each two drams : turpentine washed in rose-water , and waxe , of each two ounces , oyle of elders , half an ounce , oyle of bayes two drams , oyle of violets and of poppie , of each foure drams : and so make your unguent , it is an excellent oyntment . an vnguent against cabes . take storax liquide , two ounces , bay-salt in fine powder , and oyle of roses , of each one ounce , the juyce of orenges , as much as shall need , and so make your unguent according to art. an vnguent called the gift of god. take orras powder , sall-gemme , sall-nitrie , of each one ounce , a stone called lapis magnates , two ounces , lapis calaminaris , two ounces , waxe one pound , oyle three pound : and so make your unguent according to art. a precious vnguent . take ceruse washed one ounce , in an ounce of vineger , burnt lead foure ounces , litarge two ounces , myrrhe one ounce , honey , of roses two ounces , oyle of roses sixe ounces , the yolkes of sixe egges , and waxe as much as needs , and so make your unguent . another vnguent against cabes . take the juyce of sallendine , femitary , borage , scabious , and dockes , of each three ounces , litarge of gold washed , ceruse , burnt brasse , brimstone , bay salt , burnt allom , of each halfe an ounce , oyle of roses two ounces , storax liquide , turpentine , of each one ounce , vineger foure ounces , ossingie perosine , one pound and a halfe : and so make your oyntment . to make the greene oyntment called vnguentum viride . take waxe one pound , perosine one pound , frankensence halfe a pound , gum arabic halfe a pound , verdigrease two ounces , honey foure ounces , oyle olive two pound : and so make your unguent . an vnguent to increase flesh . take the gum dragagant , and dissolve it in rose-water , and make an unguent . an vnguent to heale the serpigo . take pepper , bay-salt , tartary , verdigreace , allumines ynke , of each halfe an ounce , ceruse , litarge , and quicksilver well killed , of each two drams , of ossingie perosine , as much as needs . an vnguent for fistulaes . take myrrhe , masticke , alloes , and epatick , of each two ounces ▪ the juyce of salendine , planten , honey , of roses , and vineger , of each a like quantity , and make it an unguent . an oyntment for a greene wound . take oyle of turpentine one ounce , the oyle of vulpinum one ounce , oyle of camomill two ounces , and make thereof an unguent . a cold vnguent . take oyle of roses , and waxe , of each two ounces , the juyce of red gowrd leaves , night-shade leaves , of each two ounces , ceruse washed , burnt lead washed in rose-water , or planten water , of each halfe an ounce , frankensence two drams , melt all together , and decoct it a little : and then take it from the fire , and put it into a leaden morter , wherein you must labour it a good while , and so make your unguent . an vnguent for a sawse-fleame face . take may butter one pound , hony-suckle flowers three handfuls , stampe the flowers , and the butter together , and lay it in fuse for sixe dayes space ; then melt it and straine it , and put thereto quicke brimstone , the weight of twelve pence , finely powdered , and so reserve it for your use . an vnguent for the piles . take mollene , archangell , red fennell stamped small , of each a like quantity , and as much ossingie as of the hearbes : mixe all these together , and lay it ● rotting a weeke space : then straine it and keepe it for that use . another vnguent for the piles . take yarrow , and may butter , and stampe them together , and apply them as hot as may be suffered . to make vnguentum lipcium . take a quart of juyce of honey suckles , and a pinte of hony , and halfe a pound of white coperas , and seethe them on the fire , and let them boyle till it waxe blacke : then put in your copperas in fine powder . to make vnguentum fanscome . take waxe one pound , rozen , colophonie , of each two pound , pitch one pound , cowes suet one pound , may-butter halfe a pound , honey two pound , oyle two pound , turpentine foure ounces , verdigrease and ceruse foure ounces : and so according to art worke it . to make vnguentum dunsinnitive . take two ounces of litarge of gold , two drams of lapis calaminaris , and foure ounces of terra sigillata , and powder them small : then take a pinte of oyle , and put thereto halfe a pound of waxe , and melt it with your oyle , and then take it off the fire , and put in your powders , and when it is cold almost , put in foure drams of camphere in fine powder , to make an vnguent for the skerby . take a gallon of red vineger , and one pound of the roote of briony , and seeth therein till it bee consumed : then take the roote thereof and beate it with oxsingie , and beat it very fine : then take one ounce of arguentum vivum well killed , and labour them altogether very fine , and so annoint therewith . to make an vnguent for vlcers in childrens faces . take litarge and ceruse , of each five ounces , the leaves of ashe , and vine leaves of each three ounces , oyle of roses one ounce , waxe halfe an ounce : relent your oyle and waxe together , and beate your litarge and ceruse , and mingle them with two yolkes of rosted egges , and so use it . to make the sinnitive oyntment . take turpentine foure ounces , hartsgreace , or the marrow of a heart two ounces , oyle of roses one ounce , white frankensence halfe an ounce , oyle of spike two drams , and halfe a dram of mynium , and so worke it . to make an vnguent for the itch. take three handfuls of allecompanerootes , seethe them in three gallons of water till they be soft : then take the roots and scrape them , and take the white of them to the quantity of a pound , and beate them with one pound of barrow-hogges greace , and a quantity of salt , and a little saffron ; and so bring them to an oyntment . to make an oyntment for the morbus . take two ounces of vermillion , two ounces of quick-silver , two ounces of oyle of bay , two ounces of bores-greace , halfe an ounce of vineger , foure yolkes of egges : and let them all be wrought , very well together before you use them . to make the dunsymitive vuguent . take oyle olive one pound , rozen one pound , lapis calaminaris one pound , waxe halfe a pound , turpentine and sheepes suet , of each a quarter of a pound , and 〈◊〉 use it . to make vnguentum dulsum . take sheepes suet five pound , rozen in powder one pound , roch allom in powder one pound , and a quart of white wine , boyle them altogether : and if you will make it red , you may put into it one ounce of vermilion in powder . to make vngnentum basilicon . take waxe one pound , the best pitch one pound , rozen halfe a pound , colophonie one pound , cowes suet one pound , oyle two pound , may-butter halfe a pound turpentine foure ounces , the yolkes of foure egges , make all these in an unguent and so use it . to make a mundifigitive . take smalledge a little bagge full , one pouad of oxingie , three pound of rozen , a quarter of a pound of waxe : stampe your smalledge and oxingie together in a stone morter : then put it into a panne ▪ and set them upon the fire till it be hot : then straine them through a cloth into a faire panne , till they begin to waxe cold , then fleete it off with a slice , till you come to the water : then put in the rose-water and waxe all together upon the fire , and let them boyle altogether , then straine them through a linnen cloth , and so make your mundifigitive . to make vnguentum rosine . take honey two pound , rozen one pound and a quarter , turpentine two pound , frankensence one ounce , fenecrike semminis ben , of each two ounces , myrrhe and seacole , of each two ounces in fine powder . to make gibsons incarnative . take greene broome two pound , waxe and rozen , of each halfe a pound , deere suet foure ounces , frankensence , and myrrhe , of each two ounces , turpentine and the yolkes of egges as much as neecs . to make a yellow incarnative . take one pound of rozen , halfe a pound of frankensence , a quarter of a pound of waxe , halfe a pound of sheepes suet , halfe a pinte of oyle olive , halfe a pound of turpentine , and so make your unguent . to make another inearnative . take oyle of roses twelve drams , rosen two ounces , turpentine eight ounces , waxe sixe ounces , melt the waxe , rosen , and oyle together , and in the boyling put in your turpentine , and the juyce of valerian , and so let it bee cold , and as you occupy it put in oyle of turpentine , and so keepe it . to make an vnguent for the piles . take barrowes grease halfe a pound , burnt allome one ounce , and the yolke of an egge hard rosted , put these together , and make an oyntment , and annoynt your sore as hot as you can abide it . another fumetive vnguent . take halfe a poond of deere suet , a pound of waxe , one pound of oyle of roses , halfe a pound of oyle olive , of lapis calaminaris and camphere two ounces , and so make your vnguent according to art. to make vnguentum foscovem . take oyle olive one pound , saffron foure drams , colophonie , pitch , naviles , gum , and seropine , of each two ounces , mastick , olibanon , and turpentine of each one ounce , wax a quarter of a pound , melt your oyle and then your wax , and then put in the colophonie , and after stirre your pitch , naviles , and your gum and serapine together , and last of all your turpentine , masticke , and olibanon , every thing being bruised , except your pitch and turpentine ; when you put in your powders bee ever stirring it with your spittle till it be full dissolved , and so use it . an oyntment for the stone and collick to bee made in may. take the buds of broome-flowers , neare the shutting , half a pound of them picked from the stalkes , and beat them in a morter very small ; that done , mingle them with clarified may-butter , as much as you shall thinke fit , and so keepe it close in a vessell eight dayes , then seeth it and straine it ; and therewith annoynt the patients griefe very warme , evening and morning . of waters . part . vii . here followeth the making of divers precious waters , but more especially of tenne , and their vertues . i. and first , of the philosophers water . take hysop , penny-riall , avence , and centurie , and breake them in a morter , then put them under the cap of a stillatory , and distill them , and that water hath many vertues as hath beene proved by experience . as first , take pimpernell , rew , valerian , sedwall , alloes , and the stone called lapis calaminaris , and breake them , and lay them in the water of philosophers , and let them be boyled together , untill the third part of the water be wasted , and after let the said water be strained thorow a linnen cloath , then shutit up close in a vyoll of glasse the space of nine dayes . this is a precious water to drinke foure dayes together with a fasting stomacke for him that hath the falling sicknesse , but let him bee fasting six houres after ; and this medicine is in our judgement the truest medicine against all manner of gouts , and against palsies , as long as it is not dead in the limbes or members of a man. item , this water drunke in the morning , is much helping to wounds that is festered , so that they be washed therewith . item , this water drunke fasting , will destroy all manner of feavers or aches , of what kind soever they come to a man. therefore trust to this medicine verily ; for it hath been oftentimes approved of for a very good water for these diseases aforesaid , by many who have made experience of it . . the second water is called poetalis , et aqua dulcedimus occulorum , and is made in this manner following . take egrimonie , saturion , selendine , and tuttie , and the stone called lapis calaminaris , and beat it all to powder ; and then put them under the cap of a stillatorie , and distill thereof water by an easie fire , and this water hath many vertues in it ; for be the eyes never so sore , this water will cure and heale them . item , this water drunke with a fasting stomacke , destroyeth all manner of venome or poyson , and casteth it out at the mouth . item , this water quencheth the holly fire , so that there bee linnen cloathes wet therein and layd on the sore , but you must also note , that this water in fire is of blacke disposition . . the vertue of the third water . take mustard-seed , pimpernell , crow-foot and the clote of masticke , and let all these be well bruised and mingled together with the blood of a goat , and put thereto good vineger a little , and so let them stand three dayes , and then put them under the cap of a stillatorie , and still it , and this water will helpe a man of the stone if he drinke thereof : and if he drinke thereof every day fasting , the stone shall voyd from him as it were sand . jtem , this water drunke fasting maketh good blood and good colour both in man and woman . jtem , this water drunke with castorie , destroyeth all manner of palsies , if it be not dead in the sinewes or members . jtem , it will heale a scald-head , and make the haire to grow , if it be washt therewith . jtem , if a man be scalded wash him with this water , and in nine dayes he shall be whole , and of all other medicines it comforteth best the sinewes for the palsie . . the vertue of the fourth water . take young pigeons , and make them in powder , and meddle them well with castorie in powder , and a little aysell , and lay it under the cap of the stillatorie , and distill water thereof , this water drunke with a fasting stomack , helpeth the frensie and the tysicke , within nine dayes it will make them whole . jtem , this water drunke fasting , is a very good medicine against the falling evill , if the sicke have had it but few yeares , it shall helpe it on warrantise : give it him to drinke three dayes in the morning fasting , as is aforesaid , and he shall be whole by gods grace , of what manner of kinde soever it come . jtem , this water drunke fasting , maketh a good colour in the face of man or woman , and it clenseth the wombe , the stomacke , and the breast of all evils that is congealed within them , and comforteth all the veynes , and draweth the roote of the palsie out of the sinewes , and out of the joynts and nourisheth nature in him . jtem , if a man or woman before failed in a sinew or joynt it healeth them againe . jtem , this water being drunke fasting , healeth any man or woman of the continuall fever , but take heed that no woman with child drinke of this water . jtem , this water drunke with isope , putteth away all sorrow from thy heart , and causeth a man or woman well to sleepe , well to digest his meate , well to make water , and well to doe his ●ege . jtem , if a man will wash himselfe with this water , it will draw away the haire from any place of man , and destroy it . . the vertue of the fift water called aqua lasta . take isope , gladion , avence , sothernwood , of each a like quantity , and stampe them in a morter , and put them in a stillatorie , and still them to water , and this water drunke in morning fasting , is good against all manner of fevers hote or cold . jtem , this water being drunke fasting , is the best medicine against the fluxe of the wombe , and clenseth the belly of all ill humors , and keepeth a man in health , and helpeth the palsie , but it must be drunke fasting , and as hot as may be suffered . . to make the sixt water called dealbantium . take molewarpes and make them in a powder with brimstone , and take the juyce of selondine , and so let them stand certaine dayes , and after lay it in a stillatory , and still water of the water of it , and this water will make any black beast white , that is washed therewith nine times in nine dayes , or any place in him , that a man will have white : also this water medled with waxe and aloes , it healeth all manner of gouts , if the patient be annoynted therewith . also this water helpeth the sicknesse called noli me tangere , but a plaister thereof must be laide to the sore . also it helpeth a man of the strangle , if a plaister thereof be laid to the sore . jtem , it healeth scald heads , if they apply a plaister thereof to the sore . jtem , a plaister thereof healeth burning with fire . jtem , this with lapis calamniaris , helpeth perfectly a ●icknesse called the wolfe , but the plaister must be changed two times in a day , but let no man nor woman drinke any of this water . . this water is called aqua consuitivae . take pimpernell , and stampe it in a morter , and lay it in a stillatory , and still water thereof . jtem , this water washeth away all wounds in a mans body . jtem , this water drunke fasting with ginger , is a good medicine against the tysicke , and will cleanse the breast from all evill humours . . the eight water called aqua huplaciam , the double water . take mustard-seed , pepper , and sinamon , of each a like and beat them in a morter , and put therto aqua consuetudo , and lay them under the cap of the stillatorie , and distill water thereof , and these be the vertues therof ; and if it be drunke fasting it is the best medicine against the tysicke , and all diseases of the brest , and it must be drunke in the morning cold , and at evening hot as yee may suffer it , and it will make one to sleepe and take good rest that night . jtem , this water being drunke with castorie is good against the sicknesse called epilenti● , viz. the morbus galicus . jtem , this water being drunke fasting , comforteth all the members that be strucken with the palsie , and comforteth the sinewes of the head and the braine . . water of pimpernell , the ninth water . take the seed of pimpernell , and put it in red wine , and then after put it in the sunne , and then breake it in a morter , and then presse out the oyle through a cleane cloth , this water or oyle being drunke fasting , healeth a man of the sand or gravell in the bladder , for it will breake the stone within him . jtem , this water being drunke , sustaineth and lightneth all the members of man of what disease soever he be grieved with . . to make water of sage , the tenth water . take sage , and pollyon , of each a like quantity , and breake them in a morter , and put them in a stillatorie , and distill water sthereof this waterdrunke fasting , eateth away all manner of sicknesse . item ▪ this wate r sodden with castory and drunke fasting , of all medicines in the world , it prolongeth most a mans life . item , if a man be fore-spoken , doe this nine dayes and he shall be whole , but it must be taken with warme water . item , this water being drunke fasting , draweth away all evill in the stomacke or wombe . item , it is good against the scabbes , and causeth a man to have good blood , and good colour in the face . item , this water being drunke hote in the morning , or in the day , healeth any manner o● evill in a man within three dayes , if the patient be in any wise curable . to make aqua vitae . take isope , rosemary , violet , verven , bitony , hearbe-iohn , mouseare , planten , avence , sage , and fetherfoy , of each a handfull , and washing them , put them in a gallon of white wine , and so let it stand all night cleane covered , and then on the morrow distill it , and keepe the water well . this water is good for the megrim in the head , and for the impostume in the head , and for the dropsie in the head ▪ and for the fever in the head , and for all manner of aches and sicknesse in the head. to make aqua magistralis . take the rootes of pyonie , the rootes of turpentine , the crops of fennell , of egrimonie , honysuccle , celondine , rewe , chickweed , pimpernell , phillippendula , the tender leaves of the vine , eufra●e , sowthistle , red-roses , strawbery leaves , and verven , of each alike quantity , and bray them in a morter , and put them in good white wine nine dayes , and then put thereto a pinte of womans milke that doth nurse a man-child , and as much urine of a man-child of a yeare old , and as much pured hony , and put them all together , and let them stand three dayes so , and then distill them in a stillatorie , and keepe well this water in a glasse vessell , that no ayre come thereto , and if you will occupie this water , wash thine eyes therewith , and use it , and if ever man be holpen of the disease of the eyes , this will helpe him in short time . a precious water for eyes that seeme faire , and yet be blind . take smalledge , red fennell , rew , verven , byttony , egrimony , sinck-●oile eufrase , sage , pimpernell , and selondine , of each a quarterne , and wash them cleane , and stampe them small , and put them in a brasse pan and powder of tuttie , of pepper , of ceruse , and a pinte of white wine , and put it to the hearbes , and two or three spoonfuls of hony , and seven spoonfuls of the water of a man-child , and temper them together , and boyle them over the fire a little , and straine it thorow a cloth , and put it into a glasse , and stop it well , till you will occupy it , and when you will use it , put it into thine eyes with a feather ; and if it waxe thicke , temper it with white wine , and then use it often . a water that will helpe on● , that is troubled with sore eyes being debarred of sight . take of rosemary , smalledge , rewe , verven , mather , eufrase , endive , houseleeke , fulwort , red fennell , and selandine , of each a like half a quarterne , and wash them cleane , and lay them in white wine a day and a night , and then distill them in a stillatorie , the first water will be like gold , the second like silver , and the third will be like balme , and that is good for all sores of the eyes . to make another aqua vitae . take nutmegs , gallingale , spikenard of spaine , of each two penny-worth , and of cloves , graines , ginger , of each one penny-worth , two penny worth of annys take and bray them all in a brasse morter , and then take a handfull of wild sage , and of the other sage , rosemary , isope , savery , puliall royal , puliall of the mountaine , sothernwood , hore-hound , worme-wood , and egrimony , bettony , jvie leaves , of each a like handfull , and two pennyworth of quibebes , and bruise all these in a morter , then take three gallons of good red wine , and put it into a brazen pot , and then put the spices and hearbes therein , and set the stillatory above , and close it well , and take faire paste , and put it about the brinkes hard with thy hand , and make it cleave well and sadly thereto , and when it doth begin to waxe hot , put cold water above in the stillatorie , and when it doth waxe hot , let the water runne out at the conduite , and put in new cold water , and so doe as oft as yee shall thinke good , but looke that the fire be not too great , for if it be , then will the water come up , and if there come up smoake of the stillatorie with the water , then is the fire too much , and if it be not , then it is well tempered . the making of waters in colours , and first of greene waters . take white wine a pinte , the water of roses , and planten , of each sixe ounces , orpiment one ounce , verdigrease halfe an ounce , &c. another greene water . take the waters of honey-suckles , planten , and roses , of each halfe a pinte , orpiment , allome , ceruse , and verdigrease , of each two drams , white wine , juyce of planten , of each halfe an ounce , and it is done . waters for old vlcers . take white wine , and running water of each a pinte , frankensence , and allome , of each one ounce , decocted in balme for three houres space , and it is done . a good drinke for the gummorium passio . take bursa pastoris , planten , of each two handfuls , take the juyce thereof in a pinte of good ale , and drinke it three times in a day , for three dayes . a water for old vlcers in the armes . take smiths water a quart , burnt allome one pound , salarmoniac one ounce , galls two ounces , tartary , copperas , of each one ounce , distill all these with shreds , so keepe the water to your use . a water for a canker . take bugle , fennell , and rosa-solis , of each a like , and take as much in quantity of honey suckle flowers , as of all the other hearbes , and let them be cleane picked and so distilled in a stillatorie , and keepe it close , for it is a precious water . a femitorie water . is to be drunke in the morning , at noone , and at night , it is much worth against dropsies , and sweating sicknesse , it purgeth fleame and choller , and melancholy , and it bringeth forth heate , and dry sicknesse , and it is good for the paine of the head , to wash it and drinke it . a water of rosemari● it hath more vertues in it then a man can tell , one is if a man have an arrow or jron within him , wet a tent and put into the wound , and drinke the same water , and it shall avoyd out , and it helpeth all wounds inward and outward , the canker , the fester , and it killeth the wormes in man or child , and all manner of impostumes inward and outward , it helpeth the tysicke , and fluxe white or bloody , it is a great helpe for a woman with child to drinke thereof , also it maketh cleane the face , or any where if yee wash it therewith . water of verven . if if it be distilled in the later end of may , it hath vertue to spring choller , and to heale wounds , and to cleere the eye-sight , it is a principall thing to compound medicines . a locion for a sore mouth . you must take of honey-suckle-water halfe a pinte , planten and rose-water , of each foure ounces , honey of roses two ounces . alloes one ounce , white copperas and vineger , of each halfe an ounce and so use it . a water for a sore mouth . take lapis calaminaris beaten into fine powder , and put in a pinte of white wine , then take a pottle of water , and rosemary , boyle it in the water till it be halfe sodden away , then straine the water from the rosemary , and put it into the white wine , and so it is done . a compound water . take first pimpernell , rew , valerian or sedwall , alocelipis cap , and breake them , and lay them in this said water following : take isop , pulyall royall , anniseedes and centorie , and beate them in a morter , and after put them in a stillatory and distill water of them , which is very vertuous : and let them boyle together , and after that straine them that the water may goe from them , and close this water in vials of glasse , the space of nine dayes , and give it to him that hath the falling-evill , foure dayes , fasting after it six houres : and this is the truest medicine for this disease that wee can sinde , except the mercy of god ; and this water drinking is good for the palsie ▪ if it be drunke fasting : also it is good for all gowtes likewise ▪ in the time that they be mortified in the members and limbes of a man : it is very helping to wounds that are festered , if they be washed therewith , it destroyeth all manner of fevers . behly water . take water a pottle , suger-candy foure ounces , let them seethe : then put in foure ounces of verdigrease in fine powder , and let it seethe . a good barley water for all diseases of the lungs , or lights . take half a pound of faire barly , a gallon of water , half an ounce of licorice , fennell-seed , violets , and parsley-seed , of each a quarter of an ounce , red roses a quarter of an ounce , dry hysop and sage , of each a penny-weight , sixe leaves of harts-tongue , a quarter of an ounce of figs and raysins ; boyle all these in a new pot of cold water , and then straine them cleare from it and drinke it ; the same cooleth the liver , and all the members , driveth away all evill heat , slaketh thirst , is the cause of much evacuation , it purgeth the lights and spleene , the kidneyes and bladder , and it causeth to make water well ; and more especially , it is good for all agues that come of heat . a good drinke for the pox. take selendine and english saffron , the weight of a halfe-penny , and a farthing-worth of graines , a quarterne of long pepper , a penny-weight of mace and a little stale ale , then stampe your herbe and pound your saffron , and mingle them well together , and so drinke it next your heart . a very good drinke for the cough . take a quart of white wine , and boyle it with lycorice , anniseeds , and suger-candy of each a like quantity , putting therein tenne figs of the best , and boyle it untill it be halfe consumed , and so preserve thereof to drinke evening and morning three or foure spoonefuls warmed . a restorative made of the herbe rosa solis , with other things , but they must bee gathered in june , or july . this herbe rosa solis , groweth in marish ground , and in no other place , and it is of a hoary colour , and groweth very lowe , and flat to the ground , and it hath a meane long stalke growing in the middest of it , and seaven branches springeth out of the roote round about the stalke with leaves coloured , and of a meane length and breadth , and in no wise when this hearbe should be gathered , touch not the hearbe it selfe with your hands , for then the vertue thereof is gone , yee must gather and plucke it out of the ground by the stalke , yee must lay it in a cleane basket , the leaves of it is full of strength and nature , and gather so much of this hearbe as will fill a pottle pot or glasse , but wash it not in any wise , then take a pottle of aqua composita , and put them both in a large pot or vessell , and let it stand hard and fast stopped , three dayes and three nights , and on the fourth day open it , and straine it through a faire linnen-cloath into a cleane glasse or pewter pot , and put thereto a pound of sugar small beaten , one pound of licorice beaten to powder , and one pound of dates , the stones taken out , and they cut in small pieces , then mingle them altogether , and stop the glasse or pewter pot well , so that no ayre come into it in any wise . thus done yee may drinke of it at night when yee goe to bed , one spoonefull mixt with aqua vitae , or stale ale , and as much in the morning fasting ▪ and there is not the weakest body in the worl● that is wasted by consumption or otherwise , but it will restore him againe , and make him to be strong and lusty and to have a good stomacke , and that shortly , and hee or shee that useth this three times together , shall finde great remedy or comfort thereby , and as the patient doth feele himselfe , so he may use it . how to make doctor stevens precious water , which dr. chambers and others , made tryall of and did approve the vertue of it . take a gallon of gascoigne wine , then take ginger , galingall , cinamon , nutmegs , graines of paradise , cloves , mace , anniseeds , fennell-seed , and carraway-seed , of every of them a dram , then take sage , red mints rose leaves , tyme , pellitory of spaine , rosemary , peny-mountaine , otherwise wild tyme , camomill , and lavender , of every of them a handfull , then beat the spices small , and bruise the hearbes , and put all into the wine and let it stand the space of twelve dayes , stirring it divers times ; then distill it in a limbeck , and keepe the first pinte of the water , for it is the best , and then will come a second kind of water , keepe that close in a violl of glasse , and set it in the sun a certaine space . the vertues of this water be these , it comforteth the spirits , and preserveth the youth of a man , and helpeth the inward diseases commeth of cold , and against the shaking of the palsie . it cureth the contraction of sinewes , and helpeth the conception of women that be barren . it killeth the wormes in the belly . it helpeth cold gouts . it helpeth the tooth-ache . it comforteth the stomack very much . it cureth the cold dropsie . it helpeth the stone in the bladder , and the reynes in the back . it cureth the canker . it helpeth speedily a stinking breath , and whosoever useth this said water , it shall preserve him in health long take but one spoonefull of it once in seaven dayes , for it is very hot in operation : it preserved doctor stevens very long , who lived a hundreth yeares lacking but two , and tenne of them hee lived bed-rid . the doze is to bee taken in white wine or ale fasting , and last to bedwards . this soveraigne water dr. chambers long used and therewith effected many cures , and kept it secret till a little before his death , and then gave it to the bishop of canterbury . the vertue and excellencie of the english bath of bathe in england . written by william turner , doctor of physick . collected and published for the benefit and cure of the poorer sort of people , who are not able to goe to the physitians . by william bremer , practitioner in physick and chyrurgerie . part . viii . although there be a very excellent and wholsome bath within the realme of england , yet for all that , j am certain that there are many in the north parts , which being diseased with ●ore diseases , would very gladly goe to the bath of bathe , if they knew the vertue and benefit thereof whereby they might receive ease and remedy . wherefore , seeing that j have writ of the baths that are in foraigne countries , therefore j thought good to make knowne the vertues of our owne bathes ; for if they bee able to help and cure mens diseases , to what purpose shall men need to goe into farre countries to seeke for that remedy there which they might have at home . the bath of england is in the west countrey in somerset-shire , in a city called in latine bathonia , and bathe in english , of the bathes that are in it . this city of bathe is . miles from welles , and . miles from the noble city of bristow . the chiefe matter whereof these bathes in this city have their chiefe vertue and strength , after my judgement is brimstone , and of my judgement are divers other , which have examined them as j have done ; when j was at the bathes with a certaine man diseased of the gout , j went into them my selfe with my patient , and brought forth of the place next unto the spring , and out of the bottome , slime , mudde ▪ bones , and stones , which altogether smelled evidently of brimstone , if that a man may judge the matter by the effect ; may gather that brimstone is the onely matter in these bathes , or at least the chiefe that beareth rule in them ; for they dry up wonderfully , and giveth great ease and cureth the gout excellently and that in a short time , as with divers others ( and gentlemen of quality ) can beare witnesse thereof : which things are no slight manifestations that brimstone beareth the predominancy and chiefe rule ; seeing that neyther by smelling nor tasting , a man can perceive any other matter or minerall to raigne there . if there bee any thing else lightly mingled with the brimstone ( which j could not perfitly distinguish ) it must be copper ; for in my abode as j walked about the mountaines , out of the which the bathes doe spring ▪ j found here and there little pieces of marquesieth and stones mingled with copper , but j could by no sence or wit perceive , that the bathes had any notable quality thereof . then seeing that there cannot bee found any other minerall or matter to be the chiefe ruler in these bathes then brimstone , wee may gather , that these bathes are good for all those diseases , which all learned physitians write , that other bathes , whose chiefe ruler is brimstone , are good for . aetius writing of naturall bathes , wherein brimstone is eyther the only minerall or matter of them , or chiefe ruler thereof , saith thus as followeth . the bathes of brimstone soften the sinewes , swage the paine that a man hath in desiring to goe oft unto the stoole , and when hee commeth , he can either doe litle or nothing at all . they scowre and cleanse the skinne ; wherefore they are good for the white morphew and blacke , for the leprosie , and for all scabs and scurffes , for old sores and botches , for the falling of humours into the joynts , for an hardened mylt , or the cake in the left side , for an hardened mother , for all kind of palsies , for the sciatica , and for all kind of itch or itching . but the bathes of brimstone hurteth and taketh away the stomack for the present . thus much also writeth avicen . agricola in his bookes of those things which flow out of the earth , writeth thus of bathes of brimstone . the bathes of brimstone doe soften the sinewes and doe heat , they are good therefore for palsies , for places shrunke or pulled in too much , or stretched too farre forth ; for the shaking or trembling of any member , and they swage ache , and drawes out the swelling of the limbes , and drive and dissolve them away ▪ they are good therefore for the gout in the hands , for the gout in the feet , and for the sciatica , and all other diseases in the joynts : they swage also the paines in the liver and milt , and drive away the swelling of them both : they scowre away freckles , and heale morphewes , and scabbes . but they undoe and overthrow the stomacke . then seeing ( as j said before ) our baths of bathe , have their vertue of brimstone , they that are diseased in any of the above-named diseases , may goe thither , and by the helpe of almighty god be healed there . though those bathes have of long time beene knowne , even about a thousand yeares , either unlearnednesse , or the enviousnesse of the physitians , which have been in times past , is greatly to be rebuked , because either for lack of learning , they knew not the vertue of those bathes , or else for enviousnesse , would not send the sicke folkes , whom they could not otherwise heale unto the bathes ; for all men can tell , very few in times past have beene by the advise of the physitians sent unto the bathes , but now in this our light and learned time , after that so many learned physitians have so greatly commended these bathes . j doubt whether the niggardly liberality , or the unnaturall unkindnesse of the rich men of england is more to be dispraised , which receiving so many good turnes of almighty god , now after that they know that the bathes are so profitable , will not bestowe one halfe-penny for gods sake upon the bettering and amending of them , that the poore , sicke and diseased people that resort thither , might be better and sooner holp●n when as they are there . he that hath beene in jtalie and germany , and had seene how costly and wel-favoredly , the bathes are trimmed , and appointed there in divers and sundry places , would be ashamed that any stranger which had seene the bathes in foraigne lands should looke upon our bathes , for hee would thinke that the stranger would accuse us englishmen of three things . of grossenesse and brutish ignorance ; because we cannot trim our bathes no better . of unkindnesse , because we doe so lightly regard so high and excellent gifts of almighty god. of beastly filthinesse , because we make no partition between the men and the women , whilest they are in bathing , but suffer them contrary both unto the law of god and man , to goe together like unreasonable beasts , to the destruction both of body and soule of many . first , and before all other things , my counsell is , that every bath have an hole in the bottome , by the which , the stopple taken out , the bath should be cleansed and scowred every foure and twenty houres , at the least once , and that i would advise to be done at eight a clock in the afternoone , that against the morning it might be full of fresh and wholesome water against the time the sicke folke come to it in the morning , and so should they be a great deale sooner healed of their old diseases , and in lesse jeopardie in taking of new , which may easily come unto a man , if he goe into a bath , wherein a sicke man ( namely if hee be sicke n a smiting or infective disease ) hath continued . and for the dyet that men should keepe at this bath of bathe , hereafter ensueth ; with divers other necessary rules needfull to bee observed of all those that enter into the said bath , or drinke the water of any bath . certaine rules to bee obferved in dyet for all them that will enter into any bath , or drinke the water thereof . the counsell of learned and wise physitians is , that no man should at any tim● goe into any bath to seeke remedy for any sickneffe , except it bee such a one as that the learned physitians almost dispaire of the healing of it . if god have smitten you with any disease , before you goe to any bath for the healing of it , call to your remembrance how often and wherein you have displeased god , and if any of your sinnes come to your remembrance , exercise the same no more but be heartily sorie for it , and desire of god forgivenesse for it , intending and promising by his mercy and grace never to fall into the same againe . this counsell is agreeing with that which is written in the . chapter of ecclesiasticus ▪ which saith in this manner , vers . , , . my sonne in the time of thy sicknesse , faile not to pray unto the lord , and hee will make thee whole . leave off from sinne , and order thy hands aright , and clense thy heart from all wickednesse . then give place to the physitian , and let him come unto thee , as one that god hath sent unto thee . and a little after hee doth plainly declare , that sicknesse commeth from the punishment of sinne , where hee saith , vers . . hee that sinneth against his maker , let him fall into the hands of the physitian . as christ in the . of john doth also manifest ▪ when he said unto the blind man he had healed ; goe and sinne no more , lest worse things chance nnto thee . howbeit , wee may judge no man to bee a greater sinner then another , because hee is oftner sicke then the common sort be ; for god sendeth unto good men oftentimes sickne●se , not for the sinnes they have done more then other men , but to keep them in good order , that the flesh rebell not against the spirit . for if that many infirmities had been a sure token that such a man were a greater ●inner , then should timothy , which had many infirmities and sicknesses ( as paul writeth ) been a very great sinner ; but hee was not so , therefore that argument is not true . but whether sicknesse come for to punish sinne , or to hold a man in good nature and obedience , all sicknesse commeth from god ; therefore , for whatsoever cause it commeth of , before ye aske any helpe of any worldly physitian , yee must make your prayers to almighty god , ( as the good king ezechias did , ) and if it be meet for you to be healed , you shall be healed as he was . then before yee goe into the bathes , in any wise ye must goe to some learned physitian , and learne of him , by the helpe of shewing , what complexion you be of ▪ and what humour or other thing is the cause of your disease ; and there after his counsell , use such dyet as shall be most fit for your complexion and sicknesse . let no man enter into any bath before his body be purged or cleansed after the advice of some learned physitian , for if any man goe into the bath unpurged , he may fortune never come home againe : or if he come home againe , he commeth home most commonly with worse diseases then he brought to the bath with him . yee may not goe into the bath , the first day that you are come to it , but you must rest a day or two , and then goe into the bathe . there is no time of the yeare that is more fit to goe into the most part of all the bathes , then are the moneths of may and september : but the spring time is better then any other time is . the best time of the day is an houre after the rising of the sunne , or halfe an houre : but before yee goe into the bathe , if your disease will suffer you , yee must walke an houre , or at the least halfe an houre before you goe into the bath . but you must at no time goe into the bath , except yee have beene at the stoole , either by nature or by art ; yee may take a suppository , or a glister , and for a great need savanorolla suffereth pils , but hee will not suffer that he that is so purged , enter into the bath , for the space of foureteene houres . the same author also , would at the least every bather should have a stoole once in three dayes : wherefore if any man be hard of nature , and cannot abide suppositories and glisters , he pardoneth the patient , if he be once purged , or goe to the stoole in three dayes , which thing scarcely any other writer that j have read will doe , neither would j counsell any patient to deferre the going to stoole so long , if there be any meanes possible to make a man goe to the stoole , without his great paine . if that he be counselled to goe twice on a day into the bathe , he must see he goe not into it , till seaven houres be past after your dinner , and tarry not so long in it in the afternoone as you did before . the common time of tarrying in the bath , is commonly allowed to be an houre or more or lesse , according to the nature both of the bath , as also of the patient . let no man tarry so long in the bath that he be faint or weak , but let him come out before that time . yee must alwayes goe into the bath with an empty stomack , and as long as you are in it , you must neither eate nor drinke except that great need require the contrary . some grant that a weake person may eate a little bread steeped in the juyce of pomegranats , barberries , or rilts , or in the syrups made of the same . some physitians suffer a man that cannot abide hunger so long , to take ere he goe in , two spoonfuls of raisons well washed oftentimes with two parts of water , one of wine , or so much of delaied or watred wine , as much as can be holden in a spoone , or a few prunes sodden and steeped in water , or two spoonfuls of crummes of bread , washed oftentimes with water or wine , tempered as j told before , or a toste put into such water : but let no man drinke in the bath , except he swound in the bath , or bee in danger of sounding , or else ye must all the time that ye be in the bath , abstaine from all meate and drinke . as long as you are in the bath , you must cover your head well that you take no cold , for it is very perilous to take cold in the head in the bath , as divers reasons may be laid to prove the same . when you come out of the bath , see that yee cover your self well that ye take no cold , and dry off the water on your body with warme clothes , and goe by and by into a warme bed , and sweat there if you can , and wipe off the sweat diligently , and afterwards sleepe , but yee must not drinke any thing untill dinner time , except ye be very faint : then ye may take a little suger-candy , or a few raisins , or any such thing in a small quantity that will slake thirst : for galen in the de methodo medendi , commandeth that a man shall not eate nor drinke by and by after the bathe , untill he hath slept after his bathing . after that yee have sweat and slept enough , and be clearely delivered from the heate that you had in the bathe , and afterwards in the bed , then may you rest and walke a little , and then goe to dinner ; for by measurable walking , the vapours and windinesse that is come in the bath is driven away . if the patient cannot walke , then let him be rubd quickly , and if hee can suffer no rubing , then at some time it were good to take a a suppositorie , either of roote , or of a beete , with a little salt upon it , or a suppository of honey , or a suppositorie of a flower deluce , or of salt bacon ▪ or white sope. after all these things , then shall you goe to dinner , but you must neither eate very much good meate , nor any evill meate at all . wherefore you must rise from the table with some good appetite , so that you could eate more if you would . the meates that are commonly of all physitians allowed that write of dyet that belongeth to bathes , are , bread of a dayes baking , or two at the most , well leavened , and throughly baked , small birds , and other birds of the fields and mountaines that are of easie digestion , ( but waterchanters yee must not touch ) kids-flesh , veale and mutton , or a lambe of a yeare old , new laid egges , pheasants , partridges , capons , chickens and young geese . the meates that are forbidden , are salt beefe and bacon , pidgeons , quailes , pyes , and pasties , and such like meates ▪ cherries , and all such fruits , garlicke , onions , and all hot spices , and all cold meates , as are the most part of fishes : howbeit , divers may be well allowed , so they be well dressed . milke is not to be allowed much : but if that the patient be so greedy of it , that in a manner he long for it , then let him take it two houres or thereabout , before he take any other meate , and he must drinke after it . white wine that is small is allowable , or wine delayed with the third or fourth part of sodden water , according to the complexion of the patient : some use to steepe bread in strong wine , when as they can get no other wine . beware that in no wise ye drinke any water , and especially cold water , and so should yee forbeare from all things that are presently cold ▪ namely , when ye begin first to eate and drinke . let therefore both your meate and drinke be in such temper , that they be not cold but warme , lest when as yee are hot within by your bathing and sweating , the cold strike suddenly into some principall member and hurt it . they that are of a hote complexion , and of an open nature , and not well fastened together , ought not to tarry so long in the bath , as other ought that are of colder and faster complexions . if that any man betweene meale times be vexed with thirst , he may not drinke any thing , saving for a great need he take a little barley water ▪ or water sodden with the fourth part of the juyce either of sowre or milde sweet pomgranats , with a little suger : a man may use for a need , a little vineger , with water and suger , if he have no disease in the sinewes , nor in the joynts . a man that is very weake , or accustomed much to sleepe after dinner , an houre and a halfe after that he is risen from the table , he may take a reasonable sleepe . all the time that a man is in them , he must keepe himselfe chaste from all women , and so he must doe a moneth after , after the counsell of divers learned physitians , and some for the space of forty dayes , as pantheus and aleardus would , namely , if they come out of the cauldron . it were meete that in every foure and twenty houres the bath should be letten out , and fresh water received into the pit againe , for so shall you sooner be healed , and better abide with lesse jeopardy , abiding in the bath . it is most meete for them that have any disease in the head , as a catliaire or rheume , comming of a moyst cause and not very hot . for them that have palsies , or such like diseases , that they cause a bucket to be holden over their heads , with an hole in it , of the bignesse of a mans little finger , about foure foote above their heads , so that by the reed or pipe made for the nonce , the water may come downe with great might upon the mould of the head , if they have the cathaire ; and upon the nape of the necke , if the patient be sicke of the palsie , or any such like disease . the clay or grounds of the bath , is better for the dropsie then is the water alone : it is also good for shrunken , swelled , and hard places , and for all old and diseased places , which cannot well be healed with other medicines : the matter is , to lay the grounds upon the place , and to hold the same against the hote sunne , or a warme fire , untill it be something hard , and then to wash away the foulenesse of the clay , with the water of the bath : this may a man doe as oft as he list . some physitians counsell , that betweene the bathings , when a man is twice bathed upon one day , in the time that the patient is out of the bath , to use his plaistering with the clay : but if the person be any thing weake , j counsell not to goe twice into the bath , but either once , or else to be content with the plaistering of the mudde or grounds of the bath . it were good wisedome for them that cannot tarry long at the bathes , either for heate or for cold , to take home with them some of the grounds , and there occupie it as is afore-told . there are certaine learned men , which reckon that the hote breath or vapour that riseth up from the bathe , is much more mightier then the water of the bath is , and it is true : therefore it were well that they which have any dropsie , and especially a tympanie , should sit over such a place of the bath , that they might receive into the moyst diseased place , the vapour of the bathe , either by an holed stoole , or by some other such like manner of thing well devised for that purpose . if any poore man by the heate of the drynesse of the bathe cannot sleepe enough , let him eate lettice , or purslaine , or the seedes of poppy , called chesbowle , in some places of england , or let him eate suger and poppy-seed together , let this be done at night . hee may also if he cannot get the aforesaid things , seethe violet leaves and mallowes , and bathe the uttermost parts with that they are sodden in . these are remedies for poore folke that are not able to have a physitian with them to give them counsell : let the rich use such remedies as their physitians shall counsell them . if any poore man be vexed with any unsufferable thirst , let him take a little barley and seethe it long , and put a little suger unto it : or let him take the juyce of an orange , or take a little of it with a little suger . if any poore man catch the head-ache , let him take a little wormelade if he can get it , or coriander comfits : or if he can get none of these , let him take the white of an egge ▪ and beate it with vineger , and rosewater , or with the broath of violets , or nightshade , or with any of them , and a little vineger , and lay them in a cloath unto the temples of his head , and forehead . if any poore man be burned too much , let him take a glister made with mallowes , beetes , and violet leaves , or let him seethe prunes with barley a good while , and raisins , putting a way the stones , and eate of them , or let him use suppositories sometimes , made of rootes , either of beetes , of flower-de-luce , or of white sope , or of salt bacon . if any man sweat too much , let him use colder meates than he used before , with vineger or verjuyce , and let them also eate sheepes-feete , and calves-feete , with verjuyce or vineger . if any man have the burning of his water when he maketh it , let him an houre after he is come out of the bathe , annoynt his kidneyes with some cold oyntment , as is infrigidus galeni : or if you cannot come by that , let him seethe violet leaves , poppy-heads , raisins , licorice and mallowes together , straine them , and put some suger in the broath , and drinke of it a draught before supper . if any be troubled with the rheume which he hath caught in the bath , let him parch or bristle at the fire nigella romana , and hold it in a cloath to his nose , and let him set cups or boxing glasses to his shoulders , without any scorching , and let him drinke sodden water with barley , and with a little suger . if any man have any appetite to eate , let him use the sirrups of ribles or barberies , or the sirrup of unripe grapes , or use verjuyce or vineger to provoke appetite in due measure , and now and then if ye can get it , let him take a little marmalade , or of the sirrup of mynts , or worm-wood raman . ( these have i written for poore folke . ) those that are rich , by the advice of the physitians , may have other remedies enough against the fore-named accidents , that chance in the time of their bathing . if thou be rid of thy disease by thy bathing , offer unto christ in thy pure members , such offering of thankesgiving , as thou mayest spare and give him hearty thankes , both in word , minde and deed , and sinne no more , but walke in all kindnesse of life and honesty , as farre as thou shalt be able to doe , as long as thou shalt live hereafter . but if thou be not healed the first time , be patient , and live vertuously till the next bathing time , and then if it be to the glory of god , and for the most profitable , thou shalt the next bathing time be healed by the grace of god , of whom commeth all health both of body and soule . some if they be not healed whilest they be in the bathing , cry out both upon the bath , w●ich healeth many other of the same diseases that they are sicke of , and of the physitian also that counselled them to goe to the bathe , such men must learne , that they must not appoint god a time to heale them by the bathe , and that when as the bath hath dryed up , and washed by sweating , and made subtill through blowing the evill matter of the disease ; that it is one dayes worke or two , to make good humours to occupie the place of such evill humours as have beene in them before . therefore let such be patient , and for the space of a moneth keepe the same dyet that they kept at the bath , and if god will they shall have their desire , but not onely these , but all others that are healed for a moneth at the least , the longer the better , must keepe the same dyet that they kept in the bath , as touching meate and drinke , and if it be possible also from the use of all women . when as you goe homewards , make but small journeyes , and beware of surfetting and of cold , and when you are at home , use measurable exercise daily , and honest mirth and pastime , with honest company , and beware of too much study or carefulnesse . and give god thankes for all his guifts . thus much for the bath . of herbes , and drugs . hereafter followeth divers medicines , remedies , and cures to heale divers diseases curable , by the grace of god ; as also the nature and property of certaine herbes , plants , and drugs , belonging thereunto . part . ix . and first of marte mylletare , to stop the flux of the body . divers times , the flux of the body proceedeth of superfluous heat contained in the stomacke , the which maketh a continuall solution inwardly , as yee may see by experience of those that are troubled therewith ; for so long as the cause is not taken away , all their meat doth turne into the matter , the which if it be so , that is true which j doe say ; that the fluxes are a distemperance of the body , caused of hot and corrupt humours in the stomacke ; and therefore if thou wilt cure it , it were necessary to extinguish the heat , and so take away the corruption , the which thou shalt doe with the rednesse of marte mylletare , as is hereafter following , for that is the most soveraigne remedy that can be found . first , yee shall take twelve graines of petra philosophalla , with half an ounce of mel rosarum , and then take foure mornings together one scruple of marte mylletare , with half an ounce of suger rosate , and therewith thou shalt worke very strange effects . also for perbreaking and for flux , seethe roses in vineger , or tamarindes , or galls , and while it is hot wet therein wooll , and lay it on the stomacke for vomit , and on the navill for flux , and on the reynes for appetite . the vertue of certaine herbes , and drugs . mallowes , the leaves boyled being eaten doth take away hoarsnesse , and being pounded with sage , they make a singular plaister for wounds and other inflamations . st. johns-wort , the seed thereof being drunk with wine voideth the stone out of the body . wormwood , is good against the dropsie , taking often the leaves thereof confected with suger . hysop , being boyled with figges , water , honey , and rew taken in drinke , is good for inflamation of the lungs , it avoydeth flegme , and easeth an old cough . sage , is good against all cold and flegmatick diseases in the head , and against all paines in the joynts , being taken in drinke , or applyed in fomentation ; it is good for great bellied women to eate , which are subject to travell before their time . mynt , beaten and made into a plaister comforts a weake stomack , it is very good to restore the smell , or the feeling , if it bee often held to the nose ; the leaves dryed and beaten to powder kill wormes in children ; also it applied to the forehead , helpeth the head-ach . time , taken in drinke is good to purge the intrailes , or to make one spit out the evill humours of the lungs , and in the brest . rosemary , is very good against the collick and casting up of meat , by eating it in bread , or drinking it in powder in wine . camomill , the leaves beaten and put into white wine , is good drinke against quotidian and quartern agues , the decoction thereof drunk , healeth paines in the side , good against feavers , and also to avoyd urine . lillyes , the leaves thereof being boyled , heale burnings , and confected in vineger and mingled with saffron , and cinamon , is good for women that are delivered of child with great difficulty and voydeth the after burden . baulme , the property of it in wine is to comfort the heart , to helpe digestion , to heale the feeblenesse of the heart , especially if the weaknesse be such that it causeth to breake sleepe in the night , it stayeth the panting of the heart , and drives away cares ; the leaves thereof taken in drinke is good against the biting of a dog , or outwardly applyed is good to heale the wound with the decoction of it . dogs tooth , the decoction of the leaves taken in drinke , helpeth the wringing of the belly , hard making of water , and breaketh the stone or gravell in the kidneyes ; the seed thereof doth greatly provoke urine . periatory , or pellatory . gathered in winter hath vertue to dissolve , consume , and draw ; and while it is greene it breaketh wind in the stomack . the juyce thereof held within the mouth allayeth the tooth-ach , the leaves thereof being applyed healeth burnings , swellings , and inflamations , being fryed with fresh butter , or capons grease , and layd unto the belly , it cureth the collick , and being mixed with goats or kids grease , is good to ease the gout ; the juyce also mixed with like quantity of white wine , and oyle of sweet almonds newly made , is very good against the stone , and dropped into the eares with oyle of roses helpeth the paine . aleanet , is to sooder wounds . aspaltum , is tarre of india , it hath vertue to draw and sooder , for if the powder thereof be strowed on a dry wound it will presently close it , though it be both broad and deepe . oates , hath vertue to abate swelling , and to soften things , being made hot in a pan . asarum , maketh women to have their termes , openeth the veynes of the urine , and maketh one to pisse freely . it mixed with honey killeth wormes ▪ dissolveth winds , and warmeth the stomacke , clenseth the liver and veynes of the guts , and reynes of the mother , it putteth away feaver quotidian , and cureth the stinking of venemous wormes . bole-armoniacke , if it be good , is as it were white redded . ballestianes , is the flower of the pomgranet and p●idia is the rinde , and it hath vertue to restraine as bolle hath . brancha vrona , hath vertue to make soft , or to rypen empostumes . bistorta , or tormentill , hath vertue to straine together , comfort , and confound . bedellion , hath vertue to constraine together , it helpeth the impostume , both within and without , it breaketh the stone , and breaketh the cough . cadamen , is the rootes of parcely , that hath ●ertue to dissolve , to consume and to draw . camfere , ought to be kept in marble , or alablaster , lynseed , or anniseed , is good for the gomora , and to abate a mans courage . coloquintida , hath vertue to purge flegme and melancholy , and for the tooth-ache seethe it in vineger . c●ssia fi●tula , a gargarisme made thereof , and of the juyce of morell , dissolveth the empostume in the wezend , and also swelling in the cheekes . ceru●e , is good to engender good flesh , and to fret away evill flesh . capers , is good to defie cold humours , in the mouth and stomack . con●ube and quibebes , the powder heereof with the juyce of borage , is good for the cold rheume and to comfort the braine . dragagant , is of three kinds , and the white is the best in cold medicines , and the red in hot . euphorbium , his vertue is to dissolve , to draw , to allay , to consume , to purge fleame , and melancholly . esul● , is the rinde of eleborus albus , or peritory of spaine , it hath vertue to purge fleame and melancholly , and it is the best that purgeth nekt to scamonie . take esula , five drams , canell , fennell-seeds , any seedes , and use this with warme wine , or other broth , is a very good purge . gum arabic , the white is cold , the red is hot in medicines . gariofiolate , is avence , his vertue is to open dissolve , and consume , whilest hee is greene , it helpeth the collicia passio . hermadactilus , the whitest is the best , it hath vertue to dissolve , consume , and draw , and principally to purge fleame . jarus , barba , aron , calves feet , cuckoopintell , the leaves , and the rootes , and the gobbets about the rootes be of good vertue , and the rootes being cloven , and dryed , they have vertue to dissolve and asswage . ipaguistidos , is gobbets that are found by the roote of the dog bryer , it hath vertue to draw together . jempus , is the fruit thereof , it hath vertue to dissolve , and consume ; for the strangury and illiaco , drinke wine wherein it was sodden . licium , is good with the juyce of fennell for sore eyes . litarge , is good to close together and to clense . lovag●-seed with cinamon , is good for the liver , and spleen , and wind in the guts and stomacke . mamia , is good to make bloud cleane . mumia , hath vertue to straine together . medeswete , greene or dry bringeth menstruum , and clenseth the mother . mora , is the fruit of the cicomore tree ▪ it hath vertue to dissolve , consume , and make cleane , it is good for the ovinsie , and for costivenesse . nitrum , the whiter the better , it hath vertue to dissolve , and drive away filth . opponax , if it be cleere , and draw to cytrin colour , it is good , it hath vertue to dissolve and consume . oppium , that which is not hard nor soft , is good , it hath vertue to make one sleepe . organum flowers , is good powdered to make laxe , to dissolve , and to consume , and the powder put within and without , abateth swolne cheekes . oxificicentia , phenicon , dactilis indie , tamarindus , they that bee good , be neither too moyst nor too hard , and be somewhat blacke , and somewhat sower , the rind nor the seed , must not be used in medicines , it hath vertue to purge choller , to clense the blood , and to abate unkind heat . os de cord● cervi , is the bone of the harts heart , on the left side , it is good to purge melancholy blood , and cardiacle , and sinicapos or sincapos , with the juyce of borage , and os sexi , will make the teeth white . dog-fennell , the root is good for the strangury , oissury , and stopping of the liver and spleene . pine apples , the kernels doe moysten and open , and is good for the disease in the brest , or cough , or eticke , or consumption , and to increase good blood . damsons , bee cold and moyst , in the third degree , gather them when they be ripe , and cleave them in the sun , and spring them with vineger above , and then yee may keepe them two yeare in a vessell ; their vertue is to cool● a man , and make his guts light , and therefore they be good in fevers , against the costivenesse that commeth of drynesse , or of cholerick humours in the guts , when they be ripe to cut , and when they be dry , soke them in water ; and eate the prune , and drinke the water . psilium , is cold and moyst in the third degree ; his vertue is to make soft and light , and to coole a mans body , and to draw together . purslene , is good both raw and sodden , to abate unkind heat in cholerick men . pitch-liquid , hath vertue to dissolve and consume . ponticum , is good for the stopping of the liver and spleene , that commeth of cold . storax , hath vertue both to comfort and consume , and to fasten teeth , and comfort the gummes . squilla , is a sea-onion , and that is found by himselfe is deadly , his vertue is to purge and to dissolve , but the outer and inner parts must be cast away , for they bee deadly ; and that which is in the middest , may bee put in medicines , and it hath more vertue raw than sodden . seeds within the berries of elder , is good to purge flegme . stavisacre , hath vertue to dissolve , consume , draw , and purge flegme , and litargie ▪ and to put away heavinesse from the heart , if it be taken and put in the nose . s●apium , is good , and hath vertue to dissolve consume , draw , and laxe , and heale , it is good for fallings downe of the mother , with suffumigation , or supositor , and for the tearmes of the secondine or dead child . saracoll , if it be right , it is good , it hath vertue to straine together and to sooder . drinke calamint sodden in wine , for coldnesse of the stomack , and for stopping of the liver and spleen , the reynes and bladder , and illiac● passio . saterion , his root is green , and hath vertue to unloose mans nature . saligem , his vertue is to dissolve , and consume . scabius , while hee is greene , hath vertue to dissolve , consume , and cleanse . dragons , take the roote , and cleave it , and dry it in the sun , yee may keepe it two yeares , mingle the powder of dragons with sope , and wet a tent therein , and put it deepe into a fester , and it will clense and enlarge it , and if there be a bone in it , it will draw it out , or else loose it that yee may take it out lightly . sene , is to purge melancholy and epilencie , and fever quartaine , and emerodes ; for the spleene and liver , take cardiacle sodden in water ▪ and put to sage , and make a syrope , or the juyce of borage and suger , is very good . terra sigillata , terra sarasincia , terra argenta , is all one manner of earth , his vertue is to constraine together . turbith , if it be hollow , small , and of an ash-colour , and gummie , it is good , it hath vertue to dissolve , and draw humours from the uttermost part of a mans body , and namely fleame ; for the gout , and illiaca , and podegra , and chiragra , give him foure scruples of turbith mingled with some other medicine , and it will doe the like . taplia , or faiters hearbe , his vertue is to purge above and beneath , both greene and dry , for it is never given by himselfe , he that stampeth it let him hide his face and eyes that he see not , also keepe close his testacles , or else they will swell . with this hearbe beggers doe make themselves seeme to have the dropsie upon them . tartar is the lees of wine , and hath vertue to dissolve , and dryeth away filth , and to abate a mans fatnesse . terbentine , a fugimation thereof , is good for the subfumigation of the mother . virga pastoris , or shepheards rod , hath vertue to straine together , to coole , and to fill that is empty , and is good for the fluxe . bryona , or wild neppe , is hot and dry , the roote thereof maketh a woman to have her tearmes , and delivereth a dead child or secondine . flower-de-luce , the root of it washt and scraped cleane , being dryed and finely beaten , and put into a pint of new milke , made hote upon the fire and given the patient to drinke , it helpeth the greene sicknesse . d. b. ginger , comforteth the heart , and maketh good digestion . sugar , is temperate hot , and moyst , his vertue is to moysten and nourish , and to loose , if it be mingled with cold things to coole . the excellent vertues of cardus benedictus . it is very good for the head-ache and the megrim : for the use of the juyce and powder of the leaves , preserveth and keepeth a man from the head-ach , and healeth it being present , it quickneth the sight if the juyce of it be layd on the eyes . the powder stanches blood that flowes out of the nose , or commeth out of the lungs : the broath of it taken with wine , maketh an appetite . it is good for any ache in the body : it strengtheneth the members of the body , and fasteneth loose sinewes and weak . it is also good for the dropsie : it breaketh also the stone , and breaketh an impostume : it preserveth one from the pestilence , if the powder be taken in water foure and twenty houres before a man come to the infected place . it is good for the dizzinesse of the head : it helpeth the memory : it helpeth thicke hearing : it is good for short winds , and the diseases of the lungs : some write , that it strengtheneth the teeth : others write , ●hat it bringeth down flowers , and provoketh sleepe , and helpeth the falling sicknesse . it is also good for falls and bruises : the leaves provoke sleepe : the powder is good against all poyson , the same put into the guts by a glyster : it helpeth the collicke , and other diseases of the guts , and the wounds of t he same . they write also , that the water of cardus benedictus helpeth rednesse , and the itching of the eyes ; and the juyce doth the same , for burnings , and for carbunckles . there is nothing better for the canker , and old festering sores : the leaves are good for fomentations : and to be sitten over , being sodden in water , that the vapour may come to the diseased places , also it is good against the stone and stopping of the flowers . a good drinke to strengthen the heart and all the members , if a man drinke halfe an egge shell full of it morning and evening , with as much good wine . take the best aqua vitae that you can get , and take a piece of fine gold , and make it glowing hot ten times , and squench it again , the more you squench it , the stronger waxeth the water and better . then put it into the same aqua vitae , and halfe a quarter of an ounce of saffron , and a quarter of an ounce of cynamon , both beaten : let them stand foure dayes well stopped , and stirre it every day once : but when you will take it , then let it stand still unstirred that it may be cleare . this water warmeth a cold stomacke , giveth strength to all the members , specially to aged folkes that have beene over long sicke , whose strength is consumed : for it comforteth and strengthneth the heart out of measure . a speciall medicine to cause sleepe . take a spoonefull of oyle of roses , a spoonefull of rose-water , and halfe a spoonefull of red vineger , and temper them all together : then with a fine linnen cloth annoynt the patients head . a discourse as concerning cornes in the feet , or else-where with their remedies . this callowes matter is a certaine hot humour , the which nature would discharge her selfe of , and when that humour is driven forth of nature , it goeth into the lower parts into the end of the toes , for in that part of the toes , that skin is called epidarma , is hard , and will not suffer it to passe or exalate , and there many times it engendreth a tumor in the skin with great hardnesse , and many times that tumor doth increase and cause such paine that it doth not onely hinder their going , but hinder them from their sleepe in the night , and this kind of tumor is called commonly , callo , or cornes in english ; and j thought it good to call them crest , because they are alwayes growing and is of great importance among chirurgions ▪ for an infinite number of persons are troubled therewith ; and therefore j will shew thee our secret to helpe them quickly and with great ease , which secret was never knowne of any . first ye shall pare them with a sharpe knife unto the bottome , and there ye shall find a certaine thing like matter , ye shall pare it untill bloud doth appeare , then touch it with the oyle of sulphure , and then dresse it with balsamo artificio , once a day untill it be whole . keepe this as a secret . of medicines , remedies , and cures of divers diseases of severall kinds ; as also the making of powders , and plaisters , &c. part . x. the cause of our sciatica , and how yee helpe it . sciatica is a disease so called , because it commeth in that place of the body called scio , and it is caused of an evill quality and grosse humors that are strayed in that place ▪ because they cannot passe downe . and this is seene by experience dayly ; for where that paine is , there is alteration , and the cure thereof is with glysters , vomits , purgations , and unctions , because the glysters doth evacuate those places next unto it , and so easeth the humour : the vomit cleanseth the stomacke , the purgation doth evacuate the body downwards , the unctions dissolve the winde , and by these meanes thou mayest helpe the sciatica , as j have done many times to my great credit and satisfaction of my patient . for hoarsnesse . against hoarsnesse , goe into the hot-house , and when thou hast halfe bathed , drinke a good draught of warme water : this is often proved . another . garlick sodden and eaten , maketh a cleare voyce , and driveth away hoarsenesse and the old cough . if a man stand in feare of the palsie . let him eat every morning two or three graines of mustar-seedes , and two pepper cornes : the same is assured for the same dis●ase by many . a medicine for the goute . take a pinte of white wine , a quart of running water , a quantity of barley flower and let them boyle together : then put thereto halfe a pound of blacke soape , and let all seethe till it be thicke , then put thereto the yolkes of foure egges , and when yee will use it , spred it on a cloth plaister-wise , hot . stubbes medicine for the goute . take a quart of red wine lees , a quarter of a pound of beane flower , half aquarter of a pound of commine fine beaten , a spoonefull of bole-armoniacke , halfe an ounce of camphere , which must be put in at twice , and boyle them all together , till they be somewhat thicke : then make it plaister-wise and lay it to the paine . another plaister for the goute . take occy cronium galbanum , and melitonum , of each one a penny-worth and distill them : take a pound of stone pitch , and another pound of fine rozen , one halfe ounce of camphere , one quarterne of deeres suet , halfe a quater of a pound of commin , and boyle them on a soft fire together , and thereof make a plaister , upon a piece of leather using it as the other . another for the same . take the gall of an oxe , and aqua composita , of each a like quantity , as much of oyle of exeter , as of both the other , and labour them all together in a pot with a sticke , the space of halfe an houre : when you have so done , annoynt your palme therewith , then wet a linnen cloth therein , and as hot as you can suffer it , bind it to the sore . for a pricke of a thorne , or any other thing . take honey , and a good quantity of chalke , and of the gall of a beast , and boyle them together , and make a plaister of it , and as hot as you can suffer it , lay it thereunto . let the chalke be scraped , very small . approved . a remedy for burning and scalding . take the white wooll of the belly of an hare , and if it be raw , lay it thereto , and it will never away till such time it be whole . another . take a thistle called st. mary thistle , stampe it and strain it , and take thereof two spoonfuls , and put to this three spoonfuls of creame , mixe them together , and annoynt the patient therewith . to kill a tetter or ring-worme . take the root of a red dock , the roote is very red , and slice it , and lay it in vineger a night , and after lay it upon the tetter , and tye it with a cloth hard , and it will kill the tetter . approved . for a winde or a collicke in the belly . take a rose cake and toast it at the fire , with vineger throwen upon it , and lay it as hot to your belly as you may suffer it . another . take mustard , figges and vineger , stamped together , and lay it to the belly of the diseased , cold , in manner of a plaister , and it shall helpe ▪ against the shingles . annoynt the shingles with the juyce of mynts , and it will heale them . to heale a wound in ten dayes , as by proofe hath beene seene . stampe camphere with barrowes greace , and put it into the wound , and it will heale it . approved . for ache in the backe . take egremont and mugwort , both leaves and rootes , and stampe them very small , then mingle them well with old decres suet , then besmeere or annoynt the grieved place therewith very warme , and after rowle it up hard . to heale in foure dayes the scalding with water , or any other liquor , without plaister or oyntment . take an onyon and cut him overth-wart , and wring out the juyce upon the scalded place doing so every day twise , it will heale it quickly . probatum est . to heale the itch. take of lapacinum acutum , or of sorell , and boyle it in water , and wash therewith the diseased person : or else take the rootes of lawrell , and being well brayed with salt and bread , annoynt therewith the body . the like effect is done with the decoction of egrimony and sage , made with raine water , and washing therewith the sicke person . to heale sores or tetters . take of waxe of ganabrinum , in powder , and of oyle of roses , as much as shall be sufficient ? make thereof an oyntment . or else bray cockle and brimstone , and mixe them with vineger , and make an oyntment . for the hardnesse of hearing . take an onyon and coare it , and fill it with the oyles of rew and bitter almonds , then rost it soft , and drop thereof into the contrary eare , lying still after one houre keeping your selfe warme , it will both purge the head and quicken the hearing . an easie remedy for the tooth-ache . take a slice of the root acorus , of some called in english gladen , of other galanga , which groweth in waters and marishes , this must be laid green upon the tooth . or a piece of the greene roote of tormentill doth it likewise . for the swelling in the throat . take white frankensence , and cast a piece of it upon hot coales , then put a funnell over it , and let the smoake thereof goe into the throate : that helpeth , and is oft times experimented and proved . to cause a womans speedy deliverance . take whites of egges and castle sope , and make pills , adding to every pill one drop of the oyle of savin ; and in time of need give her five pilles of it . to make a womans milke increase . take fennell-seed , and seethe it in barly-water , and give the woman of it to drinke , and her milke will increase abundantly . for the rickets and weaknesse of the limbes in children . take a little quantity of the best english honey mix it with beere , and let them use no other drinke till they recover their strength . this hath bin tryed and approved . to fasten the gums or loose teeth . take a little myrrhe , temper it with wine and oyle ▪ and wash your mouth therewith and you shall see a rare experience ; myrrhe also killeth the wormes in a mans body , and chew it in the mouth , ma kes the breath sweet . for one that cannot hold his water . take the clawes of a goates feet , burne them to powder , and take a spoonfull of it in pottage or broath , wherein a little knotgrasse and hypoquistidos may bee put , and take of it twice a day . for the dropsie made for the queen● , by d. d. adryan . take polipodium , spikenard , calamus odoratus , marjerum , galingall , selwall , ana . vj. d. weight , anniseeds , saxafrage , plantane , vij . d. weight , cynamon , xij . d. weight , seenie so much as of all the rest , put them into a bagge hanging in two gallons of ale , cover it with new yest every fourth ▪ day , and drink no other drinke for a weeke , and be whole . for the stinging of waspes and bees ▪ take mallowes and rub them on the place where it is stung or else take flyes stamped with a little durt . for the falling downe of the tuell . sit over the fumes of ginger and frankensence . for the swelling of the legges . take the juyce of walwort , of waxe , of vineger , and of barley meale , of each a like quantity : boyle it , and make a plaister , and bind it upon the sore . for the canker in the mouth . take halfe a pinte of ale , and a sprig of rosemary , and seeth them together , and skim your ale. and then put in a piece of allom as much as a nut , and a spoonefull of honey , and two spoonefuls of honey suckle water , and wash the mouth with it . to make the face faire and the breath sweet . take the flowers of rose-mary ▪ and boyle them in white wine , then wash your face with it , and use it for to drinke , and so shall you make your face faire , and your breath sweet● ▪ a remedy for a red face or a red nose . take litarge of silver , and brimstone , of each like much , and seeth them in rose-water , and vineger , and then with a linnen cloath wet in the said vineger ▪ lay it to the sore . a remedy to qualifie the coppered face . make a bath with the flowers of cammomell , violets , roses , and flowers of water lillies , then annoynt the place with vnguentum album , champherarius , and mixe that oyntment with a little yellow brimstone , and quicksilver killed with fasting spittle , and annoynt the face withall . a speciall good dyet for all fiery faces . abstaine from all salt things , spiced , fryed meates , and rosted meates : also from drinking of wine , for it is very evill : also onyons , mustard , and garlicke are very naught : in steed of which ▪ you must take purslaine , sorrell , lettice , hops of borrage , with succory or endive in pottage , or otherwise : also it is necessary to be laxative , and in sleeping to lay your head high . an easie remedy to make the teeth white ▪ take vinger of squiles , and dip a little piece of cloth in it ▪ and rub the teeth or gummes withall : the said vineger fastneth the gummes , comforteth the rootes of the teeth , and maketh a sweet breathe . to take away the stinking of the mouth . yee must wash your mouth with water and vineger , and chew masticke a good while , and then wash thy mouth with the decoction of annis-seeds , mints , and cloves , sodden in wine . if the stincking of thy mouth commeth of a rotten tooth the best is to have it drawne out . a remedy for sore eyes . take the juyce of fennell , and drop thereof into the eyes , evening and morning , and it shall heale the griefe and paine . a proved medicine for the bleeding at the nose , called the ladie maries medicine . take the shell of an egge , the meate being very cleane out ▪ and put it into the fire till it be burnt very blacke and ready to breake , then take it out , and make thereof fine powder , whereof yee shall blow through a quill part thereof into the nose that bleedeth , and it shall stanch . against a stinking breath . melt hony , salt , and rye flower well together , and therewith rub the gum● twice or thrice , then wash it with faire water ▪ and it will helpe thee . for an evill breath . seeth two ounces of commin in fine powder , in a pottle of white wine , unto a quart : then keepe it , using to drinke a little thereof warme at night , the space of fifteene dayes , and it will helpe . for the head-ache , and clensing of the same . chew pellitory of spaine in thy mouth , it will cleanse the head , and also take away the ache or paine . to heale a swolne face , that is hurt by reason of some strange scorching . take the juyce of barba jovis , ( in english singreene ) and rub your face with it twice or thrice a day . you may doe the like with ●he juyce of purflaine : but if your face 〈…〉 ●oo much marred or hurt , take forty or 〈◊〉 yolks of egges , and put them in a frying 〈…〉 upon a great fire , and get some oyle out of them wherewith you shall annoynt your ●●●e . to make an aking tooth fall out of himselfe . take wheate flower , and mixe it with the milke of the hearb called in latine herba lactaria ▪ in french tintamaille , or herbe alerte in english spurge , that hath milke in it : in greeke , tithimales , which is an hearbe well enough knowne , and thereof make as it were a paste or dow , with the which you shall fill the hole of the tooth , and leave it in a certaine time , and the tooth will fall out of it selfe . and if you wash your mouth every moneth once with wine wherein the roote of the said hearbe hath beene sodden , you shall never have paine in your teeth . also the decoction or powder of the flowers of a pomegranate tree , being put in your mouth and betweene your gums fasteneth teeth . to kill lice and nits in the head. take the powder or scraping of harts horne , and make the patient to drinke it , and there will no lice nor nits breed in his head , but if you will straw the said powder upon his head all the lice and nits will dye . to remedy or to helpe blood-shotten eyes comming by any rheume , fluxion , or such other like cause . take the tops or ends of worme-wood , which is an hearb well enough knowne , and stampe it , mixing it with the w●ite of an egge and rose-water , and make thereof as it were a plaister , and spred it upon a linnen cloth , which you may lay upon the eye w●ere the blood is , or else upon both , and doe this at night when you goe to bed , and the next morning take it off , and you shall see that t●is plaister shall have drawne ▪ to it selfe all the bloud , and all the rednesse that was in your eyes , and so you shall be quit of it . for the tooth-ache . take the rootes and leaves of chickweede , and boyle them in water , with the which you shall wash your mouth well , and hold it in your mouth a certaine space , and it will take away your paine . to take away the tooth-ache . take hysope , and make thereof a decoction with vineger , and it being hot , wash your mouth withall , and the paine of the teeth shall goe away . the hysope also being stampt and incorporated with honey , and a little nitrina , killeth the wormes in a mans body . against the crampe . take and beat brimstone and vervine together , and so binde it to your arme , or other place grieved , and it shall helpe it , for having the paine againe . a medicine to purge the head. take masticke , peritory of spaine , tame cressis seede , cockle-seede , stavisacre , both the kindes of neesing powder , white and blacke ▪ ginger , sinamond , of each halfe a dram in fine-powder , and mixed together , and put it in a little bagge of fine linnen cloth , and let the patient hold one of these bagges in his mouth a good space , but these bagges must first lye in fuse a pretty while in vineger , and it will draw out rheumes from the head wonderfully , and when he hath done , he must wash his mouth well with wine or ale ▪ a medicine for a scald head. take daysie rootes , and ale , and stampe them with as much may-butter as needs , and annoynt the sore head therewith . for the head-ache . take a good handfull of red-rose leaves dryed , and a good quantity of cummin grossely bruised , and a good handfull of camomill grossely shred , and a quantity of browne leavened bread : then mixe them ▪ and put it into a linnen ▪ cloth , then quilt it , and set it into a hot dish , upon a chafingdish , and sprinckle the bagge with rose-water and vineger , and turne it in the dish till it be as hot as may be suffered , to be laid to the noddle of the necke : and let it be cold , and so use another , and keepe his head so hot as he may sweate . for paine of the head. take marjorom and presse out the juyce of it , and let the patient , take of it in his nose . for deafenesse in the eares . take the juyce of coleworts , and mixe it with warme water , and droppe it into thine eares , and it will helpe . to make honey of roses , called mel rosarum . take foure pound foure ounces of honey clarified , and two pound of the juyce of red roses : and let them boyle together till it be like a sirrope . another making thereof . take a pottle and halfe a pinte of honey well clarified , with a pottle of white or red wine , two pound of red-rose leaves : boyle the rose leaves and wine till halfe be wasted , and then put in your hony : and let it boyle till it bee somewhat thicke , and in colour like a syrrope . for the pockes . take the juyce of peny-roiall , and young tansie , and give the sicke party to drinke . a true medicine for the jaundies . take a handfull of chery leaves , seeth them in a pinte of milke , and let them boyle well : then straine it , and drinke a good draught thereof to bedwards , and in the morning fasting , and the jandies shall avoyd from you by siege : or else drinke in the morning this following . take the wood of bayberries , pill the upper shell with the leaves from it , and take the second shell that is yellow , put thereof as much as a walnut into a cloth , and seeth it with a pinte of water , let it be well boyled , and let it coole , and then driuke it , this hath beene experimented . for the liver that is corrupted and wasted . take a good quantity of liverwort and bruise it a little , and then seethe it in good strong wort ▪ with a quantity of ruberb , and use this medicine , and thou shalt be whole . for heate in the liver . take the juyce of sower apples , and sweet apples , of each a pound or more , as much as you thinke best , and two pounds of sugar , mingle these things together , and let them boyle on a simple fire till it be thicke as a syrrope , and vse this course every day fasting , with luke-warme water . remedies for the collicke . take parcely , water-cresses , pellitory of the wall , unset time , of each a handfull , a dish of sweet butter , let the herbes be cleane washed , and seethe them in a quart of running water , let your water bee taken up against the streame , and let them seethe till you make a plaister thereof ▪ then temper them together with a handfull of wheat branne , and let the plaister bee layd to the patients belly beneath the navill , and let him put in his pottage some pellatory of the wall ; and when the patient makes water straine it thorow a faire cloath , and thereby ye shall know and perceive , whether it doth him good or not , and let him use this three or foure times together . another for the same . take a quantity of broome-seed , grouncel-seed , parcely-seed , alexander-seed , ashenkey-seed , lepthorne-seed or berries , phillipendula dryed , saxifrage dryed , mouseare dryed , growobicke dryed , mixe all these together in your drinke , and drinke it morning and evening , fasting . another . take civet and rub your navill therewith , and champe rosemary in your mouth , and it easeth the collick incontinently ▪ a most excellent medicine for the collicke and stone , with other vertues . take pimpernell , mustard , crowfoot , gauriophe , mastick , and bruise them all well together , and then mingle them with the blood of a goat , and put thereto good vineger or a little alligre , and let them stand certaine dayes after your discretion , and put them into a stillatory and distill a water thereof ; this water is good for the stone , or gravell , whether that it be red or white , plaine or sharpe , or if it be hardened ; if the patient doe drinke thereof every day fasting , the stone will breake and goe away like sand . also , if scald heads bee washed therewith , it will heale them ▪ and there shall grow new haire ; and if the scabs be washt therewith , of what nature soever it bee , hee shall be whole with three dayes or nine at the furthest . also , this water drunke fasting , makes a man to have a good colour , and good blood . also , this water drunke with castorie twice in one day ▪ destroyeth all palsies ▪ which is not dead in the sinewes and members before , for it comforteth the sinewes principally . this water is very much approved . for the collicke and stone . take halfe a pint of white wine , and a good quantity of white sope , scrape it , and put it into the wine , and make it luke warme , and then drinke it once , twice , or thrice , or as often as the patient needs . a powder for the collicke and stone . take parcely-seed , saxifrage , alisander , and coriander-seeds , the kernels of cherry-stones , smallage-seed , lovage , the rootes of phillipendula , of each a dram , bay-berries , and ivie-berries , of each a dram ; put to all these as much ginger as they all weigh , and adde thereto half an ounce of commin ; this powder is to be taken in ale , halfe a dram at once , thrice a day . a speciall remedy for the stone . take the stones of medlers , lay them upon a hot tyle-stone , and after that you have rubbed and dryed them in a faire linnen cloth , then being thorowly dryed , beat them into a powder , and put to it a quantity of time and parcely , and place it upon the fire with beere and butter , and throw in halfe a spoonefull of the said powder ; and hereof you must drinke a good draught fasting in the morning ▪ and eate nor drinke nothing else for the space of three houres after . another . take a quantity of anniseeds , lycorice , fennell-roots , and parcely-rootes , raysins , and currans , and let all these be boyled in whey , from a pottle to a quart , and so strained and drinke it . a powder for the stone . take the seed of gromell , broome , saxifrage , alisander , parcely , and fennell , of all these seeds a like quantity , beat them very well together , and so drinke halfe a spoonfull of that powder , or a spoonfull at a time in a draught of good ale , making it luke warme in any wise , before you drinke it . to make the stone slip downe the narrow passages betweene the kidney and the bladder . take a great handfull of pellitory of the wall , and the like quantity of mallowes , boyle them in a frying-pan with a good quantity of fresh butter , so that they be not parched nor dry . and when you see by the frying that some good part of the vertue of the herbes is gone into the butter , take the hearbes so fryed somewhat fat with the butter , and lay it the length of halfe a yard or more betweene the fold of a napkin , and in bredth about , or . inches , then clap the fattie side of the napkin all along from the back-bone to your flanke above the hippe , especially on that side where the paine is , as hot as may be suffered , when it is cold apply a fresh one , and in three or foure times doing , the passage will bee inlarged , whereby the stone will slip downe , and the paine cease . a posset drinke against the stone . take pellitory of the wall , three crops of lavender cotton , three parcely roots , and one fennell root , the pithes taken out , and they scraped and washed , stampe the hearbes and rootes together , then put thereto one pinte of rhenish or white wine , straine the wine from the herbes , and with a pint of new milke make a posset thereof , drinke freely of it morning and evening first and last , at the new and full of the moone , and walke well upon it . also , take the hearbe hartshorne boyled in white wine , and drunke in the morning fasting is good against the stone and strangurie . to make haire grow . take and seeth mallowes rootes and all , and wash the place where haire lacketh , and it shall grow . for to take away haire . take horsleeches and burne them to powder , and mingle it with eysell , and touch the place where the haire groweth , and it shall grow no more there . approved . to make a barren woman beare children . take of these little sea fishes called in latine pollipodes , and roste them upon the coales with oyle , and let the woman eate of them , and it shall profit and helpe very much , having in the meane time the company of a man. to make a woman have a quicke birth . take leaves of dictarij , and stampe them ▪ or else make powder of them , and give the woman that laboureth drinke of it with a little water , and she shall be delivered incontinent without any great paine or griefe . for all manner of lamenesse or swellings . take a handfull of time , a handfull of lav ender cotten , and a handfull of running strawberies that be like to a string , and so cut them small , then beate them in a morter , with foure or five young swallowes taken out of the nest very fligge and quicke , beat them together untill ye see never a feather of them whole : that done ▪ take a penny-worth of may butter clarified , and mingle it in the morter with hearbes , and so let it stand foure and twenty houres before they sceth : when you ha ve sodden it , use it as before you are taught , as well in preserving of it , as in using of it . for to stay the laxe or fluxe . take plantane , otherwise called weybred-leaves and rootes , and wash them in faire water , and then stampe them , and take a good quantity of the juyce and put it to old ale , and make a posset therewith , and after take the ale posset , and clarifie it upon the fire perfectly , and then let the patient drinke it blood warme , in the morning and evening , without taking of othtr drinke the space of two houres either before or after . for the sweating sicknesse . yee must take a good spoonfull of treacle three spoonfuls of vineger , five spoonfuls of water , and two spoonfuls of the juyce of sinckfoyle , swing them together , and drinke them luke warme . for him that pisseth blood. take a good quantity of rew , otherwise called hearbe grace , and dry it so that you may beate it to powder , and then take the powder and and drinke it with ale : and it will change the urine . for the canker in the mouth . take white wine , and a penny-worth of ginger in powder , and let them seeth a walme together , and wash the sore place with a feather , and drinke not in one houre after , and yee shall have helpe in seven dayes or warrantise . a powder for the same . take sage , pimpernell of each a like and quantity ▪ and halfe so much parcely , as of them both , shred them , and stampe them small , and put thereto a little burnt allome ▪ and then take it up drie it , and beate it to powder and keepe it , for it never failed . to know the fester and canker . heere you may learne whereof , and of what manner the fester commeth , and also the canker , it commeth of a sore that was ill healed , and breaketh out againe , and if it bee in the flesh , there doth come out water , if it be in the sinewes , there commeth out browne lie : and if it be in the bone , there commeth out as it were thicke blood . a fester hath a narrow hole without and within , and a fester is seldome seene , but it hath more holes then one , and the canker hath alwayes but one hole . for a canker in the body . take the rootes of dragons and cut them in small pieces , and lay them to dry , and make powder thereof , and take a penny weight of that powder , and put it in water all night , and on the morrow powre out that water ▪ and put thereto white-wine and then seeth it well , and let the patient drinke thereof warme , and in three day es he shall be whole . for a canker in a womans pappes . take the dung of a white goose , and the juyce of salendine , and bray them together , and lay them to the sore , and it will kill the canker , and heale the pappe . a good powder for the canker . take copperas , and roch saunders , and verdigreace , and sal-armoniac , and beate them to powder in a brasen morter , of each ● like quantity by weight , and put the powder in a vessell , and seethe it on a charcole fire till it glowe , and then take it downe , and let it coole and after make powder thereof , and that powder shall destroy the canker , on warrantise . to kill the canker or marmole . take a pecke of the ashes made of ashen-wood , and ashes of oate straw , and put hot water on them and make a gallon of lye , and put thereto two handfuls of barke-dust , and let it stand a day and a night , and then straine it thorow a canvasse ; then take the same dust and put it in againe , and put thereto as much allome , and halfe as much of madder crops , and put them in a pot and let them boyle almost to halfe , and ever stirre it that it grow not to the bottome , nor run over , and after clense it through a cloth , and let it coole , and when it is cold , take a quantity thereof and wet a linnen cloth therein and lay it to the sore place . for the canker in the mouth . take seaven spoonefuls of honey , and clarifie it in a pewter dish , then put to it one pint of white wine vineger and roch allome , the quantity of a hazell nut , and a spoonefull of bay-salt , and let all these boyle together a quarter of an houre , and then take of dryed rose leaves and sage a handfull , letting them seethe together for the space of a quarter of an houre , and let the patient wash his mouth therewith , and lay the leaves to the sore , and if the liquor bee too thicke to wash your mouth with , then take running water and white wine vineger , and a spoonfull of honey , and boyle them well as before , and then use it . another . take hearbe grace , lavender-cotton , sage , honey-suckle leaves , of each a like quantity , wash them and stampe them with a little roch allome , and a little english honey , and put them into a faire dish , and when yee dresse a sore mouth therewith , take as much as yee thinke will serve , and take a few sage leaves and wash thy mouth , and lay it to thy gums , and if yee put thereto a little pepper and bay-salt , it will be the better . another . take plantane , bittony , egrimony , violets , and woodbine , boyling them in wine or water , with hysop , piony , pimpernell , and greene walnuts , and therewith wash foure times in a day , and hold it in your mouth pritty hot , and therewith wash it . to make a red water to kill the canker . take three handfuls of rew , bray it in a morter , and put thereto a quart of vineger , and madder one ounce , and take halfe a penny-worth of allome , and beate it to powder and put thereto , and let it so rest nine dayes or more , and then take them out , and so straine them through a cloth into a cleane glasse , and stop the vessell close , and keepe it . to take away the canker . take martlemasse beefe that hangeth in the roofe , and burne it to powder and put the powder into the sore , and it will kill the canker . a powder for the canker . take one quarter of a pound of roch allome , and burne it in an earthen vessell that there come no ashes thereto : then take arg● , one halfe ounce , and one quarter of an ounce of bolearmonracke , and make all these in fine powder alone , and then mixe them altogether , and put them into a bladder , and keepe it close : and when yee will minister it , wash well the sore with the water , and then lay on the powder , and so dresse it once in the day , and it shall helpe him . a good medicine for the canker and sores . take a pottle of cleane running water , or white wine , sage , rosemary , and sinkfoyle , of each a handfull , allome one ounce , boyle all together till halfe a quarter be consumed , and if it be for the canker put in a little white coperas and camphere . for a canker old or new , or marmole . take smalledge , wormewood , greene walnuts , lillies , broome croppes , white hazell , red nettle , sage , selfe-heale , pimpernell , the roote of floure-de-iuce , planten , ground ivie , wall-woort , mouse-eare , celondine , mintes , bittony , egrimony violets , charvell , colwortes , and avence , stampe all these together and fry them in barrowes grease , sheepes tallow , and honey , and make thereof an oyntment with turpentine , waxe ▪ rozen , pitch , gum frankensence , burnt allome , and powder of tanners barke and so use it . for the canker . take the powder of saven , honey , and creame , and white wine , and mixe them altogether , and melt them over the fire , and when it is hot , with a linnen cloath wash therewith thy mouth , and when the sore is well washed , put thereof into the griefe , with lint , as hot as may be suffered two times a day , and bee whole . for a canker in a mans body , and to save the man. take the rootes of dragons , and cut them , and dry them in gobbets , and make powder of them , and take a . d. weight of that powder , and seeth it in white wine , and let the sicke drink thereof warme fasting , and in three dayes he shall be whole . for the head-ache . take hemlockes , and seeth them , till they be as thicke as pappe , and lay them where the paine is : let them lye all night , and on the morrow lay another of the same heat , and doe so three or foure times , and it is done . another ▪ also take and make lye of verven , or bytton , or wormewood , and therewith wash thy head thrice a weeke , and it shall doe the much good , and take away the ache. for the head-ache , and tooth-ache . take the hearbe called bursa pastoris , and bruise it and lay it to the hart of thy foote , and it helpeth both the head-ache , and the tooth-ache . a drinke for the head-ache . take bitton , verven , selondine , waybroad , rewe , wall-woort and sage , and a quantity of pepper , and hony , and seeth them all together in water , and straine it through a cloath , and drinke it fasting . another . stampe bittony , and lay it on thy head under thy cap or bind it last to thy head . for the head-ache . take sage , bittony , and rewe , with worme wood , seeth these in faire water , then put out the same water into a vessell , and beat the same hearbs in a morter very small , and then take of them and of the liquor , and temper them with wheat branne , and with the rest of the liquor wash thy head , and then lay a plaister thereof upon the mould , and let it lye there a day and a night , and do so three or foure times . also , ye may take rootes and leaves of primroses , fresh butter , and tarre boyled together is very good . another . take avence , pigeons dung , and wheate flower , one ounce , and temper them with the white of an egge , and bind to thy griefe . another . take bittonie , and camomill , a handfull , and seeth it in a pottle of wine to a quart , and wash thy head with the liquor , and if it be the megrim , it shall helpe the. another . take frankensence , doves dung and flower of wheat , one ounce , and remper them together with the white of an egge , and lay a plaister thereof where the griefe is . another . take the white of an egge and beate it well , and take away the froth , and put thereto rose-water , and the powder of alablaster : then take flaxe and wet therein , and lay it to the temples ▪ and when it is dry , wet it againe : use it thus three or foure times ▪ for the head-ache . take , verven , bittony , worme-wood , seeth them well , and wash the patients head , and after that make a plaister , and lay on the upper part of thy head on this manner : take the same hearbes beforesaid when they are sodden , and wring out the juyce of them , then take the hearbes and stampe them in a morter , and temper them with the water they were sodden in , and put thereto wheate branne to cover the juyce of the hearbes that it goe not out , then take a garland of linnen cloth , that will goe about thy head , and bind the plaister in it , as hot as the patient may abide it , and then put on a cap over that . another . if the paine come of hot humours , take a quantity of houseleeke , and distill it as much as you please , and with the same water wash thy temples , and thy forehead and then dip a linnen cloth therein , and lay it on thy fore-head , or thy temples . another . take margerom , and greene juy leaves , bittony ▪ and verven , of every one two handfuls , cut them small , and beate them in a morter and seeth it in two penny-worth of fresh butter , and stirre it till it waxe very greene , and so let it stand nine dayes in an earthen pot ; then seeth it againe , and stirre it well and straine it , and keepe it in a faire vessell , and when you need warme a little thereof in a sawcer , and annoynt your temples therewith . another . take a quart of white wine , and horehound , two handfuls , and camomill one handfull , and boyle them together , and therewith wash thy head : then take wheate-bran , and put to the hearbes , and boyle it , and make a plaister and lay it to thy head . another . take the juyce of selondine , and good vineger , mingled and made hot , and with a spunge or a linnen cloth lay it to thy fore-head , it quencheth great heate , and purgeth it that it will come no more . another . take the juyce of pimpernell , and put thereto may-butter , and frye them together with a soft fire , and keepe it , and therewith annoynt thy head and temples . to cleanse the head. take alloes one ounce , myrthe halfe an ounce , garlicke foure drams , saffron in powder , halfe a penny worth , and mingle them together in fine powder : then take the juyce of coleworts , and put them to your powder , and make it as thicke as pappe , and somewhat more stiffer , and make pills thereof , as bigge as small pease , and when you goe to bed , take foure of them , and roll them in fine powder of lycorice , and put them into your mouth , and swallow them downe . for the head-ache comming of the stomacke . take fumitory , camomill , and roses , and seethe them in white wine , and make a plaister , and lay it hot to the stomack . for ache in the hinder part of the head. stampe sage with the white of an egge , and temper it with vineger , and lay it thereto . a principall medicine for the head. take commin a quantity , and lay in vineger one night , and on the morrow put out all the vineger , saving a little to keepe it moyst , and fry it in a pan , and bind it in a linnen cloth about thy head , and by the grace of god , yee shall be whole . for a man that is diseased in the liver and spleene . take barrowes greace , and ashes made of ashen wood one pound , and running water a gallon , and seethe them till they bee halfe wasted , then straine them thorow a cloth into a vessell , and let it stand so all night , and then on the morrow scum off the greace and cast away the water , and melt the greace , and stirre it oft and put it into boxes , and when ye have need annoint the spleene therewith . a drinke to be used after this oyntment ▪ take the roots of young ashen plants clean washed one handfull , and wormewood as much , seeth them in wine from a gallon to a pottle , and let the patient drinke thereof in the morning cold , and evening hot . a plaister for the spleene . take dry lillies , march mallow rootes , and alexander seed , of each an ounce , of the barke of an elme tree , the barke of an ash , and broome seed , of each two ounces ; all these being beaten to powder , let them be sodden in strong vineger , and so let them seethe till they be sodden dry ; then put thereto the powder of commin one dram , powder of the barke of capers one ounce , powder of rew three drams , then afterward put thereto gum armoniacke one ounce or thre drams , dissolved in vineger , then with waxe , and turpentine , as much as shall suffice , make thereof a plaister for the spleene . another . take the tops of acornes , rose leaves , coriander seed , and commin seed prepared , of each one ounce , strado arabiae , galanga of each two ounces , salinter , i. saltpeeter one ounce terrified , mixe them and put them in a bagge , quilted , or basted , quadrantwise , and lay it to the place grieved . another . take camomill flowers , wheat bran , and a pint of white wine , boyle them all together and put them in a bag , then take oyles of violets , of linseed , and of lillies , of each a penniworth , annoynt therewith , and put your bagge hot thereto . a drinke for the spleene . take the juyce of licorice one ounce , fennell-seed , anniseed ▪ and juniper of each an ounce , pound them all in a morter together , and so drinke it in your drinke . another . take three spoonfuls of the juyce of ivie leaves in white wine , or else of the juyce of egrimony , and drinke of it three or foure mornings fasting , and it will helpe you . to dissolve the hardnesse of the spleene . amoniacum dissolved in very sharpe vineger , and spred upon leather plaister-wise , and applyed to the spleene will mollifie the hardnesse thereof , and it may lye thereto seven weekes and never be removed . a soveraigne medicine for the spleene , and to clense the body . take harts-tongue , wilde hoppes , lettice , and borage , with the flowers of fumitory , and parcely rootes , seethe all these in whay , and clarifie it with whites of egges , straine it , and drinke it first in the morning and last at night during the space of a moneth , and by gods helpe , it will cure your spleene , and clense your blood , and comfort you many wayes for your health . for ache in the backe . take a great onyon or two , and roast them in the embers , then stampe them and straine them out of the ju yce , and mix it with as much malmesie as juyce , and drinke thereof blood warme , first and last . probatum . to stay the backe , and helpe him that consumeth . take the rootes of parcely , fennell , camphere , and of borage , planten , bursa pastoris , and knotgrasse , and make broth with them of young hennes , capon , mutton , rabbets , and veale , and put thereto a date or two , and yee may seethe them in posset ale made of white wine . another . take white archangell , cumfrey flowers , white lillies , white roses , white holly hockes , knot-grasse , and clary , stampe them , and take a pottle of muskadine , and a pint of ale , with the pith of an oxe backe , and three capped dates , the stones taken out and beating them in a morter small , then put in some of your muskadine and grind it with some of your ale and stirre it , and boyle the rest thereof , take also the yolkes of three new layd egges , the strings taken out , and beat them well together , and put thereto of sinamon two penniworth , and of whole mace one penniworth , and seethe all these to a quart , and so use it . another . take the pith of an oxe backe and scald it , then straine it out of the skin and shred nippe , and beat it in a morter very small , putting thereto a quart of milke and straine it , and then seethe it with five or sixe dates , and a graine of amber-greece , and the powder of ginger , and let the patient use it very often . it is proved . to take away the paine of the reynes of one that is low brought . take three quarts of white wine , and boyl therein a red cocke , and put thereto a handfull , of red nip , a quantity of clary , and the rootes of red fennell , harts-tongue , a sticke of synamon bruised , dates , great and small raisins , with a few prunes , seeth all these together , till the strength of the cocke be in the broath , and put therein one ounce of manus christi , and use this morning and evening luke warme . for ache in the backe and legges . take the marrow of an oxe , and oyle olive three spoonefuls , and the yolkes of egges , and butter , pepper one ounce , then take the milke of a woman , and mingle it together , and anoynt the sicke therewith . for the bladder and the reynes . take the seedes of planten beaten in a morter , and seeth them in wine , and drinke thereof alone . a plaister for the reynes . take callamint , camomill , wormewood , peritory , holyhockes , and bray them in a morter with oyle , butter , or deere and sheeps suet , and grease of a boare , or barrow hogge , with a quantity of commin , and lay it on a plaister both behind and before . for all diseases in the backe . take the rootes of daisies , of planten , of bursa pastoris , of centimodum , and the cups of acorns a handfull , and of bole-armoniack two ounces , and of harts-horne burnt , and also a bucke conie that is fat , and let all these be sodden together in white wine and water , as much wine as water , till the cony be consumed , from the bones of the flesh , then take away the flesh and the bones from the broth , and so let the broth stand till it come to a jelly , and when you are in your bed , cause your backe to be therewith annoynted by a chafingdish of coales , three nights together , and lay thereon a warme linnen cloth , and it shall helpe you by gods grace . for paine in the bladder , and to make it whole for ever . take three rootes of smalledge , and wash them faire and cleane , and cut them small , and seethe them in a quart of faire water , till three parts of the water be consumed , then straine it , and take foure drams of the powder of bittony , and put thereto , and drinke the said water . against running of the reynes . take one pound of jordaine almonds , and blanch them , and parch them , and grind them very small and make almond milke thereof , with a pinte of rose-water , and a pinte of planten water , and then seethe it with suger , and sina mon ▪ and when it is cold put thereto a dramme of masticke in fine powder , and use thereof to eate and be whole , probatum est . a syrope for the backe . take the rootes of ennila compana cleane scraped , and slice them thin , and lay them in faire running water three dayes , and shift them every day , then at three dayes end take them out ▪ and put them in a gallon of faire running water , with a quart of honey , of lycorice one ounce , scraped cleane and sliced , and of anniseeds one ounce , cleane rubbed from the dust , let all these be boyled with a soft fire , and take out the rootes out of the liquour , washing them one by one , and when they be cut lay them on a faire dish , and so let them lye . houres , and then take the rootes and weigh them , and for every pound of your rootes , take a pottle of muskadine , or white bastard , and put your rootes therein , and put thereto two pound of fine white suger , two or three whole maces , boyle all these to a syrope , with your rootes , and then put it into a pot , and when you will use it , let the patient eate of the rootes , and drinke a spoonfull of the syrope with your rootes , after it , morning and evening . probatum est . remedies to provoke menstruum mulieris . take powder of peeter , bittony , yarrowseed , in white wine and drinke it . another . take mugwort , selondine , marigold , verven , nippe , of each nine crops three dayes before the change , and three dayes before the full of the moone . another . take germander , and the rootes of red madder , and seethe it in ale , and give it her to drinke , or else take radishes ▪ et semen pionae , red sanders and suger , and use it as aforesaid . another . take cotula fetuda , the which is like camomill , but it stinketh , and make a fomentation thereof . another . take the juyce of mercury , and honey , and flower of cockle , as much as will incorporate it , and make thereof little balls , and give her one or two of them , and she shall have menstruum , also it shall after dispose her to conceive , for it hath seldome failed , and is well proved . another . take the blacke seed of pionie , and bruise them one by one to the number of nine , and picke of the blacke huskes , and in a morter breake them to powder , eate and drink the said powder at times afore said , in the second medicine . pro eadem . another . take the rootes of gladion , and arsmart , and seethe them in good white wine , or vineger , and when they be well sodden , take them from the fire , and let the woman sit over it , so that the ayre may strike up , and none goe away , for this is proved . another . take bittonie , puliall royall , centory , of each a handfull , seethe them with wine or water , till the two parts be wasted , and then clense it thorow a cloth and drinke it . another . take balme , margerom , isope , and marigolds , a handfull , seethe them from a pottle to a quart upon a soft fire , and so take it and drinke it every morning fasting , and if it be bitter , put thereto suger , and use it . remedies to stop menstruum mulieris . take the blackest holly-hocks that yee can get , and take the flowers thereof , and make them in powder , and drinke them , and wash the place with the water of lovage . another . take the water of oake leaves distilled , halfe a pinte of rose-water , and syrrupe of quinces sixe ounces , and let her drinke thereof first and last . another . take horse-dung , and seethe it in good vineger , and put it into little bagges of linnen cloth , and lay the one upon the reines of the backe , and the other betweene the navill , and the privie place , as warme as shee may suffer it , and let her drinke it every morning and evening with a little synamon till shee be whole . another . take the rootes of gladium , and seeth them well in wine , or water , and receive the fume thereof : it never failed ▪ to stop white menstruum and red . take the juyce of planten , and of bursa pastoris , and two whites of egges well beaten among the juyce , and put thereto bole-armoniack one ounce , and of terra sigillata , one ounce , and a portion of beane flower , and make it thicke upon the fire , and draw thereof a plaister upon thin cloth , and lay it to her backe and navill . another for the white take the inner rinde of the sloe ▪ tree , sumatch , balestianes , the rinde of the pomegranate , planten , knot-grasse , the inner rinde of the red bryer , and a little french-bolearmoniack , and boyle all these in red wine , till halfe be consumed , and let her drinke it fasting , et restringet fluxum menstruum . another . take the foote and legge of a hare , and bake it to powder haire and all , and drinke it , and it restraineth the same . the vertue of fearne . the root is good to be drunke , and laid to plaister-wise , for the wounds that are made with reedes ; and in like manner , the roote of the reede drunke , and laid plaister-wise to the sore , where fearne sticketh . the powder is good to be strowed upon moyst sores , which are hard to be covered with skin , and ill to be healed : the juyce pressed out of the fearne roote , laid to with rose-water , or other cold water , is good for all manner of burning or scalding , perfectly and sure . to take away heate and inflamation of a member . take the waters of planten and purslaine , of each two ounces , and the water of a little hearbe called vernicula●is , two ounces , litarge and ceruse , in fine powder , of each foure drams , and camphere three graines : mixe all these together and so use them . a locion for a sore mouth . take running water a pinte , vineger halfe a pinte , honey foure ounces , bay leaves one ounce , galingale one dram : let all these be decocted to the forme of a syrope . a preparative . take syrope of violets , endiffe , and of femitory , of each two ounces , and of common decoction foure ounces . to make vergent milke by d. yaxley . take litarge of leade one pound , with vineger a pinte , laid in fuse three dayes , and then drawne with woollen shreds , and so keepe it in a viall by it selfe close : then take foure ounces of conduit-water and one ounce of allome , and one dram of camphere : and melt all over the fire , and keepe the water by it selfe in another viall , and when you will use it put both these waters together , of each a like quantity , and it will be like milke . it taketh away the spottes and freckles in the face , if it be often applyed thereto . a comfortable powder for the heart . take synamon , ginger , of each three ounces , graines of paradice , long pepper , of each two drams , saffron one dram , suger foure ounces : and so make your powder . a remedy that breaketh the stone . take a pound of gr●mmell , a pound of saxifrage seed , and a pound of coriander , with a quarter of a pound of soras , white and red , and grinde all these in a morter very small , and so keepe it , using to eate thereof in your pottage every day a spoonefull . another . take time , damsons , beane-cods , pellitory of the wall , saxifrage , a like quantities , and sleepe them one night in white wine , then distill them , and use to drinke thereof . another remedy for the stone , and to cause the voydance of vrine . take pellitorie of the wall , sothernwood , and seeth them in water or white wine , with a quantity of sheepes suet , till it bee tender , then put the hearbes and tallow in a linnen bag , and lay it warme to the bottome of the belly , using this , you shall finde remedy . a proved medicine to avoid the vrine that hath beene long stopped . take radish rootes , one if it be of bignesse and strong , is sufficient , and scrape it very cleane , and lay it in white wine , a night in steepe , then straine the wine , and give the patient to drinke , and he shall voyd water . a very good water for the stone proved . the water of strawberries ▪ with the leaves distilled , and so used by draughts , as other drinke . to breake the stone . dry the stones of a cock a yeare old , and ●eate them into fine powder , and give the diseased thereof to drinke in white wine , but if he have the charward , then give it to drink with good water . doctor argentines medicine for the stone . take the red barke of an ivie tree dryed , and beaten into fine powder , and after s●arse it through a fine searse ; also take a like quantity of blacke jeat , beaten and searsed in like manner , and being mingled together , drinke thereof with wine or ale , blood warme , five or sixe times . divers medicines for the stone and strangulion . take a quart of milke , and a handfull of bay leaves , another of time , of red sage , and of parcely , of each a handfull , and a quart of malmesey , a little rosemary , and boyle them all together from a quart to a pinte ; but yet let the milke and the herbes be boyled all whole together , from a quart to a pint , before the malmsey come in , and then use it . another . take reddish leaves , and seethe them in ale , and give it the patient to drinke , and it will cause him to make water . another . take red bramble-berries before they be blacke , and ivie-berries , and acornes , put them in a pot and dry them untill they be ready to be beaten to powder ; then take alisander seed ▪ parcely seed , gromell seed , coriander seed ▪ broome seed , and the seed of the nut-tree , the inner pithe of ash-keyes ; take of all these a like quantity also , and beat them to powder , and mingle them together with liquor of a double quantity ; then use to drinke it evening and morning sodden in posset ale , made with white wine ; and put of this powder often in your pottage when you eat them , and so use it continually till you find ease . excellent remedies for the stone in the bladder , and to provoke vrine . take life hony and rhenish wine , of each a quart , saxifrage , phillipendula , and pellitorie of the wall , of each a handfull , distill all these in balma maria , with a very slow fire , keepe it in a cold place in pewter or earthen vessels , and drinke thereof the quantity of halfe a pint every morning fasting , and afterwards eate the quantity of a walnut of life honey , and use to fast and walke an houre after it . another . take a pint of milke and put into it a pint of wilde mallow leaves , let them boyle together a quarter of an houre , then make a posset drinke of ale or beere , take off the curds and mallow leaves , then set your posset to boyle againe , and put into it a good stick of licorice well bruised , one spoonfull of anniseeds , and halfe a spoonfull of parcely seeds well bruised , and so of suger candy the quantity of a small walnut , boyle all these to the quantity of half a pint or lesse , then straine it , and at your going to bed drinke it blood-warme , putting into it a quarter of a grated nutmeg . it is approved . another . take a pottle of ale and a flint stone taken from the chalke and beaten to powder , and a pennyworth of reddish rootes , boyle all these together to a quart , then straine it thrice and drinke thereof evening and morning . another . take saxifrage , and rosemary , of each a like quantity , and seethe it in white wine till all the herbes bee throughly sodden , then straine it and drinke it cold evening and morning . another . take gromell , parcely , violets , and red nettles , put them into a morter and bray them ; then take the kernels of cherry-stones and bray them by it selfe , and seethe all together in white wine , and drinke it morning and evening . another . take perstone , unset leekes , and damsons , of each a like qu antity ; boyle them and clarifie them with the whites of egges , then take the juyce and drinke it with wine or ale , in quantity double so much as the juyce is . another . take a handfull of bay-berries , and the shell of an egge when the chicken is new hatcht out of it , and beat them together ; then take the powder and ▪ put it into ale or wine , and give it the patient to drinke , and by the grace of god it shall helpe him . for the stone in the reynes , or bladder . make a bath with parcely , alisanders , pellitory , fennell , and saxifrage , and let the patient sit therein up to the navill , then let them drinke the powder of these seeds , and the herbes , with warme white wine ; for this is a principall practice for this disease . probatum est . an injection for the stone . take a quart of barley water , and boyle therein a handfull of mallow leaves , and as much of violet leaves , till halfe the water be consumed , then put thereto three spoonfuls of mel rosarum , and let the party take it as an injection with a searinge . for any evill in the bladder . take ashe , parcely and fennell , of all alike : put them and temper them with water and drinke it ; and it shall helpe thee well to pisse , and it shall cast out the stone , and heate well thy stomacke . a powder to breake the stone . take the blood of the heart of a kid , and of a foxe the blood of the heart , of both a like quantity : take the bladder of a boare , and all that is therein , and put this blood thereto , take the juyce of saxifrage , and juyce of parcely , of each a like quantity : and put these in the bladder also , and hang up the bladder in the smoake over the fire , untill such time it be congealed together as hard as a stone , and make powder thereof : and drink it with hote licour , when thou wilt , first and last ; and this shall breake the stone to powder , and make it voyd away . to ease the paine of the stone . beate the stones of medlers into powder , and drinke it with stild milke , or with white wine . another . take turpentine of jeane , make it in little balls , and rowle it in fine suger , and swallow it downe whole . against the new ague , by doctor langdon . take sorrell , sowthistill , endine , dandelion , succorie , croppes of fennell with mallowes , with violet leaves of each one handfull , and seeth them all in a gallon of stale ale , to a pottle , with skimming , that done , straine out the liquor , and make thereof an ale posset , and let the patient drinke thereof as oft as he is a thirst , putting into every dra ught as much treacle as the bignesse of a beane ▪ and ye shall be healed . for an ague . by doctor turner . take featherfew , worme-wood ▪ and sorrell , of each a good great handfull , stampe them and straine them ●ard , and put thereto as much suger in weight as the juyce weigheth , and put them in a strong glasse in a skillet of warme water , the space of foure and twenty houres before you give it to the patient , and then give it twice a day two spoonefuls at a time in ale or posset-ale . a very good drinke for an ague . if one shake . take a quart of strong ale , and put therein nine bay-leaves , and seethe it till it come to a pinte and then take out the bay-leaves , and put therein one penny-worth of treacle , a halfe-penny worth of pepper , stirring it well together , and let it then seethe againe one walme , and so take it off the fire , and let the patient drinke it as hote as he can , and be covered as warm as he may abide , the space of sixe or seven houres . probatum est . another . take a pinte of ale and put therein one penny-worth of long pepper , and foure or five field daysie rootes and then seeth the same well together , and then let the patient drinke the same as hote as he may ●uffer it , and walke till he sweat if he be able , or else layd downe and covered very warme that he may sweat well . also burre-leaves , and baysalt beaten together and bound about the wrist of the patient is good for the same . another . take a quart of red-wine , and a quart of milke , and still them , and give it to the patient to drinke , when the axis come upon him , but the milke must be taken as it commeth from the cow. for a cold ague . take a spoonefull of vineger a spoonefull of aqua vitae , and a little treacle with long pepper and warme this blood-warme , and so let the sick person drinke it , when the fit commeth , and let him walke if he be able , if not , laid downe and made to sweate . a plaister to take the ague or any other ache out of a womans brest in the time of her child-bearing , if it come . take the yolke of an egge , and a little quantity of wheate flower , and a quantity of honey , as much as the yolke of the egge , and beat these together , till it be like a salve : then make a plaister thereof , and lay it to the brest that is grieved ▪ and it will heale it without doubt . probatum est . to kill the paulsie . drinke the roote of valerian in powder , and it will destroy the palsey , so that ye eate no hogge flesh . a remedy for the dropsie . scrape an elder roote very cleane , and breake it in many pieces , or shred it into white wine , and let it steepe therein , then drinke the wine , and it will heale your disease whole . against stopping of the pipes . take hisope , mintes , rose-mary , dai●ies ▪ and consond , of each like quantity , and seeth them with ale in lycorice , and use it morning and evening . against hoarsenesse . take a good quantity of verven , and seeth it with lycorice in faire water , then straine the water , and use no other drink with yonr meate untill you find remedy . for the yellow jaundise . take the reddest docke rootes that ye can get , and being washed cleane , put them into a vessell of good ale , and when it is stale , let the diseased drinke no other drink to his meate but ale and it shall helpe . for wormes in the bellie . against the wormes in the bellie , take onyons and pill them , cut or slice them small , powre spring-water over them : let it stand all night , and in the morning drinke that water , and it driveth away all wormes : powre the same water upon the earth where the wormes are , and within halfe an houre , they will all creepe out of the earth . another . likewise if one eate garlicke fasting , it killeth and driveth out wormes out of the body . or else drinke distilled water of knot-grasse , or shanie-grasse , the same killeth wormes also : how beit it worketh more in young then in old folkes . another . take mares-milke , and drinke it as hote as you can have it from the mare in the morning fasting . an approved remedy for a woman that hath her throwes before her time . seeth a good handfull of whole chervill in a quart of claret wine , and when the hearbes bee well sodden , wring them into the wine , and clense it , and make thereof an hypocras with sugar , cynamon and ginger , and give her thereof to drinke warme at times needfull . and it shall expulse the paine , approved . a powder for the strangury . take ivie berries dryed over the fire between two stones , and alisander seedes , of each a like quantity : and make a powder thereof to be used in a draught of good ale. for the collicke and stone . take unset leekes , unset time , and parcely , and make pottage of it with mutton : it is also good for the mother . for a megrim in the head. take a cloath and warme it very hot , and chase the nape of your necke , and your temples , a mornings . for the tooth-ache . take nine pepper-cornes , and five cornes of bay-salt , and some english honey , and breake your pepper-cornes , and beate them all in an oyster shell , then make little balls of lint , and dippe them in the honey , and lay it unto your tooth , or rub your teeth with allome beaten . for a sore brest . take a red-rose cake , and white wine in a dish , and set it on a chafingdish of coales and turne the cake up and downe in the dish , and lay it to the brest as hot as may bee suffered , and use this three or foure times , till it be whole . for a sore eye that burneth and is watrie . take hemlockes and distill them , and take the watet and lay it to your eyes ▪ and take a little lint , and dippe it in the water , and so lay it unto your eyes as you lye upright in your bed . another . take ground ivie beaten , c●reth the web in the eye , putting it in once a day . for to stoppe the bloody fluxe . take a pinte of milke , and a pinte of water , and let them boyle together over the fire , untill it come all to a pinte : and let the patient drinke it morning and evening . a remedy for a fellon . this infirmity doth come of a venemous matter , and other while it commeth of an interiall cause , or of an exteriall , the interiall cause commeth of some evill humour , the exteriall cause doth come of some venemous stinging of an evill humour eate treacle , and make a plaister of treacle and lay it upon the place : or take the white of a rawe egge , and put in salt to it , and beate it well together , and make a plaister thereof . another . take rew , and soape , soote , and boares greace : and stampe them together , and lay it to the fellon . a medicine well proved for the megrim . take the juyce of night-shade , and as much vineger , with crummes of leavened bread , and the white of two egges , a quantity of bolearmoniac , a quantity of sage , and dragons tayle : all these are to be made plaister-wise upon flaxe , and lay it upon your griefe ; also village to be stilled is very good . for to heale a sors eye , hurt with the small pockes . take the marrow of the pinions of a goose-wing cold , a quantity of honey , new taken out of the combe , in the hive , and mingle it together , and lay it on the patients eye-lidde , and it will heale it . for a sore eye with a pinne or a web. take white allom , and running-water , and boyle it together in an egge-shell , till it be halfe consumed . for a sore eye that ●tcheth and pricketh . take running water a quart , and put in white copperas , a rose-mary sprigge and a spoonefull of hony , and let it boyle to a pinte , and then drop a little into the eye : and keepe it after from rubbing or touching . for a sciatica or ache in the bones . take of rew , and red nettles , of each a a handfull , commin , blacke sope , and frankensence , of each a quantity , boyle all these together , and make a plaister thereof , and lay it to the griefe . another . take a lapfull of nettles , another of neppe , seethe them in chamber-lye , and put therein a handfull of bay-salt , and a quantity of blacke soape , and let them boyle well together , and lay it to the griefe . for sore eyes . take fennell rootes , white daisie rootes and leaves , and lay it in white wine , and wash your eyes with it . to stoppe a great laske . take a pottle of faire water , and put therein a cony fleyed , well washed , and quartered , and let it be well skimmed when it doth seethe : then take a good handfull of almond● unblanched , and the stones of great raisins , and beat them in a morter with some of the broth in the pot , and un●trained put them in ▪ then take halfe an ounce of whole cinamon , a handfull of blackberry leaves , a handfull of planten with the rootes thereof , the pot being cleane skimmed : put the aforesaid gredience therein , and let all boyle till it come to a quart , then straine the broth , and let the patient drinke thereof morning and evening , or at other convenient times in the day . analliter , if the aforesaid broth be warmed with a gad of steele , when it is cold , it is so much the better . to cause one to make water . take parceley and seethe it in white wine , and drinke it morning and evening . for the wind collicke . take commin-seede , or fine cod seede , and beat them to powder , and put it into ale , beere , or white wine , and drinke it , and it will make one laxative . for to make a water for the same . take broomeseed , and beate it to powder , and drinke it with muskadine , or any other wine . for to bind on from the laske . take a penny-worth of roch allome , and seeth it in a pinte of white wine , and drinke it . for to skinne a sore finger . take nervall oyle , or rose oyle , or camomill oyle , or pompilion , and annoynt your finger or shinne with it , and it will be whole . for a vehement cough in young children . take the juyce of parcely , powder of commin , womens milke , and mixe them together ; then give the child to drinke thereof , and afterward make this oyntment following : take the seed of hempe or flaxe , and fennycrick , and seethe them in common water , then presse out with your hands the substance of the hearbs , which you shall mingle with butter , and so annoynt the childes brest with it as hot as may be . for a broken head. take unwrought waxe , and a little sugar , and running water , and boyle it in a sawcer , and make a plaister , and be w ho le . for chilblaines in the feet or hands . take sheeps suet , and unwrought wax , and rozen , and boyle it in a sawcer , and make a a salve , and it will heale them . to kill the tooth-ache , or a ring ▪ worme , or a tetter . take oyle of broome , and annoynt the gums at the roote of the tooth where the paine is : it must bee used after this manner take a piece of old broomesticke , the older the better , and light it , and hold it downeward , and it will drop that which is yellow , and annoynt your gummes with it , or put it in the hollow tooth . for a stitch. take groundsill and dry it , and put sweet butter into it , and put it where the paine is , as hot as may be suffered : or take oates ( the blackest that you can get ) and fry them with red vineger , and lay it as hot as may be suffered where the paine is . for an ache or a bruise . take oyle of peeter ▪ it must be used after this manner : take a stoole , and when that you are rising or going to bed , sit with your backe towards the fire ▪ you must have a great fire , and where the paine is , you must rub it with some of the oyle all downewards , and they that doe dresse you , must dry their hands well against the fire and chafe it . to make white teeth . take lemmons and make stild water of them , and wash your teeth with it , for it is a soveraigne thing : or if you will not make the water , take the liquor of them , which is also good for the same purpose , but the water is better , because it is finer : so that in the stilling it lose not his force . a medicine for a swelling in the cheek● . take a pinte of white wine , and halfe a handfull of camomill flowers , and seethe them in the white wine , and wash your cheeke , both within and without , as hote as you can suffer it . to make a perfume suddenly in a chamber where a sicke man lyeth . take a little earthen pot , and put into it a nutmeg , two scruples of the sticke of cloves , and two of the sticke of cinamon , and foure of storax calamint ▪ rose-water , or water of spike , or some other sweet water , and seethe it : then put it into a pot-shard , with a few hot ashes , and coales under it , and set it in the chamber , and the smoake thereof shall give a sweet , amiable , and hearty savour . to make a cleere voyce . take elder-berries , and dry them in the sunne , but take heed they take no moysture : then make powder of them , and drinke it every morning fasting with white wine . a medicine for the mother . take a pinte of malmsie , a little quantity of commin-seede and coriander-seed , and a nutmegge , beate these together , and then seethe them to halfe a pi●te , with a little white suger-candie , you must take a spoonefull at a time . a medicine for a stitch or bruise . take three quarts of small ale , and one penny-worth of figs , and one pennyworth of great reisons , and cut the stones out of them , and one penny-worth of licorice , of isope , of violet leaves , and of lettice of each one handfull , and seethe them from three , quarts to three pints , and straine it , and so let the person drinke it , and after make this plaister following , take a quantity of horse dung , and a quantity of tarre , fry it , and put a little butter and vineger into it , and make a plaister , and lay it to the side . for the bloody fluxe . take of suger rosset made of dry roses , of trissendall , of each one ounce and a half , mixe these together , and eate it with meat or drinke it with drinkes ; but the best remedy j could find , is to take three handfuls of st. johns woort , as much planten , and as much cressis , and seethe these in a gallon of raine water or red wine to a pottle and straine it , then put to it two ounces of sinamon beaten , and drinke thereof often . also , take a spunge and seethe it in a pint of muskadine , and wring it , and let the patient sit over it close , as hot as they can suffer it , and cover them warme . remedies for the itch. take of salt-water a gallon , and seethe it with three handfuls of wheaten bread crums that is leavened , and wash your body with the water : or , wash your body in the sea two or three times . or , else take the bran made of cockle-seeds three handfuls , and of the powder of brimstone two ounces ; boyle these in a pottle of white wine vineger , and wash your body therewith three or foure times . or take a quantity of brimstone , and a quantity of allome ▪ and burne them on a fire-shovell over the fire , beat them very small and boyle them with bores-greace , and so annoint the itch. to kill lice or itch. take quicksilver two penniworth , and kill it with fasting-spittle in a dish , beating it well together , and put thereto foure penny-worth of oyle of bayes , and so annoint the place ; this receipt will kill both itch and lice in the head or body . to cure the crampe . make a ring of an oxe or cowes horn , or of a sea-horse tooth , or of the pizle of a sea-horse and weare it . it is proved . for a paine or swelling in the privie parts . take white wine vineger and cow-dung , boyle them to a poultis , and when it is ready put thereto oyle of roses ; and if the griefe proceed of a cold cause , put thereto some camomill flowers applyed very hot . another . take commin-seeds beaten into to powder , barly-meale , and honey , of each a like quantity , then fry them together with a little sheeps suet , heat it and bind it as a plaister to the cods . remedies for burning or scalding . take five or sixe spoonefuls of sallet oyle , and as much of running water , beat them together till they bee well incorporated , then anoynt the place therewith and lay thereon a doek leafe , it will both coole and heale . another . take of the herbe periwinckle , fry it in a pan with fresh butter , fresh greace , and sheepes dung newly made ; when it is well fryed straine it through a cloath and it will be like salve , then spred it on a linnen cloth as broad as the sore is and apply it thereto . it will cure it , though it were scalded and burnt to the bone , if it be taken in time , renewing the plaister morning and evening . remedies for the piles . take martlemasse beefe , dry it and beat it to powder , then put it into a chafingdish of coales , and set it in a chaire , and sit over it . another . burne two or three brickes red hote , put them into a pan in a close stove and sprinckle vineger upon them , letting the party sit close over it that hee may receive the fume thereof into his fundament , doing this three or foure times if need require , will helpe it . a remedy for the cappes . take the oyle of sweet almonds one ounce , and anoynt the place therewith ; or any of these things following is good , the powder of the rinde of pomegranets , the marrow of a calfe , or a hart , the fat of a capon , goose , or ducke , and such like . to kill a tett●r or ringworme . trose d● arsmeg is good , and if it come of blood exhaust two or . ounces of blood or more if need require , and that age , time and strength will permit ; and if it bee lupte , cut off the heads of them , and rub them with salt and garlick stampt together , and then lay over them a plate of lead . approved remedies for the shingles . take rose-water , planten-water , and white wine , of each of them halfe a pinte , put all these together and wash the place often therewith . or else take of red wormes that come out of the earth , and bray them in a morter , and put to them a little vineger , and so make plaisters , &c. or else take flowers of camomill , rose-leaves , and violets , the weight of each of them one ounce ; of myrtles , and sumack , of each of them an ounce and a halfe ▪ seethe all these in white wine and make a plaister and lay it to the place , or else make a● oyntment of ceruse . j have taken hous-le●k and have stampt it with a little camphere and put to it white wine , and have layd it to the place and have healed the patient ; also , the oyle of roses , or the oyle of violets is good for this impediment , mixt together with th● whites of egges , and the juyce of planten . for the colli●ke and gripings in the belly . give the patient jeane treacle , and pow●er of cloves well sodden in good wine an●●●t them drinke it very warne . or , take the root o● lilly , and horehound , and seethe it in wine , and give the patient . probatum est . a plaister for t●e same . take lynseed and st●mp it ▪ and dock leaves and seethe them well in water and make a plaister , and lay it to the griefe very warme . for a scurffe in the body . this infirmity doth come of a cholericke and melancholick humour . for this cure j take two ounces of bores grease , then j doe put in one ounce of the powder of oyster shels burnt , and of the powder of brimstone , and three ounces of mercury mortified with fasting spittle ; compound all these together , and annoynt the body three or foure times , and take an easie purg●tion . a remedy for a wild running scab . take mercury mortified with fasting spittle three ounces , incorporate it with oyle of bayes , and anoynt the body , or else take mercury mortified three ounce● , and of the powder of brimstone two ounces , the powder of enula campana two ounces , & confect these together with barrowes grease , and anoyn● often therewith . for a timpany . take a pinte of broome ashes , eyther of greene or dry , and a quarter of an ounce of sinamon bruised , sift the ashes , and let a pinte thereof and the bruised sinamon lye in steepe all night in a pottle of white wine , then let it run through a gelly bag twice or thrice till it run cleere , put in some sugar , and a tost unto it , drinke thereof thrice a day , in the morning fasting , and an houre before supper , and an houre after supper . for one that is in a consumption . take foure ounces of shavings of harts-horne , one ounce of the shavings of ivory , put it in a pipkin with a gallon of faire water , let it stand on the fire twelve houres in fusing and boyling softly close covered , then take twenty egges in their shells , crack their shells , and put them in a dish with salt , and let them stand an houre , and purge themselves then pull them from their shells , washing them till they be cleane ▪ then put them in the pipkin to the harts-horne , and let it boyle two houres , then put in a good handfull of raisons of the sun stoned , halfe an ounce of ●iquorice scraped and sliced , and a blade or two of mace , boyle all these till it come to a quart of liquor , then put in halfe a pinte of white wine , sixe spoonfuls of rose-water , two penny-worth of saffron powdered , boyle all a little while , then straine it , or run it through a gelly bag , if you please you may sweeten it as you like it , put a little salt in it , when it is cold it will be a jelly , you may take it cold or warme three or foure spoonfuls at a time , in the morning fasting ; at foure of the clock in the afternoone , and when you go to bed . if you doe think this too troublesome you may boyle the egges in broth or milke , so you boyle them a good while and so drink the broth or milke as you like best , they are exceeding strengthning and will do you great good if it please god to give blessing to it . a medicin● for one that is broken . take a quantity of comfrey , a quantity of knee-home , a quantity of knotted grasse , a quantity of ribervorum , and a quantity of polipody : stampe them altogether , and straine them in ale , and then give the patient the same to drinke cold , and trusse him up with some bolster and let his dyet be but competent , eschewing all slippery meats , as butter and such like ; provided alwayes , that the p●tient keepe his bed sixe or seven dayes , lying upon his backe , and sometimes hold his belly with his hand . for the shrinking of the sine●●s . take the marrowe of a horse-bone and the crops of elders , and as much of sage , and chop them together , and boyle them in the marrow , and then straine out the hearbes , and put to the liquor one spoonfull of honey , two spoonefuls of aqu● composit● , and a quantity of pepper , and boyle it againe , and keepe it for your use . for the staying of the flux● . take a new layd egge , and take off a little of the top of it , and powre out a little of the white , and fill up the egge with aqua-composita , and stirre it together , and rost it , and sup up the egge in the morning fasting : till you be well use this . a medicine for a sore thr●at . take a pinte of milke , halfe a handfull of collumbine leaves , halfe a handfull of gasell , a dozen leaves of sinkefoyle , and two jewes-eares ; ( and boyle them ) and so the partie must use it evening and morning , and gargale it in his throate . for weakenesse in the back● . take clary and dates , and the pith of an oxe , and put them together , and then put to them creame , and egges , and grated bread , and fry them together , and strew suger on it ; and eate it in the morning fasting , and you must put some white sanders in it also , when you temper it together . for the carbunckle or impostume in the head. take worme-wood , origanum , mayron ▪ by even portions , and seeth them in sweet wine , and after that wring out the juyce , and lay it to the eares of the sicke , with two spunges as hot as hee may suffer it ; use this two o● three times , and he shall be whole . to take away pock-holes , or any spot in the face . take white rose-water and wet a fine cloth therein , and set it all night to freeze , and then lay it upon your face till it be dry : also take three puppies , the reddest you can get , and quarter them , take out the garbage : then distill them in quart of new milke of a red cow , and with this water wash your face . for faintnesse in the stomacke , or the morphew . take a quantity of amber beaten to powder , and a quantitie of english saffron in powder likewise , and put it into white wine , and drinke it seaven or eight times . a good fumigation for the french poxe ▪ confirmed . take synaper two ounces , of frankensence , of liquid storax , a dram and a halfe , and mingle them : the manner how to minister this suffumigation is this ; you must set your patient naked under a straight canopie , and you must lay upon the coales the first part of your aforesaid receipt , and the patient must enforce himselfe to receiv● the smoake , keeping the fire betweene hi● legges till he begin to sweate : and so doing the space of foure dayes , till his teeth beg●n to ake . pilles against morbo . take of all the mirabulines three drams , of troskes , of colloquintida , of masticke of digredium two drams , of nigula ▪ of organy ▪ of cummin , two drams , of blacke elibore one dram , of spike , of euphorium , of h●rts-horne burnt , of sall-gemme halfe a dram , of mayden haire , of the coddes of s●ney , of pollytricon , of galitricon , of the flowers of rosemary , of harts-horne , of epithiam one dram , of coryanders , of anniseed of polipodium ▪ sixe drams , of good treacle sixe drams , of agaricke in traskes , and of washed aloes ▪ tenn● drams , of the spices of hier● ▪ de octo r●bijs of the spices of diarodam albatis , eight drams : make a paste of pilles , with the juyce of femitory , and honey of roses , one dr●m . to make your drinke . tak● twenty ounces of pock-wood , being turned of a turner very small , which put into an earthen pot of two gallons , and put thereto eight pound of running water , the best you can get , and let it stand in soake foure and twenty houres , the pot being covered , then take and stop the pot with paste , so close that no ayre may goe out , you must keepe the ●tre●gth in it , and that is your chiefest helpe , ●nd with the point of your knife make a hole in the paste , and therein put a peg of wood , which is to give it ayre , at times in the boyling for breaking of the pot : and thus let it boyle on a soft fire of coales , the space of sixe houres , in which time it will be consumed to a pottle ; and that will serve you for your drinke , to take morning and evening for foure dayes , against which time you must make more . after the first seething , seeth the same wood againe , with the like quantity of water and time likewise : and that is for your common drinke , to serve at all times till you make new . to make your bisket . take foure and twenty pound of the purest wheat-flower , which you can get , and put thereto one pound of fine sugar , and so make your bisket , which will serve for your turne all the time of your dyet . a receipt , and a soveraigne dyet for the french pox● ▪ proved . first , prepare a chamber , which make so close that no ayre ●●ter into it , and defend all ill savours out of it , and therein to bee twelve dayes together , before you doe begin your dyet , every day forbearing of eating , of flesh and drinking leese : on the thirteenth day you must begin your dyet , and then to take a purgation of gassia fistula , or of scamonia , to make your body empty , keeping your bed , sweating temperately , without any provoking : which sweating is your greatest remedy , in the which your sweate , you shall drinke of your second drinke as often and as much as you list : and of your first drinke you must drinke every morning at five a clocke , and evening at eight a clocke , eight ounces at a gulpe warme , saving on the daye , you take your pugation : on which dayes , drinke all of your second drinke , desiring alwayes to be merry and light-harted , in using often to smell to dryed orenges , hot bread , vin●ger of roses , mustard , and apples : and after this manner , you must keepe your chamber thirty dayes together , and never to take ayre , and at fifteene dayes you must take another purgation like to the first , and that day to drinke all of your second drinke : and in like manner , another purgation the thirtieth day : on which day , you may take broth of a chicken ▪ or of mutton , and by little and little take the ayre , and drinke good drinke . the order of your fare . every day take a quantity of a chicken , and seethe it in water , and put thereto borage leaves , or borage flowers without other spices or salt , or any other thing ▪ which chicken eate to thy dinner , and every day eate three ounces of bisket , and no more ; that which y●u leave of your bisket , eate at night , with a few raisins of the sun ▪ and your dinner must be at tenne a clock before noone , and your supper at five a clock at afternoon : and at your dinner you may dip your bisket in your broth ( if you will ) and so drinke your drinke as aforesaid , and this is your fare and dyet for the space of thirty dayes , and no other . a marvailous secret to preserve a man from the plague , and hath bin proved in england , of all the physitians , in that great and vehem●nt plague in the yeare ● . which ●rept through all the world : and the other in the yeere . and there was never any which used this secret , but hee was perserved from the plague . take aloe epaticum , or sicotrine , fine sinamon and myrrhe , of each of them three drams , cloves , mace , lignum aloes , masticke , bole-armoniack , of each of them halfe a dram : let ▪ all these things be well stamped in a cleane morter , then mingle them together , and after keepe them in some close vessell , and take of it every morning two penny weight , in halfe a glasse of white wine with a little water , and drinke it in the morning at the dawning of the day : and so may you ( by the grace of god ) goe boldly into all infection of the ayre and plague . a soveraigne drinke to preserve one against the plague or pestilence . take the quantity of a dram and an halfe of powder imperiall , a dram of triakle and of dragon water , and sorrell water , of each of them an ounce , and drinke it with ale in the morning fasting , and if one have the infection within . houres before , yet by gods grace he shall escape it . this hath beene truely proved in the last great visitation . another . take a dram of methridatu● , and give it the patient with dragon water , white wine , or some other liquor to drinke , when he supposeth himself to be first infected . another preservative against the plague . take seven or eight leaves of sorrell , and wash them in faire water and vineger , and steepe them in the said water and vineger a good while , and eate them fasting . the lady gath , her medicine against the plague . take abaunce , turmintell , sage , speremint , and violet leaves , of each one handfull , and stampe them in a morter very small , when you have so done , straine them through a strainer with red wine , claret or white , whether you can most easily get , and luke-warme , and give of this water to the dito drinke seased . an excellent antidote against the plague or poyson . take two walnuts , two figs , twenty leaves of rew , and one graine of salt , stampe them and mixe them all together , eate it in the morning fasting , and you shall be safe from the plague or poyson that day . an excellent preservative against the plagu● . take sage , hearbe grace , elder leaves , and bramble leaves , of each a handfull , take also a quart of white wine , and a good race of ginger beaten small or grated , stampe the hearbs with the wine and the ginger , then strain it through a cloth , take a spoonfull of this medicine every morning fasting , for nine dayes together ; after the first spoonfull , you shall be safe for twenty foure dayes , and after the ninth spoonfull , you shall be safe for two moneths . but if it shall happen that you be stricken ere you drinke of this , then take a spoonefull of the water of bittony , with a spoonfull of it mingled altogether and drink it ▪ it will expell the venome , and if the sore dore appeare , then take bramble leaves and elder leaves , of each a like quantity , stampe them and make a plaister thereof , and lay it to the sore , and it will heale it with gods helpe . a good drinke to be used to those that are infected with the plague . take berries of ivie ( that are ripe , gathered on the north side of the tree ) and dry them in the shadow : then stampe them to powder , then take a dram of the same powder , and temper it well with two ounces of planten-water , or white wine , and let the sicke person drinke a good draught thereof , and remaine in his bed , and sweate as much and as often as he can , after hee hath taken it , then warme a cleane shirt for him to put on ▪ ( and if his shirts may be shifted often , it will bee the better after his sweating ) and likewise his sheets and bed-cloathes , if it may be , if not , at the least his sheets and shirt : and in using of this for the space of three dayes together , he will dye or mend without all doubt , ( by gods helpe . ) this hath beene often and truely proved . to provoke sleepe to the sicke person : take a good quantity of womans brest milke , and put thereto a little quantity of aqua-vitae , stirre them well together , and moysten the temples of the head of the patient , and the nostrils well therewith , and let it be laid on with some feather , or some ●ine linnen cloth , and this will doe much good . it hath bin often proved . and if it happen , that the sicke person find himselfe greatly grieved , and that any swelling begin in any place to grow sore , then take elder leaves , red bramble leaves , and mustard seed , and stampe them all together ▪ and make a plaister thereof , and lay the same to the sore , and this will both draw and heale . or take two hand●uls of scabious , and stampe it in a morter , then temper it well with two ounces of swines greace , that is salted , and the yolke of an egge , then stampe them all together , and laid thereto plaister-wise , will draw exceeding well . how to breake a plague sore . take blacke snayles and leavened bread , stampe them very well together , make a plaister thereof and apply it to the sore , and it will br●ake sodainly by gods helpe . when medicines effect , give all the glory to god. a prayer . o eternall god , and most sure comfort and consolation in all afflictions , which he●lest the sicke soules oppressed with sin , which ministrest mercifull medicines to the repentant heart , and doest refresh the sinfull sinn●rs , that thirst after thy precious goodnesse , most humbly we beseech thee have respect to our deadly diseases , and purge them with that spilling of thy most precious blood , that we may be made cleane and found in thy sight , to receive the healthfull salvation of our soules , ●●d to rest with thy holy congregation , and heavenly fellowship in thy glorious and everl●sting kingdome , already purchased for us , by thy onely sonne christ jesus , our onely lord and saviour . amen . the anatomy of humane bodies epitomized wherein all parts of man's body, with their actions and uses, are succinctly described, according to the newest doctrine of the most accurate and learned modern anatomists / by a fellow of the college of physicians, london. gibson, thomas, - . approx. kb of xml-encoded text transcribed from -bit group-iv tiff page images. text creation partnership, ann arbor, mi ; oxford (uk) : - (eebo-tcp phase ). a wing g estc r ocm this keyboarded and encoded edition of the work described above is co-owned by the institutions providing financial support to the early english books online text creation partnership. this phase i text is available for reuse, according to the terms of creative commons . universal . the text can be copied, modified, distributed and performed, even for commercial purposes, all without asking permission. early 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(eebo-tcp ; phase , no. a ) transcribed from: (early english books online ; image set ) images scanned from microfilm: (early english books, - ; : ) the anatomy of humane bodies epitomized wherein all parts of man's body, with their actions and uses, are succinctly described, according to the newest doctrine of the most accurate and learned modern anatomists / by a fellow of the college of physicians, london. gibson, thomas, - . [ ], p., leaves of plates printed by m. flesher, london : . attributed to thomas gibson. cf. halkett & laing ( nd ed.). reproduction of original in cambridge university library. created by converting tcp files to tei p using tcp tei.xsl, tei @ oxford. re-processed by university of nebraska-lincoln and northwestern, with changes to facilitate morpho-syntactic tagging. gap elements of known extent have been transformed into placeholder characters or elements to simplify the filling in of gaps by user contributors. eebo-tcp is a partnership between the universities of michigan and oxford and the publisher proquest to create accurately transcribed and encoded texts based on the image sets published by proquest via their early english books online (eebo) database (http://eebo.chadwyck.com). the general aim of eebo-tcp is to encode one copy (usually the first edition) of every monographic english-language title published between and available in eebo. eebo-tcp aimed to produce large quantities of textual data within the usual project restraints of time and funding, and therefore chose to create diplomatic transcriptions (as opposed to critical editions) with light-touch, mainly structural encoding based on the text encoding initiative (http://www.tei-c.org). the eebo-tcp project was divided into two phases. the , texts created during phase of the project have been released into the public domain as of january . anyone can now take and use these texts for their own purposes, but we respectfully request that due credit and attribution is given to their original source. users should be aware of the process of creating the tcp texts, and therefore of any assumptions that can be made about the data. text selection was based on the new cambridge bibliography of english literature (ncbel). if an author (or for an anonymous work, the title) appears in ncbel, then their works are eligible for inclusion. selection was intended to range over a wide variety of subject areas, to reflect the true nature of the print record of the period. in general, first editions of a works in english were prioritized, although there are a number of works in other languages, notably latin and welsh, included and sometimes a second or later edition of a work was chosen if there was a compelling reason to do so. image sets were sent to external keying companies for transcription and basic encoding. quality assurance was then carried out by editorial teams in oxford and michigan. % (or pages, whichever is the greater) of each text was proofread for accuracy and those which did not meet qa standards were returned to the keyers to be redone. after proofreading, the encoding was enhanced and/or corrected and characters marked as illegible were corrected where possible up to a limit of instances per text. any remaining illegibles were encoded as <gap>s. understanding these processes should make clear that, while the overall quality of tcp data is very good, some errors will remain and some readable characters will be marked as illegible. users should bear in mind that in all likelihood such instances will never have been looked at by a tcp editor. the texts were encoded and linked to page images in accordance with level of the tei in libraries guidelines. copies of the texts have been issued variously as sgml (tcp schema; ascii text with mnemonic sdata character entities); displayable xml (tcp schema; characters represented either as utf- unicode or text strings within braces); or lossless xml (tei p , characters represented either as utf- unicode or tei g elements). keying and markup guidelines are available at the text creation partnership web site . eng human anatomy -- early works to . - tcp assigned for keying and markup - aptara keyed and coded from proquest page images - mona logarbo sampled and proofread - mona logarbo text and markup reviewed and edited - pfs batch review (qc) and xml conversion liber hic cui titulus , the anatomy of humane bodies epitomized , imprimatur . john micklethwait , president . daniel whistler elector and censor . censors . samuel collins , john downes , charles goodall , the anatomy of humane bodies epitomized . wherein all the parts of man's body , with their actions and uses , are succinctly described , according to the newest doctrine of the most accurate and learned modern anatomists . by a fellow of the college of physicians , london . london , printed by m. flesher for t. flesher , at the angel and crown in st. paul's church-yard . mdclxxxii . blazon of gonville and caius coll. gonv. et caius jacobus burrough miles . blazon or coat of arms to the reader . in relation to this treatise i think my self obliged to account for two things ; first , why i publish any thing of this nature ; secondly , why in english . as to the first ; i must confess it was not any ambition to become an author that put me upon it ; but another occasion . the bookseller for whom this is printed , ( my particular friend ) thinking to make a new impression of a book intituled the manual of the anatomy or dissection of the body of man , written by dr. alexander read , a fellow of the college of physicians , london , desired me to peruse it , and if in any place i observed it erroneous , to alter it . vnderstanding that the book had been writ many years agoe , ( that which was brought to me being the fifth impression , and that printed in . ) i was unwilling to meddle with it , suspecting that there must needs be very considerable errors in it , so many new things in anatomy having been discovered since that time . however at his importunity i undertook it : and before i had lookt over a sheet , i saw i was not deceived . for though i had resolved to give my self no further trouble than was necessary , yet i found that if i would mend all that was amiss , i must in effect write a new book . which i have really done , as any one will find that will take the pains to compare this with that writ by dr. read , for he will see very little of that retained except the method , which indeed is but little alter'd ; for though it differ pretty much from the modern , yet i think 't is every whit as convenient . as to the second , why i should write it in english ; i have two things to alledge : first , the example of him that has gone before me , who was a person ( as i am informed ) eminent in his time . secondly , to avoid the injury of a paltry translator , if it should be well accepted . for we see there is no man that publishes any thing in the latin tongue , that is received with any applause , but presently some progging bookseller or other finds out an indigent hackney scribler to render it into english . but with what dis-reputation and abuse to the worthy authors , every learned person cannot but observe . so that he that shall think to redeem the noble faculty and art of physick out of the hands of the mechanical quacking tribe by publishing every thing in a language above their understanding , will not only fail of his end , but find himself abused and disgraced into the bargain . and now as to the work it self , the main design of it is to pleasure those that are entring upon the study of physick ; for herein they may see in short , what afterwards they shall find more largely treated of in other authors . and perhaps it may not be altogether unusefull even for such as have made some proficiency in that study ; for it will serve at least as an index to bring to their remembrance what they have read more fully elsewhere ; and will save them the labour to make such a compendium for their own use . there is little that is new in anatomy , but the reader will find a taste of it here . which he will the rather expect to meet with , when he understands that most of these following learned anatomists are in some measure epitomiz'd in it . authors made use of in this treatise . adrian . spigel . de humani corporis fabrica . isbrandi de diemerbroeck anatome corporis humani . thomae bartholini anatome . dr. willis de cerebro . — de primis viis , and de respirationis organis , in the first and second part of his pharmaceutice rationalis . dr. lower's tractatus de corde . dr. glisson's tractatus de ventriculo & intestinis . — anatomia hepatis . dr. charlton's enquiries into humane nature in iv. anatomick prelections in the new theatre of the royal college of physicians in london . dr. harvey's exercitationes anatomicae de cordis motu & circulatione sanguinis . — exercitationes de generatione animalium . malpighius de viscerum structura . — exercitationes epistolicae de cerebro , lingua , &c. dr. grew's comparative anatomy of stomachs and guts , subjoined to his museum regalis societatis . dr. brigg's ophthalmo graphia , sive oculi ejúsque partium descriptio anatomica . regneri de graef opera omnia . johannis swammerdami miraculum naturae , sive uteri muliebris fabrica . dr. walter needham's disquisitio anatomica de formato foetu . dr. crone de ratione motûs musculorum . dr. wharton's adenographia , sive glandularum totius corporis descriptio . with several others . the first book . of the lowest cavity , called abdomen . chap. i. of the division of the parts of the body of man in general . anatomy is an artificial separation of the parts of the body by section , practised to attain to the knowledge of the frame of it , and the use of each part . in anatomical exercises , first the whole carcase doth offer it self , then the parts . the whole hath four regions , to wit , the fore and back parts , and the lateral , which are the right and left . i call the whole that which containeth the parts , and a part that which is contained in the whole , according to the most ample acception of the term part ; for in a more strict acception that is called a part , which partakes of the form and life of the whole ; and is defined to be a body solid cohering with the whole , endued with life , and framed to perform some function . a part then must be first solid : humours then cannot be numbred amongst the parts , because they are fluid . secondly , it must have life ▪ and so the excrements of hairs and nails are not to be accounted parts . thirdly , one part must not nourish another : and so the bloud , fat , and spirits are not parts . fourthly , it must have a circumscription . fifthly , it must be united with the whole , both in respect of matter and form . sixthly , it must have some function , or use . the principal differences of parts are taken either from their matter , or end . from their matter , parts are said to be either similar , or dissimilar . a similar part is that whose particles are of the same substance and denomination with the whole : as every portion of a bone is bone . it is otherwise called a simple part . of simple parts there are ten in number ▪ to wit , the skin , a membrane , the flesh , a fibre , a vein , an artery , a nerve , a ligament , a cartilage , a bone : they are comprehended in these two verses . cartilago , caro , membrana , arteria , nervus , vena , ligamentum , cutis , os , lentissima fibra . to these a tendon , which is the principal part of the muscle , may be added ; for the substance of it is simple , without any composition . of the former simple parts , some are simple indeed , and these are in number seven ; the skin , a membrane , the flesh , a fibre , a ligament , a cartilage , a bone . the rest are onely simple to the eye or sense , and not to reason ; for a nerve ( for example ) is composed of many filaments , covered with a double membrane , made of the dura , and pia mater . of the simple parts some are called spermatical , as a bone , a cartilage , a ligament , a membrane , a fibre , a nerve , an artery , a vein ; these being made of the seed , if they be cut in two , or broke , are not regenerated , nor can truly be again united ; but are onely joyn'd by a callus . others are sanguineous , being suppos'd to be made of bloud , and these are regenerated , such is all the muscular flesh . as for the skin , it seems to be partly spermatical and partly sanguineous ; for though in grown men a wound in it is healed onely with a cicatrix , yet in boys it has been observed to be closed with a true and proper skin . but of its nature see more in the next chapter . a dissimilar part is that whose portions are neither of the same substance , nor the same denomination ; as a muscle , in the which are flesh , nervous fibres , and a tendon . it is otherwise called a compound part , and an organical part . in an organical part four particles are commonly found ; as in the eye , there is first , the chief particle , by which the action , namely vision , is performed , which is the crystallin humour . secondly , that particle , without which the action cannot be performed , as the optick nerve . thirdly , that which furthereth the action , as the membranes and muscles . fourthly , that by which the action is preserved , as the eye-lids . of organical parts there are four degrees . the first is made onely of the similars , as a muscle . the second receiveth the first kind of organical parts , and other similars , as a finger . the third admitteth those of the second degree , as the hand . the fourth is made of the third and other parts , as the arm . parts from their end are distinguished into principal , and less principal or ministring . the principal are the liver , stomach , heart , brain . the ministring are either necessary , or not . the necessary are those without which the animal cannot live . so the lungs minister to the heart , the guts to the stomach . the not necessary are simple flesh , &c. in respect of other parts : for in consumptive persons 't is almost wholly spent ; and insects , according to aristotle , have none . there are also other divisions of the parts of the body , as into parts containing , parts contained , and the spirits , express'd by 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , or impetum facientes , by hippocrates . fernelius divides the body also into publick and private regions . the private are such as the brain , reins , womb , &c. the publick are three . the first hath the vena portae , and all the parts whither its branches reach . the second begins at the roots of the cava , and ends in the small veins before they become capillary . the third hath the muscles , bones , and the bulk of the body , terminating with the skin . but this division is only of use in physick . chap. ii. of the circumscription , regions , and parts of the abdomen . of all the parts of the body we are to begin dissection with the cavities : first , because they offer themselves to the view in the fore region of the body . secondly , because they being moist , and apt to receive the impression of the external heat , soonest putrefie and send out noisom smells . the cavities are appointed to receive the principal parts , and those which minister unto them . wherefore there are three cavities , according to the number of the principal parts . the head is for the brain , the breast is for the heart , and the belly for the liver . and because this last cavity is most subject to putrefaction , you are to begin at it . now three things concerning it offer themselves . first the circumscription or bounds of it . secondly , the regions of it . thirdly , the special parts of it . as concerning the circumscription of it , it is severed within from the breast by the midriff . it is bounded above by the cartilago ensiformis , or the heart-pit , and beneath by the share-bones . the regions of it are three , the uppermost , middlemost , and lowermost . the uppermost , which is bounded between the mucronita cartilago , and three inches above the navel , about the ending of the short ribs , hath three parts : the two lateral , which are called hypochondria , or subcartilaginea , because they lie under the cartilages of the short ribs . in the right hypochondrium lieth the greatest part of the liver , and part of the stomach , but in the left the spleen , and a greater part of the stomach . the third part is that which before lieth between the two lateral parts , and is properly called epigastrium , because the stomach lieth under it . in this part remarkable is the pit of the breast , which is called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , or scrobiculus cordis , by the modern writers . the middlemost region extendeth it self from three inches above the navel , to three inches under it . the fore part is where the navel is , from whence it is called regio umbilicalis . the two lateral parts are called by aristotle 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , either from their laxity , or from 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , salacitas , because they are the seat of lust ; by galen 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , because being placed between the hanch-bones and ribs they are lank and seem to contain nothing . they are called by dr. glisson epiçolicae , because on each side , this region investeth the lateral parts of the gut colon. the hindermost parts parallel to these are called lumbi , the loins , in the right whereof is the right kidney , and in the left , the left . the lowest region is called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , hypogastrium . this region hath three parts , the two lateral , and the middlemost : the lateral are bounded by the ●ssa ilia , so called because a great part of the ilium intestinum lieth under them on each side . besides this , in the right part are placed the beginning of the colon , and the caecum intestinum , which latter is joyned as an appendage betwixt the ilium and colon. in the left part are contained the ending of the colon , and the intestinum rectum . the fore-part of the hypogastrium by aristot . lib. . hist . animal . . is called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , which gaza calleth abdomen and sumen . under it lieth the pubes , which word signifieth both the hairs , and the place where the hairs grow , which appear to bud in girls the twelfth year , but in boys the fourteenth year , when way is made for the monthly courses , and seed begins to be generated . at the sides of the pubes appear 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , or inguina , the groins . under this lowest region in its middle are contained the bladder , and the matrix in women . behind , it is terminated by the os sacrum . chap. iii. of the common containing parts of the belly . the common containing parts of the belly are four , the skarf-skin , the skin , the fat , and the membrana carnosa . the skin in a man is called cutis , but in beasts aluta ; in greek it is called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , and 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 ; either 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , because it is easily flea'd off ; or from 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , seeing it is the end and superficies of the whole body . of all the membranes of the body it is the thickest . it hath a double substance ; the one is external , called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , because it is placed upon the skin as a cover . it is termed cuticula in latine , and is as large as the skin , and more compact ; for waterish sharp humours , passing through the skin , are stayed by the thickness of this , and so pustules are caused . in man it is as the peeling of an onion . it is without bloud and without feeling . the material cause of it is a viscous and oleous vapour of the bloud , raised by the natural heat of the subjacent parts , and dried and condensed by the external cold , as most anatomists have taught ; but dr. glisson not improbably thinks it to be a soft , slippery , viscid and transparent juice ( like the white of an egge ) issuing out of the capillary extremities of the nerves which end in the outer superficies of the true skin , where it is coagulated , and by its viscosity sticketh upon it like glue , so that it can hardly be separated therefrom by a knife , but easily in living creatures by a vesicatory , and in dead persons by fire , or scalding hot water . it sometimes also almost wholly peels off in burning fevers , and the small pox ; but a new one presently succeeds it . the use of it is first , to defend the skin , which is of an exquisite sense , from external immoderate either heat or cold . in cold weather it breaketh the cold , that the perspiration should not be altogether hindred : in hot weather by its compactness it hindreth too great perspiration . secondly , to be a middle between the skin ▪ and the object to be felt ; for when it is rubb'd off , the true skin cannot endure the touch of other bodies without pain . thirdly , to stay the ichorous substance from issuing from the arteries ; for this we see when the cuticula is rubbed off by any means . fourthly , to make the body more beautifull ; which it does by smoothing the asperities of the true skin , and inducing a comely colour of white and red . whiteness is natural to this part , and the redness is owing to the bloud that is affus'd to the outward superficies of the true skin ; which being seen through the skarf-skin makes that florid colour . the true skin is six times thicker than the skarf-skin : in children , women , and those which are born in hot countries , it is thinner ; but in men , and in those who inhabit cold countries , it is thicker . it is naturally white , as other membranes ; but in living and healthfull persons , and such as live in a temperate or somewhat cold climate , from the afflux of the bloud towards it , it is of a reddish rosie colour . but in those that live under the aequinoctial line and in excessively hot climates it appears black in the outer superficies , because they having a softer skin , and large pores and loose , many vapours of the adust humours are raised with the sweat ; the grosser substance whereof , ( being stopt by the scarf-skin , and ) by reason of the excessive heat , being dried and burned , causeth that blackness ; for their infants are not born black but reddish . it is made up of nervous fibres very closely interwoven one with another , and of a parenchyma that fills up the interstices and inequalities thereof . that it has such a parenchyma may appear by this , that when a sheep-skin ( for instance ) has been some while steept in water , one may with an ivory knife or the like scrape a great deal of mucous slimy matter off it , whereby it becomes much lighter , thinner and in some measure transparent , as we see in parchment . the skin in the fore-head and sides is thin , thinner yet in the palm of the hand , but thinnest of all in the lips and cods . in the head , back , and under the heel it is thickest . under the heel the cuticula in some will be as thick as a barley corn , and may more truly be called a callus than a cuticula ; and such it is in the palms of the hands of such as much handle hard things , as smiths , and the like . it is thinner in children and in women than in men ; in those that live in hot countries , than those that live in cold . and this ( as spigelius observes ) is the reason why those that are born in cold countries , when they come under the aequinoctial line , are often taken with fevers ; because that great heat that is there excited in the body by the outward air , cannot exhale through the too thick skin , but being retained induces a preternatural heat , and so a fever . the pores will appear in the skin in the winter time , it being bared ; for where they are , the cuticula will appear as a gooses skin . the skin hath an action , to wit , the sense of feeling . it s use is , first , to cloath the whole body , and defend it from injuries . secondly , to be a general vent or emunctory to the body , by which all its exhalations may fitly transpire . which whether it be done onely through its pores , as most anatomists have affirmed ; or also through its very substance , as dr. glisson has of late asserted , is a controversie hardly worth the insisting on . in the next place appears the fat , which is commonly taken to be something distinct from the membrana carnosa that lies under it ; but is indeed onely a part of it : for in its outer part it is full of membranous cells , which are fill'd with a yellowish fat . but however having noted this errour , we shall speak after the manner of former anatomists , and consider it as separate , and so define it to be an oleous humour of the body elevated by the moderate heat of the parts lying under it , and concreted betwixt the carnous membrane and the skin in membranous cells . now though in men this fat is immediately next to the skin , yet in beasts the membrana carnosa comes between , and is indeed musculous , and so close joyned to the skin that by the help of it they can ( many of them ) move the skin so as to shake off flies or any thing that offends them : but it is not so in men in any place save the fore-head , which therefore they can move in like manner . this fat is properly called pinguedo , whereas that of the caul , &c. is called sevum , suet or tallow . and they differ in this , that pinguedo is easily melted , but not so easily congealed ; but sevum is not easily melted , but is easily congealed . besides , pinguedo is not brittle , but sevum is . the uses of it are these : first , it defendeth the body from the air ; so apothecaries , when they mean to preserve juices , pour oyl upon them . secondly , it preserveth the natural heat . thirdly , it furthereth beauty by filling up the wrinkles of the skin . fourthly , in the muscles it filleth up the empty places , rendreth the motion thereof more glib and easie , ( so it do not abound too much ) and keepeth all the parts from driness , or breaking . hence it besmears the extremities of the cartilages , the joyntings of the greater bones , and the vessels that they may pass safely . fifthly , in a special manner it helpeth the concoction of the stomach ; whence the caul being taken out , there follow flatus and belchings ; and in such case it is necessary to fence the stomach extraordinarily with outward warmth . membrana carnosa , or 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , so called in man ; not that it is in him fleshy , ( but nervous , and so should rather be called nervea ; ) but because in beasts , which the ancients used most commonly to dissect , it is endued with fleshy fibres . in the birth it is red , but in those of ripe age white ; in the fore-head and neck it is more fleshy . within it is bedewed with a viscous humour , to further the motion of the muscles by keeping the superficies of them from desiccation ; which otherwise might fall out by reason of their motion . it is of an exquisite sense , wherefore when it is pricked with sharp humours , it causeth shiverings , such as are felt in the beginning of ague-fits . first it preserveth the heat of the internal parts . secondly , it furthereth the gathering of the fat . thirdly , it strengtheneth the vessels which pass between it and the skin . in the next place ( according to the usual method of anatomists ) we should come to speak of the muscles of the abdomen with their membranes , &c. but we have thought it more convenient to treat of the muscles of the whole body in a particular book , and so shall but onely name the muscles of the lower belly here , as they appear one after another to the dissector . and first there shew themselves the obliquely descending pair ; secondly , the obliquely ascending ; thirdly , the recti ; fourthly , the pyramidal ; and lastly , the transverse . all these being removed , there appears the peritonaeum , of which in the next chapter . chap. iv. of the proper containing parts . the proper containing parts are the muscles of the belly , and the peritonaeum . of these muscles we shall speak book . chap. . the peritonaeum or inmost coat of the belly ( derived 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , from its office of encompassing ) is tied above to the midriff , below to the share and flank-bones ; in the fore-part firmly to the transverse muscles , but chiefly to their tendons about the linea alba ; behind to the fleshly heads of these muscles loosely . the end of this firm connexion is to press equally the belly , for the expulsion of the ordure , and for respiration . if this connexion had not been , the peritonaeum would have become wrinkled , the muscles being contracted . if it had not been loose tied to the fleshly parts , the contraction of them in the compression of the belly had been hindred . it s figure is oval ; its substance is membranous ; the inner superficies of it , which respects the guts , is smooth , equal and slippery , bedewed with a kind of watery humour contained in the abdomen : but the outer superficies , whereby it cleaves to the muscles of the lower belly , is rough and unequal . as for the origine of it , fallopius will have it to proceed from that strong plexus of nerves , from whence the mesenterium is said to have its beginning . some will have it to proceed from the ligaments by which the vert●brae of the loins and of o●s sacrum are tied together . picolhomineus will have it to be framed of those nerves which spring out of the spinalis medulla , about the first and third vertebrae of the loins . but fallopius's opinion seems the most probable ; for there it cannot be separated without tearing , and is very thick . it is double every where , but appears so to be chiefly about the vertebrae of the loins , where between the duplications lie the vena cava , the aorta and the kidneys . in the hypogastrium two tunicles are also apparently seen , between which the bladder and matrix lie . the umbilical vessels also are placed in the duplicature of the peritonaeum , that they may march the more safely . above , where it is tied to the midriff , it has three faramina or holes ; the first on the right side , whereby the ascending trunk of the vena cava passes ; the second on the left side , for the gullet ( with the nerves inserted into the mouth of the stomach ) to descend by ; the third , by which the great artery or aorta , and the nerve of the sixth pair may pass . below , it has passages for the strait gut , for the neck of the bladder , and in women for the neck of the womb ; also for the veins , arteries and nerves that pass down to the thighs . before , in the foetus for the umbilical vessels and the vrachus . but the most remarkable are its two processes , placed before near the os pubis , on each side one . they are certain oblong productions of its outer membrane passing through the holes of the tendons of the oblique and transverse muscles , and depending into the cod , there bestowing one tunicle on the stones . there are also two processes in women , but they reach onely to the inguina or groins , and terminate in the upper part of the privity or the fat of mons veneris . the inner membrane of the peritonaeum ( in men ) reaches but to the very holes , which it makes very strait ; but being either relaxed or broken , the outer gives way , and so there follows a rupture , either the caul , or the guts , or both descending thereby . by the holes of the processes there descend in men the vessels preparing the seed , and the muscles called cremasteres , and by them ascend the vessels bringing back the seed . in women there pass by them the round ligaments of the womb , which after growing somewhat broadish , are joyned to the clitoris , or else terminate in the fat of mons veneris . the peritonaeum is thickest below the navel , for that when one either sits or stands , his intestines bear down heavy on that part , so that unless it were there stronger than ordinary , it would be in danger of breaking . in women with child also , it is very much extended in this region . and thus far of the parts containing . the explication of the figure . aa the coverings of the abdomen dissected , and turned back , that the inner parts may come to view . b the sword-pointed gristle , or cartilago ensiformis . cc the gibbous part of the liver . dd the stomach . ee part of the colon placed under the stomach . ffff the upper membrane of the omentum knit to the bottom of the stomach . g the navel . hh the umbilical vein . ii the two umbilical arteries . k the vrachus . l the bladder . aaa the gastroepiploical vessels dispersed through the caul and stomach . mm the intestines . tab . i. pag. . chap. v. of the omentum . the parts contained serve either for nutrition , or procreation . as for the parts serving for nutrition , they either serve for chylification , or sanguification . the principal efficient cause of chylification , is the stomach ; but the adjuvants are the caul , and the pancreas . the principal efficient causes of sanguification , have been held to be the liver and spleen , and the other parts to be adjuvant causes . but since it has been discover'd that none of the venae lacteae pass to the liver , but that the whole chyle is conveyed by the ductus thoracicus to the heart and so into the mass of bloud , they are discharged from the task of sanguification ; though they do contribute to the refining and perfecting of the bloud already made . the excrements of the chylification are received by the guts . the excrements of the sanguification have been taught to be two , viz. choler , and the serous humour . the thin choler is received by the vesica fellea ; but the thicker by the meatus cholidochus . the serous humour is turned to the kidneys , and from thence to the bladder by the ureters . the parts appointed for procreation , are the genitals , both in men and women . next then to the peritonaeum is the omentum , or caul , in greek it is called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , because it seemeth to swim above the up-upper guts . the arabians call it zirbus . it is composed of two membranes , of vessels , glands and fat. the uppermost membrane doth spring from the bottom of the stomach , and is tied to the hollow part of the liver and spleen . the inner or lowermost doth spring from the peritonaeum , immediately under the midriff towards the back , and is tied to that part of the gut colon that passeth under the stomach lengthways , to the pancreas or sweetbread , to the midriff , and to the duodenum intestinum . it s lower part doth hang loose and reacheth in most below the navel , but in some that are fat to the very os pubis . it s bottom is close and united , so that it is sitly compared to a pouch . from its double origine there ariseth betwixt its partitions a notable cavity , which some very weakly have destin'd to divers uses ; but indeed it results onely accidentally , and was not for its own sake framed by nature . for ( as dr. glisson reasoneth ) whilst nature is solicitous about providing a fit deputy for the mesentery ( and that membranous ) and stuffing it with fat , through which vessels may be carried to the stomach , liver , spleen , pancreas and colon , and whereby she may joyn all those parts after a due manner ; and moreover whilst she takes care that it hang down loosely , and besmear both the stomach and intestines with its unctuousness ; and in the mean while be every where continuous to it self : i say , whilst she diligently proposes all these ends , if she will obtain them , she must needs make the caul hollow as it is above described , and its propending part must needs imitate the bottom of a pouch . thus he . the omentum aboundeth with vessels of several sorts ; we shall begin with the arteries , and translate hither the account that the above named doctor gives of them , which is very exact . its arteries are propagated from the coeliaca ; or rather the inner leaf ( as he calls it ) of this membrane , near its origine , receives and upholds this artery , ( as soon as it passes out of the aorta ) betwixt its membranes . it is divided into two branches , the right and left . the right being joyned to the vena porta in the pancreas , and fenced with the membranes of the omentum , is carried into the cava of the liver : but it first sends forth these branches ; the pyloricus , to the hinder side of the right orifice of the stomach ; the arteriae cysticae gemellae , the epiplois dextra , a portion whereof is dispensed to the gut colon ; the intestinalis carried to the duodenum and beginning of the jejunum ; the gastro-epiplois dextra , which is distributed into the right bottom of the stomach — the left branch of the coeliaca , called splenicus , is greater than the right , and being included within the membranes of the hinder leaf of the omentum is carried directly left-ways to the suture of the spleen under the bottom of the stomach . in its passage it sends forth many branches : vpwards one notable one called arteria gastrica , which washeth the bottom and sides of the stomach and its upper orifice , and there gets the name of coronaria ; also a second called gastro-epiplois sinistra , whereof one portion is dispersed into the bottom of the left part of the stomach , and both its fore and hinder parts , and the remainder is spent on the fore leaf of the omentum ; it sends forth a third also , that famous branch called vas breve arteriosum , which is inserted into the left part of the left orifice of the stomach . downwards also it shoots forth some branches , as the epiploe sinistra , which being divided into two rivulets waters partly the hinder leaf of the omentum , and partly the colon it self ; also another little branch , which is wholly spent on the left part of the hinder leaf of the caul . the veins that answer to the said arteries rise almost all from the splenick branch , the trunk of which veins after it is joyned with the stem of the splenick artery , puts forth branches exactly answering and proportioned to those of the said artery ; and all the branches of both vessels are dispensed to the same respective parts , and are denominated from them , so that 't would be needless to stay longer on their distribution : only the branch that goes to the right orifice of the ventricle , called of some pyloricus , takes its rise from the trunk of the porta before 't is divided . it has but very small nerves proceeding from a double branch of the sixth pair : and these , as the veins , accompanying the arteries , and having the same names , we shall not take the pains to trace . but besides these vessels formerly known , there are some that think they have discovered another sort called adiposa ; amongst whom malpighius is a leading man : whether there be such or no , i leave the curious with their glasses to inquire ; for , for my own part , i could never discern any such by the naked eye , or such glasses as i have made use of . dr. wharton in his book de glandulis , cap. . declares , that he has observed some venae lacteae arising out of the bottom of the stomach , to be received into the omentum , which being inserted into a pretty large gland do from thence spring again , and are carried obliquely downwards , crossing the right extremity of the pancreas : one would think , saith he , at the first sight , that they enter'd into the pancreas , but they do in truth pass by it , and make towards the common receptacle of the chyle , into which they unload themselves . the same learned physician does in the same place give an account of two glands that are naturally found in it . one greater near its being joyned unto the pylorus , and into this it is that the lacteae are inserted ; another somewhat less placed towards the spleen , and this he has observed sometimes double , triple , yea manifold . preternaturally it has sometimes many more . the fat is about the veins and arteries , to strengthen them , and to keep them from being compressed by the repletion of the belly , and other motions . when the stomach is full , and the guts empty , the upper membrane of the caul is raised , the lower remaining in its own place ; but if the guts be full , and the stomach empty , then the lower membrane riseth up , the upper remaining in its own place ; for which end its lower end is free and untied , that sometimes the upper , sometimes the lower membrane might rise up , saith spigelius . the uses of it are these : first , it cherisheth the internal heat of the lower part of the stomach , and of the intestines . secondly , it ministreth nourishment to the parts in the time of famine , galen . de us . part . l. . c. . thirdly , like the mesentery , it serves to convey safely the vessels to other parts , as to the stomach , colon , duodenum , &c. fourthly , it keeps the outer superficies of the guts moist and glib , that they may the better perform their peristaltick motion . creatures which have no caul , help concoction by doubling their hinder legs , and resting their belly upon them , as hares and conies . they who have had a portion of it cut off , because it was corrupted by reason of a wound received in the abdomen , have afterward a weak concoction , and are enforced to cover the belly well . see galen . lib. . de usu part . . where he proveth this by example . chap. vi. of the gula. the gullet being as it were the pipe or funnel of the stomach , though it be seated in the thorax , and so should be considered in the next book , yet because of its relation to the stomach , being but an appendage of it , we shall treat of it here . it is an organical part , round and hollow , beginning at the root of the tongue , behind the larynx and windpipe ( where it is called pharynx ) and passeth from thence directly between the windpipe , the vertebrae of the neck , and the four first vertebrae of the thorax , upon the which it resteth ; but when it is come to the fifth vertebra , it giveth way to the trunk of the great artery descending , by turning a little to the right side : afterward accompanying the artery to the ninth vertebra , there it turns a little to the left again , and is raised up , by means of the membranes , from the vertebra , and marching above the artery , it passeth through the nervous body of the midriff at a hole distinct from that of the great artery , and is inserted into the left orifice of the ventricle , about the eleventh vertebra of the breast . it is properly called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , quasi 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , angustus & longus : see aristot . . histor . animal . . it is also called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , quòd cibum ad ventriculum vehat . it is framed of three membranes . the first is the uttermost and common , compassing the two proper ; this it hath either from the peritonaeum , according to some , or from the pleura , or from the ligaments of the vertebrae of the neck and breast upon which it resteth . the second is the middlemost , and it is fleshy and thick , for it consists of two ranks of fleshy fibres , ( what fibres are see b. . ch . . ) which ascend and descend obliquely , and do mutually decussate one another . this hath been held by many ( not improbably ) to be a kind of muscle , because it is sometimes affected with convulsions and palsies . the third is the innermost , and it is membranous ; and hath onely small and straight fibres . it is continued to that membrane that covereth the palate , mouth , jaws and lips ; whence the lower lip usually trembleth , when one is going to vomit ; and ( according to dr. willis ) it descends three fingers breadth below the mouth of the stomach . it hath veins in the neck from the jugulars , in the thorax from the vena sine pari ; but where it is joyned to the ventricle , it hath some twigs from the ramus coronarius , which proceedeth from the porta . it hath arteries in the neck from the carotides ; in the thorax from the intercostals , and in the abdomen from the ramus coeliacus coronarius . nerves it hath from the sixth pair , which are carried obliquely , for safety , as galen noteth , l. . de usu part . . and are very many . it hath four glandules ; two in the throat , which are called tonsillae , or almonds , common to the gullet and the larynx , which prepare and separate the pituitous humour to moisten them ; other two it hath about the middle of it , towards the back , about the fifth vertebra of the thorax , namely , where it gives way to the trunk of the aorta , and turns somewhat to the right side , or at that place where the aspera arteria is divided into two branches . the gullet serveth as a funnel to carry meat and drink to the stomach ; for it receiveth them by dilating its proper internal coat , and turneth them down by the constriction of the middle coat , and the muscles of the pharynx . but concerning its action , and in what manner , and by what help swallowing is performed , see more fully and particularly in the fifth book , of the muscles , chap. . chap. vii . of the ventriculus or stomach . that part which we term the stomach in english , in latin is called ventriculus , without any addition , to distinguish it from the other ventricles , which have always some other word added to determine the signification , as ventriculus cordis , ventriculus cerebri . in greek it is called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , and 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , from its cavity . in man it is but one ; but such quadrupeds as chew the cud , especially all that are horned , have four stomachs ; the first whereof is called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , in english the paunch ; the second 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , in latin reticulus ; the third 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , omasus , in english the feck ; the fourth 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , abomasus , in english the read. such fowl also as live upon corn have two stomachs ; the first membranous , called ingluvies , the crop ; the second carnous , called ventriculus carnosus , in english the gizard . betwixt these two some name a third called echinus , but it seems rather a passage only betwixt these two than it self a distinct one . but this is not a place to be particular as to the differences of number or shape , &c. of the stomachs of several animals , having designed only a succinct anatomy of man. but the inquisitive may satisfie themselves in the learned dr. charleton's second prelection before the college of physicians , entituled historia ventriculi ; or more fully in the ingenious dr. grew's comparative anatomy of stomachs and guts , published with his museum regalis societatis . it is placed immediately under the midriff , which it toucheth ; wherefore if it be too full it causeth a difficulty of breathing , by hindring the motion of it . in the forepart on the right side , it is covered with the hollow part of the liver ; on the left side it is touched by the spleen ; towards the back by the aorta , the vena cava , and under it backwards by the pancreas : all which further its heat . the bigness of it is commonly such , as is capable to receive so much food at one time , as is sufficient for nutrition . it is less in women than in men , to give way to the distention of the matrix . they who have wide mouths , have large stomachs . it is joyned with the gula on the left side , where its upper orifice is : it is tied to the duodenum , where the lower orifice is , on the right side . the bottom in the whole length of it is joyned to the upper part of the caul , by whose mediation it is joyned to the liver , back , spleen , colon and pancreas . the substance of it is membranous , that it might admit distention and contraction . it hath three membranes . the first is common , which it hath from the peritonaeum or the diaphragm about the upper orifice ; it is the thickest of all those which spring from the peritonaeum ; the fibres of it being nervous are straight , running from one orifice to the other , and encompassing both its bottom and sides in their whole longitude . near the orifices and towards the bottom of the stomach , they are far thicker than in the middle , insomuch as there they seem in a manner carnous and motory . these nervous fibres of this membrane do cross at right angles the carnous ones lying next under them . the second is fleshy , and the fibres of it are transverse , under which a few oblique , and those fleshy , lie . this coat is believed by some to be muscular . the third is nervous , endued with all kinds of fibres ; straight , oblique and transverse ; but the straight are most conspicuous and plentifull . it is something wrinkled , and its inner superficies is pulpous , porous and soft . it is always moistened with a slimy flegmatick humour , that sticks so close to it , as if it were something that grew out of it . besides these membranes with their fibres it hath also a parenchyma , but that not sanguineous , but of a peculiar sort . for without a parenchyma how should the inequalities , that spring from the texture of the fibres , be filled up ? and what should that be , which those that make strings for musical instruments , scrape from the guts , if not it ? for we see after such scraping they have lost nothing of their strength , which they owe to the fibres and membranes . and 't is apparent that the substance of the guts and stomach is the same . some there are that think this parenchyma that i plead for , to be almost wholly glandulous . it hath also two orifices . the one is in the left side , called sinistrum , wider than that in the right , that meat not well chewed might the better pass . it is called in greek 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 cor , from whence the region of the stomach under the cartilago ensiformis is called scrobiculus cordis , or heart-pit ; and hence also the pains which happen in it are called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , and 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , because there is a great consent between it and the heart , by reason that the twigs of nerves which proceed from the same branch , springing from the sixth pair , communicate to both ; so that one being affected primarily , the other must suffer by consent . this hath orbicular fibres , that the meat and drink being once received within the capacity of the stomach , it might be exactly shut , lest fumes and the heat should break out , which might hinder concoction , and annoy the head. the other by the grecians is called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , janitor , or door-keeper , because it , as a porter , doth make way for the chylus to descend to the duodenum : it is not so wide as the other orifice , because it was only to transmit the elaborate chylus . here the inmost nervous coat is very full of wrinkles ; the middle , which is carnous , hath here also two ranks of fibres ; transverse or anular , to straiten this passage ; and secondly straight , viz. such as running lengthways do gather up and draw the rest of the stomach towards this door , for the distribution of the chyle after it has been sufficiently concocted in the stomach . it hath veins , first , from the trunk of vena porta , and this is pyloricus ramus ; or , secondly , from the branches of the same , for so from ramus splenicus it hath gastrica minor , and gastrica major ( the largest vein of the stomach ) from whence coronaria springeth ; gastro-epiplois sinistra , and vas breve : from the ramus mesentericus , before it be divided , it hath gastro-epiplois dextra . all these veins , ( as the rest of the body ) serve only to convey back again ( towards the heart ) the remains of the arterial bloud which in the circulation is not spent on the refection and nourishment of the part ; though some learned modern anatomists think they do besides the arterial bloud receive some of the more subtile part of the chyle for its readier conveyance into the mass of bloud , and thence draw a reason of the very quick refreshment that hungry and faint persons receive by eating or drinking . it hath its arteries from ramus coeliacus , which do accompany every vein , and have the same denomination with them . it hath nerves from the par vagum , o● the sixth pair ( dr. willis's eighth ) whose trunks passing down ( below the pneumonick branch ) by the sides of the gullet are each divided into two branches , the outer and inner . both the inner branches bending to one another grow into one , which passing with the gullet through the midriff goes on the outer part of the orifice of the stomach , and spreads it self in its bottom . the two outer branches in like manner inclining to each other unite into one , which descending to the stomach by the oesophagus , and arriving at the inner part of its orifice , there turns back and creeps through its upper part . the inner and outer branches as they come one on one side , and another on the other side of the upper orifice of the stomach , send forth many small twigs , which mutually inosculating make there the plexus nerveus like a net . from this multitude of nerves interwoven in the mouth of the stomach proceeds that great consent betwixt it and the head. ( so that in any great concussion of the head there follows a vomiting , and from the foulness of the stomach the head-ach , &c. ) here at this upper orifice , from the same reason , is the sense of hunger most urgent . and this is a proper place to resolve the question , what is the true cause of hunger ? to which i shall give diemerbroeck's answer as the most probable . it is caused from fermentaceous ( or dissolving ) particles partaking of acrimony , bred of spittle swallow'd and other saltish or acid things eat or drunk , which sticking to the coats of the stomach , and brought to some acidity by it , or remaining in it after the chyle is sent off , affix'd to its inmost wrinkled membrane ( especially about its upper orifice ) molest it by their twitching , which twitching being communicated to the brain by the nerves of the sixth pair , an imagination of taking meat is excited to asswage that troublesome corrosion . ] he that doubts of the truth of this opinion , may find it evinc'd at large in his anatome corporis humani , cap. . p. , &c. the action of the stomach is chylification . now chylus is a white juice reasonable thick , like barley cream , made out of the aliments taken ; the manner whereof is well exprest by the same author . while the meat is chewing in the mouth it is mix'd with the saliva , which not onely softens it , but endows it with a certain fermentative quality , unto which contributes also the drink , ( whether beer , or wine , or some other ) which often contains in it acrimonious particles and fermentaceous spirits . the stomach by the help of its fibres embraceth closely the meat thus chew'd and swallow'd , and mixeth therewith specifick fermentaceous juices , bred in its inner coat , and impregnated with the saliva . then by a convenient heat there is made a mixture and eliquation of all ; for that the fermentaceous particles entring into the pores of the meat , do pass through , agitate , and eliquate its particles , dissolving the purer from the crass , and making them more fluid , so that they make another form of mixture , and unite among themselves into the resemblance of a milky cream : after which , together with the thicker mass , in which they are as yet involv'd by the constriction of the stomach they pass down to the guts , where by the mixture of the bile and the pancreatick juice , they are by another manner of fermentation quite separated from the thicker mass , and so are received by the lacteal vessels , as the thicker is ejected by stool . ] see further hereof in dr. charleton's third prelection before the college of physicians , sect. . p. . of figure , it is round moderately ; partly , that it should not take too much room ; partly , that it might receive much . it is somewhat long , and hath two orifices higher than the bottom , lest if one should have been in the bottom , the aliment should have issued out of it unconcocted . chap. viii . of the intestines , or guts . the guts are called in latin intestina , in greek 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , from their being placed within the body . they are oblong , membranous , hollow , round , diversly twisted , continued from the pylorus to the podex , for conveying the chyle , and the excrements of the first concoction . they are knit together by the mesentery , by which and by the intervention of the caul ( to which , part of the colon is affix'd ) they are tied to the back , and fill the greater part of the cavity of the abdomen , being sustained by the cavities of the os ilium . they are of a membranous substance like the stomach , thinner in the small guts and thicker in the great ; and the nearer they come to an end , the thicker they are , as the end of colon and the rectum . the length of the guts is about six times the parties length whose they are . they are thus long ( and winding ) that the concocted aliments passing out of the stomach , by their long stay in the guts , might the more commodiously be fermented by the admixture of the bile and pancreatick juice , and so the more subtile chylous parts being separated from the thicker mass , might be the better and more leisurely driven into the narrow orifices of the lacteal vessels , partly by the proper peristaltick motion of the guts , and also by the impulsion of the muscles of the abdomen moved in respiration . and hereby two great inconveniencies are avoided ; the one of eating almost continually , which would have follow'd from the chyles having not time enough to be elaborated and distributed , before it would have arrived at the anus , whereby the body must needs receive but small sustenance from any thing eat or drunk ; the other ( for the same reason also ) of having almost a continual need of going to stool ; as happens to such voracious animals as have a streighter passage from the stomach to the anus . they have three coats , as the stomach ; one common and outermost from the peritonaeum , but mediately ; for in the duodenum , and that part of the colon which cleaveth to the stomach , it proceedeth immediately from the lower membrane of the caul ; and in the jejunum , ileum , the rest of the colon , caec●●m and rectum , it proceedeth from the membranes of the mesenterium . it is all over besmear'd with fat , and is truly nervous . they have two proper . the outer , being the middle of the three , is carnous . it has two ranks of moving fibres , one lying under the other ; the first and inner rank is annular or transverse , which encompassing the whole cavities of all the intestines in very close order , is inserted into the hem or seam of the mesentery as into its tendon . the other rank is of streight fibres , which being spread above the former , and cutting them at right angles , reach along the whole length of the intestines ; and their tendon seems to be the outmost coat , which being wholly nervous , or as it were tendinous , is rolled about the whole rank of these fibres . the innermost is nervous , although it seem to be fleshy , by reason of the crusty substance with which it is lined , which is framed of the excrements of the third concoction of the guts themselves . this lining is called by pecquet a spongy peristoma , by bilsius a woolly moss ; it serves as a filtre for the chyle to transcolate through in order to its entrance into the venae lacteae ; and besides , it hindreth excoriation , which might be caused when sharp humours pass through the guts . some ( as particularly dr. willis ) take it for a distinct coat , and call it glandulo satunica or villosa ; but i think 't is only an epiphysis or excrescence upon the other , caused as abovesaid . this membrane in the small guts , especially the ileum , is full of wrinkles , to stay the chylus from passing too soon ; which wrinkles are caused , for that this inmost coat if it be sever'd from the other and the wrinkles stretcht open , will be ( according to fallopius's observation ) thrice as long as it . and the same membrane is expanded in the colon into little cells , for the slower passing of the faeces . it has all sorts of fibres , and contains the mouths of all the vessels both sanguineous and lacteal , which are cover'd with that spongy crust before-mentioned . what was said of the parenchyma of the stomach in the foregoing chapter , may without repeating it here , be applied to the guts likewise . as to their vessels , the veins flow from the porta , although not from the same branch : for the duodenalis surculus is sent into the duodenum , and the haemorrhoidalis interna to the left part of the colon near its ending , and thence running under the rectum is inserted into its end or anus ; as the dexter mesentericus is sent to the jejunum , ileum , caecum , and the right part of the colon . epiplois postica is inserted into the middle part of the colon , which marcheth transversly under the stomach : besides these , a sprig from the ramus hypogastricus of the vena cava is sent to the muscles of the intestinum rectum , which maketh the external haemorrhoidal . the use of these veins inserted into the intestines the ancients thought to be , both to carry venal bloud to them for their nourishment , and also to receive the chyle out of them and carry it to the liver there to be turn'd into bloud . as to the first use , 't is certain ( by the circulation of the bloud ) that these veins carry nothing to the guts ; but the bloud in them , is all received from the arteries there , to be carried back towards the liver and so to the heart : but as to the latter , there are some learned anatomists that still think , though the greatest part of the chyle is received by the venae lacteae , yet that some part is suckt in by these veins , so to be more readily convey'd into the mass of bloud . but this opinion is exploded by others as learned and more numerous , who deny any such office to them , whom i believe to be in the right . besides these sanguineous veins there are another sort of veins inserted ( more or fewer ) into all the guts , called lacteal , but of them we will treat in a distinct chapter . the arteries spring partly from ramus coeliacus intestinalis , partly from both the mesentericae . to the duodenum , and the begining of jejunum , a sprig is sent from the right ramus coeliacus : but to the rest of the jejunum , to ileum , caecum , and the right part of colon , mesentericus superior ; to the left part of colon , and to the intestinum rectum , mesentericus inferior is sent . this last passing along the rectum to the podex , makes the internal haemorrhoidal arteries , as some branches from the arteria hypogastrica make the external . at the last , epiplois postica , which riseth from the lower part of arteria splenica , which is the left branch of arteria coeliaca , is sent to the middle part of colon , which lieth under the stomach . their use is to convey nourishment and warmth to the guts ; and when the body is morbose , to carry thither the impurities of the bloud , upon a purge taken , or critically , so to pass out by stool . nerves they have from the inferiour ramifications of the intercostals . the duodenum hath some twigs from the upper branch of the ramus mesentericus called stomachicus , which go also to the pylorus . all except the rectum have many twigs from the plexus mesentericus maximus , arising from under the great gland of the mesentery ; but the rectum , with the latter end of colon receive slips from that branch of the intercostal that is called plexus abdominis infimus or minimus ; and the utmost extremity of the intercostal is inserted into the sphincter ani , whither also pass three or four that spring from the bottom of os sacrum . these nerves serve for the feeling , and the peristaltick or worm-like motion of the guts ; which though it be obscure and slow , yet because it is continual , it had need of so great a number of nerves or nervous fibres as are bestowed on the intestines . the learned and curious that would be further informed about the peristaltick motion , may consult dr. glisson in cap. . of his book de ventriculo & intestinis , or dr. charleton in sect. . of his third prelection before the college of physicians . though the guts be one continued body from the pylorus to the anus , yet from the thickness of their substance , also from their magnitude , figure , and variety of office they are distinguisht into several by anatomists , and first into thin , and thick . the thin possess the umbilical region and hypogastrium ; and in respect of their figure , situation , longitude and plenty of lacteal vessels , they are divided into three , viz. the duodenum , jejunum and ileon . the first is called duodenum , because it is thought to have twelve inches in length . it doth pass from the pylorus under the stomach towards the spine , and is sustained in its passage by the membrane of the caul , and not by the mesentery . it reaches as far as the left kidney , to which and to the vertebrae of the loins it is tied by membranous ligaments ; and going a little lower it ends under the colon , where the anfractus or winding of the two following small guts begins . it is thicker in its membranes , but its passage ( because streight ) is straiter than theirs . towards its lower end , sometimes higher , sometimes lower , it has most commonly two ducts leading obliquely into it ; first the ductus choledochus communis by which the bile from the liver enters this gut ; and secondly a little below this , ductus pancreaticus ( otherwise wirtsungianus ) by which the pancreatick juice passes hither from the sweet-bread : though these two ducts are sometimes joyned into one , and both open by one mouth into this intestine . sometimes , though rarely , they are inserted into the jejunum . the second is called jejunum , or the hungry gut ; for it is for the most part found empty ; partly by reason of the multitude of milky veins that enter it ; partly by reason of the fermentation of the acrimonious choler with the pancreatick juice , which are both poured in just before its beginning . in length it is twelve hand-breadths and three inches . it beginneth on the right side , under the colon , where the duodenum endeth , and the guts begin to be wreathed ; and filling almost the whole umbilical region , especially on the left side , it tendeth into the ileum , from which it may be distinguisht first by its emptiness ; secondly by its greater number of veins and arteries , from which it looks reddish ; thirdly from the nearness of the folds or wrinkles of its inmost coat one to another , which are but about half an inch distant , whereas in the ileum they are a whole inch or more . the third is ileum , derived 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , à circumvolvendo , from its many turnings and windings . it hath thinner membranes than the rest of the tenuia . it is seated under the navel , and filleth both the ilia . it is the longest of all the guts , for in length it containeth hand-breadths ; but it is the narrowest of all , for it is not an inch in breadth . it hath fewer wrinkles than the jejunum , and lesser , which about the lower end of it scarcely appear . it beginneth where both smaller and fewer veins appear , and endeth about the place of the right kidney , where it is joyned both with the intestinum caecum , & colon . it is easily distinguishable from the colon , for it is not joyn'd to it by a streight duct but transverse . for the colon and caecum are so united as to make one continued canal , whose lower side the ileon ascending pierceth , and into which its inner coat hangs loosely the length of half an inch at least , making the valve it self of the colon , and is the very limit that divides the caecum from it . this ileum oft falls down into the cod , whence such a rupture is called intestinal . and in this gut happens the distemper called volvulus or iliaca passio , wherein there is often vomiting of the dungy excrement . this distemper is caused herein , either when one part intrudes into another , or when 't is twisted and twined like a rope , or when it is stufft with some matter that obstructs it , or lastly when it falls out of its place into the scrotum , as was noted before . and thus much of the first sort of intestines , viz. the small or thin . now follow the intestina crassa , the great guts ; they are three in number also . the first is called caecum , 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , the blind gut , because one end of it is shut , so that at the same orifice the chylus ( or faeces rather ) passeth , and returneth . in man it is about as thick and but half as long as your larger earth-worms stretched out at length ; but its mouth that opens towards the colon is pretty large . it owes its origine rather to the colon than the ileum , and seems to be as it were an appendage to it . it is bigger in an infant than in a man. it is not tied to the mesenterium ; but being couched round , it is knit to the peritonaeum , and by its end it is joyned to the right kidney , the peritonaeum coming between . in sound persons it is generally empty . in four-footed beasts it is always full of excrements . apes have it larger than a man , dogs larger than apes ; but conies , squirrels and rats , largest of all , if you consider the proportion of their bodies . it s use is very obscure in men , being so very small and commonly empty . but in grown foetus's or infants new born it is full of excrement , for which it serves as a store-house till after the birth that they go to stool . and in such animals as have it large , ( according to dr glisson ) it serves for a bag or second ventricle , wherein the prepared aliments may be stored up , and so long retained , till a richer , thicker and more nutritive juice may be drawn from them . the second is colon , 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , either quasi 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 cavum , because it is the hollowest or widest of the guts ; or else 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , ab impediendo , because it detaineth the excrements . it hath its beginning from both the ileum and caecum , transversely from the ileum , but directly from the caecum . it ariseth at the os ileum on the right side , and ascending by its spine it arrives at the right kidney ; to which parts it is annex'd by a membranous connexion . from thence bending left-ways it creeps under the liver by the gali-bladder ( which tinges it there a little yellowish ) to the bottom of the stomach ; to the whole length whereof it is tied , only the caul coming between , ( as also to the pancreas and loins . ) then it comes to the lower part of the spleen , and is knit to it . then touching the left kidney , and adhering firmly to it by fibres , it comes to the left os ileum ; from which descending by the left groin to the pelvis it embraceth the bottom of the bladder behind on each side . afterwards it ascends upwards by the right groin near the place from whence it first took its rise ; and thence marching back again towards the left side , and running it self in betwixt the ileum and back-bone it reaches to the top of os sacrum , and there unloads it self into the rectum . it s length according to dr. glisson is about seven feet ; others reckon it shorter . it goeth almost quite about the abdomen next to the muscles , that it may be the better compressed by them for avoidance of the excrements . diemerbroeck has an ingenious reason why it should pass under the stomach , viz. that as chymists judge no digestion more natural than that which is performed by the heat of dung , so the heat of the excrements in the colon does help the coction of the stomach . it hath cells which spring from the internal tunicle of it : these cells are kept in their figure by a ligament half an inch broad , which passeth through the upper and middle part of it all along ; this being broken or dissolved , the cells stretch out and appear no more . their use is to hinder the flowing of the excrements into one place , which would compress the parts adjacent ; as also for the slower passage of the faeces , that we may not have a continual and hasty need of going to stool . on its outside from its passing by the spleen to its joyning to the rectum it has a great many fatty knots , which serve to moisten and lubricate it , that the faeces may pass the more glibly . the rectum also has such like , for the same reason . it hath a valve where it is joyned with ilium , ( as was noted before ) like to the sigmoides in the sinus of the heart , as spigelius compares it . this valve so stoppeth the hole which is common to the ileon and colon , that flatuosities cannot ascend to the ilium , much less excrements regurgitate . if one would find this out , let him pour water into the intestinum rectum , and hold up the guts : the water will stay when it comes to the valve , if it be sound . if this valve be relaxed or torn by any means , excrements may regurgitate , and be expelled by vomit , and clysters also ascend up to the stomach , as hath often happened in the iliacal passion . the third is intestinum rectum , the streight gut : it hath its beginning at the first vertebra of the os sacrum , where the colon endeth ; and passeth streight downwards to the extremity of the coccyx , and is fast tied on its back-side to both by the peritonaeum , to keep it from falling out ; and on its fore-side it grows in men to the neck of the bladder , whence in the pain of the stone there , there often happens a tenesmus or continual inclination to go to stool ; and in women to the neck of the womb : but in both there is a musculous substance that comes between . it is a span in length , not so wide as the colon , but its membranes are thicker . the muscle 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 is at the end of it , which encompassing it round , purses it up close , so that nothing can pass out , unless it be relaxed voluntarily . this gut ( especially its inner membrane ) usually bags a little out in straining at stool , yea sometimes so much , that it requires an artificial putting up again . tab . ii. pag. as for the hemorrhoidal veins and arteries , that are inserted into the anus , we have given an account of them before in this chapter ; as we shall do of the muscles belonging to it , in book . of the muscles , chap. . the explication of the figure . a the stomach . b the gullet or oesophagus . c the left and larger part of the stomach . d the upper orifice of the stomach . e the right external nerve of the sixth pair ( dr. willis ' s eighth ) encompassing the orifice . f the left external nerve of the same pair . gg the gastrick vessels creeping along the bottom of the stomach . h the lower orifice of the stomach , called pylorus . h the insertion of the gall-passage into the duodenum . iii the jejunum and ileum with the vessels creeping along them . k the caecum . llll the colon. m the valve in the beginning of the colon opened . mmm the ligament holding together the cells of the colon. nn the rectum . o the sphincter of the anus . pp the muscles called levatores ani. chap. ix . of the mesenterium . the mesentery is so called from its situation . for it has its greek name 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 ( from whence the english is derived ) from its being placed 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , in the midst of the intestines . and it is a membranous part , situated in the middle of the lower belly , serving not only for conveying some vessels to the intestines , and others from them , but also it ties most of the guts together so artificially , that for all their manifold windings they are not entangled and confounded . which may be much wondred at , how the guts being about nine or ten yards long should all but the duodenum and a piece of the rectum be comprehended by that circumference that is but a span distant from the centre ; for no longer is the mesentery betwixt those bounds . but it is almost of a circular figure , which is most capacious ; and though it be narrow at its rise , ( which is double , viz. at the first and third vertebrae of the loins ) yet its circumference is wrinkled and enlarged into so many folds , as to be three ells in length , whereby it comes the nearer to answer the length of the guts , and to keep them within a small compass and place likewise . it is framed of two common membranes , which it has from the duplicature of the peritonaeum ; and betwixt these two it has a third membrane that is proper , ( which was first discover'd by dr. wharton in a young maid ) and is thicker than either of the other two , wherein the glands are seated and by which the vessels are conducted . the parts contained in the mesentery are either common or proper . the common are veins , arteries , nerves and lympheducts . the proper are glands and the venae lacteae . of these last we shall speak in the next chapter , of the rest here . the veins are called mesaraicae ; these spring from ramus mesentericus dexter & sinister , branches of the vena portae . ( their use , as also that of the arteries , was shewn in the chapter before , speaking of the vessels belonging to the guts . ) it hath also two arteries , the one superior , the other inferior , branches of the arteria mesenterica , which pass as the veins do . as for the nerves , dr. willis describeth them very accurately in his book de cerebro , cap. . which take thus in short . as soon as the intercostal pair is descended as low as over against the bottom of the stomach , it sends forth on each side a large mesenterick branch , each of which is again divided , and makes two plexus in each side . in the middle of these is the greatest plexus of all , which ( as he speaks ) is like the sun amongst the planets ; from which twigs and numerous fibres are dispersed into all the parts of the mesentery , which accompanying the sanguiferous vessels in their whole process , do climb upon them and tie them about . ] others it hath from those which spring from the spinalis medulla , between the first , second , third and fourth vertebrae of the loins , ( as spigelius affirmeth . ) besides these vessels known to the ancients , about years agoe there were found out another sort by tho. bartholin ( a learned dane ) and called by him vasa lymphatica , which he gives a large account of in append. . to the libel . . de venis , of which i shall give a compendium here , because the mesentery abounds with them . they are of figure long and hollow like a vein , but very small and knotty , having very many valves which permit the lympha or water contained in them to pass to the chyliferous vessels ( and many veins ) but hinder its return . they are of a pellucid and crystallin colour , like hydatides , consisting of a transparent and most thin skin , which being broken and the lympha flowing out , utterly disappears . their number cannot be defin'd , for they are almost innumerable . as to their rise bartholin speaks uncertainly , but steno and malpighius both declare that they always proceed from glands . as to their insertion or ending , those under the midriff do discharge their liquor into the receptaculum chyli ( to be spoken of in the next chapter . ) those in the thorax , immediately into the thoracick duct . and those of the neck , arms , &c. into the jugular vein . bartholin thought they all discharg'd themselves into these three channels : but diemerbroeck affirms they open also into many other veins ; and quotes steno noting that they empty themselves into the jugular and other veins ; and also his countryman frederick ruysch writing that by ligature and structure of the valves he has plainly seen , that all the lympheducts in the lungs do discharge their lympha into the subclavian , axillar and jugular veins . there has been much dispute what this lympha which they carry , is . bartholin thinks it to be the simple superfluous serum of each part , brought thither by the arteries . glisson , that it is a liquor condens'd from the halitus of the bloud ( like dew ) driven into these vessels , and flowing back with the vehicle of the aliment brought by the nerves . segerus ( and sylvius ) that it is the animal spirits , or is made of them , which after they are distributed into all parts by the nerves , are there partly consum'd and dissipated , and are partly condens'd into this water . diemerbroeck quotes more opinions besides these , but rejects them all , and establisheth this of his own : viz. that it is a fermentaceous liquor separated from the serous part of the bloud in the conglobate glands , yet not simple , but impregnated with much fus'd and volatile salt , and also with some sulphureous particles ; which when it is conveyed to the vasa chylifera , makes the chyle thinner , and apt to dilate easily in the heart ; and when to the veins , prepares the venous bloud ( now too thick ) for a quick dilatation in the heart . ] this lympha , whatever it be , ( or be for ) differs from the serum ; for if one gather a little of it in a spoon , and let it stand , without setting it on the fire , it will turn to a gelly , which the serum will not doe . and thus much of the lympheducts ( with their lympha ) in general ; as to those particularly of the mesentery , some only pass through it from other parts , as the liver , &c. but many have their rise in it , and both the one and other are emptied into the receptaculum chyli . it hath many little softish glands fix'd in its proper membrane , cover'd on each side by the two common ones , and beset with fat . in number they are very uncertain ; in man fewer than in other creatures . the biggest by much is at the rise or center of the mesentery , ( called by asellius , pancreas ) into which all the venae lacteae are inserted . of its use , as also of the lesser , we shall speak in the next chapter , when we come to treat of the passage of the lacteals . we will only note here , that when these glands grow scirrhous , or are any ways obstructed , so that the chyle cannot transcolate through them , there follows a fluxus coeliacus , or chylosus , which continuing there ensues an atrophy , and the party dies tabid . the fat with which it is stufft betwixt its membranes , though it happen naturally to it , yet ought not to be reputed a proper part of it . for not to mention that in dogs , cats , and such like animals this part is very thin and transparent , even in humane embryo's it is without fat ; and in very lean men there is but little , though in fat men it be heaped up to so great a thickness . it is but one , yet because of its different thickness it is divided by some into two parts . the one they call mesaraeum , 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , because it is placed 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 ( subaudi 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 ) in the midst of the small intestines , which it knits together ; and this is the thicker part of it . the other being the thinner they call 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , being seated 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , in the midst of the colon , to which it is joyned in its whole length save only in the colon's passage under the stomach ; and in its lowest border it adheres to the rectum . diseases incident to this part are reckoned up by dr. wharton to be these ; those of intemperies , straitness or obstruction , tumours of whatsoever kind , ( scirrhi , scrophulae , strumae ) inflammations , abscesses , ulcers , and tone vitiated . of all which the reader that desires fuller information , may be satisfied by the said learned author , in his adenographia , cap. . chap. x. of the venae lacteae , receptaculum chyli , and ductus chyliferus thoracicus . venae lacteae , the milky veins ( so called from the white colour of the chyle which they carry ) were not discover'd ( as such ) till the year . when caspar asellius found them out in dissecting a live-dog well fed . but since him many others have made a more accurate discovery of them . they are slender pellucid vessels , having but a single coat , dispersed through the mesentery , infinite in number , appointed for the carrying of the chyle . they spring out of the intestins , into whose inmost membrane their mouths are inserted , which are hid under a kind of a spongy crust or mucus , through which by the pression of the guts the chyle is strained and received by the mouths of these vessels . presently after their rise they aim to that nearest part of the mesentery , whereto the intestin from which they arise , is knit . then they go the readiest way to such glandules of the mesentery as are nearest to them : but in their passage sometimes many little branches meeting grow into one great trunk ; namely , before they insinuate themselves into the gland , to which we said they were going . but in their very entrance into the glands , or a little before , this trunk separates again into new branches , more and smaller than the other , which are obliterated in the very substance of the gland . out of the gland there spring again new capillary veins , which by and by meeting together make one trunk again as before : which being carried towards the beginning of the mesentery , in their march joyn to themselves others of the same kind meeting them , and so grow larger and larger , and at last very many enter into the great or middle gland of the mesentery ( called improperly pancreas ) in the same manner as they enter'd the smaller , and some pass by over its superficies , and by and by they all empty themselves into the great or common receptacle of the chyle , that lies under the said gland , those that were inserted into it rising out of it , as was before spoken of the lesser glands . bartholin says that behind the great gland there are three other smaller ( which he calls lumbares ) into which the lacteals are inserted , but assents to dr. wharton , that from them they pass to the receptaculum . this common receptacle is called receptaculum chyli pecquetianum , from pecquet who first found both it and the ductus thoracicus ( whose beginning it is ) about thirty years ago . it might as well be called receptaculum lymphae , for that the lympha passes not only with the chyle , but after this is all distributed , the lympha still continues to glide into it , and to ascend by the ductus chyliferus thoracicus , which might be called lymphaticus for the same reason . this receptacle is seated under the coeliack artery and emulgents at the vertebrae of the loins , whence there springs a duct● that presently enters the diaphragm with the arteria magna , where ( being now enter'd the thorax ) it begins to be called ductus thoracicus . and now though it be past out of the abdomen ( of the contents whereof we are now treating ) yet we will trace it through the middle ventricle to the heart whither it conveys its liquor , for the same reason that being to speak of the stomach , we thought it best to speak of the gullet , which is an appendage to it , and by which the meat descends into it . this duct then having past the midriff , it marches further upward under the great artery till about the fifth or sixth vertebra of the thorax , where it turns a little aside from under the great artery to the left hand ; and so below the intercostal arteries and veins , under the pleura and gland thymus , it ascends to the left subclavian vein , into whose lower side it opens , just there where the left jugular vein enters into it on the upper side , so that their mouths face one another . but it opens not into this vein with any large orifice , but by six or seven little ones , being all cover'd together in the interior cavity of the subclavia with one broad valve , looking towards the cava from the shoulder , whereby there is granted to the chyle and lympha a free passage out of the ductus chyliferus into the subclavia , but their return ( or of bloud with them ) out of the vein into the duct is prevented . this duct ending thus in the subclavian vein , the chyle that it conveys into it passes with the bloud ( returning by the cava ) into the right ventricle of the heart , where we will leave it , and return to the venae lacteae again ; having only observed , that this duct has many valves that hinder the ascending chyle and lympha from returning down again ▪ which valves are manifest by this , that the chyle contained in the duct may easily by the singer be pressed upwards , but by no means downwards ; or if one make a hole in it , the liquor tending from beneath upwards will flow out at it , but that which is above it , is so stopt by the valves , that it cannot be made to descend by it . and now for the venae lacteae of the mesentery . they differ from the ordinary mesaraical veins , first , in bigness ; for these are bigger , but those are more in number ; for they are more than twice as many : for more chylus must pass by them , the way that has been spoken , to make bloud of , for the nourishment of the whole body , than there can be bloud remaining from the nourishment of the intestins only to return by the mesaraicks to the liver . secondly , they differ in colour , by reason of the great difference in colour of their contained liquors . the lacteals are white and limpid by reason of the whiteness and clearness of the chyle which they contain ; but the sanguinary veins are of a dusky blackish colour . thirdly , they differ in their insertion ; for the lacteals , as has been said , are inserted into the great gland of the mesentery called pancreas , but the mesaraicks all terminate in the liver . they have a pretty many valves , but not so many as the ductus thoracicus . they may be discover'd the same ways as we intimated those of the ductus might ; viz. that if they be pressed towards the great gland , they are presently emptied ; but if one press them from the gland towards the intestins , the chyle will stop and cannot be driven thither . that the ancients did not find out these veins , the cause was , either because they only dissected beasts after they were dead , or after that the chylus was distributed , or they did not presently take a view of the mesentery ; but made some stay about the inspection of some other part . chap. xi . of the liver . the liver is seated in the upper and chief place of the abdomen ; namely about a fingers breadth distance from under the midriff , in the right hypochondre , ( under the short ribs ) which , being of a great bulk , it even fills , and reaches from thence towards the left side , a little beyond the cartilago ensiformis , or pit of the stomach . it s upper part is convex or round and smooth , the lower side is hollow , lying on the right side of the stomach and pylorus , &c. it s lower edge reaches below the short ribs ( in a healthfull man when he stands upright ) and almost to the very navel . in dogs and many other brutes it is divided into divers lobes , but in man it is continuous ; only there is a little protuberance in its hollow side , whereby it is tied to the caul , which spigelius called a lobe , and from him others , but it is improperly called so , and not at all like the lobes in the livers of brutes . it has three ligaments ( properly so called ) which according to dr. glisson ( de hepate ) are these . the first is called suspensorium , for it ties up the liver to the diaphragm ; it is broad , membranous and strong , arising from the ●eritonaeum , and is not only fixed to the outer membrane of the liver , but does indeed make it , and descends even into it , and is strongly fastned to the common sheath or involucrum of the vena cava ( there where the umbilical vein is continuous to it . ) by this strong insertion it is the more able to bear up the great weight of the liver . the second is the vena umbilicalis , which after the birth , closes up and hardens into a ligament . it is directly opposite to the former . it passes out of the fissure of the liver and terminates in the navel . by this the liver is kept from ascending upon the motion of the diaphragm upwards in respiration . the third is that whereby the liver adheres to the cartilago ensiformis . this is thin and flaccid , but yet strong , broad and doubled , arising from that membrane wherewith the liver is encompassed , ( according to spigelius ) of which it is a duplicature ( according to dr. glisson . ) this hinders it from fluctuating to one or t'other side , or towards the back . besides these three ligaments , it has several other connexions to the neighbouring parts , but they would improperly be called ligaments . thus it is connected to the vena cava , and porta , to the caul , and to several other parts either mediately or immediately . it is covered with a very thin membrane , which springeth from the first ligament , ( as was said before ) which cleaveth firmly to the substance of the liver . if it be separate at any time by a watrish humour , issuing out of the capillary lymphaticks , watrish pustules , by the graecians called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , are ingendered . if these break , the water falleth into the cavity of the belly , and causeth that kind of dropsie called ascites . it s substance or parenchyma is red and soft , almost like concreted bloud , and may , when it is boiled , be easily scrap'd or brusht off the vessels . but though its parenchyma look red , that is only from the great quantity of bloud that is poured into it from the vena portae : for its proper colour is pale , a little yellowish , such as the liver is of when 't is boil'd ; and yet that yellowishness seems to be caused by the bile passing through it ; so that malpighius thinks white to be its proper colour , and gives a far different account of its parenchyma from others , whose observations by the microscope diemerbroeck thus represents ( out of malpig . lib. de hepate , cap. . ) that . the substance of the liver in man is framed of lobules , and these are compounded of little glands like the stones of raisins , which look like bunches of grapes , and are cloathed with a proper circumambient membrane — . that the whole bulk of the liver consists of these little grape-stone-like glands and divers sorts of vessels ; and hence , that they may perform together a common work , it is necessary that there be a commerce betwixt these glands and vessels . . that the little branches of the vessels of the porta , cava , and porus bilarius , do run through all even the least lobules in an equal number ; that the branches of the porta do the office of arteries , and that the porta has so great society with the porus bilarius , that both their twigs are straitly tied together in the same cover . . that the shoots of the said vessels are not joyned by anastomoses , but that the grape-stone-like glandules , making the chief substance of the liver , are a medium between the importing and exporting vessels , so that by the interposition of these , the importers transfuse their liquor into the exporters . from these observations he concludes the liver to be a conglomerate gland , separating the bile — and because it is usual for the conglomerate glands to have , besides arteries , veins and nerves , a proper excretory vessel ( as in the pancreas , &c. ) dispersed through their substance , and drawing out and carrying away the humour designed for them , this kind of vessel in the liver is the porus bilarius with the gall-bladder . ] and this is a very probable account of it . it hath two sorts of veins . in its upper part the vena cava entreth into it , and spreads it self all through it in the lower as well as upper part . into the lower side the vena porta is inserted , whose branches likewise run through its whole parenchyma . of both these veins more fully in the two following chapters . it has but very small and few arteries , for the porta serves it for an artery , bringing bloud to it . those which it has , do all arise from the right branch of the arteria coeliaca , ( called hepatica ) there where it is joyned to the vena portae , whence being sustained by the coat of the caul it ascends to the hollow of the liver just by the porta , on whose coat , with the bilary vessels , and the membrane of the liver , it is wholly spent . for as was said , the parenchyma is nourished by the bloud brought by the porta . it has nerves from the intercostal pair , namely one from the stomachical branch thereof , another from the mesenterical ( called hepaticus . ) but the nerves are extended only to the membrane and vessels of the liver , ( as the arteries were ) so that the parenchyma has but a very dull sense . till the ductus thoracicus chyliferus was found out , it was still believed that the venae lacteae were inserted into the liver , which was looked upon as the great organ of sanguification ; but now 't is known for certain that no lacteae at all go to the liver , but that those vessels which were taken for such , are lymphatick vessels carrying from it a most lympid and pellucid juice . that they are dispersed in the parenchyma of the liver , has not yet been observed ; but it is very probable that they arise from its glands , and coming out of its hollow or lower side , with the porta , they encompass it round as also the ductus communis , passing mostly towards the mesentery ; and under the vena cava near the pancreas ( that is knit to the stomach and duodenum ) a great many do pass over a certain gland ( sometimes two or three ) lying under the vena porta and often adhering to it , and from thence with many others passed by the gland , they open themselves into the receptaculum chyli . that these vessels bring nothing to the liver , and so cannot be lacteals , is apparent ; for if in a live-creature you make a ligature betwixt the stomach and liver , in that part of the mesentery that knits the liver to the stomach and intestins ( in which ligature let the vena portae and ductus communis be comprehended ) these vessels will presently swell betwixt the ligature and the liver , but be empty on that side towards the receptaculum chyli ; and the same is evident from their valves also which open towards the said receptacle , but hinder any thing from coming back from thence to the liver . concerning these we shall forbear to speak here , designing a particular chapt. for them , viz. ch . . hippocrates in lib. . de morb. says , the fountain of bloud is the heart , the place of choler is in the liver ; this comes very near the truth , as shall appear hereafter . but from galen downwards it was generally held that the mesaraick veins received the chyle from the guts and brought it to the liver , where it was turned into bloud , and carried from thence into all the parts of the body by the veins . yea and after the venae lacteae were found out , they would needs have them to terminate in it , thinking it the sittest bowel for sanguification , and presuming that that task must be performed by some or other . it would be needless here to stand to confute these opinions , now that all the world is convinc'd of their falsity , and by what hath been already said they may sufficiently appear to be erroneous , no chyle at all coming to the liver . how and where sanguification is performed , we shall shew when we come to the heart , and here we shall declare the true use of the liver . the liver then being discharged from sanguification , it serves to separate the bile from the bloud brought plentifully to it by the vena portae . concerning the nature of this bile there have been divers opinions . the ancients ( amongst whom was aristotle ) thought it to be a meer excrement , and to be of no other use than by its acrimony to promote the excretion of the guts . and this opinion prevail'd so long as it was believ'd that the liver had a nobler action than to transcolate this choler . but now it being found out that it has no other office , it is believ'd that so bulky a bowel was never made for the separation of a meer excrement , and therefore they think it to be a ferment for the chyle and bloud , whereby if they were not attenuated and prepared , they could not be enspirited in the heart . this new doctrine i shall give entirely out of diemerbroeck , p. . the venous bloud flowing into the liver by the porta out of the gastrick and mesaraick veins ( and may be a little by the hepatick artery ) is mixed with an acrimonious , saltish and subacid juice , made in the spleen of the arterious bloud flowing thither by the arteries , and of the animal spirits by the nerves , which is brought into the porta by the ramus splenicus . now both these being entred the liver by the branches of the porta , by means of this said acrimonious and acid juice , and the specifick virtue or coction of the liver , the spirituous particles , both sulphureous and salt , lying hid in the said venous bloud , are dissolved , attenuated , and become also a little acrimonious and fermenting ; a certain thinnest part whereof , like most clear water , being separated from the other thicker mass of the bloud by means of the conglobated glands , plac'd mostly in the hollow side of the liver , is carried from thence by many lympheducts , as has been said . but the fermentaceous spirits of greater acrimony , mixed with the thicker and more viscid sulphureous juices ( for sulphur is viscid ) and more strongly boiling , whenas through the clamminess of the juices in which they inhere , they cannot enter the conglobated glands nor from them the lympheducts , and through their fierce ebullition are separated from the bloud ( as yest from beer ) these fermentaceous spirits i say being sever'd with the juice in which they inhere , become bitter and are called bile . which bile being transcolated through the grape-stone-like glandules into the roots of the porus bilarius and of the gall-bladder , passes through them by the ductus communis into the duodenum or jejunum , wher● it is presently mixed with the pancreatick juice , and both of them with the alimentary mass concocted in the stomach , and now passing down this way , which it causes to ferment . and because at its first entrance it is more acrimonious , and has its virtue entire , and so causes the greatest ●bullition with the pancreatick juice , hence the milky juice contained in the mass concocted in the stomach , is most readily and in greatest quantity separated in the jejunum , and by innumerable lacteal vessels , ( which are more numerous in this than the other guts ) it is most quickly driven on towards the receptaculum chyli , and this is the reason that this gut is always so empty . but in the following guts because the fermentaceous spirits are a little pall'd , the effervescency becomes slower and less efficacious , and the chyle is more slowly separated from the thicker mass , and therefore they have fewer venae lacteae . at length what remains of this fermenting matter is mixed with the thick faeces in the thick guts , where by its acrimony it irritates them to excretion . ] thus far that perspicacious and judicious anatomist . and this i think is the best account hereof that has been given . chap. xii . of the vena portae . though it be the method of anatomists usually to deliver the doctrine of all the veins in a distinct chapter or book after the description of the three ventricles ; yet seeing all the veins seem ( and by the galenists have been affirmed ) to have their root in the liver , of which therefore we cannot but take notice ; on this account we will also describe their branchings within the abdomen , seeing they are parts contained in it . and we will begin with the vena portae . it is so called from the two eminences ( called by hippocrates 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , portae , gates ) betwixt which it enters into the lower side of the liver . some think that the vena umbilicalis ought to be accounted its root or original , because it is first formed in the foetus and inserted into the porta . but this umbilical vein after the birth ceasing from the office of a vein , and degenerating into a ligament , though it might be accounted its root then , it cannot properly now . others think , that because its branches every where inserted into the intestins bring bloud from thence to the liver , ( and not vice versa ) therefore those ought rather to be accounted its roots , and its divisions within the liver its branches . and indeed strictly and properly they ought to be accounted so , but however we shall not think it absurd to speak with the ancients , who because they thought the porta carried bloud from the liver to the guts for their nourishment , suppos'd the liver to be its root . as it enters into the liver , it is invested with another coat , which some call vagina portae , its sheath , others capsula , its case , and capsula communis because the porus bilarius is involved in it as well as the porta . this outer coat it has from the membrane of the liver , ( as that is from the peritonaeum ) that is , it is continued from it , though it be of a clear other substance , namely more dense and carnous . it is invested with it in all its ramifications , and so having a double coat is in that respect an artery , as also in that it brings bloud to the liver for its nourishment as well as for other uses ; and lastly in that by means of the arteria hepatica inserted into the capsula it has an obscure pulsation ( according to doctor glisson . ) when it is enter'd about half an inch into the liver , it is carried partly to the right hand , partly to the left , and so is shap'd into a sinus as it were , and thence is divided into five large branches , four whereof are diffus'd all over the hollow side of the liver , but the fifth ascends streight to its upper side where it disperses it self . and the said sinus is more conspicuous in an embryo , because the great influx of nutritious juice out of the umbilical vein enlarges it much . moreover in an embryo you may easily see the tubulus or canalis venosus passing directly out of this sinus into the cava ( almost opposite to the mouth of the umbilical vein . ) this canalis or pipe is of the same substance and texture with a vein , and enters into the cava just where it is knit to the diaphragm ; and there also two other great branches out of the liver are inserted into the cava ; and in the same place this pipe is also knit to the suspensory ligament spoken of before , and after the child is born grows it self into a ligament , being in a manner opposite to the umbilical ligament . but to return to the divisions of the porta . the ancients taught that they were only spread in the simous or hollow part of the liver , but dr. glisson in his accurate anatomy of it , affirms the porta to be dispersed very equally in all its parts , upper as well as lower . and whereas it has been a constant doctrine , that the branches of the porta open by anastomoses into those of the cava , the same learned author , and many others since him , have observed that there are no such anastomoses at all , but that the bloud doth ouze through the glandulous parenchyma of the liver out of the capillary veins of the porta into those of the cava . he that would be fullier informed hereof , may consult his most accurate book de hepate . but we will now pass to the branches of the porta gone out of the liver . this trunk parting a little from the liver , before it be severed into branches , puts forth two twigs , out of its upper and fore-part , which are inserted into the cystis fellea or gall-bladder ( and are from thence called cysticae gemellae ) about the neck of it , and spread by innumerable twigs , through the external coat of it . a third twig also that is bigger , but lower , springeth from this same fore-part , yet towards the right side , and is inserted into the bottom of the stomach : from hence it sendeth many sprigs toward the hinder-part of it , towards the back . this is called gastrica dextra . having sent forth these three twigs , the trunk passeth down , and bending a little towards the left side , it is parted into two remarkable branches ; whereof the one is called sinister , or the left , seated above the right , but is the lesser : the other is dexter , or the right , lower than the left , yet larger . the left is bestowed upon the stomach , the omentum , a part of colon , and the spleen ; the right is spread through the guts , and the mesenterium : the left is called vena splenica ; but the right vena mesenterica . the vena splenica hath two branches before it come to the spleen , the superiour and the inferiour . the superiour is called gastrica , or ventricularis . this is bestowed upon the stomach ; the middle twig compassing the left part of its orifice like a garland , is called coronaria . from the inferiour branch two twigs do spring ; the one is small , and sends twigs to the right side of the lower membrane of the omentum , and to the colon annexed to it . this is called epiplois , or omentalis dextra . the other is spent upon the lower membrane of the omentum which tieth the colon to the back , and upon that part of the colon ; it is called epiplois , or omentalis postica . when the ramus splenicus hath just approached to the spleen , it doth send out two other twigs , the uppermost and the lowermost . the uppermost is called vas breve , and is implanted into the left part of the bottom of the stomach . this vein the ancients believed to carry an acid juice from the spleen to the stomach to stir up appetite and to help the fermentation of the meat ; but it is certain both by ligature ( whereby it filleth towards the stomach and emptieth towards the spleen ) and also by the general nature of veins , whose smaller branches and twigs still receive the superfluous arterial bloud from the part whereinto they are inserted , into the larger chanels , and conduct it towards the heart ; i say it is certain from hence , that this same vas breve carries nothing to the stomach , but only brings from thence into the ramus splenicus the remains of the arterial bloud . from the lowermost two twigs issue . the first is called gastroepiplois sinistra ; this is bestowed upon the left part of the bottom of the stomach , and the upper and left part of the omentum . the second springeth most commonly from ramus splenicus , but sometime from the left mesenterick vein ; and passing along according to the length of the intestinum rectum , it is inserted into the anus , by many twigs . this is called haemorrhoidalis interna , as that which springeth from the vena cava is called haemorrhoidalis externa . now followeth vena mesenterica , or the right branch of vena portae . before it be divided into branches , it sendeth forth two twigs . the first is called gastroepiplois dextra ; this is bestowed upon the right part of the bottom of the stomach , and the upper membrane of the caul . the second is called intestinalis , or duodena : it is inserted into the middle of the duodenum , and the beginning of the jejunum , and passeth according to the length of them : whence some capillary twigs go to the pancreas and the upper part of the omentum . after these twigs are past from it , it enters by one trunk into the mesentery , where presently it is divided into two branches , to wit mesenterica dextra , & sinistra . mesenterica dextra , placed in the right side , is double , and sendeth a number of branches to the jejunum , caecum , and the right part of the colon , which is next to the right kidney and to the liver . it hath fourteen remarkable though nameless branches ; but innumerable small twigs . one thing is to be noted , that the greater branches are supported by the greater glandules , and the smaller by the smaller glandules , though they enter not into them , for the glands wait on the venae lacteae . mesenterica sinistra passeth through the middle of the mesenterium , to that part of colon which passeth from the left part of the stomach , and to the intestinum rectum . the use of the porta hath been held till of late to be for the carrying nourishment to the intestins and other parts contained in the abdomen , and also to bring back from the guts the purer part of the chyle to the liver to make bloud of , and a thicker feculent part of it to the spleen , to be by it excocted into an acid juice , and then carried to the stomach by the vas breve venosum for the exciting of hunger . as for this last opinion , it appears by ligature that the vas breve carries its contents from the stomach to the ductus splenicus , and it is nothing but the bloud remaining from the nutrition of the stomach ( that was brought thither by the arteries ) that is now a conveying back to the liver and so to the heart again in its circulation . and as for the mesaraicks carrying nourishment to the guts , or bringing back chyle , those errours have been sufficiently laid open before in the chapters of the venae lacteae and the liver . and their true use is only to bring back to the liver from the guts that bloud which remains after their nutrition , and which was carried to them by the mesaraick arteries . chap. xiii . of the vena cava dispersed within the abdomen . the vena cava is so called from its large cavity , being the most capacious of any vein of the whole body ; for into it as into a river or chanel do all the other veins like rivulets ( excepting the pulmonaria ) empty themselves . both within and without the liver it hath but a single coat . it s root may very properly be said to be in the liver ; for by its capillaries it receives the bloud that is transcolated through the parenchyma of the liver from the capillaries of the porta , and by its ascending trunk conveys it to the heart . now these roots may in some regard be commodiously enough also called branches ; for the roots of a tree in the earth , as well as its boughs in the air are spread into many branches : only there is this difference , that roots bring juice to the trunk , but boughs carry it from the same . however we shall call them indifferently roots or branches . the capillary branches then of the cava are spread through the whole substance of the liver , and not its upper or gibbous part only , as has formerly been taught ; even as we said before that the capillaries of the porta were indifferently dispers'd all over it . betwixt these capillaries ( much less betwixt their larger branches ) there are no inosculations or anastomoses , but those of the porta being quite obliterated in the glandulous parenchyma of the liver , these of the cava arise out of the same , and whiles they pass towards the cava many of them meeting together make a twig , as many twigs in like manner concurring make a branch , which still proceeding further by the accession of new twigs and branches encreaseth its chanel , untill at length it dischargeth it self into the cava . and thus do all the roots of the cava in the liver . wherein they do not all meet together in one common trunk as those of the porta do , but empty themselves apart into the cava without the liver . and still the further distance the capillaries have their origine from the cava , the larger their chanel comes to be at their arrival towards it . the smaller twigs are innumerable ; the larger roots joyning immediately to the cava are commonly but three , though two of them are presently ( towards the liver ) divided into other two , as large each as themselves , so that one may account them to be five . these emptying all the bloud exhausted out of the liver into the cava , it is presently divided into the ascending and descending trunk . the ascending forthwith enters the diaphragm and marches up the thorax , where we shall leave it till we come thither , and only here speak of the descending trunk as long as it continues in the abdomen . the descending trunk is somewhat narrower than the ascending , and passing down along with the great artery it continues undivided till the fourth vertebra of the loins . but in the mean time it sends forth divers slips from its trunk . as . the venae adiposae , for the coat and fat of the kidneys ; that on the left side goes out first . . the emulgents , descending to the kidneys by a short and oblique passage ; these bring back that bloud to the cava which the emulgent arteries carried to the kidneys with the serum . . the spermaticks called vasa praeparantia . the right springeth from the trunk of vena cava a little below the emulgent ; but the left from the left emulgent it self . of these more in the th chapter . . the lumbares , sometimes two , sometimes three , carried to be tween four vertebrae of the loins . all these veins being sent forth of the trunk , by this time it is come to the fourth vertebra of the loins , where it goes to behind the arteria magna , above or before which it had thus far descended , and is divided into two equal branches , called iliaci , because they pass over the os ileon , &c. as they go down to the thighs . just about the division there spring two veins called , muscula superior , for the peritonaeum and muscles of the loins and abdomen ; and sacra , which is sometimes single , sometimes double , for the marrow of os sacrum . afterwards the iliacal branches are again divided each into two other , the exteriour that is greater , and the interiour that is less . from the interiour arise two veins : muscula media , for the muscles of the hip and buttocks ; and hypogastrica , which is a notable one , sometimes double , for most parts of the hypogastrium , as the muscles of the streight gut , which are the external hemorrhoidals ; for the bladder and its neck , the yard , and the lower side of the womb and its neck , which last are the veins by which the menstrues were believed to pass , before the circulation of the bloud was found out ; for since , 't is known that they pass by the hypogastrick arteries , and what bloud is not sent forth at those times , or at other times is not spent on the nutrition of the parts , returns by these veins to the cava , and by it to the heart . from the exteriour , three : two before it goes out of the peritonaeum , and one after . . epigastrica , for the peritonaeum and the muscles of the abdomen ; the most noted branch of it ascends under the musculi recti towards the venae mammariae , with which they have been thought to inosculate about the navel . . pud●nda , for the genitals in men and women ; this goes transversly to the middle of os pubis . . muscula inferior , for the buttocks . and now the descending branches of the cava are past out of the abdomen into the thigh , and begin to be called crural ; and of them we shall discourse when we come to the limbs , in book . cap. . now the use of this descending trunk of the vena cava is not to carry any thing to any part from the liver ; but wheresoever its lesser twigs end into capillaries , from thence is bloud received ( being brought thither by the respective arteries ) and conveyed into the greater branches and by them into the trunk of the cava , by which it ascends to the right ventricle of the heart , there to be anew inspirited , and from thence to be sent forth again by the arteries , as shall be further explained when we come to the heart . for though the descending trunk of the aorta or great artery pass down the abdomen along with that of the cava , and so is contained therein as well as it ; yet because the arteries have all of them their origine from the heart , we will forbear to speak of them till we come to the anatomy of it , in the next book . chap. xiv . of the gall-bladder and porus bilarius . for the receiving and evacuating of bile there are two vessels or passages framed in the right and hollow side of the liver , namely the gall-bladder , and porus bilarius . by this latter there flows a thicker but milder , by the former a thinner , more acrimonious and fermentative choler into the intestins . the gall-bladder , called in greek 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , in latine vesica bilaria , or folliculus fellis , is a hollow bag placed in the hollow side of the liver , and in figure representeth a pear . it is about two inches in length , and one in breadth . by its upper part it is tied to the liver , which doth afford it a hollowness to receive it ; but the lower part which hangeth without the liver , resteth upon the right side of the stomach , and the colon , and doth often dye them both yellow . it hath two membranes , the one common , which is thin and exteriour , without fibres . this springing from the membrane of the liver , only covereth that part which hangeth without the liver . the other membrane is proper . this is thick and strong , and hath three sorts of fibres ; the outermost are transverse , the middlemost oblique , and the innermost streight . within , it hath a mucous substance or crust , engendred of the excrements of the third concoction of its membrane , to withstand the acrimony of the choler . it hath two parts , the neck and the bottom . the neck is harder than the bottom , and higher in situation . it from the bottom by degrees growing narrower and narrower , at last endeth in the ductus communis , or the common passage of the choler , which is inserted into the beginning of the jejunum , or the end of the duodenum . this elongation of the neck of the vesica fellea , is called meatus cysticus , because it springeth from the cystis . the choler is conveyed into the vesica by many very small roots , dispersed in the liver between the branches of the porta and cava ; they are so very small that they are scarcely discernible , but when they meet together , they make one pretty notable trunk which is inserted into the cystis near its neck , with a valve before its mouth to hinder the regurgitation of the choler . ( for in the jaundice the choler does not return out of the gall-bladder into the bloud again , but either for want of a convenient ferment it is not separated from the bloud , or when the neck of the vesica is stopt that none can pass out of it into the guts , then the gall-bladder is presently so fill'd that it cannot receive any more ; and so the choler being forc'd to stagnate in its roots , is received in by the branches of the cava , and thereby contaminates the whole mass of bloud . ) but though it be evident that the choler is brought into the vesica by this pipe , yet if one open the bladder to look for its mouth in the cavity , one shall hardly find where it is ; which is no wonder , seeing it is so difficult to find the insertions of the ureters into the urinary bladder , which are vastly larger than this . but dr. glisson says , that near its neck in the inside , there is a little spongy protuberance , into which this trunk is pretty plainly inserted ; and this protuberancy is the same that we called before a valve . it has been taught by several anatomists , that its neck or meatus has sometimes two , sometimes three valves to hinder the recourse of the choler : but diemerbroeck professes he could never find any , but only that the egress of the vesica was very strait , and its neck wrinkled . dr. glisson declares also that he could never discover any in it , but on the contrary , he has often with a slight compression of his fingers found , that the choler will fluctuate to and again , out of the cystis into the meatus , and on the contrary , as also out of the meatus into the ductus communis and back again ; so that he cannot believe there is any thing of a valve in the whole passage . but one thing which he thinks has impos'd upon anatomists , is a certain fibrous ring ( or sphincten as it were ) which is seated just at the end of the bladder and beginning of its neck , which makes the passage betwixt them exceeding strait ; but this cannot be a valve , because as he observes the choler will go either way through it . the vesica fellea hath two veins called cystica gemellae , which spring from the porta . it hath sprigs of arteries proceeding from the right branch of the coeliaca . and it hath a small thread-like sprig of a nerve from the mesenterical branch of the intercostal . many times stones are found in it , which being lighter and more spongy than those of the bladder will swim above water . the other passage which carrieth the thicker sort of choler , is called porus bilarius , or meatus hepaticus , because it passeth directly from the liver to the ductus communis . within the liver its trunk and branches are invested with a double coat ; its proper one , which it retains without the liver also , and another that is common to it with the porta called capsula communis , which it has from the membrane of the liver . in this common coat this porus and the porta are so closely enwrapped that you would take them but for one vessel , till you either hold it up to the light , ( which will discover vessels of two colours in it ) or very dextrously rip up the capsula , and so lay them open . its roots within the liver are equally divided with those of the porta every where , saving that little space where the roots of the vesica are spread , in the simous and right side of the liver . so that having spoken above of the divisions of the roots of the porta , i shall refer the reader thither for these of the porus. i shall only observe that they are far larger and more numerous than those of the vesica , drawing choler from all the parts of the liver ( saving whither the roots of the bladder reach ) and that more thick and viscous , yet less acrimonious . this porus seems to be a more necessary part than the vesica ; for many creatures , as harts , fallow-deer , the sea-calf , &c. and those which have a whole hoof , have no gall-bladder , but there is none that is destitute of this . without the liver it is as wide again as the meatus cysticus , with which it is joyned at two inches distance from the liver , and both make the ductus communis choledochus . it has no valve in its whole progress ; only the ductus communis , where it enters the intestin , having pierced the outer coat , passes betwixt that and the middlemost about the twelfth part of an inch , and then piercing that also marches down further betwixt it and the innermost coat about half an inch , and at last opens with a round mouth into the intestin . so that this oblique insertion ( as that of the ureter into the urinary bladder ) serves instead of a valve to hinder any thing from regurgitating out of the gut into this duct , especially the inmost tunicle of the intestin hanging so flaggy before its mouth , that when any thing would enter in , it claps close upon it and stops it . as to any anastomoses of the roots of either of these bilary vessels with those of the vena portae , such indeed have been much talkt of , but without truth , for their extream twigs or capillaries terminate in the parenchyma of the liver , out of whose grape-stone-like glandules they imbibe the choler there separated from the bloud ; even as was said before of the capillaries of the cava , that they received the bloud it self imported by the porta , in like manner , without any inosculations . the use of both these vessels may sufficiently be learned by what has already been said of them . as also may the use of the bile it self from what we quoted above out of diemerbroeck , when we were treating of the action of the liver , chap. . we will only further note two things . first , that sometimes the ductus communis is very irregularly inserted . for in some it is knit to the bottom of the stomach , and then the party vomiteth choler , and is termed 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 ; and sometimes it is inserted into the lower end of the jejunum , and then bilious dejections follow : and such a one is termed 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 . a second thing is concerning the colour of the bile ; that though for the most part , ( in a healthfull state ) it be yellow , yet preternaturally and in a morbous state it is often of several other colours , as pale-coloured , eruginous , porraceous , vitelline , reddish and blackish . and when it thus degenerates and corrupts , it is the cause of most violent and acute diseases ; as the cholera morbus , dysentery , colick , &c. chap. xv. of the pancreas . the pancreas ( as much as to say all-flesh ) or the sweet-bread , except its membranes and vessels , is wholly glandulous . it seems to be compacted out of many globules or knots included in a common membrane , and joyn'd together by the membranes and vessels . every globule by it self is somewhat hard ; but all together ( because of their loose connexion ) seem softish . it is of a palish colour , very little tinctured with red . it s membrane it has from the peritonaeum . it is seated under the bottom and hind-part of the stomach , and reaches from the cavity of the liver ( namely from that part where the porta enters it ) to the spleen , cross the abdom●n . it is knit also to the duodenum , ( sometimes to the ) porus bilarius , the rami splenici , the caul , the upper part of the mesentery , and upper nervous plexus of the mesentery . it is not joyned to the spleen . it s figure is long and flat , broader and thicker about the duodenum , but towards the spleen thinner and straiter . it is lesser than most of the bowels , but by much the greatest gland in the body , commonly about five fingers breadth long ; where it is broadest , it is about two fingers breadth ; and about one fingers breadth thick . its vessels are of five kinds . veins it has from the splenick branch ; arteries from the left branch of the coeliaca , sometimes from the splenick ; nerves from the intercostal pair , especially from the upper plexus of the abdomen ; it has also many vasa lymphatica , which , as the rest , pass to the receptaculum chyli . but besides these vessels which are common to it with other parts , it has a proper membranous duct of its own , which was first found out by wirtsungus at padua ●ight or nine and thirty years agoe . this vessel commonly has but one trunk , whose orifice opens into the lower end of the duodenum or beginning of the je●unum , and sometimes is joyned to the ductus bilarius with which it makes but one mouth into the intestin . within the pancreas ( according to dr. wharton ) it is divided into two branches , which send forth abundance of little twigs into all the globuli above spoken of , by whose means they receive the humours from all over the pancreas , and by their trunk transmit them to the guts . this pancreatick humour tho' is never found in this duct , because it so quickly flows out into the duodenum by a steep way ; even just as urine , passing out of the reins by the ureters to the bladder , is never found in them because of its rapid transit . very many have been the differences of opinions concerning the use of this glandule . some have thought it to be only of use to sustain the divisions of the vessels , and to serve the stomach for a cushion ; others that it ministers a ferment to the stomach ; others that it receives the chyle , and brings it to greater perfection ; and others that it serves as a gall-bladder to the spleen , or sometimes serves in its stead . which opinions being all very unlikely , i shall not spend time to examine them . there are two other opinions , for the former whereof let the credit of the learned author ( viz. dr. wharton ) recommend it as it can , but to me it seems improbable , and it is this , that it receives the excrements or superfluities of the superiour plexus of the nerves of the sixth pair ( dr. willis's intercostal ) being united with some branches from the spinal marrow , and by its proper vessel or duct discharges them into the intestins . in answer unto which i shall only say this , that i cannot tell how thick excrements should be convey'd by the nerves that carry such pure animal spirits , and have no visible cavity ; nor secondly how these nerves in particular should electivè ( as he speak ) send the excrements hither , and all the rest be discharged from any such office. the last opinion , and to me the most probable , is defended by famous physicians and anatomists , as franc. sylvius , bern. swalve , regn. de graef and isbrand de diemerbroeck , from which last i shall transcribe it . i have found , saith he , in the dissections of brutes both alive , and newly strangled , a certain liquor sublimpid and as it were salivous , ( something austere and lightly subacid , and having sometimes something of saltishness mixed ) to flow out of the ductus pancreaticus into the duodenum , sometimes in a pretty quantity . whence i judged — that there is excocted in the pancreas a peculiar humour from the serous and saltish part of the arterial bloud brought into it , having some few animal spirits convey'd thither by small nerves mixed with it , and that this liquor flowing into the duodenum , and there presently mixed with the bile , and the meat concocted in the stomach gliding by the pylorus into the guts , does cause a peculiar effervescency in those aliments , whereby the profitable chylous particles are separated from the unprofitable , are attenuated , and being brought to greater fusion ( this operation of it , says he , is shewn by the diversity of the substance of the aliments , concocted in the stomach and still there contained , from that of those that have already flow'd into the intestins : for the former are viscid and thick , and have the various colours of the food taken ; but the latter on the contrary are more fluid , less viscid , and more white ) are withall made apt to be impelled by the peristaltick motion of the guts , through their inner mucous coat into the lacteal vessels , the other thicker by little and little passing down to the thick guts , to be there kept till the time of excretion . now this effervescency is caused through the volatile salt and sulphureous oyl of the bile meeting with the acidity of the pancreatick juice ; as in chymistry we observe the like effervescencies to be caused by the concourse of such things . ] thus he . so that he will not have this juice to be any thing excrementitious , nor to be so very little in quantity as some have affirmed ; to demonstrate which he cites the experiment of de graef , who in livedissections could gather sometimes an ounce of it in seven or eight hours time , which he has tasted , and found it of the tast before-mentioned , viz. something austere , subacid and saltish . vide ejus anatomen corporis humani , p. , &c. where you may see what diseases it is the cause of when distempered . chap. xvi . of the spleen . the spleen or milt in english , in greek is called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , and from thence splen in latin , and lien . the substance of it is flaggy , loose and spongeous , commonly held to be a concrete sanguineous body , serving to sustain the vessels that pass through it : but malpighius with his microscope scope has discover'd it to be a congeries of membranes form'd and distinguish'd into cells like honey-combs . and in these cells there are very many glands . he describes them thus ( lib. de liene cap. . ) in the spleen , says he , there may be observed numerous bunches of glands , or if you will , of bladders or little bags dispersed all over it , which do exactly resemble a bunch of grapes . these little glands have an oval figure , and are about as big as those of the kidneys : i never saw them of other colour than white ; and though the bloud-vessels of the spleen be fill'd with ink , and play about them , yet they always keep the same colour . their substance is membranous as it were , but soft and easily crumbled ; their cavity is so small that it cannot be seen , but it may be guessed , in that when they are cut they seem to fall into themselves . they are almost innumerable , and are placed wonderfully in the aforesaid cells of the whole spleen , where vulgarly its parenchyma is said to be ; and they hang upon fibres arising from their case , and consequently on the utmost ends of the veins and arteries , yea the ends of the arteries twist about them like the tendrils of vines , or clinging ivy. — each bunch consists of seven or eight . ] thus he . it has abundance of nervous fibres . it is commonly but one in men , though some have found two , yea fallopius three . in dogs there are sometimes two or three , unequal in bigness , out of each of which there passes a vessel into the ramus splenicus . it is covered with a membrane borrowed from the peritonaeum , which is thicker than that of the liver . first , because the spleen hath a looser substance . secondly , because it hath more arteries , which require a strong membrane to sustain their beatings . diemerbroeck says , it has two membranes ; one from the peritonaeum which is outer and common ; the other inner and proper , arising from the outer membrane of the vessels entring the spleen , interwoven with a wonderfull texture of fibres ; and that betwixt these two the vasa lymphatica , of which afterwards . in infants new born it is of a red colour ; in those of a ripe age it is somewhat blackish ; and in old men it is of a leaden or livid colour . being boiled it looks like the dregs of claret . in man it is bigger , thicker and heavier than in beasts ; for it is six inches in length , three in breadth , and one in thickness . sometimes it is much larger , but the bigger the worse . spigelius has observed that it is larger in those that live in fenny places , than in those that live in dry ; and in those that have large veins , than in them that have small . in figure it is somewhat long , like an oxe's tongue . towards the stomach on its inner side it is somewhat hollow ; on its outer , gibbous , having sometimes some impression upon it from the ribs . it is smooth and equal on either side , save where in its hollow side it has a streight line or seam ( 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 ) at which place the splenick vessels enter into it . it is seated in the left hypochondrium opposite to the liver : ( so hippocrat . . epidem . calleth it the left liver ; and aristot . . de histor . animal . . the bastard liver ) betwixt the stomach and that end of the ribs next the back ; in some higher , in others lower : but naturally it descends not below the lowest rib. yet sometimes its ligaments are so relaxed , that it reaches down lower , yea sometimes quite break , so that it slips down into the hypogastrium : so riolanus tells the story of a woman that was troubled with a tumour there , which was taken by her physicians for a mole , but dying of it , and being opened , it was found to be occasioned by the spleen fallen out of its place and lying upon the womb. and as it very much endangers life when it falls out of its place , so can it not with safety be quite cut out of the body , whatever some have boasted of . but none but obscure men ( of no credit ) have bragg'd of such feats ; and how can one imagine that a part so difficult to come at , and that has such large vessels inserted into it , ( not to mention its use ) could with safety be taken out of the body ? wounds in it are commonly mortal ; inflammation , or but obstructions in it do grievously afflict the patient and sometimes kill him : sure then the total ablation of it must be very fatal . this experiment hath indeed been tried upon dogs , and some have liv'd after ; but then they have grown pensive and lazy , and not liv'd long neither . it is tied to five parts ; its upper part to the midriff , and its lower to the left kidney by small membranes ; by its hollow part which giveth way to the stomach being distended , to the upper membrane of the omentum , and to the stomach by vas breve . in its gibbous or arched part it is tied to the back , for thither it inclines . it hath vessels of all kinds ; as . veins from the ramus splenicus of the vena portae , which are dispersed throughout its parenchyma , and come out of its hollow side in three or more branches , which unite presently into the abovesaid ramus . the said branches at their coming out of the spleen have each one a valve which look from the spleen outwards , permitting the humours to flow from the spleen to the ramus splenicus , but hindering them from returning back . and though one cannot discover any anastomoses of the veins with the arteries in the substance of the spleen ( the bloud passing out of one into the other in like manner as in the liver , namely through and by help of the glands ) yet there is one notable one of the splenick artery with this ramus splenicus before it enter the spleen . whose use must be , partly to further the motion of the humours contained in the ramus towards the liver , partly that the superfluous plenty of bloud , which perhaps cannot pass quick enough through the narrow passages of the spleen , may return back again by help of this anastomosis , through the ramus to the liver . there is also another vein called vas breve , which arising out of the bottom of the stomach is inserted into the ramus just as it comes out of the spleen or a little after . the errour of the ancients as to the use of this vessel was detected before , chap. . and its true use declared . it hath two arteries , entring one at its upper , the other at its lower part . these commonly spring from the left coeliack branch , which is called the splenick artery ; but sometimes ( saith diemerbroeck ) from a certain branch arising out of the very trunk of the aorta , and proceeding by a bending duct along the side of the pancreas to the spleen , where they are branched into a thousand twigs . by these arteries the bloud flows to it , where if it have not a free passage into the roots of the veins and into the ramus splenicus , it causeth a great pulsation , so high that as tulpius relateth ( lib. . observat . . ) it has been heard by those that have stood foot off . nerves it hath from one of the mesenterical branches of the intercostal pair , which are not all spent on its investing membrane ( as has been thought ) but some enter into its substance , which yet has a very dull sense ; but that proceeds not from defect of nerves ( for it has a pretty many twigs ) but from that stupor or numbness which that acid juice that is bred in the spleen , must be conceived to induce upon them . though dr. wharton in his adenographia , cap. . going about to prove the spleen to be no gland , uses this as one argument , that there were never observed any lympheducts to be distributed through this part ; yet olaus rudbeck , fr. sylvius , malpighius , diemerbroeck , &c. affirm it to have many , which arising from its conglobate glands pass through the omentum very plainly into the receptaculum chyli . see them exprest in the following figure of a calfs spleen . the ancients knowing neither the true passage of the chyle , nor the circulation of the bloud , erred grosly as to the use of this part . they thought that it attracted a more feculent and melancholick part of the chyle , by the ramus splenicus , which having a little elaborated , it sent it out again partly by the vas breve , and partly by the internal hemorrhoidal ; but it is certain , both that no chyle , nor indeed bloud passeth by the ramus splenicus to the spleen , as neither any thing from the spleen by the abovesaid vessels ; but whatever they contain comes towards the spleen , namely into the ramus , and what is in it goes to the liver . one need add no further reason to evince the errour of their opinion ; nor that of those that would make it a sanguifying bowel . dr. glisson ( in lib. de hepate , cap. . p. . ) thinks it to make an alimentary juice or at least a vehicle for it , which being first imbib'd by its nervous fibres is from them received into the nerves , by which it is first carried to the glandulae renales ; where being refin'd it is received again by the nerves , and is carried to the brain and spinal marrow , and from thence by the nerves again into all the parts of the body . we will not here enter into a dispute about the nutritious juice of the nerves ; but supposing it , certainly this seems an odd way of conveying either it or its vehicle thus to and again by the same sort of vessels ; not to say that so acid a juice as is excocted in the spleen , one should think would be no very welcome guest to the nerves , nor be suffer'd to march so quietly , especially passing against the current of the animal spirits that continually flow from the brain and spinal marrow . this opinion therefore we shall pass by as very improbable , having little else to recommend it save the credit of its learned author . and its true use we believe to be , to make a subacid and saltish juice of the arterial bloud that flows plentifully into it , which passing by the ramus splenicus to the liver serves there to make ( and further the separation of ) the bile . now this juice is thus elaborated : there are a great many glands in the substance of the spleen ( which being boil'd tasts something acid . ) into these glands is the arterial bloud poured by the capillary arteries , wherewith are mixed some animal spirits deposited into the same glandules by the ends of the nerves , which bridling the sulphureous spirit of the bloud , induce on it a little acidity ; and then being driven out of the glandules by the beating of the arteries and the pressure of the adjacent parts , it is received by the roots of the splenick vein , and so by the ramus splenicus it flows to the porta and the liver . but before it enter into the roots of the veins , it seems to stay a little in the abovementioned cells , ( whose substance is acid ) that it may acquire some more acidity by that stay in them : as wine standing in a vinegar-vessel sowrs more and more ; and as the bile by staying in the gall-bladder gets a greater acrimony . the explication of the figures . figure i. represents the pancreas , from dr. wharton . aa the parenchyma of the pancreas opened . b the trunk of the ductus pancreaticus . ccc its branches . d the ductus bilarius joyning to the pancreatick duct . e the duodenum opened . f the insertion of these vessels . tab . iii. pag. fig. fig. fig. fig. ii. represents the lymphatick and sanguineous vessels of the spleen tied . a the spleen of a calf . b the sanguineous and lymphatick vessels tied . c the splenick vein . d the splenick artery . e the splenick nerves , whose number is uncertain . f the lymphatick vessels arising out of the outer part of the spleen . ffff the valves in the said vessels . g the ligature fig. iii. represents an oxe's spleen . aa the substance of the spleen cover'd with its proper coat . b a portion of the vena portae . c it s left or splenick branch . d this branch opened near the spleen that the valve b. may appear . ee the coat of the spleen dissected and turned back , that the progress and plexus of the vessels and fibres may be shewn the better . f a portion of the splenick artery , which running through the whole substance of the spleen , doth dispense into it the little twigs aaa . b the valve in the splenick branch looking outwards to the porta . ccc the holes which appear in the end of ramus splenicus leading from the substance of the spleen . ddd nerves running along the sides of the splenick artery . eee the end of the ramus splenicus . chap. xvii . of the kidneys , and the glandulae renales . the kidney is called in latin ren , from 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , to flow ; because the serosity of the bloud doth flow through the kidneys to the ureters , and through them to the bladder . by the greeks they are called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , mingere , to make water . they are in number two , both because of the great quantity of the serous excrement that is to be discharged by them ; and also that one being stopped , the serum of the bloud might be transcolated by the other . they are seated in the loins behind the stomach and intestins , and under the liver and spleen , between the membranes of the peritonaeum ; their lower end rests on the head of the muscle psoas ( which is one of the movers of the thigh ) just where the nerve enters into it , which is the cause that a big stone being in the kidney , and pressing on the nerve , a numbness is felt in the thigh of the same side . in man the right kidney is lowest , by reason of the greatness of the liver , and commonly bigger also than the left ; yet it has not so much fat about it as the left , by reason of the vicinity of the liver , whose heat hindereth the encrease of fat . in figure they resemble the asarum leaf or kidney-bean : towards the loin or outwards they are gibbous ; and also in their ends on the inside ; but in the midst where the vessels enter in and go out , they are hollow . as for their connexion , by the external fat membrane they are tied to the diaphragma , and the loins ; by the emulgent vessels , to the vena cava , and the aorta ; and by the ureters to the bladder . the right hath the intestinum caecum join'd to it , and sometimes the liver ; the left hath the spleen and the colon. they are in length about five inches , reaching as far as three and sometimes four vertebrae ; three fingers breadth broad , and one inch thick . in salacious or lustfull men they are commonly larger than in others . their membranes are two . the one is common and external , borrowed from the peritonaeum ; within the reduplication of which the whole kidney is lapped ; and therefore it is called renis fascia . this membrane is besmeared with copious fat ; whence it is called tunica adiposa ; and into it entreth the arteria adiposa from the aorta ; as also the vena adiposa , which on the right side commonly ariseth from the emulgent , seldom from the cava ; but on the left , always from the cava . by means of this membrane 't is that they are both joined to the loins and midriff ; the right , to the caecum and sometimes to the liver ; the left , to the spleen and colon , as was noted before . although they be exceeding fat , yet some part of the kidney will remain uncovered about the middle . their inner and proper membrane is made of the outer coat of those vessels that enter into them , ( for they enter the kidney with only one coat ) and this adhereth very close to them , having inserted into it small nerves from the intercostal pair , and one from that branch of it which goes also to the stomach ; whence that consent betwixt the kidneys and it , that in the pain of the stone in the kidneys a vomiting is caused . but these nerves enter the substance of the kidneys in very few but by small slips , whence they have but a dull sense as to their parenchyma . the substance of the kidneys , as it appears to the bare eye , looks fibrous , compacted of the concourse and commixture of very small vessels joined together by a fleshy parenchyma that has divers small chanels ; outwardly to feel upon , it is pretty hard , but within , it is indifferent spongie ; its circumference is of a dull red colour , but towards the pelvis it is more pale . thus the kidneys appear to the sight ; but malpighius with his microscope hath made a far more accurate discovery of their substance . he says ( lib. de renibus ) that though in grown men their superficies seems commonly plain , yet it is unequal in infants new born ; and that in adult persons the conjunction of globules does still appear within from the diversity of colour , which in the several globules outwardly and towards the sides , to which they are joined , is red , but more pale on the inner side . and as in brutes these globules being round outwards , and extended inwards into an obtuse narrowness become quadrangular , quinquangular or sexangular and so are joined together ; so also in men there may from the diversity of colour be manifestly observed a like but more firm conjunction . — if one take off the membrane from a fresh and as yet soft kidney , there may by a good microscope be discovered certain round and short bodies roll'd about like little worms , not unlike those that are found in the substance of the kidneys being cut through the middle ; and under the outmost superficies one may observe wonderfull branches of vessels , with their globules hanging at them , which run towards the pelvis ; as also certain continued winding spaces and sinus's running through all the outer superficies of the kidneys , that become conspicuous by injecting ink through the emulgent arteries : and moreover , innumerable small pipes which look something like fibrous or parenchymatous flesh , but are indeed membranous and hollow ; these make up a great part of the substance of the kidneys , and are the excretory vessels of the urine . moreover he says , that if ( after the membrane is removed ) one make injection into the emulgent artery with the spirit of wine tinged black , he may discern innumerable very small glandules hanging upon forked arteries , which by the injection are also coloured black ; as also many others in the interstices of the urinary vessels , which hang like apples upon the arteries , ( now fill'd with the black liquor , and branched like a tree . ) he thinks that from these glands into which the extremities of the arteries end , the roots of the veins arise , and that the nerves reach to them too ; and that it is probable that the excretory vessels of the ureter are extended so far also , seeing this is constant in all glands , that every little globule has besides the arteries and veins , a proper excretory vessel , as the bilary in the liver , &c. and he has observed that those same pipes or urinary fibres do many of them terminate in one of the papillae , ( twelve into one ) through which the urine is transcolated into the pelvis , for into it they jet out ; and that the same siphons or urinary vessels are produced from the circumference to these papillae as to their c●●ntre . ] by this curious and accurate description of their substance he has greatly dispelled that mist of ignorance that anatomists hitherto were in as to their frame and parenchyma . but to proceed . the emulgent artery , springing from the descending trunk of the aorta goes into the hollow side of the kidney , being first divided into two ; but in the kidney it is spread in divers branches through its whole substance , and ends in it in very small and invisible capillaries . by it much bloud is conveyed to the reins ( for it is a great artery ) partly to nourish them and the urinary vessels , partly that in their glandules a good part of the serum may be separated from it , which being carried by the urinary fibres to the papillae ouzes through them into the pelvis . the emulgent vein is a little larger than the artery . its roots spring from the glandules in the kidney , which being united into one trunk comes out where the artery goes in , and opens into the cava , into which it discharges the bloud remaining from the nourishment of the kidney , now freed from a good quantity of serum in the glands . for that there passes nothing by this vein to the kidney is plain , as from the general office of veins , which always carry from the part where their capillaries are spread ( excepting the vena portae , which indeed has the office of an artery ) so from that notable valve that is placed at its entrance into the cava , looking towards it from the kidney , so that the bloud may freely pass out of the emulgent into the cava , but not back again . the emulgent vein sometimes comes divided out of the kidney , as the artery goes in ; but both the branches are presently united into one , and always open by one orifice into the cava . of the nerves we have spoken before , discoursing of the proper membrane of the kidneys ; and as to lympheducts there has no certain discovery been yet made of any in them . within the kidney there is a membranous cell or sinus , called pelvis or infundibulum ( i. e. the bason or tunnel ) which is made of the ureter expanded and dilated , and comes into the cavity of the kidney with eight or ten open and large pipes . into this pelvis does the serum issue from the urinary siphons through the caru●culae papillares or mammillares , for one of these stands at the head of each of the said eight or ten pipes , ( being of an equal number with them ) and are like glandules , of a fainter colour but harder than the rest of the parenchyma ; they are about as big as a pease , flattish above , but round or bunching out on that side next the pelvis ; their perforations are exceeding narrow , so that they will hardly admit the smallest hair . the action of the reins is to separate and evacuate the serous humour from the bloud , which , as was said , is brought to them together with the bloud by the emulgent arteries ; which is done in this order . after the two branches of the emulgent artery are enter'd the kidneys , they are presently each of them divided into four or five , and those again into many more , till at last they end in the smallest capillaries which terminate in the glandules towards the outer superficies , whereinto they infuse their liquor . into the same glandules are inserted also the capillary veins , and the uinary siphons , each of which imbibe thence their proper liquor . by the veins the bloud returns into the larger branches of the emulgent veins , from thence into the single trunk , and by it to the cava , which conducts it to the heart : but by the urinary pipes does the serum drill to the papillae or carunculae placed at the entrance into the pelvis , through which it distills into it . and this pelvis being the head of the ureter , the serum glides readily out of it down by the ureter into the bladder . but now it is very difficult to determine ▪ whether this separation of the serum in the kidneys be procured by any kind of effervescency or fermentation ; or whether they serve meerly as a strainer , through which it is squeezed or transcolated . if it be separated only this last way , how admirable is the configuration of the pores , that the serum with all its contents should pass by them without the least drop or stain of bloud , when yet often purulent matter , brought out of the thorax , and throughly mixed with the bloud , and which is far thicker than the bloud it self , passes through them with the serum , and not any thing of bloud at the same time ! that such purulent matter passes by urine , is frequently observed ; but whether it be absorbed out of the cavity of the thorax by the mouths of the veins gaping into it , as the ancients thought it might ; or it be bred in the parenchyma of the lungs apostemating , as is more probable , 't is not a fit place here to inquire . as neither would it signifie much to give you the conjectures of some learned men , that because such pus , and much more because pins , needles , an iron nail , &c. have passed by urine ; that therefore there must be some more direct and patent way for part of the serum to be convey'd by to the bladder ; and therefore have imagined that some lacteals have been inserted into the bladder , as others have supposed other ways : for as far as could ever be discover'd by anatomists , there is no footstep of any such passage , how plausible soever such an hypothesis may seem . and therefore we shall say no further of it . some have thought the kidneys to have other actions besides the separating of the serum ; as further to elaborate the bloud , to prepare the seed , &c. but these opinions are grown obsolete , and therefore rather to be neglected than examin'd . above each kidney at about half an inch distance there stands a gland , by some called glandula renalis ; by others ren succenturiatus ; by bartholin , capsula atrabilaria ; by dr. wharton , glandula ad plexum nerveum sita . which several names they have had given them , from the several uses the imposers have ascribed to them . they are commonly but two , and are placed over ( but towards the inside of ) the kidneys , having the fat about the kidney coming between . the left is nearer to the diaphragm , standing higher than the right , but the right is nearer to the vena cava . they are seldom of the shape of the kidneys , but are of not much an unlike substance . their figure is often three corner'd , having the shape of a satchel with its bottom upward . sometimes they are oval but flattish . they are bigger in children proportionably than in men ; for in the former they are near the bigness of the kidneys ; but they do not increase as other parts do , so that in adult persons they are not above two inches long and one broad . commonly the right is bigger than the left . they are covered with a thin membrane which is knit very fast to the outer or adipose membrane of the kidneys . they have a manifest cavity in their larger end , in which is contained a black and feculent humour , that tinges the sides of the cavity . into it there are a great many little holes gaping out of the substance of the gland , according to dr. wharton ; and it self opens into a vein , but has a valve placed just at the entrance , that permits the humour contained in the cavity to flow out by the vein , but hinders its return . they have veins and arteries commonly from the emulgents , sometimes from the cava and aorta , and sometimes from the vasa adiposa . their nerves come from the stomachick branch of the intercostals that runs to the proper membrane of the kidneys and to the spleen also . lacteals they have none . bartholin affirms they have lymphaticks . there have been divers conjectures of the use of these glands , but none generally consented to as true . dr. wharton's guess is , that some humour is imbib'd from the spleen by the nerves that are common to the spleen and these glandules ( being both from one branch ) and is deposited in their cavity , which being not purely excrementitious ( though perhaps unprofitable to the nerves ) is restored again to the veins . dr. glisson also thinks they receive something from the spleen , which being refin'd here is imbib'd again by the nerves , by which it ascends to the brain or spinal marrow , and descends again by them , being either it self a succus nutritius , or else a vehicle for it . riolanus thinks they are of no use at all in men , but only in the foetus in the womb. veslingius , bartholin and many others think that they make a ferment or coagulum for the use of the kidneys to help the separation of the serum from the bloud . and this indeed were a probable use if there could be found out any way whereby ought could conveniently pass from hence to the kidneys . but the veins that go out of them are inserted either into the emulgent vein or the cava , whose bloud is flowing from the kidneys , so that it cannot pass this way , unless one would suppose a contrary course of humours in the same vessel , which seems absurd . and there are no other vessels to serve this turn . diemerbroeck conjectures that their black juice is made of the arterial bloud , and acquires a certain fermentative power necessary for the venous bloud , into which it is received by the cava from the veins that go out of these glandules . but this , says he , is but a conjecture . and in truth all the other opinions are no more , nor very probable ones neither ; so that we must still acknowledge our ignorance of their true use . chap. xviii . of the vreters . the ureters , in latin meatus urinarii , are called in greek 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , either from 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , to piss , or 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , because they keep the urine . they arise out of the inner sinus of the kidneys , whose various pipes ( nine or ten ) uniting into one make the ureter . there is one in each side . they are white vessels , like to veins ; yet they are whiter , thicker and more nervous . they reach from the kidneys to the bladder , not in a direct line , but something crooked like an italick s . they have been thought to have two coats , the one common from the peritonaeum ; the other proper : but indeed it is but one , and that proper . it is strong , nervous , strengthned with oblique and streight fibres , having small veins and arteries from the neighbouring parts . as to their nerves dr. willis saith , that after the intercostals have sent forth all the mesenterick nerves , each trunk descending sends forth three or four several slips that are carried into the ureters , which makes the pain so very exquisite when some viscid matter or stone sticks in them . tab . iv. pag. . as they go out of the kidney they pass over the muscles psoae ( which bend the thigh ) between the two membranes of the peritonaeum , and descending as abovesaid , they are inserted in the back and lower part of the bladder , ( not far from the sphincter ) running between the two proper coats of it , about the length of an inch , and continued with its inner substance . this insertion is oblique to hinder the regurgitation of the urine , when the bladder is either compressed or distended with urine ; for here is no valve , as some have affirmed . although the ureter doth not ordinarily exceed in compass a barly-corn , yet when stones do pass , it becometh sometimes as large as a small gut. their use is to receive the urine separated from the bloud in the kidneys , and to convey it into the bladder , thence at discretion at certain times to be emptied out of the body . the explanation of the figure . aaa the simous or hollow part of the liver . b the gall-bladder . c the ductus bilarius turn'd upwards . d the vena cystica . e the artery distributed both into the liver and gall-bladder . f the vmbilical vein turn'd upwards . gg the descending trunk of vena cava . hh the descending trunk of the great artery . ii the emulgent veins . kk the kidneys in their natural situation . ll the emulgent arteries . mm the renes succenturiati with the propagines sent to them from the emulgents . nn the vreters descending from the kidneys to the bladder . o the bottom of the bladder . pp the insertion of the vreters into its sides . qq a portion of the urachus . r a portion of the streight gut cut off . ss the venae praeparantes , the right whereof springs out of the trunk of the cava , the left out of the emulgent vein . t the corpus pyramidale exprest on the left side . v the rise of the arteriae praeparantes out of the trunk of the aorta . xx the testicles , the left whereof is divested of its common coat . yy the vasa deferentia , ascending from the testes to the abdomen . z the yard . aa the cod , that cover'd the left testis , separated from it . bb the ossa ilia . cc the ossa pubis . dd the loins . chap. xix . of the bladder . the bladder is called in latin vesica urinaria , in greek 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 from its office . it is membranous . it is seated in the hypogastrium , betwixt the two coats of the peritonaeum , in that cavity that is formed of the os sacrum , hips , and ossa pubis , and is called pelvis . in men it lies upon the intestinum rectum ; in women it adheres to the neck of the womb , which is placed betwixt the bladder and the streight gut : in both it is tied before to the ossa pubis . moreover it is knit to the navel by the vrachus . the membranes of it are three . the first is from the peritonaeum ; for it is contained within the reduplication of it . this in man is besmear'd with fat , but not in beasts . the second is thicker , and endued with carnous fibres , which aquapendens and bartholin will have to be a muscle serving for the compression of the bladder , to squeeze out the urine , as the sphincter serveth for constriction , to retain it . the third and innermost is white and bright , of exquisite sense , as they can witness who are troubled with the stone . it hath all sorts of fibres . within it is covered with a slippery mucous crust , which is an excrement of the third concoction of the bladder . this doth defend it from the acrimony of the urine . it is perforated in three parts , to wit , in the sides , where the ureters are inserted , to let in the urine ; and before , to let it out . the bladder hath two parts , to wit , the bottom and the neck . the bottom comprehends the upper and larger part of the bladder , to which the vrachus being tied reaches to the navel , which together with the bordering umbilical arteries becomes a strong ligament in the adult , hindering the bladder to press upon its neck . of the vrachus see chap. . the neck is lower than the bottom , and straiter . in men it is longer and narrower , and being carried to the rise of the yard opens into the vrethra ; in women it is shorter and wider , and is implanted into the upper side of the neck of the womb : in both it is carnous , woven of very many fibres , especially transverse or orbicular , which lie hid within the streight fibres that surround the whole body of the bladder , and these make the sphincter muscle , which constringes the neck of the bladder so , as no urine can pass out against ones will , unless when it is affected with the palsie or other malady , by which there sometimes happens an involuntary pissing . as the neck opens into the vrethra , there is hung before it a little membrane like a valve , which hinders the flowing of the seed into the bladder , when it is emitted into the vrethra . this membrane is broken by putting up a catheter into the bladder , and sometimes corroded by a gonorrhoea . the bladder is oblong , globous and round , in shape like unto a pear . it s cavity is but one ordinarily ; yet sometimes it has a membranous partition , that divides it into two ; which yet has a hole in it for the communication of each cavity . such a partition was observed in the bladder of the great casaubon . it hath arteries and veins from the hypogastricae , which are inserted into the sides of its neck , where they are immediately branched into two , whereof one is spent upon the neck , and the other on the bottom . nerves it hath ( according to dr. willis ) from the lowest plexus of the intercostals in the abdomen , and from the marrow of os sacrum . for the said plexus sending two nerves into the pelvis , they have each of them a vertebral nerve joined to them , and so make two new plexus , from one of which there passes a nerve that , being divided into many branches , is on each side distributed into the bladder and its sphincter . the use of the bladder is to receive the urine from the ureters and to contain it , like a chamber-pot , untill the time of excretion , when it is squeezed out of it partly by the help of its own carnous membrane , and partly of the muscles of the abdomen . bartholin quotes some observations of borrichius concerning the bladder , worthy to be noted , viz. if it be boil'd in acids , it turns into a mucilage ; if in salt liquors , it is thickned ; if in oleous , or in the liquor of the alkali salts of tartar or herbs burnt to ashes , it is neither thickned nor turns into a mucilage , but is burnt as if it were laid on burning coals , and may almost be crumbled to powder . by which , says he , it appears , with what great danger to the bladder men inject into it either acid , salt , or oleous liquors , for breaking the stone . chap. xx. of the vasa praeparantia in man. hitherto we have handled the parts appointed for nutrition , whereby the nutriments are prepared in the lower belly for the sustentation of an individual body : now we come to the organs of generation , whereby through procreation is conserved a perennity of mankind , which nature hath denied to particulars . these parts being not alike in both sexes , we must necessarily treat of each apart , and first of those of men. in man some of these parts afford matter for the seed , to wit , the arteriae spermaticae ; others bring back again the bloud that is superflous to the making of the seed and to the nourishment of the testicles , and these are the venae spermaticae ; and both the arteries and veins were formerly called vasa praeparantia : some make the seed , as the tones : some carry the seed back again , as those which are called vasa deferentia : some contain the seed , and an oleaginous matter , as the vesiculae seminales the first , and the prostates the latter : some discharge the seed into the matrix ; this is done by the penis . vasa praeparantia , which are said to prepare matter for the seed , are of two sorts , arteries , and veins . the arteries are two , and spring from the trunk of the aorta , commonly two fingers breadth under the emulgents , not just from its side but out of its fore-part , the right whereof climbing over the trunk of the vena cava , runs obliquely to the vein of the same side ; as also the left , marches to the vein of that side . the veins are also two . the right arises usually from the trunk of vena cava , a little below the emulgent ; the left from the emulgent it self , for otherwise it must have gone over the aorta , whereby it might have been in danger of breaking ; or rather by the continual pulse of the artery the recourse of the venal bloud might have been retarded . now both these veins and arteries a little after their rise meet , and are invested both in one membrane made of the peritonaeum , and then run streight through the region of the loins above the muscles psoae on each side , and above the ureters , as they go bestowing little slips here and there upon the peritonaeum , between whose duplicature they descend , and so arrive at its processes . the veins divide very often into many branches , and by and by inosculate and unite again ; but the arteries go along by one pipe only , on each side , untill within three or four fingers breadth of the stones , where each is divided into two branches , the less whereof runs under the epididymis , the larger to the testicle . and as i said they descended betwixt the membranes of the peritonaeum , so they pass into the scrotum between them , not perforating them in the processes , as in dogs and other creatures , wherein the processes of the peritonaeum are hollow like a quill ; but in man the inner membrane of the peritonaeum shuts the hole lest the intestins fall by it into the cod ; of which there is great danger in him ( and we see it often happen ) because of his going upright . but to return to the vasa praeparantia . it has been generally taught that there are divers inosculations of the arteries with the veins in their passage , whereby the venal and arterial bloud are mixed ; but this opinion is now exploded , for that , granting the circulation of the bloud , it is impossible . for the bloud in the arteries descends towards the testicles , and that in the veins ascends from them , so that if these two vessels should open one into the other , the bloud in one of them must needs be driven back , or else , stagnating , distend and break the vessels . but the truth is , the bloud both for the nourishment of the testicles and the making of seed flows down by the arteries only , and that in an even undivided course , without any of those windings and twirlings like the tendrels of vines talkt so much of , ( as the curious de graef by his own frequent inspection testifies : ) but the veins bring back from the testicles what of the bloud remains from their nourishment and making of seed , and these indeed come out of the testicles by almost innumerable roots by which they imbibe the said bloud , and are most admirably interwoven and inosculated one with another till about four or five fingers breadth above the testicle , which space is called corpus pyramidale , plexus pampiniformis , or varicosus ; but these veins are so far from preparing the seed , as that they only bring back what was superfluous from the making of it . and indeed the arteries in men do no more merit the name of praeparantes in respect to the seed , than the gullet in respect of the chyle , or the ductus thoracicus chyliferus in regard to the bloud . but however , we continue the old names , declaring only against the reason of them . and we will only note two things more . first , that these spermatick veins have from their rise to their end several valves which open upwards , and so suffer the bloud to ascend towards the cava , but not to slide back again . secondly , that though the spermatick arteries go such a direct course in men , as has been said ; yet in brutes they are more complicated and twisted with the veins , but without any anastomoses of one into the other . there are nerves and lympheducts that pass into the testicles together with these vasa praeparantia ; of which in the next chapter . chap. xxi . of the stones , or testicles , and the epididymidae . the stones in latin are called testes , either because they testifie one to be a man , or because amongst the romans none was admitted to bear witness but he that had them . in greek they are called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , twins , because according to nature they are always two . they have a peculiar substance , ( such as is not in all the body besides ) whitish and soft , made up of innumerable little ropes of seed-carrying vessels : there is no cavity in them ; but those said vessels are continued to one another , and carry the seed in their undiscernible hollowness . the way to make these vessels visible , de graef has taught us : viz. tye fast the vas deferens in a live-dog or other brute , and then these internal ropes of vessels , otherways inconspicuous , will presently be so filled and distended with seminal matter , as that they may be easily discerned . they are in number two , hanging without the abdomen , at the root of the yard , in the cod. their figure is oval , only a little flattish . their bigness differs very much in several persons ; as big as a dove's egg is reckon'd a mean size . hippocrates held the right to be bigger and hotter than the left , and therefore called it 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , the male-getter , as the left 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , the female-begetter . but these are fansies that are obsolete , and indeed seem ridiculous , seeing there is no such difference of their bigness , and that their vessels are common . they have arteries and veins ( as was said before ) from those called vasa praeparantia . which some have thought to reach only to the inmost coat called tunica albuginea , because they are not conspicuous in the inner substance of the testicles . but that comes to pass by reason that the arterial bloud presently loses its colour , and by the seminisick faculty of the stones is turned into seed , which being whitish , of the same colour with the vessels , makes them undiscernible . yet in those men that have died of languishing diseases , and whose testes have their faculty impaired , diemerbroeck affirms that he has oft discover'd sanguiferous vessels in the inmost parts of the stones , and has shew'd them to many in the publick anatomical theatre . as for nerves , dr. willis says he could never observe more to go to them than one from a vertebral pair , and that that too was most of it spent upon the muscle cremaster . diemerbroeck agrees to one nerve , but thinks it proceeds from the sixth pair , ( which is dr. willis's intercostal , as distinguisht from that commonly call'd the sixth , but his eighth . ) others will have branches from both these nerves to go to them . concerning the use of these nerves there is great controversy . dr. glisson , wharton , &c. will have them to convey a succus genitalis , which makes the greatest part of the seed . dr. willis , as he denies ( in cerebri anatome , cap. . ) any succus nutritius to be conveyed by the nerves to other parts , so that any succus genitalis is brought by them hither , but only animal spirit . and whereas to strengthen the former opinion 't is usually objected , that the seed must needs consist of a nervous juice and plenty of spirits brought from the brain , because of the great debility and enervation that is induced upon the brain and nerves by the too great expense of it : he thus answers , that this comes to pass , because after great profusions of seed , for the restauration of the same humour ( whereof nature is more solicitous than for the benefit of the individual ) a greater tribute of spirituous liquor is required from the bloud to be bestowed on the testicles : wherefore the brain being defrauded of a due income and afflux of the said spirituous liquor , languishes ; and so the animal spirits failing in the fountain , the whole nervous system becomes depauperated and flaggy . whereto may be added , that also the animal spirits themselves that actuate the prostates , being derived from the spinal marrow , are much wasted by venereal acts ; so that for this reason besides , the loins are enervated . ] in this answer bartholin acquiesces . and de graef , diemerbroeck , &c. confess indeed that the spirituous arterial bloud is impregnated with animal spirits from the nerves , but affirm that the matter out of which the seed is elaborated is only the said bloud ; and to these we subscribe . lympheducts ▪ they have also arising from betwixt their coats , and ascending upwards into the abdomen with the vasa deferentia . these have many valves looking upwards , which hinder any thing from descending by them to the testes , but permit the lympha to ascend , which they convey into the chyliferous vessels . they have two sorts of coats , proper and common . the common invest both the testes , and are two . the outermost consists of the scarf-skin and true skin ( here●thinner than in other places . ) this is called scrotum , hanging out of the abdomen like a purse . it is soft and wrinkled , and without fat . this on the outside has a suture or seam that runs according to the length of the cod , and divides it into the right and left side . the other common coat is the membrana carnosa , here also thinner than other-where ▪ this is called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , growing to the proper coat next under it ( called vaginalis ) by many membranous fibres . the proper coats are also two , and these enclose each stone apart . the outer is called elythroides , or vaginalis ; because it contains the stone as a sheath . it is a thick and strong membrane , having many veins . in the outside it is uneven , by reason of the fibres by which it is tied to the dartos ; but in the inner side it is smooth . this is nothing else but the production of the peritonaeum , even as the scrotum is of the skin of the abdomen . into this coat is inserted the muscle cremaster , of which presently . the inmost is 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , the nervous membrane , called albuginea , from its colour . it is white , thick and strong , framed of the external tunicle of the vasa praeparantia . it immediately enwraps the stone , towards which it is rough , but on the outside next the vaginalis it is smooth ; and between these two the water is contained in an hernia aquosa . into the outer of the proper membranes ( as was said ) is inserted the muscle cremaster . these muscles ( to each stone one ) in men have their rise from the ligament of the ossa pubis ; and almost encompassing round the processes of the peritonaeum descend with them to the testicles ; where their carnous fibres run through the whole length of this same tunica vaginalis , especially in its lower part , and so keep the stones suspended , from whence they have their name ( from 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 suspendo . ) these pull up the stones in the act of generation , that the vessels being slackned , may the more readily void the seed . these muscles in sickness and old age become slaggy , and so the scrotum relaxeth it self , and the stones hang low . upon the stones , as yet clad with the tunica albuginea , are fixed the epididymidae ( called also parastatae ) enwrapped in the same coat with the spermatick vessels . they adhere closer to the testicles at their ends than in the midst . de graef defines them to be vessels making with their various windings that body that is fixt on the back of the testicles . to find out their substance he directs us thus . first take off the membrane that encompasses them and knits them to the stones , and then there will appear many windings , which with the edge of a knife may without hurting the vessels be so easily separated from one another , that they may be drawn out into a length like a thing folded : for they are only folded from one side to the other , and are kept in that site by the membrane received from the tunica albuginea , ( or spermatick vessels . ) but when you have unravel'd half of them you must cut another very thin membrane , and then you will see the vessels lie just like these , and may be dissolved like them . and the whole being unravel'd , the thicker they are by how much further from their origine , which is implanted into the upper part of the testicle by six or seven ramifications : which having run so far as where they join into one duct , make it as thick as a small thread ; and this by degrees so thickens , that being increas'd like a cord it makes the vas deferens , ( of which in the next chapter . ) so that ( saith he ) it is clear from hence , first , that the testes do not differ from the epididymidae ( or parastatae ) saving that those consist of divers ducts ; but these , after their tab . v. six or seven roots that arise out of the testicle are united , ( which they are in a short space ) but of one , only a little thicker . secondly , that the epididymidae differ not from the vasa deferentia , saving that those go by a serpentine winding passage , and these by a streight , and that those are a little softer and narrower . and so ( concludes he ) following this ariadne's thread we have happily made our way out of the labyrinth of the testes and epididymidae . the uses of the stones are two : the first is to elaborate the seed by the seminifical faculty resident in them . for they turn the bloud , which is brought by the arteriae praeparantes , and impregnated with animal spirit , into seed , for the most part ; some is spent on their own nutrition ; and what remains from both is carried back by the veins called praeparantes . the second is , to add heat , strength and courage to the body , as gelding doth manifest , by the which all these are impaired . the explanation of the table . figure i. a the artery preparing seed , running from the trunk of the aorta to the testicle . b its division into two branches . cc the lesser branch thereof , which runs to the epididymidae . dd the greater , which is implanted into the upper part of the testicle and descends along its back towards its lower part , to which the smaller end of the epididymis is annexed ; then it goes back again along the belly of the testicle , where it is divided into many branches . e the greater end of the epididymis knit close to the upper part of the testicle . f the middle part of the epididymis turn'd up , that the ramifications of the artery that run along its lower part , may be seen . g the smaller end of the epididymis sticking firmly to the lower part of the testicle . h the end of the epididymis , or beginning of the vas deferens . i the vas deferens cut off , before it come to behind the bladder . k the testicle placed so as that its vessels may best be seen . figure ii. a the vein said to prepare seed running from the trunk of the vena cava to the testicle . bb the branches of the vena praeparans tending to the caul and peritonaeum . c the first division of it into two branches , which afterwards are wonderfully subdivided and united again . ddddd the valves of the venae praeparantes , about which the veins being blown up appear knotty . eeee very many divisions and unions of the venae praeparantes , that the bloud superfluous from the generation of seed , being detained in one ramification , may return to the heart by the other . f the upper part of the testicle into which the ramifications of the vena praeparans are implanted . g the ramifications of the venae praeparantes creeping along the sides of the testicles through their white coat . h the body of the testicle . i the bigger end , k the middle , and l the smaller end of the epididymis . m the vas deferens cut off almost in the middle . figure iii. a the preparing vessels cut off . b the preparing vessels as they run to the testicles . c their ramifications tending to the epididymidae . d the greatest branch of the arteria praeparans running along the belly of the testicle . ee the ramifications of the venae praeparantes . f a dog's testicle swelled with seed . g the bigger end of the epididymis turgid with seed . h the lesser end likewise tu●gid with seed i the end of the epididymis or the beginning of the vas deferens . k the vas deferens of a dog tied before the coitus the preparing vessels being unhurt , that the seminary vessels being filled with seed may be seen more apparently . chap. xxii . of the vasa deferentia , vesiculae seminales , and prostatae . out of the epididymidae at their smaller end arise the two vasa deferentia , or ejaculatoria , being but a continuation of them . they are white , hardish bodies , like a pretty large nerve , with a cavity not very discernible , but which may be made so , if one open one of them six or seven fingers breadth above the testicle , and then either blow into it with a small pipe , or squirt some colour'd liquor into it with a syringe towards the testis , for then the vessel will be distended , and the colour will run along its cavity towards the epididymidae : or if you either blow , or squirt liquor by a syringe the other way towards the vesiculae seminales , the said vesiculae will be distended . now from the epididymidae these vasa deferntia ascend , and pass out of the cod into the abdomen the same way by which the vasa praeparantia came down , viz. by the process of the peritonaeum . when they are entred the abdome● , they are carried presently over the ureters , and turning back again they pass to the backside of the bladder ; between which and the intestinum rectum they march till about the neck of the bladder , being somewhat severed , where they grow wider and thicker ; and then just as they are going to meet , their sides open into the vesiculae seminales , in which they deposite the seed ; but not terminating here , but coming close together and growing smaller and smaller , they go on and end at the vrethra betwixt the prostatae . these vesiculae are little cells like those in a pomegranate , or something like a bunch of grapes ; de graef compares them to the guts of a little bird diversly contorted . they consist of one thin membrane , through which some small twigs of both veins , arteries and nerves run . they are about three fingers breadth long , and one broad ; but in some places broader and some narrower , as they run in and out . they are two , ( one for each vas deferens ) divided from one another by a little interstice ; and they do severally by a peculiar passage emit the seed contained in them into the vrethra . they are very anfractuous and winding , and ( as was said ) consist of many little cells , that they should not pour out all the seed contained in them , in one act of copulation , but might retain it for several . they have no communication one with another ; not even in their very opening into the vrethra ; but the seed that is brought to the vesiculae seminales on the right side by the right vas deferens , issues by its proper passage into the vrethra ; and that which is brought to the left , likewise . so that if by any accident the vesiculae on one side be burst or cut ( as in cutting for the stone they must needs be ) yet those on the other being entire may still suffice for generation . now when the seed is emitted out of these vesiculae in the act of generation , it passes out the same way it came in ; which in this case may easily be , ( though it be unusual there should be a contrary motion in the same vessel ) for as it comes in from the vasa deferentia , it drills along gently without any force ; but in coitu when the muscles of the yard and all the bordering parts are much tumified , it is expressed or squirted out of them with some violence , and passing along their neck , ( which is a continuation of the vasa deferentia ) ouzes through a caruncle ( like quick-silver through leather ) into the vrethra , or the duct of the yard that is common both to the seed and urine . i say it ouzes from the necks of the vesiculae through a caruncle into the vrethra , for there is one plac'd as a valve before the orifice of each of them ; partly to hinder the coming of the urine into them , partly to hinder the involuntary effusion of the seed . now though naturally the little holes through which the seed passes out of the necks of the vesiculae into the vrethra be almost imperceptible ; yet if they be either eroded by the acrimony of the seed ( such acrimony as is contracted by impure embraces , or in claps as we call them ) or if of themselves they be debilitated and so become more lax ( as sometimes happens to old or impotent men that meddle too much ) then there happens a gonorrhoea or continual efflux of seed . and so vesalius and spigelius have observed them much dilated , in dissecting such as have died with a gonorrhoea upon them . the prostatae ( in english standers by or waiters ) are placed near to the vesiculae seminariae ; de graef calls them corpus glandosum , supposing them to be one body , and only divided by the common ducts of the vesiculae seminales and vasa deferentia coming through the midst of it . they are of a ●hite , spongy and glandulous substance , about as big as a small walnut , encompass'd with a strong and fibrous membrane from the bladder , to the beginning of whose neck they are joined at the root of the yard . in shape they come nearest to an oval , save that on their upper and lower part they are a little deprest , and in that end by which the vasa deferentia enter , they are something hollow like a tunnel . the sphincter muscle of the bladder encompasses them , so that for so far as they cover the neck of the bladder , the sphincter touches it not , they coming between . they have all sorts of vessels , which run mostly on their outer side . in their inner part they have ten or more small ducts which all unload themselves into the vrethra by the sides of the great caruncle ( through which the seed passes from the vesiculae into the vrethra ) but themselves have each one a small one to stop its orifice lest the liquor that is contained in the prostates should continually flow out , or the urine should flow in . and these small ducts i suppose are continued from those small vesiculae which appear in the prostates of those that die ( any way ) suddenly after having had to doe with a female . for in such , the spongy part of the prostatae is very turgid with a serous liquor , and in their inner part may be found these same vesiculae , like to hydatides , which if you press upon , they will discharge themselves into the abovesaid ducts . what the liquor they contain should be , or what is their use , there is great variety of opinions . some think that the seed that flows from the testicles is further elaborated here . but that cannot be ; for that the vasa deferentia deposite nothing in them , but all into the vesiculae seminales . others think that from the bloud there is separated in them an acrimonious and serous humour , which serves for titillation or causing the greater pleasure in venery . as to this , de graef appeals to the tast of it , which has nothing of acrimony . dr. wharton thinks they make a particular kind of seed , as the testicles do another , and the vesiculae seminales a third . that these last make a seed different from that made in the testicles is grounded on a mistake in anatomy , viz. that the vasa deferentia have no communication with the vesiculae , whereas they apparently open into them , and deposite in them all the seed they contain . that the prostatae make a peculiar sort , he endeavours to prove , because gelded animals emit some seed . but that is but precarious ; for though they emit something , 't is not necessary it should be any true seed . or if it be , it may well be supposed to proceed from the vesiculae seminales that have been full when the animal was gelt . for , for this reason it has been observed that presently after gelding they have sometimes got the female with young , but not afterwards when that stock was spent . bartholin with many others thinks they make an oily , slippery and fat humour , which is pressed out , as there is need , to besmear the vrethra , whereby to defend it from the acrimony of the seed and urine , and lest it should dry up . diemerbroeck confesses that it is necessary the inside of the vrethra should be kept moist and slippery , but thinks that that is done here as in the bladder , intestins and many other places , namely from some mucid part of the nourishment of the vrethra it self ; and concludes that the vasa deferentia deposite not all the seed into the vesiculae seminales , but carry a smaller part to these prostatae . de graef denies that the vasa deferentia convey any thing to them or have any communication with them ; and therefore believes , that the humour that is separated in the corpus glandosum ( as he calls the prostatae ) serves for a menstruum or vehicle of the seed , which flowing but in small quantity through small pores into the vrethra , it was necessary that this humour should be mixt with it that it might better reach the womb. whatever this humour be , it is squeezed out partly by the intumescence and erection of the penis , and partly by the compression of the sphincter of the bladder that girds the prostatae about . these prostates are often ( at least partly ) the seat of the gonorrhoea ; and the humour that they contain , that which is shed : for , if it were true seed , they could never endure a gonorrhoea so long ( some , thirty years ) without more notable weakning and emaciating , the flux being so large as sometimes it is . i shall here omit all philosophical enquiries into the nature of the seed , contenting my self purely with the anatomical part . the distance betwixt the root of the cod and the podex is called perinaeum , à 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , circumfluo , because it is still moist with sweat . the pubes , scroton , and perinaeum in men , are furnished with hair , because glandules are placed there , which receive plenty of superfluous moisture : a part whereof they send to the skin for the generation of hair. chap. xxiii . of the yard . the seed being elaborated and treasured up in the aforesaid organs , there was need of a peculiar instrument whereby it might be conveyed into the womb of the female ; and to this purpose nature has furnished the male with a yard which we come now to anatomize . it is called in latin penis , à pendendo , because it hangeth without the belly . also virga , membrum virile , veretrum , mentula , and by many other names invented by lustfull persons and lascivious poets . it is an organical part , long and round , yet somewhat flat in the upper part , seated about the lower part of os pubis , appointed partly for making of water , but principally for conveying the seed into the matrix . as to its thickness or length , it differs much in divers men. but it is generally observed to be larger in short men , and such as are not over much given to venery ; also in those that have high and long noses , and that are stupid and half-witted . it is neither bony , as in a dog , fox , wolf ; nor grisly nor fleshy ; but is framed of such a substance as might admit of distention and relaxation . the parts of it are either common or proper . the common are three , the scarf-skin , the skin , and the membrana carnosa . it hath no fat , for that would have hindred its erection into that stiffness that is necessary ; and secondly would have occasion'd it to grow too bulky ; and lastly would have dull'd that great pleasure that in venery the male is affected with in this part . the proper or internal parts are these : the two nervous bodies , the septum , the vrethra , the glans , four muscles and the vessels . the nervous bodies ( so called ) are encompassed with a thick , white , nervous and very firm membrane ( like an artery ) but their inner substance is spongious , being mostly a contexture of veins , arteries and nervous fibres , woven one with another like a net ; and when the nerves are filled with animal spirit , and the arteries with hot and spirituous blood , then the penis is distended and becomes erect : but when the spirits cease to flow in , then the bloud and remaining spirits are absorbed by the veins , and so the penis becomes limber and flaggy . they spring from the lower side of the os pubis at distinct originals , where they appear like two horns , or are of a figure resembling the letter y , that the vrethra may have room to pass between them . when they leave the os pubis they are each covered with a several membrane , and are afterwards joined together with only the septum between , which the nearer it comes towards the glans , is the thinner , so that before it come to the middle of the penis its fibres extend towards the back of the yard from the vrethra in order like a weaver's slay , and while it still goes further , its fibres by degrees grow so very small , that near the glans the septum is almost obliterated , and the two nervous bodies grow into one . whence it is that the penis is equally erected ; for if the septum had exactly distinguisht one part from the other , it might sometimes have so happened by the compression or obstruction of the arteries of the one or the other side , that one part of it would have been extended , and the other remained flaggy . dr. wharton affirms , these nervous bodies have glandulous flesh within them , which keeps the yard something plump even when it is not erect . but de graef denies this , and demonstrates that they have no other substance than beforesaid , thus . let the yard be prepared thus : first gently squeez the bloud out of it , which it always has in greater or lesser plenty , and then put a little tube into the spongy substance , namely in at that end that is next to the os pubis ; and let the cavity of the penis be half fill'd with water by the help of a syringe , and shake the penis with the water in it : pour out that bloudy water , and fill it again with clear , and so three or four times till the water is no longer stain'd with bloud . then betwixt two linen cloths squeez out what water is in the nervous bodies , and at length blow up the penis so long till it have its natural bigness ; in which posture if you will keep it , you must tie it hard . when the penis is thus distended and dried , you may examin it as you please , and will find no other substance than was mentioned . diemerbroeck says that their substance is not a meer texture of vessels , but is fibrous , fungous and cavernous ( such as is the substance of the lungs ) receiving in their hollow interstices bloud and spirits out of the vessels that are dispersed through their substance . below these nervous bodies lies the vrethra , being of a much like substance to them , saving that its spongy part , which is outer and lower , hath less pores because of its smaller and more plentifull fibres . this part does tumefy whensoever the nervous bodies do . it s inner part is membranous , round and hollow , and exceeding sensible . it is of an equal largeness from one end to the other , save in its fore-part , where the glans is joined to the nervous bodies , for there it hath a small cavern , into which the acrimonious urine lighting in the stone of the bladder , while it wheels about in it , causeth pain , and is a great sign of the stone . sometimes also the acrimonious eroding liquor in a gonorrhoea staying here , doth cause a most tormenting ulceration . it is continuous to the neck of the bladder , but has not its rise from it , nor is of the same kind of substance . if you boil the bladder and it , it will easily separate , and appears of a clear other substance and colour . it begins at the neck of the bladder and reaches to the end of the glans , which it seems to bestow a membrane upon from its own inner one , for it is plainly continued from it . it s use is to convey along the seed and urine . and to that end there open into it small pores that transmit the seed into it from the necks of the vesiculae seminales ( of which in the foregoing chapter ; ) and also the neck of the vesica vrinaria which pours out the urine into it , at which place it has a membranous valve , of which likewise before in chap. . the muscles are two in each side , and so four in all . of these one pair are called collateral muscles , by others erectores . these are shorter and thicker , and spring from the appendix or knob of the coxendix , under the beginning of the nervous bodies , and are inserted into the same , a little from their beginning . these serve for erection of the penis . the second pair is longer and smaller , proceeding from the sphincter of the anus . these pass streight by the sides of the vrethra , and are inserted about the middle of it , which they serve to dilate for miction and ejaculation of the seed , and are called dilatantes , wideners , and acceleratores or hastners . these have been generally held to be the uses of these muscles , but de graef ( as also swammerdam , not . in prodr . p. . ) assigns a clear contrary to them , and that with great shew of reason . for seeing the action of a muscle is contraction , how should the former pair extend the penis , and not rather draw it back towards their original ? or how should the latter serve to dilate the vrethra , and not rather straiten it , seeing in the action or contraction of a muscle its belly or middle swells ? therefore he says that the muscles only contribute thus far or in this respect to the extension or erection of the penis , in as much as by their swelling ( partly by bloud and spirit flowing into them , partly by their proper action ) they serve to straiten and compress the roots of the nervous bodies and the spongy part of the vrethra , and so drive the bloud that flows in by the arteries towards the glans , and hinder its returning back again by the veins : even as we daily see in a piece of a gut , which if we fill with wind or water , and then compress one end , we shall see the other strut out and be more distended . the end or head of the penis is called glans , and balanus . into this the nervous bodies terminate , and being a little thicker ( on that side next them ) than they , it encompasses them with a circle like a crown . on its fore-part it is smaller and sharper . it has a peculiar substance ( dr. wharton says glandulous ) soft and spongy , and being covered with a very thin membrane produced from the internal one of the vrethra ( which coming out of its hollow , dilates it self so as to cover all the glans ) it thereby and from its proper substance , much interwoven with nerves , becomes most exquisitely sensible , and is the principal seat of pleasure in copulation . which if it had not been very great , who would have taken delight in so brutish a thing as venery ? to this purpose andreas laurentius elegantly , ( anat. lib. . cap. . q. . ) who ( most strange ! ) would have solicited or accepted of so vile and filthy a thing as lying with a woman ? with what face would man , that divine animal , full of reason and counsel , have handled the obscene parts of women polluted with so much filth , which is discharged into this low place as into the common sink of the body ? on the other side , what woman would have accepted of the embraces of a man , considering the toil and tediousness of going months with child , the most painfull and often fatal bearing of it , and its education full of care and anxiety , unless the genitals had been affected in the act with transporting pleasure ? the glans is covered with the praeputium , or fore-skin , which is framed of the reduplication of the skin . it is called praeputium , because it is placed prae pudendo before the yard : or rather à praeputando , from being cut off , for this is that which the jews cut off in circumcision , from whence they are called apellae and recutiti . and it is reported by divers persons from their own inspection , that in jewish children it is six times as large as in christians , and hangs a great way over the glans , before it be cut off . the ligament by which the fore-skin is tied to the glans in the lower part of it , is called fraenum , the bridle . of the vessels , some are cutaneous , some pass to the inner parts of the penis . the cutaneous veins and arteries spring from the pudendae ; these entring at the root of the yard , pass by the sides towards the back of it , and are conspicuous enough . the vessels which are bestowed upon the inner parts of it , come from the venae and arteriae hypogastricae , and enter just at the meeting of the two nervous bodies , through whose length they run , and are mostly dispersed in them , and in the fungous part of the vrethra , sending forth little twigs at the sides . it has two nerves from the lowest vertebral . the greater of them , that is very large and long , is distributed into the nervous bodies , vrethra and glans ; the lesser upon its muscles . concerning which dr. willis thus discourses . this member ( says he ) having only nerves from the spinal marrow , should only have a spontaneous motion according to our hypothesis ( viz. that the nerves from the brain serve for natural , and the vertebral for voluntary motion . ) and yet through the turgescency of the genital humour , it is often erected and filled with spirit against ones mind ; which is from hence , because from this vertebral pair , whence the nerves of the penis spring , a sprig is reached forth to the vertebral pair next above it , viz. in which is radicated the plexus that is placed in the pelvis and bestows nerves on the prostatae , into which plexus also a notable nerve is implanted from the intercostal pair . seeing therefore there is a communication between the prostatae , ( which depend much on the intercostal nerves ) and the penis it self ( by reason of the insertion of the aforesaid sprig into the plexus from whence the prostatae have their nerves ) hence it comes to pass that it acts accordingly as they are affected . but they , ( viz. the prostates ) are not only apt to be moved by the turgescency of the seed ; but , by the communication of the intercostal nerve , according to the impressions made on the senses or brain , are wont to be irritated by too importune an action ; into consent wherewith the penis is presently excited . it s principal use is to convey the seed into the vterus of the female ; and its use to piss withall , is but secondary , for many creatures ( as fowls in general ) make no water by it , yet have a penis for the use abovesaid . that part that is next above it towards the belly is called the pubes , and its lateral parts are called the groins ; both which places in the mature are covered with hair , whereby nature would in some measure veil the privities , seeing natural modesty requires it . the explanation of the table . figure i. aa parts of the vasa deferentia , which appear thick , but have only a small cavity . bb the parts of the vasa deferentia of a thin substance and large cavity , being widened . cc the extremities of the vasa deferentia narrowed again , and gaping each with a little hole into the neck of the seed-bladders . dd the neck of the seed-bladders parted from each other by a membrane going between , so that the seed of one side cannot be mixed with that of the other , before it come to the urethra . ee the vesiculae seminales or seed-bladders blown up , that their wonderfull widenings and narrowings may be seen . ff vessels tending to the seed-bladders . ggg the membranes whereby the seed-bladders and vasa deferentia are kept in their places . hh the sanguinary vessels running by the sides of the vasa deferentia . i a caruncle-resembling a snipe's head , through whose eyes as it were the seed issues out into the urethra . kk the ducts of the corpus glandosum or prostatae opening into the urethra by the sides of the caruncle . ll the corpus glandosum divided . mm the urethra opened . tab . vi. figure ii. a the upper or fore-part of the bladder . b the neck of the bladder . cc portions of the vreters . dd portions of the vasa deferentia . ee the vessels running to the seed-bladders . ff the vesiculae seminales or seed-bladders . gg the fore-part of the prostatae or corpus glandosum . h the urethra adjoining to its spongy part . kk the muscles called the erectors or extenders of the penis . ll the beginnings of the nervous bodies separated from the ossa pubis , which puff up like bellows when the yard is erected . mm the skin of the penis drawn aside . nn the duplicature of the skin making the praeputium . oo the skin that was fasten'd behind the glans . pp the back of the penis . r the urinary passage whereby the glans is perforated in its fore-part . ss the nerves running along the back of the penis . tt the arteries running along the back of the penis . u the nervous bodies meeting together . ww two veins which unite together , and run along the back of the penis in a remarkable branch . x the vein opened , that the valves in it may be seen . of the genitals in women . chap. xxiv . of the vasa praeparantia . though it has been the method of divers anatomists to begin with the description of the outer parts of the privity ; yet because we would observe , as much as may be , the same order in women as we have in men , we shall first begin with the spermatick vessels , which are of two sorts , arteries and veins . the arteries are two , as in men. they spring from the great artery a little below the emulgents ( very rarely either of them from the emulgent it self ) and pass down towards the testes not by such a direct course as in men , but with much twirling and winding amongst the veins , with which tho' they have no inosculation , as has been generally taught . but for all their winding , when they are stretcht out to their full length , they are not so long as those of men ; because in them they descend out of the abdomen into the scrotum , but in women they have a far shorter passage , reaching only to the testes and womb within the abdomen . the veins are also two , arising , as in men , the right from the trunk of the cava a little below the emulgent , the left from the emulgent it self . in their descent they have no more bendings than in men , and therefore are considerably shorter . both the arteries and veins as they pass down are cover'd with one common coat from the peritonaeum ; and near the testes they are divided into two branches , the upper whereof is implanted into the testicle by a triple root ; and the other is subdivided below the testes into three twigs , one of which goes to the bottom of the womb , another to the tuba and round ligament , the third creeping by the sides of the womb under its common membrane , ends in its neck , where it is woven with the hypogastrick vessels like a net. by this way it is that the menstrua sometimes flow in women with child for the first months , and not out of the inner cavity of the vterus : but yet that bloud does not flow at that time so much by the spermatick arteries as by the hypogastrick . the use of these spermatick vessels is to minister to the ( generation of seed , according to the ancient doctrine ; but ) nutrition of the eggs in the ovaria or testes ( according to the new ) the nourishment of the foetus , and of the solid parts , and the expurgation of the menses ; inasmuch as bloud is conveyed by the arteries to all those parts to which their ramifications come , in which parts they leave what is to be separated according to the law of nature , the remaining bloud returning by the veins . chap. xxv . of womens testicles or ovaria . womens testicles differ much from mens both in their situation , figure , greatness , covers , substance , and also use . first , their situation is not without the body , as in men , but in the inner cavity of the abdomen , on each side two fingers breadth from the bottom of the womb , to whose sides they are knit by a strong ligament , that has us'd to be called and accounted the vas deferens ; as if the seed were carried by it from the testes to the womb. of which afterwards . they are flat on the sides ; in their lower part oval , but in their upper ( where the bloud-vessels enter them ) more plane . their superficies is more rugged and unequal than in those of men. they have no epididymides , nor cremaster muscles . they differ in bigness according to age . in those newly come to maturity they are about half as big as those of men ; but in those in years they are less and harder . preternaturally they sometimes grow to a vast bigness from hydropical tumours , in which several quarts of serous liquor have been found to be contain'd . they have but one membrane that encompasses them round ; but on their upper side , where the vasa praeparantia enter them , they are about half way involved in another membrane that accompanies those vessels , and springs from the peritonaeum . when this cover is removed , their substance appears whitish , but is wholly different from the substance of mens testicles . for mens ( as was said above ) are composed of seminary vessels , which being continued to one another are twenty or thirty ells long if one could draw them out at length without breaking : but womens do principally consist of a great many membranes and small fibres loosely united to one another ; amongst which ( in the outer superficies of the testes ) there are several little bladders ( like to hydatides ) full of a clear liquor , through whose membranes the nerves and vasa praeparantia run , and are obliterated in them . the liquor contained in these bladders had always been supposed by the followers of hippocrates and galen to be seed stored up in them , as if they supplied the place of the vesiculae seminales in men. but from dr. harvey downwards many learned physicians and anatomists ( according to aristotle ) have denied all seed to women . of which the said dr. harvey thus discourses , de ovi materia , exercit . . some women send forth no such humour as is called seed , and yet is not conception thereby necessarily frustrated ; for i have known several women ( says he ) that have been fruitfull enough without such emission ; yea , some that after they begun to emit such humour , though indeed they took greater pleasure in copulation , yet grew less fruitfull than before . there are also infinite instances of women , who though they have pleasure in coitu , yet send forth nothing , and notwithstanding conceive . i greatly wonder that they that think this emission necessary to generation , have not observed , that the humour is cast out , and issues most commonly from about the clitoris and orifice of the privity ; very seldom from any depth within the neck of the womb , but never within the womb it self , so as that it should there be mixed with the man's seed ; and that it is not ropy and oyly like seed , but serous like urine . now to what purpose should that be cast out , whose use is necessarily required within ? ought that humour to be sent to the mouth of the privity , ( bidding farewell as it were to the womb ) that it might be drawn back again with the greater kindness and welcome ? ] and indeed whatever that humour be that the more salacious women emit in copulation , ( of which afterwards ) it cannot be that which is contained in these vesiculae , both because it is sent forth in greater quantity than that it can be supplied from them , and also the vesiculae are destitute of any such pore or passage whereby the liquor contained in them might issue out ; for if you press them never so hard , unless you burst them , there will nothing pass out of them . we must therefore subscribe to that new but necessary opinion that supposes these little bladders to contain nothing of seed , but that they are truly eggs , analogous to those of fowl and other creatures ; and that the testicles ( so called ) are not truly so , nor have any such office as those of men , but are indeed an ovarium wherein these eggs are nourished by the sanguinary vessels dispersed through them , and from whence one or more ( as they are fecundated by the man's seed ) separate , and are conveyed into the womb by the tubae fallopianae , of which by and by . that these vesiculae are analogous to the little eggs in the ovarium of fowl , de graef evinces by this experiment , that if you boil them , their liquor will have the same colour , taste and consistency with the white of birds eggs. and their difference in wanting shells is of no moment ; for birds eggs had need of a shell , because they are hatched without the body , and therefore are exposed to external injuries ; but these of women being fostered within their body , have no need of other fence than the womb , by which they are sufficiently defended . having compared these vesiculae to the eggs of fowls , i might here follow the method of doctor harvey and de graef , and describe the ovarium , &c. in hens , &c. that from thence these in women might the better be conceived of and apprehended ; but to the curious and learned reader i shall recommend the said authors for satisfaction , and avoiding all unnecessary and ( to this epitome ) unsuitable excursion , i shall only further note two things : first , that these eggs in women are commonly towards the number of twenty in each testicle or ovarium , of which some are far less than others . and secondly , that the objection of the galenists against the aristotelians , ( viz. that the testes of females must needs make seed , because when they were cut out , barrenness always follow'd ) will be sufficiently obviated by this new hypothesis , that agrees to the necessity of the testicles so far as to affirm that the vesiculae contained in them become ( when they are impregnated by the masculine seed ) the very conceptions themselves , which therefore it would be in vain to expect if the female were castrated . besides the vasa praeparantia , and nerves , ( of which in the th chapter ) they have also lympheducts , according to dr. wharton . chap. xxvi . of the vasa deferentia in women , or their oviducts . galen with most of the ancients reckoned those short processes that go streight from the testes to the bottom of the womb , to be vasa deferentia ; and that the seed was emitted from the stones through them into the fundus uteri . and fernelius , riolanus , &c. thought they found a small pipe passing on each side out of these processes by the sides of the womb to its neck , into which they were inserted and opened near its orifice . by the former it was supposed women not with child did emit their seed into the bottom of the womb ; and by these latter such as were already impregnated : for that , if it should have issued into the fundus where the conception was , it would there have corrupted to the great prejudice of the foetus . but as to these latter ducts , veslingius , diemerbroeck , de graef and many other accurate anatomists , have not been able to find the least footstep of them . and as for the former , seeing they are not pervious , nor have any cavity , ( and therefore can have nothing of seed in them ) we must conclude with de graef that they are only ligaments of the testicles to keep them in their place ; which he evinces further by observing , that they come not to the inner cavity of the vterus , but are knit only to its outer coat : for he says , there are only two holes in the fundus uteri that admit a probe , and those lead to the tubae fallopianae and not to these ligaments . seeing therefore that those which have been accounted vasa deferentia either are not to be found at all , or are found uncapable of such an office ; and having withall rejected the opinion of womens having seed , and affirmed that that which makes the conception is one of those vesiculae in the testes , dropping from thence and conveyed into the womb , we must inquire by what way they can pass . for if the abovesaid ligaments ( reputed vasa deferentia ) have no passage whereby even the semen , if there were any , might pass ; much less could one of these vesiculae be conveyed that way . and therefore for vasa deferentia we assign those ducts that fallopius in his anatomical observations calls tubae , and describes thus : they are very slender and narrow ducts , nervous and white , arising from the horns ( or sides ) of the womb , and at a little distance from it they become larger , and twist like the tendrel of a vine , till near their end , where ceasing their winding they grow very large , and seem membranous and carnous . which end is very much torn and jagged like the edge of rent clothes : and has a large foramen , which ( says he ) always lies closed , because those jags fall together ; but yet being opened they are like the utmost orifice of a brass trumpet . ] but de graef says , though they grow very large towards their end , yet of a sudden the very extreme part is narrowed before it is divided into the aforesaid jags , which he resembles unto leaves . who also appeals unto experiment for these tubae's being pervious , affirming that if one put a little tube into the beginning of one of these same trumpets and blow it , the wind will presently break through it , which he saith he has observed in all the kinds of animals that he has dissected . these tubae ( according to dr. harvey ) are the same in women that the cornua or horns of the womb are in other creatures . for they answer to those both in situation , connexion , amplitude , perforation , likeness and also office : for as other animals always conceive in the cornua , so it has been sometimes observed ( as by riolanus from others ; and by himself ) that a conception has in a woman been contained in one of the tubae . ] which must have happened , when the ovum being received out of the testis into it , has been stopt in its passage to the womb , either from its own bigness , or some obstruction in the tubae . their substance is not nervous ( as fallopius in the above-recited description affirms ) but membranous . for they consist of two membranes , the outer and inner . the inner springs from ( or at least is common with ) that which covers the inner substance of the womb ; but whereas it is smooth in the womb , it is very wrinkled in the tubae . the outer is common with the outmost of the womb ; and this is smooth . the capacity of these ducts varies very much : for in the beginning as it goes out of the womb , it only admits a bristle , but in its progress where it is largest it will receive ones little finger . but in the utmost extremity where 't is divided into jags , it is but about a quarter so wide . they are very uncertain also in their length ; for from four or five , they sometimes encrease to eight or nine fingers breadth long . their use is , in a fruitfull copulation to grant a passage to a more subtile part of the masculine seed ( or to a seminal air ) towards the testes , to bedew the eggs contained in them ; which eggs ( one or more ) being by that means fecundated ( or ripened as it were ) and dropping off from the testis ( in the manner as shall be described chap. . ) are received by the extremity of the tubae , and carried along their inner cavity to the vterus . for dr. harvey affirms that they have a worm-like or peristaltick motion like that of the guts ( de cervarum & damarum vtero , exercit. . ) and the same is affirmed by swammerdam , not. in prodr . against this use two objections may be made ; first , that the end of the tuba not adhering close to the testis , when one of the vesiculae , ( or ova , as we think they are ) shall drop off from the testis , it would more probably fall into the cavity of the abdomen , than light just pat in the mouth of the tuba . secondly , that when it is received by it , its duct is so narrow , that 't is hard to conceive how it can pass by it . as to the first ; the same objection may lie against the use of the oviduct or infundibulum in hens , for neither in them does it join quite close to the ovarium , ( as swammerdam , &c. truly observes ) and yet it is certain that the vitelli or little yelks ( or rudiments of the eggs ) do all pass by them to the vterus . the same , swammerdam observes also in frogs , in one of whom there are many hundreds of eggs , which all pass one after another from the ovarium by the oviduct or infundibulum , and yet the mouth of the oviduct is almost two fingers breadth from the ovarium , and besides is immovable , whereas the tubae in women are at liberty ( and are more than long enough ) to embrace the ovarium with their orifice : and we must believe that they do so when a conception is made ; for it is not improbable that when all the other parts of the genital are turgid in the act of copulation , these tubae also may be in some measure erected , and extend their opened mouth to the testicle , to impregnate the ova with the seminal air steaming through their duct , and if any one be fecundated and separate , to receive it afterwards by its orifice . as to the second objection , which urges the narrowness of these tubae ; he that considers the straitness of the inner orifice of the womb , both in maids and in women with child , and yet observes it to dilate so much upon occasion as to permit an egress to the child out of the womb , cannot wonder that to serve a necessary end of nature the small duct of the tubae should be so far widen'd as to give passage to an ovum , seeing its proportion to their duct is many times less than of the child to the usual largeness of the said orifice . chap. xxvii . of the uterus or womb , and its neck . having treated of the vasa praeparantia ( so called ) that bring nourishment to the testes or ovaria , as also of these and their ova , and lastly of the tubae through which the ova pass to the vterus ; we now come to the vterus it self which receives the ova , and in which the conception is formed , and the foetus nourished till it acquire its due maturity and be fit for the birth . the vterus or womb is usually divided into four parts , the furdus or bottom , os internum or cervix , the vagina , and the sinus pudoris or outward privity . of each of these in order . and first of the fundus . this in a special manner is called the womb , because all the rest seem to be made for its sake . it is also called the matrix , from its being as a mother to conserve and nourish the foetus ; and likewise vtriculus from vtris a bottle . it is seated in the hypogastrium or lowest part of the abdomen , in that large hollow that is called pelvis , and is formed out of the ossa ilii , the hip , the ossa pubis , and the os sacrum . in this cavity it is placed between the bladder and the streight gut ; so that man being bred betwixt piss and dung , if he would but consider his origine , might hence draw an argument of humility . it s hindmost part is loose , that it might be extended as the foetus encreaseth . but its sides are tied fast by two pairs of ligaments . the first pair are further from the os internum , and are broad , arising from the peritonaeum . they have a membranous , loose and soft substance , and for their shape are resembled to bats wings . they tie the sides of the fundus , the testes and a good part of the tubae together , and are fasten'd to the ossa ilii , whereby the womb is kept from falling down . but if they be either immoderately relaxed , or by any violence broken , then the womb descends and sometimes falls out ( turning inside outwards ) if the substance of the womb happen to be relaxed also . the second pair arise nearer to the inner orifice of the vagina , about where the tubae do , and are called the round ligaments , or worm-like . from their origine which is broad , they ascend on each side between the duplicature of the peritonaeum towards the groins , and running out of the cavity of the abdomen become round , and then pass obliquely above the os pubis towards the fat that is plentifull there ( and makes the mons veneris ) in which they terminate near the clitoris , being divided into many parts . they consist of a double membrane , the inner whereof has all sorts of vessels , nerves arteries , veins and vasa lymphatica ; and are about a span long . vestingius , diemerbroeck , &c. say that they receive a small seminal vessel from the testes and tubae , which they conduct to the clitoris into which they are inserted , and ought rather to be accounted vasa deferentia than ligaments . so that what women emit from about the clitoris in copulation , they think to be true semen conducted hither by those seminal ducts . but de graef denies any such ducts , and affirms that these ligaments reach not the clitoris , but are terminated in the aforesaid fat . and that humour which women emit ( sometimes ) he thinks doth issue out of the lacunae in the orifices of the vagina and urinary passage , or also from the meatus's in the neck of the womb. which humour is supplied to the former parts from the thick and membranous body that is about the urinary passage ; and to the latter from the nervose-membranous substance of the neck of the womb. and indeed who can think nature so prodigal of so spirituous and noble a liquor as seed , as to ordain it to be shed at the orifice of the pudendum , and so to be quite lost , and never mixed with the mans , which is ejected into the bottom of the womb ? but we have above denied all seed to women ; and therefore believe that the liquor they emit is only for the lubricating of the vagina to cause the greater pleasure in coitu . but to this purpose more before . it s substance is whitish , nervous or rather membranous ; dense and compact in virgins , but in women with child a little spongy and soft . it hath two membranes . the outer is strong and double , arising from the peritonaeum : the inner , being proper , is fibrous and more porous . betwixt these membranes there is a certain carnous and fibrous contexture , which in women with child , together with the said membranes , does imbibe so much of the nutritious humours that then slow thither , that the more the foetus encreaseth , the more fleshy , fibrous and thick doth the womb grow ; so that in the last months it becomes an inch thick , and sometimes two fingers breadth , though it be extended to so much greater compass than it has when a woman is not with child . and yet ( which is strange ) within sixteen or twenty days after a woman is brought to bed , it becomes as thin as before ( viz. about half a fingers breadth ) and the whole contracts into so little a compass as to be held in ones hand . in virgins it is about two fingers breadth broad , and three long . in those that have lain with a man it is a little bigger , and something larger yet in those that have born children . in shape it is something like a pear , only a little ●lattish above and below . but in women with child it becomes more round . in maids its cavity is so small that it will hardly hold a large hazel nut . in those that have had children it will hold a small walnut . it is divided into no cells as it is in most viviparous brutes , but only into the right and left side by a suture or line that goes lengthways , much like that in a man's cod. its cavity is not quite round , but jets out a little towards each side ; which jetting some call its horns , but improperly : for though galen ( and many after him ) having never dissected any woman , presuming that their womb was like that of other viviparous creatures , attributed cornua thereto , yet in truth they have none , but the tubae fallopianae ( as was noted before ) answer to them and do their office . only in brutes ( viz. such as have cornua ) the conception is always formed in the cornua , as being the greatest part of the vterus ( which from the very orifice of its fundus is presently divided into them , as when one parts the forefrom the middle finger as wide as one can ) but very rarely in the tubae in women , but most an end in the fundus it self . of which more in chap. . its arteries spring partly from the spermatick or praeparantes , and partly from the hypogastrick . these two arteries do on each side by a notable branch inosculate one with the other . and both their branches that run on one side the womb , do inosculate with those of their own stock on the other . which may plainly be seen by blowing into the trunk of either of them on which side you will , for then the branches on the other side will be puffed up , as well as those on that side you blow . they run along the womb not with a streight or direct course but bending and winding , that they may be extended without danger of breaking when the womb is enlarged to so great a bulk by the foetus . by these arteries it is that the monthly courses flow , in greatest quantity out of those that open into the vterus it self , but in lesser out of those branches that reach and open into the cervix or neck of the womb , and in least ( if at all ) out of the vagina . now whether the bloud be sent forth this way at such times only from the two great quantity of it ; or whether at such stated seasons there is also a fermentation of the bloud whereby the orifices of the arteries are unlocked , is a controversie of two large consideration for this place . we will only say that the latter is more probable , because when a woman feeds high , and so breeds much bloud , they flow never the sooner ( though it may be in greater quantity ) and when she uses the greatest abstinence and spareness of diet ( if she be healthfull ) they will be never the longer of coming . so that when through such effervescency the bloud flows plentifully into the uterine vessels , and the veins of the womb being too few ( for they are fewer than the arteries ) to return it all back again by the circulation , it bursts forth of the extremities of the arteries so long , till the too great quantity of the bloud be lessen'd and the fermentation ceases , which it does after three or four days , and so the flux stops till the next period . in women with child they seldom flow , because then the redundant bloud is bestowed on the nourishment of the foetus : and it is the wanting of the menses at the usual season , that commonly gives women the first item of their having conceived . but of this also more in chap. . the veins do likewise spring from the praeparantes and from the hypogastrick . there are many anastomoses of these veins one with another , ( as there was noted of the arteries ) but especially in the sides of the vterus , which do more readily appear by blowing of them up , than those of the arteries above spoken of . the bloud brought hither by the arteries , that is not spent on the ordinary nutrition of the womb , or is not cast out when the menses flow , returns by these veins back to the heart . it has nerves from the plexus mesenterii maximus of the intercostal pair , and from the lowest plexus of the same . as also from the nerves of os sacrum . and the same run also to the testes or ovaria . now it is these plexus of nerves that are chiefly affected in the hysterical passion , or fits of the mother . for these fits are meerly convulsive , and often happen without any fault of the womb at all . and that symptom that in such fits is usual , namely when something like a ball seems to rise from the bottom of the belly and to beat strongly about the navel ( which is usually taken by women for the rising of the womb or mother ) is nothing but the convulsion of these plexus of nerves : which one will the rather believe , when he considers that some men are afflicted with the same symptom . of which see more in dr. willis ( in cerebr . anat . p. . ) who derives the pain of the colick also from the same cause . de graef says there are many lympheducts that creep through the outer substance of the vterus , which one after another meeting into one empty themselves into the common receptacle : and these he says , bartholin mistakes for venae lacteae . the use of the womb is to receive into its capacity the principles of the formation of the foetus , to afford it nourishment , to preserve it from injuries , and at length when it is grown to maturity and requires the light and a freer air , to expell it forth . the cervix or os internum of the womb being contiguous to it and coming betwixt it and the vagina , we will treat of it in this chapter . it seems to be a part of the fundus or of the womb properly so called , only it is much narrower , for its cavity is no wider in virgins than a small quill , and in women with child its inner orifice doth either quite close its sides together , or is daub'd up with a slimy yellowish humour , so that nothing can then enter into the womb , unless in very lustfull women it be sometimes open'd in superfoetation . it is an inch or more in length . it s cavity as it opens to the vagina is compared to the mouth of a tench ; galen likens it to the glans of a man's penis ; for its cavity is not round , but long and transverse . it is wrinkled , and has many small ducts opening into it , out of which one may press a pituitous serous matter . it has the same membranes and the same vessels with the vterus it self . de graef says that amongst its wrinkles he has often observed hydatides or little watry bladders ; and thinks that abovesaid serous matter serves only to moisten the vagina , &c. and to excite to venery . chap. xxviii . of the vagina , and its contents , viz. the hymen and carunculae myrtiformes . it has its name vagina or sheath , because it receives the penis like a sheath . it is called also the door of the womb , and its greater neck , to distinguish it from the lesser , just now described in the foregoing chapter . it is a soft and loose pipe , uneven with orbicular wrinkles , of a nervous but somewhat spongy substance ( which lust causes to puff up a little , that it may embrace the yard more closely ) about seven fingers breadth long , and as wide as the streight gut : all which yet , both length , width and looseness differ in respect of age , &c. and as a woman is inflam'd more or less with lust . so also the aforesaid wrinkles are much more numerous and close set in virgins , and in women that seldom accompany with a man , and that have never born children , than in those that have born many children , and in whores that use frequent copulation , or those that have long laboured under the fluor albus , for in all these three sorts they are almost obliterated . it has very many arteries and veins , some of which inosculate one with another , and others not : by the arteries that open into it do the menses sometimes flow in women with child that are plethorick : for they cannot come from the womb it self , unless abortion follow , as sometimes it does . these vessels bring plenty of bloud hither in the venereal congress , which heating and puffing up the vagina encreaseth the pleasure , and hinders the man's seed from cooling before it reach the vterus . they spring not only from the hypogastrick but also from the hemorrhoidal , but these latter run only through the lower part of the vagina . its nerves spring from those that are inserted into the vterus , but most from those of os sacrum . de graef says that all along the vagina there are abundance of pores , out of which a serous pituitous humour always flows to moisten it , but especially in coitu , when it is sometimes offensive to the man through its quantity , but encreases the pleasure of the woman , and is that which is taken for her seed , as has been noted already . near its outer end , under the nymphae ( of which in the next chapter ) in its fore and upper part it receives the neck of the urinary bladder encompassed with its sphincter ; opposite whereto in its hinder or lower part it is strongly knit to the sphincter of the streight gut. in virgins its duct is so strait , that at their first congress with a man they have commonly more pain than pleasure through the extension of it by the penis , whereby some small vessels break , out of which bloud issues as out of a slain victim ( to speak with diemerbro●ck : ) unless we should rather think that the bloud proceeds from the rupture of the hymen , which we now come to describe . the hymen is a thin nervous membrane interwoven with carnous fibres , and endowed with many little arteries and veins , spread across the duct of the vagina , behind the insertion of the neck of the bladder , with a hole in the midst that will admit the top of ones little finger , by which the menses flow . it is otherwise called the zone or girdle of chastity . where it is found in this form described , it is a certain note of virginity ; but upon the first admission of a man's yard it is necessarily broke and bleeds , which bloud is called the flower of virginity ; and of this the holy text makes mention in deuteron . . verses . — . and when once it is broke , it never closes again . but though a bridegroom when he finds these signs of virginity may certainly conclude he has married a maid ; yet it will not follow on the contrary , that where they are wanting , virginity is also wanting . for the hymen may be corroded by acrimonious fretting humours flowing through it with the menses , or from the falling out or inversion of the vterus or the vagina at least , which sometimes happens even to maids . or if a maid be so indiscreet as to become a bride while her courses flow or within a day after , then both the hymen and the inner wrinkled membrane of the vagina are so flaggy and relaxed , that the penis may enter glibly without any lett , and so give suspicion of unchastity , when indeed she 's unblameable saving for her imprudence to marry at that season . sometimes in elderly maids the hymen grows so strong that a man is glad to make many essays before he can penetrate it . yea in some naturally it is quite closed up , and these by this means having their menses stopt , are in great peril of their life if they be not relieved by surgery , viz. opening it with some sharp instrument . close to the hymen lie the four carunculae myrtiformes , so called from their resembling myrtle-berries . the largest of them is uppermost , standing just at the mouth of the urinary passage which it shuts after water is made . opposite to this in the bottom of the vagina there is another , and on each side one , so that they stand in a square . but of these there is only the first in maids ; the other three are not indeed caruncles , but little knobs made of the angular parts of the broken hymen roll'd into a heap by the wrinkling of the vagina , according to riolanus and diemerbroeck . these three when the vagina is extended in a womans labour , lose their asperity and become smooth , so that they disappear , untill it be again contracted to its natural straitness . de graef affirms , that the vagina near its outer orifice has a sphincter muscle almost three fingers broad , that upon occasion constringes or contracts it . so that he says men and women need not be solicitous concerning the genitals being proportionable one to the other ; for the vagina is made so artificially ( affabrè is his word ) that it can accommodate it self to any penis , so that it will give way to a long one , meet a short one , widen to a thick one , constringe to a small one : so that every man might well enough lie with any woman , and every woman with any man. ] thus he . having thus described the parts of the vagina , its use is easily declared to be , to receive the man's yard being erect , to direct and convey the seed into the womb , to serve for a conduit by which the menses may flow out , and to afford a passage to the foetus in its birth , and to the after-birth . chap. xxix . of the pudendum muliebre , or woman's privity . the parts that offer themselves to view without any diduction are the fissura magna or great chink , with its labia or lips , the mons veneris and the hairs . these parts are called by the general name of pudenda , because when they are bared they bring pudor or shame upon a woman . the great chink is called cunnus by galen , à 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 to conceive ; by hippocrates , natura . it is also called vulva , porcus , concha , and by many other names that fancy has imposed upon it . it reaches from the lower part of os pubis to within an inch of the anus : being by nature made so large , because the outward skin is not so apt to be extended in travail as the membranous vagina and collum minus are . it is less and closer in maids than in those that have born children . it has two lips , which towards the pubes grow thicker and more full or protuberant , and meeting upon the middle of the os pubis make that rising that is called mons veneris , the hill of venus , which all those that will war in the camp of venus must first ascend . it s outward substance is skin covered with hair , as the labia are , which begins to grow here about the fourteenth year of age . the inner substance of this hill , which makes it bunch so up , is most of it fat , and serves for a soft cushion as it were in copulation to hinder the ossa pubis of the man and woman to hit one against the other , for that would be painfull and disturb the venereal pleasures . under this fat lies that muscle that we spoke of from de graef in the last chapter , that constringes the orifice of the vagina , and springs from the sphincter ani . by a little drawing aside the labia there then appear the nymphae and the clitoris . the nymphs are so called because they stand next to the urine as it spouts out from the bladder , and keep it from wetting the labia . they are called also 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 or wings . they are placed on each side next within the labia , and are two carnous and soft productions , beginning at the jointing of the ossa pubis or upper part of the privity ( where they are joined in an acute angle , and make that wrinkled membranous production that clothes the clitoris like a praeputium or foreskin ) and descending , close all the way to each other , reaching but about half the breadth of the orifice of the vagina and ending each in an obtuse angle . they are almost triangular , and therefore , as also for their colour , are compared to the thrills that hang under a cock's throat . they have a red substance , partly fleshy , partly membranous ; within soft and spongy , loosly composed of small membranes and vessels , so that they are very apt to be distended by the influx of the animal spirits and arterial bloud . the spirits they have from the same nerves that run through the vagina , and bloud from that branch of the inner iliacal artery that is called pudenda : veins they have also from the venae pudendae which carry away the arterial bloud from them when they become flaccid . they are larger in grown maids than in younger , and larger yet in those that have used venery or born children . they never according to nature reach above half way out from between the labia . their use is to defend the inner parts , to cover the urinary passage , and a good part of the orifice of the vagina . and to the same purposes serve the labia above described . above betwixt the nymphae in the upper part of the pudendum does a part jet out a little that is called clitoris , from 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , that signifies lasciviously to grope the pudendum . it is otherwise called virga , for it answers to a man's yard in shape , situation , substance , repletion with spirits and erection , and differs from it only in length and bigness . in some it grows to that length as to hang out from betwixt the lips of the privity : yea there are many stories of such as have had it so long and big as to be able to accompany with other women like unto men , and such are called fricatrices , or otherwise hermaphrodites ; who it is not probable are truly of both sexes , but only the testes fall down into the labia , and this clitoris is preternaturally extended . but in most it jets out so little as that it does not appear but by drawing aside the labia . it is a little , long and round body , consisting ( like a man's penis ) of two nervous and inwardly black and spongy parts , that arise on each side from the bunching of the os ischium , and meet together at the jointing or conjunction of the ossa pubis . it lies under the fat of mons veneris , in the top of the great fissure . in venery by means of the two nervous bodies it puffs up , and straitening the orifice of the vagina contributes to the embracing of the penis the more closely . it s outer end is like to the glans of a man's yard , and has the same name , as also tentigo . and as the glans in men is the seat of the greatest pleasure in copulation , so is this in women : whence it is called amoris dulcedo and oestrum veneris . it has some resemblance of a foramen , but it is not pervious . it is most of it covered with a thin membrane from the conjunction of the nymphae , which for its likeness to the praeputium in men is also called so . the clitoris has two pair of muscles belonging to it . the upper are round and spring from the bones of the coxendix , and passing along the two nervous bodies above-described are inserted into them . these by straitning the roots of the said bodies do detain the bloud and spirits in them , and so erect the clitoris , even as those in men do the penis . the other arise from the sphincter ani , and are those we mention'd above in the end of the foregoing chapter : for though they have been thought to serve for the erection of the clitoris , yet we think with de graef that they rather contribute to the pursing up or constringing the outer orifice of the vagina . it has veins and arteries from the pudendae , and nerves from the same origine with the vagina , which are pretty large . it s use may be known from what has already been discoursed . and we will note further , that in some eastern countries it uses to be so large , that for its deformity and the hindrance it gives to copulation , they use to cut it quite out , or hinder its growth by searing it , which they improperly call circumcision . the explanation of the table . figure i. representeth the genital parts of a woman taken out of the body , and placed in their natural situation . aa the trunk of the great artery . bb the trunk of the vena cava . tab . vii c the right emulgent vein . d the left emulgent vein . e the right emulgent artery . f the left emulgent artery . gg the kidneys . hhhh the vreters cut off . i the right spermatick artery . k the left spermatick artery . l the right spermatick vein . m the left spermatick vein . nn the iliack arteries . oo the iliack veins . pp the inner branches of the iliack artery . qq the outer branches of the iliack artery . rr the inner branches of the iliack vein . ss the outer branches of the iliack vein . tt the hypogastrick arteries carried to the womb and vagina . uu the hypogastrick veins accompanying the said arteries . xx the branches of the hypogastrick artery tending to the urinary bladder . yy the branches of the hypogastrick vein carried to the bladder . zz portions of the vmbilical arteries . a the fundus uteri cloathed with its common coat . bb the round ligaments of the womb as they are joyned to its fundus . cc the tubae fallopianae in their natural situation . ddd the fimbriae or jags of the tubae ee the foramina or hollows of the tubae . ff the testicles in their natural situation . g a portion of the streight gut. h the neck of the womb , divested of its common coat , that the vessels may be better seen . i the fore-part of the vagina of the womb , freed from the urinary bladder ▪ k the urinary bladder contract●● ll the bloud-vessels running through the bladder . m the sphincter muscle constringing the neck of the bladder . n the clitoris . oo the nymphae . p the urinary passage . qq the lips of the pudendum . r the orifice of the vagina . figure ii. exhibiteth a woman's testicle or ovarium with the end of the tuba annexed to it . a the testicle opened lengthways in its lower part . bb eggs of divers bigness contained in the membranous substance of the testes . cc the bloud-vessels in the middle of the testes , proceeding plentifully from its upper part , as they run to the eggs. dd the ligament of the testicles , whereby they are knit to the womb , cut off . ee a part of the tuba fallopiana cut off . f the cavity of the tuba cut off . gg the hole that is in the end of the tubae . h the leavy ornament of the tubae . i the leavy ornament of the tubae knit to the testes . chap. xxx . of a conception . having described all the parts that serve for generation both in man and woman ; order would , that we should speak of the efficient causes , matter or principles from whence that which is generated by and in them , doth proceed . and in the first place there occurs the man's seed , which is the active principle or efficient cause of the foetus ; but when we discoursed of the testes , we shewed what the matter of it was , viz. arterial bloud and animal spirits ; and as to the manner of its ●ecundating the ovum , we omit that as being too philosophical for this place . in the next place therefore we must come to the matter or passive principle of the foetus , and this is an ovum impregnated by the man's seed . and here because in women it cannot be observed by what degrees and in what time an ovum in the ovarium or testis becomes a conception in the vterus , we must be forced to guess at that by the analogy in other creatures . to this purpose dr. harvey de generatione animalium is worthy to be read of the curious ; especially concerning the manner and order of the generation of the parts of a chicken in an hens egg , in his exercit. . but when he comes to apply this to the conceptions of viviparous animals , being ignorant that there was any formal ovum pre-existing in them , and only then secundated , he runs into great errours and odd notions about conception : imagining an analogy betwixt the brain 's forming its phantasms or conceptions , ( which he calls animal ) and the wombs forming hers , which he calls natural . he rightly indeed rejects the hypothesis of the womans having true seed , as also the notion that the man's seed is any part of the conception : but then he gives an unsatisfactory account of it when he says it is formed of the primeval albugineous humours that transude into the cornua in brutes or vterus in women , after they are impregnated or matur'd , as he speaks . i shall not therefore rehearse the history of generation in harts that he has given us , for an analogical explication of that in women ; but shall transcribe the observations of the curious de graef concerning the generation of rabbets , as being more adapted to our purpose . we made the first trial , ( says he ) on a female rabbet that had not yet accompanied with the male . dissecting which we observed a very wide vagina and about eight fingers breadth long , which being opened lengthways , there stood out two narrow mouths in its upper part divided with a s●milunar partition , namely the beginning of each cornu : for the womb in conies is presently from the very vagina divided into two parts , one of which bends towards the right hand , the other towards the left about three fingers breadth asunder , where they are presently contracted and continued with the oviducts , which in these animals have a peculiar situation ( or make ) because if you lightly blow up the cornua these will not swell , nor the wind penetrate them because of some loose fimbriae or rags closing like the valve of the gut colon. these oviducts being small at their rising from the cornua , for five fingers breadth run with a winding duct beyond the testicles , widening more and more by degrees , and then they turn back towards them and end in the form of a tunnel ..... the testicles are small , but contain very many limpid eggs , which being cut open there issued out a clammy liquor like the white of an egg. this being premised , we opened another half an hour after the coitus , the cornua of whose vterus lookt a little redder , but the ova in the testicles were not yet chang'd , unless they had remitted a little of their clearness : but neither in the vagina nor in the cornua could we perceive any seed or any thing like it . about six hours after the coupling we dissected another , in whose testicles the folliculi ( or cases ) of the ova inclined to redness , out of which being pricked with a needle a clammy and clear liquor issued first , but bloud followed , flowing out of the sanguinary vessels dispersed through the folliculi : we could find no seed neither in this coney . four and twenty hours after the coitus we opened another , in one of whose testicles we found three , and in the other five folliculi of the ova very much changed ; for being before limpid and colourless , they were now turn'd duskish and of a faint red , in the middle of whose superficies a little papilla ( or teat ) as it were discover'd it self : when the folliculi were cut open , there appear'd a little limpid liquor in their middle , a●d in their circumference a certain thicker and reddish matter . twenty seven hours after the coitus we inspected another , the cornua of whose vterus with the oviducts looked more bloudy , also the extremity of the oviduct did on every side embrace the testes like a tunnel ; in the middle superficies of the folliculi , as in those before , there stood out little papillae , through which by pressing the substance of the testicles there issued a limpid liquor , which was followed by another redder and thicker . opening the cornua of the womb we found no eggs , but the inner wrinkled tunicle of the cornua was a little more tumid . eight and forty hours after the coitus we examin'd another , in one of whose testicles we found seven , in the other three folliculi changed , in whose middle the papillae were something more eminent , through which , by pressing the substance of the testicles , there issued a little liquor like the white of an egg , but the remaining reddish substance of the ova , being now become something thicker , was not so easily pressed forth as in those before . two and fifty hours after the coitus we viewed another , in one of whose testicles we found one , in the other four folliculi altered ; cutting open which we found a glandulous-like matter , in the middle of which there was a little cavity , wherein finding no notable liquor , we begun to suspect whether or no their limpid substance , which is contained in proper membranes , were burst forth or expelled : wherefore we searched carefully both the oviducts and the cornua , but we could find nothing ; only the inner tunicle of the cornua being much pufft up shined . seventy two hours ( or three days and nights ) after the coitus we inspected another , which exhibited a far other and most wonderfull change ; for the infundibulum did embrace the testicles on every side most closely , which being pull'd off we found in the testicle of the right side three folliculi a little greater and harder , in the middle of whose superficies we saw a tubercle with a little hole in it like a papilla ; but dissecting the said cases through the middle , their cavity was quite empty ; wherefore we searched the ways through which the ova must pass , again and again , and found in the middle of the right oviduct one , and in the outer end of the cornu of the same side two very small eggs , little bigger than small pins heads , which notwithstanding their smallness are cloathed with a double coat ; out of these eggs being pricked there issued a most limpid liquor ...... in the very beginning of the cornu of the left side we found only one egg , just like those small ones of the other side : whence it is clear that the ova excluded out of the testes are ten times less than those that yet stick in the testes ; which seems to us to come to pass inasmuch as those that are still in the testes contain as yet another matter , namely that of which the glandulous substance of the cases is made . the fourth day from the coitus we opened another , in one of whose testicles we found four , in the other three globules or cases emptied ; and in the cornua of the respective sides we found as many eggs , greater than the former , which did not stick in the oviducts or beginnings of the cornua , but were now rolled on towards their middle : in their cavity we beheld as it were another egg swimming , far clearer than in the other before ..... the fifth day from the coitus we dissected another , in whose ovaria or testicles we told six emptied folliculi , that had each a notable papilla , through whose foramen we easily put an ordinary bristle into their cavity : we found also the same number of eggs ( bigger than those the day before ) in divers parts of the cornua , in which they lay so loosely , that by blowing only , one might drive them this way or that way . the inner tunicle of these ( or the egg within an egg as it were ) was become yet more conspicuous . the sixth day after the coitus we examin'd another , in one of whose testicles we observ'd six cases emptied , and in the cornu of the same side we could light of but only five eggs near the vagina , brought as it were upon a heap : but in the testiole of the other side we found four folliculi emptied , and in the cornu of that side only one egg : the cause of which difference we suppose to be , either because some eggs by the wave-like motion of the cornua ( not unlike the peristaltick motion of the guts ) being carried downwards towards the vagina were driven forth ; or because being consumed in the folliculi they came not to the vterus ; or light on some other mischance . these eggs were as big as small pease . the seventh day from the coitus we examin'd another , in whose ovaria we found some folliculi emptied that were greater , redder and harder than the foregoing , and saw as many transparent tumours or cells in divers parts of the vterus ; out of which being opened we turned ova as big as pocket-pistol bullets , in which we beheld nothing but the inner tunicle very conspicuous and a most limpid humour . it is to be wondred at , that in so short a space of time the eggs should imbibe so great plenty of liquor , that whereas before they might easily be taken out of the womb , now they could very difficultly . the eighth day from the coitus we opened another , in the right cornu of whose vterus we saw one , in the left two cells ; one of these was almost twice as big as the other : for nature doth sometimes so vary , that there are eggs of divers bigness found not only in divers animals of the same species dissected at the same distance from the coitus , but also in one and the same individual . in the horns of the womb being opened we saw the eggs a little bigger than the day before , but all of them , their tunicles breaking , poured out their clear liquor before we could take them quite out : for which reason we tried another dissected likewise the eighth day after the coitus ; the right cornu of whose vterus we saw swelled up into two , and the left into four transparent tumours or cells , out of which that we might take the ova we used the greatest diligence and attention ; but as soon as we came to them , their tunicles were so very tender that they burst as the former : which when we saw , the eggs that remained we boiled with the vterus , whereby their contents harden'd like the whites of hens eggs. the inner substance of the cells , on that side whereon it receives the hypogastrick vessels , was become more tumid and red . the ninth day after the coitus we dissected another that was old ; the testicles of this were almost as big again as those of younger : in the right we saw two , in the left ●ive folliculi lately emptied , and besides these , others that lookt very pale , which we judged to be those that had been emptied the coitus before this , although for the most part they leave only some palish points or specks , to which the increase of the testicles is owing . the folliculi of the last coitus were each beset with a papilla , but the others were smooth . in the right cornu there were two , and in the left five cells , whose substance being more rare and pellucid than the other parts of the vterus was interwoven with many twigs of veins and arteries . opening some of these cells , we could see the ova , but could not take them out whole ; wherefore being compelled to examine the content of the eggs in the very hollow of the cells , we found it clear like crystal ; in the middle whereof a certain rare and thin cloud was seen to swim , which in other conies dissected likewise on the ninth day after the coitus for its exceeding fineness escaped our sight . the inner substance of the cells , namely that which receives the hypogastrick vessels , being more tumid than the rest , exhibited the rudiments of the placentae . the tenth day after the coitus we inspected another , in whose right testicle we found one only folliculus emptied , which by reason of the sanguineous vessels dispersed plentifully through it was redder and had a less papilla ; in the middle of this pale substance there appear'd as yet a very small cavity : but in the left testicle we found six such folliculi . in the cornua of the vterus we found also so many cells , namely one in the right and six in the left distant a fingers breadth one from another , in the middle of which cells lay a rude mucilaginous draught of the embryo like a little worm ▪ one might also plainly discern the placenta to which the egg by means of its chorion was annexed . the matter of the eggs boil'd with the womb hardned like the white of an egg , and tasted like the boiled congealed substance of the eggs in the testicles . the twelfth day after the coitus we opened another , in one of whose testicles we found seven , in the other five folliculi emptied , and as many cells in the cornua much bigger and rounder than the foregoing , in the middle of which the embryo was so conspicuous , that one might in a sort discern its limbs , in the region of whose breast two sanguineous specks and as many white ones did offer themselves to view : in the abdomen there grew a certain mucilaginous substance inclining here and there to red . we could not discern more in this shapeless little animal because of its tenderness . the fourteenth day after the coitus we disse●ted another , the cells of whose vterus we beheld to be yet greater , and the sanguineous vessels more , and more turgid : we also noted that the cells the larger they grew , came also nearer to one another , and their interstices were lessened . the membranes amnios and chorion were knit together , which though they appear thicker and stronger , are yet more hard to be separated from one another than in the ova taken intirely out of the womb ; tearing these we saw an embryo with a great and pellucid head , with the cerebellum copped ; it s gogle eyes , gaping mouth , and in some sort its little ears might be discovered also . it s back-bone was drawn out , of a white colour , which bending in about the sternum resembled a ship ; by whose sides most slender vessels run , whose ramifications were extended to the back and feet . in the region of the breast two sanguineous specks greater than the foregoing exhibited the rudiments of the ventricles of the heart ; at the sides whereof were seen two whitish specks for lungs . in the abdomen being opened , there first shew'd it self a reddish liver ; then a white body , to which was knit a mucilaginous matter like a writhed thread , being the rudiments of the stomach and guts . all which in those that we dissected afterwards had acquired only a greater bulk and perfection . and therefore to prevent tediousness by repeating the same things , we will on purpose pass by all the other dissections we made in this kind of creature , excepting only one which we made the day before the kindling ; that those things that in the former were only confusedly discerned , may appear plain in this . at length on the twenty ninth day after the coitus we inspected another , that had kindled six weeks before , and in the coitus by which she was impregnated had voided all the thicker part of the seed of the male , which in some measure did resemble the consistence of a most limpid jelly . in her ovaria we found eleven little whitish folliculi ; and besides these , others far less , little or nothing differing from the substance of the testes . the folliculi of the ova in the testes seem not to vanish wholly , but to leave a certain speck in them ; whence it certainly comes to pass , that conies , the oftner or the more young ones they bring forth , have the greater and whiter testicles ; so that one may guess by only viewing the testes , whether they have had many young ones or often . having view'd the ovarium we past to the vterus , which we found no longer distinguish'd into cells , but all along distended like a pudding ; which was so agitated with a wave-like motion like the peristaltick of the guts , that the young ones nearest the vagina as yet included in their membranes were excluded , and that so hastily , that if we had not cut out the whole vterus , they had all certainly gone the same way . the womb was no thicker than when they are not with young , otherwise than we have said it to be in women . in its cavity we saw eleven foetus sprawling , which were all so closely coupled together by the membrane chorion ( wherein all are severally involved ) as if they had all been included in one and the same chorion — thus much i thought fit to translate of that accurate anatomists observations concerning the generation of this sort of animal , because it gives so very great light into the manner of the generation of a humane foetus . for there is an exact analogy betwixt them , abating some circumstances ; as first that in women the conception is not formed in the cornua , seeing her womb has none , nor in the tubae very seldom and according to nature , for they are only the infundibula or oviducts to convey the ova from the testes to the fundus uteri , though they bear some resemblance to the cornua in brutes ; i say the conception is not formed in these , but in the fundus uteri or womb properly so called , whereinto the ovum being received presently begins to swell and grow bigger , and there appears as it were an egg within an egg , by means of the two membranes with which it is cloathed ; which membranes are originally in the ovum while it is in the testicle , and imbibe the moisture that is sent now plentifully into the womb , even as the little yelks in hens , &c. gather the white about them in the oviduct and vterus , which they have none of in the ovarium ; or as seeds in the ground do imbibe the fertile moisture thereof to enable them to sprout . another considerable circumstance wherein they differ is the slow procedure of the formation of the foetus in women in comparison of that in conies now described . for seeing these go with young but or days , and women nine months , we must imagine that the embryo is as perfectly formed in the former on the tenth day as in the latter in the tenth week , or longer . but i say abating these or if there be any other such like circumstances , there is so great a likeness betwixt the one and other , that without insisting more on the matter or manner of the conception , we shall pass on to the description of the parts that encompass the foetus , then shew how it is nourished , and lastly what parts there are in a foetus that differ from those in a child born . chap. xxxi . of the placenta uterina or womb-liver , and acetabula . in dissecting the womb of a woman with child the first thing that offers it self is the placenta uterina or womb-cake , otherwise called hepar uterinum or womb-liver , from the likeness of substance , and also use according to those that imposed the name . it s substance is very like that of the spleen , only that is more brittle and this more tenacious , so that it cannot so easily be separated from the vessels . it is soft and has innumerable fibres and small vessels . it s parenchyma is partly glandulous , by means of which glands the separation of humour that is made in it , is performed . it is of very different shapes in several creatures , but in women it is circular , yet with some inequalities in its circumference . it is two fingers breadth thick in its middle ( but thinner near the edges ) and a span or a quarter of a yard over from one side to the other when the foetus is come to maturity ready for the birth . on that side next the foetus it is smooth and something hollowish like navel-wort , and is knit to the chorion ; but on that next the womb it is very unequal , having a great many tubercles or bunchings whereby it adheres fast and immediately to the womb. but to what part of it , is not agreed among anatomists , some affirming it to grow to the fore-part , some to the hinder-part ; some to the left side , others to the right . dr. wharton ( assenting to fallopius ) says , it always adheres to one of the two corners of the womb ( that answer in some manner to the cornua in brutes ) whereinto the foramen of the tuba opens ; so that he says the said foramen is as it were the centre to the placenta . de graef thinks it is most commonly fasten'd there , but not always , because the ovum for a while being loose in the cavity of the vterus , may be tumbled to this or the other part , and wherever it fixes , there is it join'd to the womb by the placenta . when there is but one foetus in the womb it is but one , but if there be twins , then according to dr. wharton , &c. are there two placentae , either distinct in shape , or if they appear in the shape of one , then are they separated by a membrane one from the other ; and a particular rope of umbilical vessels , is inserted into each from each foetus . it grows not out of the womb originally , but its first rudiments appear like a woolly substance on the outside of the outer membrane that invests the embryo ( called chorion ) about the eighth or ninth week , upon which in a short while a red , carnous and soft substance grows , but unequally and in little knobs , and then it presently thereby sticks to the womb , and is very conspicuous about the twelfth or thirteenth week . till now the foetus is encreased and nourished wholly by the apposition of the crystalline or albugineous liquor wherein it swims loose in the inner membrane ( called amnios ) having no vasa umbilicalia formed , by which to receive any thing from the placenta . but when it waxes bigger and begins to need more nourishment , the extremities of the umbilical vessels begin to grow out of the navel by little and little , and are extended towards this placenta , that out of it , as plants by their roots out of the earth , they may draw a more firm nutritive juice , and carry it to the foetus . but of this more in the d chapter . it has vessels from a double origine , some from the womb , and some from the chorion . the former are of four kinds , arteries , veins , nerves and lympheducts : all which though they be very large and conspicuous in the womb , and are so even in that very place where the placenta is joined to it ; yet they send but the smallest capillaries into the placenta it self ( namely that half that is next the womb. ) those that come from the chorion are arteries and veins , and dr. wharton supposes also lympheducts . the arteries and veins that come from the womb spring from the hypoga●tricks , and also that branch of the spermaticks that is inserted into the bottom of the womb. those that come from the chorion are the umbilical vessels of the foetus . of the use of both the one and other we shall speak in chap. . when we come to discourse how the foetus is nourished , as also of the use of the placenta it self , of which we shall only observe this further here , that after it is joined to the womb , it sticks most firmly to it for the first months ▪ as unripe fruit do to the tree : but as the foetus becomes bigger , and riper and nearer to the birth , by so much the more easily will it part from the womb , and at length , like to ripe fruit , after the child is born , it falls out of the womb and makes part of the after-birth . it was an old tradition continued for many hundred years , that the placenta adheres to the womb by certain parts called cotyledones or acetabula . that there are such in some creatures it is certain ; dr. needham says they are only properly so called in sheep and goats , in whom being with young the uterine glands are hollow like a saucer or an acorn-cup , and are adapted to the little prominences ( or digituli ) of the placentulae that grow on the chorion ; ( though diemerbroeck say , that on the contrary the placentulae are hollow ( and so are truly the acetabula ) and the uterine glands protuberant ) and doubts not but these names were first given by those that dissected these kind of creatures , and were afterwards applied in following ages to other animals . so that no wonder there have been so great contests even about the signification of the word cotyledon ( which is the greek word for the herb vmbilicus veneris or navel-wort ) and what that was that was so called in the several creatures that were said to have them . but because such controversies are now obsolete , and that 't is generally confessed that women have them not , we shall not in this epitome run out into needless disputes ; but only observe one singular opinion of diemerbro●ck , who ascribes cotyledones to women . he thinks that each woman ( unless she go with twins ) has but one cotyledon , and that the foresaid placenta uterina is it . and indeed it must be confest that it resembles much the shape of that from which the cotyledones have their name ; and therefore seeing he formed this opinion to defend our great master hippocrates , who had ascribed them to women , ( that is , as diemerbroeck expounds it , one cotyledon to one woman ) we shall not oppose it , but confess it to be , if not true , yet both ingenious and ingenuous . chap. xxxii . of the membranes involving the foetus , and of the humours contained in them . next to the placenta follow the two membranes that involve the whole foetus , chorion the outer , and amnios the inner : betwixt which two , after the foetus is perfectly formed , dr. needham , &c. affirms there is a third , viz. allantois , which in women likewise includes the whole foetus . of each of these in their order , with the liquors they contain . the outer membrane is called chorion , it is pretty thick , smooth on the inside , but without something unequal or rough , and in that part of it that adheres to the placenta and by it to the womb , has very many vessels which spring from the placenta it self and the umbilical vessels . it is but one even when the mother goes with twins : for as in a nut that has two kernels in it , they are both included within the same shell , but are each invested in their proper membrane ; so twins are both inclosed in one chorion , but have each a particular amnios . it invests the ovum originally , which ovum being brought into the womb and becoming a conception , this membrane imbibes the moisture that bedews the womb plentifully at that time . for whiles the conception is loose in the womb , and has no vessels that reach out of it self , nor is fasten'd to any part , it must have its increase after the same manner as the egg has in hens , which while it is in the racemus or knot , attains no other substance but yelk ; and when it drops off from thence and descends through the infundibulum , it receives no alteration ; but when it comes into the cells of the process of the vterus , it begins to gather a white , although it stick to no part of the vterus nor has any umbilical vessel ; but ( says my author , the immortal * harvey ) as the eggs of fishes and frogs do without , procure to themselves whites out of the water ; or as beans , pease and other pulse , and bread-corn being steep'd in moisture swell , and thence acquire aliment for the bud that is springing out of them : so in like manner out of the plicae or wrinkles of the womb ( as out of a dug or womb-cake ) does there an albugineous moisture slow , whence the yelk ( by that vegetative and innate heat , and faculty wherewith it is endued ) gathers and concocts its white . and therefore in those plicae and the hollow of the womb does there plentifully abound a liquor resembling the taste of the white . and thus the yelk descending by little and little is encompassed with a white , till at last in the outmost vterus having assumed membranes and a shell , it is perfected ] thus i say does the chorion imbibe that albugineous liquor that from the first conception increases daily in it ( and transudes through the amnios wherein the embryo swims ) till the umbilical vessels and the placenta are formed , from and through which the foetus may receive nourishment . this liquor that it imbibes i take to be nutritious juice that ouzes out of the capillary orifices of the hypogastrick and spermatick arteries , and is of the same nature with that which afterwards is separated in the placenta and carried to the foetus by the umbilical vein , and with that also which abounds in the amnios even till the birth . for the plastick or vegetative virtue is only in the ovum it self , and the augmentation that the first lineaments of the embryo receive , is only by apposition of this nutritious albugineous juice . but this membrane chorion by that time the umbilical vessels and placenta are formed , is grown so dense and compact , that it is not capable of imbibing more ; but that which at this time is in it , does in small time transude into the amnios , and so it self becomes empty , and gives way to the encrease of the allantois , ( which thenceforward begins to appear ) whose liquor augments daily as the foetus grows nearer and nearer to the birth . this is my conjecture , which i submit to the censure of the learned . the amnios is the inmost membrane that immediately contains the foetus . it is not knit to the chorion in any place save where the umbilical vessels pass through them both into the placenta . it is very thin , soft , smooth and pellucid , and encompasses the foetus very loosly . it has vessels from the same origines as the chorion . it is something of an oval shape . before the ovum be impregnated , this membrane contains a limpid liquor , which after the impregnation is that out of which the embryo is formed . in it resides the plastick power and the matter also out of which the first lineaments of the embryo are drawn . but because its liquor is so very little , there transudes through this membrane presently part of that nutritious albugineous humour that is contained in the chorion , which it had imbibed out of the vterus , as was but even now shewn , and this dr. harvey calls colliquamentum . and by the juxta-apposition or addition of this humour to the undiscernible rudiments of the embryo , it receives its encrease . but though the amnios have its additional nutritious liquor at first only by transudation ; yet when the umbilical vessels and the placenta are formed , it receives it after another manner . for then being separated from the mothers arteries by the placenta and imbibed by the umbilical veins of the foetus , it passes directly to its heart , from whence being driven , a great part of it , down the aorta , it is sent forth again by the umbilical arteries , out of whose capillaries dispersed plentifully through the amnios it issues into its cavity , even as far more gross and viscid juices in taking a purge ( or sometimes critically ) ouze out of the small mouths of the arteries that gape into the intestins . there are some that think they have observed venae lacteae to come directly to the placenta , and that out of it ( as out of the glands in the mesentery ) there arise others that convey the chyle into the amnios : and this indeed were a plausible opinion , if it were grounded on any certain or frequent observation of such lacteals , and were not rather invented to avoid some difficulties with which the former opinion seems to be pressed . a third membrane which invests the whole foetus ( according to dr. needham , &c. ) is that called allantoides , though improperly as to women . for it is so called from its likeness to a pudding ( 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , farcimen ) which indeed it does resemble in sheep , does , hogs , &c. but in women , as also in mares , it has the same figure as the chorion and amnios , betwixt which it is placed in their whole circumference . now though it must be supposed that this as well as the other two , is originally in the ovum , yet there is no appearance of it till after the umbilical vessels and placenta are formed , and the albugineous liquor ( so often mentioned ) ceases to be imbibed by the chorion out of the vterus . but assoon as the foetus begins to be nourished by the umbilical vessels , and the vrachus is permeable , then presently this membrane begins to shew it self , containing a very thin liquor , which is the urine of the foetus brought into it by the vrachus from its bladder , and with which it is filled daily more and more till the birth . it is very thin , smooth , soft and yet dense . it may be known from the chorion and amnios by this , that they have numerous vessels dispersed through them , but this has not the least visible vein or artery . it is very hard to separate the chorion from it , because when it appears , the chorion becomes void of all liquor , and so claps close to it . but towards the birth of the foetus it becomes so turgid with urine , that the amnios ( immediately containing the foetus ) swims in it , and so may most easily be distinguisht and separated from it . the liquor that it contains is ( as has been said ) the urine of the foetus brought hither by the vrachus . for assoon as the foetus is perfectly formed , its kidneys must needs perform their office of separating the serum from the bloud , for otherwise it would be affected with an anasarca . i say the serum is separated in the kidneys and glides down from thence into the bladder , in which it is found pretty plentifull when the foetus is five or six months old . now it flows not out of the bladder by its orifice , because at that time the sphincter is too contracted and narrow , and if it should pass that way , it would mix with that nutritious juice in which the foetus swims in the amnios , and wherewith , by taking it in by its mouth , it is partly nourished , and so would defile and corrupt it , and make it unfit for nourishment . nature therefore has provided it another exit by the vrachus , inserted into the bottom of the bladder ; which though after the child is born it grow solid like a ligament , like as the vena umbilicalis does , yet while the foetus is in the womb it is always pervious , and conveys the urine into the allantoides that is placed betwixt the chorion and amnios , where it is collected and preserved till the birth . chap. xxxiii . of the vmbilical vessels , and of the nourishing of the foetus . having opened the membranes that enwrap the foetus , there appears the navel-string or rope , which is membranous , wreath'd and unequal , arising out of the middle of the abdomen , ( viz. the navel ) and reaching to the womb-liver or placenta , of a notable length , being three spans or half an ell long , and as thick as ones finger . it was convenient to be so long and lax , that when the foetus in the womb grows strong , it might not break it by its sprawling and tumbling about ; and after it is born , the secundines or after-birth might be drawn out the better by it . the way that it passes from the navel to the placenta is very unconstant ; for sometimes it goes up on the right hand to the neck , which having encompassed , it descends to the placenta , and sometimes it goes on the left hand up to the neck , &c. sometimes it comes not to the neck at all , but goes first a little up towards its breast , and then turns round its back , and from thence passes to the placenta . the vessels contained in this string ( and which are enwrapped in a common coat called funiculus or intestinulum ) are four , one vein , two arteries and the vrachus . the vein is larger than the arteries , and arises from the liver of the foetus , ( viz. out of its fissure ) at the trunk of the vena porta ( of which it seems to be but a branch ) and from thence passing out of the navel it runs along the funiculus to the placenta , into which it is implanted by innumerable roots ; but before it reaches it , it sends some little twigs into the amnios . the ancients that thought the foetus was nourished by the mothers bloud only , taught the sole use of this vein to be , to carry bloud from the placenta to it : and since it has been found out and believed that it is nourished also ( if not only ) by chyle or succus nutritius , some have continued the same office to this vein , and think that the chyle is brought by lacteal vessels arising out of the placenta , as ( they say ) it was brought thither by the mothers lacteals . and indeed if any certain discovery had been made of these same lacteae , we should have embraced this opinion as the most probable . but we are not to form hypotheses out of rational notions only , but much rather from what appears to the eyes of the dissector . we do affirm therefore that the umbilical vein serves for conveying to the foetus the nutritious juice separated in the placenta from the mothers arteries . how this separation is made , and how it is first of all turned into bloud , we shall consider by and by . but together with this juice there returns so much of the arterial bloud ( that comes from the foetus ) as is not spent upon the nourishment of the placenta , or of the chorion and amnios . besides this vein which is common to all creatures , there have been observed in whelps ( and may perhaps in others ) two small veins more that pass directly from the vmbilicus to the mesentery , as the other great one does to the liver ; which may strengthen the opinion that the chyle or succus nutritius is brought to the foetus by the sanguinary vein ( or veins ) from the placenta . in the funiculus are included also two arteries , which are not both of them together so big as the vein . they spring out of the inner iliacal branches of the great artery , and passing by the sides of the bladder they rise up to the navel , out of which they are conducted to the placenta in the same common cover with the vein and vrachus , with which they are twined and wreathed not unlike a rope . i say they are inserted into the placenta , and with the vein make a most admirable texture , and net-like plexus . dr. harvey says , the vein is conspicuous a pretty while before these arteries appear . bloud and vital spirit are not carried by them from the mother to the foetus , as many , from galen , have taught ; but on the contrary , spirituous bloud is driven from the foetus , by the beating of its heart , to the placenta and the membranes for their nourishment ; from which what bloud remains , circulates back again in the umbilical vein together with the succus nutritius afresh imbibed by its capillaries dispersed in the placenta . but besides arterial bloud , there flows out of the navel by them part of the succus nutritius that was imported by the umbilical vein , namely that of it which is more crass and terrene , which by one circulation through the heart ( or it may be many ) could not be changed into bloud : this part i say flows out by these arteries , which by their branches that are dispersed through the amnios disimbogue it by their little mouths into it ; for what use , shall be declared presently . and here i shall transcribe a material objection with the answer to it , out of diemerbroeck . obj. how can these vessels ( vein and arteries ) when they have grown from the belly of the foetus to that length as to reach the membranes , penetrate and pass through them to the placenta ? answ . this is done in the same manner as the roots of herbs , shurbs and trees penetrate into the hard ground , yea often into thick planks , walls and stones , ( which water cannot enter ) and root themselves firmly in them . for just so the first sharp-pointed and most fine ends of the umbilical vessels insinuate themselves by little and little into the pores of the membranes ( for the figuration of those pores are fitted for their entrance ) and pass through them , and yet the liquors contained in these membranes cannot flow out by them : and when those vessels inhering in the pores grow more out into length , by little and little the said pores are more and more widened , ( according to the increase of the vessels ) and are inseparably united unto and grow in them . the fourth umbilical vessel is the vrachus or urinary vessel , and it is a small , membranous , round pipe , endued with a very strait cavity , arising from the bottom of the bladder up to the navel , out of which it passes along within the common cover , and opens into the allantoides . it is more apparently pervious in many of the larger brutes than it is in man , in whom some have denied it any cavity : but that it is hollow in him , is confirmed by many histories of persons adult , who having the ordinary urinary passage along the penis stopt , the passage in this vessel has been unlocked , and they have made water by the navel , which could not have been imagin'd to have happen'd , if it had been originally a ligament without any meatus . bartholin and others have affirmed that the vrachus in men reaches no further than the navel ; how then comes that humour into the allantois that has perfectly the same taste with the urine in the bladder ? but their errour sprung from hence , that they thought an humane foetus had no allantois , and that humour that is found in it , they thought had been contained in the chorion . but this is in short refuted above , but more fully and accurately by dr. needham , lib. de formato foetu , cap. . as to the perviousness of the vrachus i shall add this further , that in abortions of five or six months old , the bladder of the embryo is always full of urine , out of which if in the following months it should not be emptied by the vrachus , the bladder would soon burst , seeing there is daily some serum separated from the bloud in the kidneys , and sent to the bladder ; and the more the foetus increases , the more must needs be separated . it s use has been sufficiently declared in the preceding paragraph ; as also above , when we delivered the use of the allantoides , which we shall not repeat . these four vessels ( as has been said above ) have one common cover , which also keeps each of them from touching other . it is called intestinulum , and funiculus ( by which it with its vessels is sometimes understood . ) it is membranous , round and hollow , indifferent thick , consisting of a double coat , ( the inner from the peritonaeum , and the outer from the panniculus carnosus . ) sometimes it self only is wreath'd about like a rope , the vessels included in it running streight along its cavity ; and sometimes they are wreathed together with it . it has several knots upon it here and there , which dr. wharton thinks to be papillae or little glands through which the lacteal ( or nutritious juice ) distils out of the capacity of the funiculus into the cavity of the amnios . i cannot tell whether this be so or no , but that use that doting midwives make of them , to guess by their number how many children more the mother shall have , and by their colour , whether those children shall be male or female , is most ridiculous and superstitious . when the infant is born , this navel-rope is used to be tied , about one or two fingers breadth from the navel , with a strong thread cast about it several times , and then about two or three fingers breadth beyond the ligature to be cut off . what is not cut off , is suffered to remain till it drop off of its own accord . which the longer or shorter while it is a doing , the longer or shorter-liv'd , women prophecy the children to be . there have been great disputes among both philosophers and physicians , with what and by what way the foetus is nourished . some affirm by bloud only , and that received by the umbilical vein ; others by chyle only , received in by the mouth : each of which are in an extream . the truth is , according to the different degrees of perfection that an ovum passes from a conception to a foetus ready for the birth , it is nourished diversly . for first , assoon as an ovum impregnated is descended into the womb , it presently imbibes through its outer membrane some of that albugineous liquor that at this time plentifully bedews the internal superficies of the vterus ; so that assoon as the first lineaments of an embryo begin to be drawn out of that humour contained in the amnios , they presently receive increase by the apposition of the said liquor filtrated out of the chorion through the amnios into its cavity . and this same liquor that thus encreaseth the first rudiments of the embryo is called by dr. harvey colliquamentum ( as was noted above . ) that this way of nutrition or augmentation of the embryo is possible , need not be doubted by him that considers , that the foetus of a sow have no other possible way of being nourished till she is near gone half with pig ; for even till then , saith dr. needham , the chorion cleaves not to the womb , but look as many foetus as there are , there are so many eggs as it were without shells , neither sticking to the womb nor to one another ; but when one opens the matrix , they all tumble out of their own accord . there are no glandules , no placenta . but the chorion which is soft and porous , does like a spunge imbibe or suck up the serous liquor that sweats out of the inmost membrane of the vterus , to be afterwards swallowed by the veins , ( i suppose he means the mouths of the umbilical vein , after the said vein is so perfectly formed as to receive it . ) but of this more in the beginning of the foregoing chapter . but when the parts of the embryo begin to be a little more perfect , and the chorion becomes so dense that not any more of the said liquor is imbibed by it , the umbilical vessels begin to be formed , and to extend to the side of the amnios , which they penetrate , and both the vein and arteries pass also through the allantois and chorion , and are implanted into the placenta , that at this time , first gathering upon the chorion , joins it to the vterus . and now the hypogastrick and spermatick arteries , that before spued out the nutritious juice into the cavity of the vterus , open by their orifices into the placenta , where ( whether by meer percolation through it , or by some sort of fermentation also , i will not determine , but ) they deposite the said juice , which is absorbed by the umbilical vein , and by it conveyed first to the liver , then to the heart of the foetus , where the thinner and more spirituous part of it is turned into bloud . but the more gross and terrene part of it descending by the aorta enters the umbilical arteries , and by those branches of them that run through the amnios , is discharged into its cavity . they that will laugh at this passage of the nutritious juice , because it is made by this doctrine to choose its way as if it were some animal or even rational creature , let them avoid the like treatment if they can while they deliver , that the chyle passes immediately either from the mesentery , the receptaculum or ductus communis to the placenta , when a foetus is in the womb. 'pray how should the chyle know , or the lacteals by which it passes , that there is any foetus in the womb , that the one should offer to go that way , and the other give it way to go thither at that time , whereas the passage is shut at all other times ? yet this my opponents maintain . as also how comes the chyle presently to turn its course after the foetus is born , and instead of descending to the vterus , ascend to the breasts ? what mechanical cause can be assigned to these and many other the like phaenomena ? we must therefore be content to resolve some things into the admirable and unintelligible disposal of our wise creatour . but there lies another objection against this opinion , because it allows none of the mothers bloud to be received by the foetus through the umbilical vein , but only succus nutritius ; how should bloud be first bred in the foetus , seeing it has bloud , before the liver or heart , or any other part that conduce to sanguification , are in a capacity to perform their office ? i confess it is inexplicable by me how bloud should be made so soon ; but that it may be and is made , out of the succus nutritius or colliquamentum , without the mixture of any from the mother , is apparent from the most accurate observations of dr. harvey concerning the order of the generation of the parts in a chicken , ( which from first to last receives nothing from the hen. ) says he , * there appears at the very first a red leaping punctum or speck , a beating bladder , and fibres drawn from thence containing bloud in them . and as much as one can discern by accurate inspection ; bloud is made , before the leaping speck is formed ; and the same is endowed with vital heat , before it is stirred by the pulse : and as the pulsation begins in the bloud and from it ; so at length , at the point of death it ends in it . — and because the beating bladder and the sanguineous fibres that are produced from it , appear first of all ; i should think it consentaneous to reason that the bloud be before its receptacles ; namely the content before its container ; and that this is made for the sake of the other . he confesses it to be a paradox , that bloud should be made and moved , and endued with vital spirit before any sanguifying or motive organs are in being ; and that the body should be nourished and increased , before the organs appointed for concoction ( namely the stomach and bowels ) are formed : but neither of these are greater paradoxes than that there should be sense and motion in the foetus before the brain is composed ; and yet , says he , * the foetus moves , contracts and stretches out it self , when there is nothing conspicuous for a brain but clear water . i say if all these unlikely things do certainly come to pass in an egg , that has nothing to set the vegetative , or vital principle thereof on work , but the warmth of the hen that sits upon it ; why should we think it strange that nutritious juice impregnated with the vital spirits of the arterial bloud , with which it circulated through the mothers heart ( it may be more than once ) should be turned into bloud in an humane foetus ( fostered with such kindly warmth in the womb ) though it neither receive any humour under the form of bloud from the mother , nor have it self as yet any organs of sanguification so perfect as to perform their office ? but to proceed . the grosser nutritious juice being deposited by the umbilical arteries in the amnios , assoon as the mouth , gullet and stomach , &c. are formed so perfectly that the foetus can swallow , it sucks in some of the said juice , which descending into the stomach and intestins is received by the venae lacteae , as in adult persons . that the foetus is nourished this way , diemerbroeck evinces by these reasons . . because the stomach of the foetus is never empty , but is found possest of a milky whitish liquor ; and such like is contained even in its mouth . . because there are faeces contained in the intestins , ( which philosophers call meconium ) which the infant assoon as 't is born voids by stool . without doubt these are the excrements of some aliment taken in by the mouth . . because the stomach could not presently after the birth perform the function of concoction , if it had not at all been accustomed to it in the womb. his fourth reason , supposing the foetus to be nourished in part by the mothers bloud , i shall not recite , because i think that to be an erroneous opinion , as i think to make appear by and by . . because the infant assoon as it is born knows how to suck the breast , which it could not be supposed to be so dextrous at , if while it remained in the womb it had taken nothing by suction . . because many infants assoon as they are born , before they have sucked any breast , or taken any thing by the mouth , vomit up a milky aliment : which therefore must needs be received into their stomach in the womb. this he gives an instance of in one of his own children . these arguments i think sufficient to prove what they are alledged for ; but when ●he would afterwards prove that the foetus is also nourished by the mothers bloud conveyed by the umbilical vein , i think his reasons are invalid . for he says it must be so , first , because the said vein is implanted into the placenta ; ( but this is but begging the question , for 't is necessary it should be implanted into it though it receive nothing from it but nutritious juice . ) secondly , because of the great quantity of bloud that will issue out of the umbilical vein , if one tie the navel-rope and then open the said vein betwixt the ligature and placenta : for he says there will flow out four times as much bloud as could be supposed to be contained in the small arteries on that side the ligature next the placenta . i answer , that first one would be well satisfied that the ligature was made so strait , that there could no bloud pass through it from the foetus to the placenta . and secondly it cannot exactly be guessed how much bloud may be contained in the foetus's arteries in the placenta , so as that one should be certain that there does four times more flow out by the vein . but lastly , suppose there do four times as much more bloud issue out of the vein as is contained in the foetus's arteries that are on that side the ligature next the placenta , and this bloud come from the dam's hypogastrick and spermatick arteries ; i say there will not only four times , but forty times as much issue therefrom , for all the bloud of the dam might then be drawn out this way . wherefore i think this experiment makes much more against his opinion than for it . his third reason is the necessity of it ; because as the foetus increases , it needs much aliment , and its weak bowels can concoct but little , it must therefore have some purera liment , and which is already concocted ( he means bloud ) to nourish it , and by its commixture to help forward the changing the aliment received by the mouth into bloud . answ . this reason himself invalidates in the next paragraph , * where he confesses that the foetus in the womb is nourished in the same manner as the chicken in an egg , which receives increase first by the inner white ( as he distinguishes ) by way of apposition ; secondly it receives nourishment in by the mouth from the outer white , and at the same time its umbilical vessels enter the yelk ( to draw nourishment from thence ) which , he says indeed , resembles the mothers bloud , but seeing it has not the least form of bloud , why would it not be more plausibly said that it is instead of the succus nutritius that the foetus in viviparous animals receives by the navel-vein ? and seeing these several liquors are turned , part of them , into bloud in a chicken , without any of the hens bloud to ferment them ( as he speaks ; ) why should not the same power be granted to the vegetative or animal soul of the foetus in the womb , without any assistance from the mothers bloud ? to which i shall add another argument ( out of dr. harvey ) taken from caesarean births , when living infants are cut out of the mothers womb , after she is dead . for if it had its life and heat from the mothers bloud ; surely it should die assoon as she at least , if not sooner : for when death approaches , the subordinate parts do languish and grow cold before the principal ; and therefore the heart fails last of all . wherefore the bloud of the foetus would first lose its heat , and become unfit for its office if it were derived from the mothers womb ; seeing her womb is destitute of all vital heat , before her heart . but enough of this . but some may object , if the foetus be nourished by none of the mothers bloud , why should her menses be stopt all or most of the while she is with child ? to which i answer , that 't is for the same reason that nurses that give suck commonly want them also ; for as in nurses the chyle passes in a great proportion to the breasts , whereby the bloud being defrauded of its due and wonted share does not encrease to that degree as to need to be lessened by the flowing of the menses ; so in women with child , there is so great a quantity of the succus nutritius ( which is only chyle a little refined and impregnated with vital spirit ) that passes to the placenta by the hypogastrick and spermatick arteries for the nourishment of the foetus , that unless the mother be very sanguine , her menses intermit after the first or second month . i shall conclude therefore , that the foetus is nourished three several ways , but only by one humour : first by apposition of it whiles it is yet an imperfect , embryo and has not the umbilical vessels formed ; but after these are perfected , it then receives the same nutritious juice by the umbilical vein , the more spirituous and thin part whereof it transmutes into bloud , and sends forth the grosser part by the umbilical artery into the amnios , which the foetus sucks in at its mouth , and undergoing a new concoction in its stomach is received out of the intestins by the venae lacteae , as is done after the birth . chap. xxxiv . what parts of a foetus in the womb differ from those of an adult person . having delivered the history of the foetus , we will only further shew in what parts a foetus in the womb differs from an adult person . and this we cannot do more exactly than in the manner that diemerbroeck has reckon'd them , whom therefore we shall here translate , with little alteration . this diversity , he saith , consists in the difference of magnitude , figure , situation , number ▪ use , colour , cavity , hardness , motion , excrements and strength of the parts . now this diversity is conspicuous either in the whole body , or in the several ventricles , or in the limbs . there is considerable in the whole body , . the littleness of all the parts . . the reddish colour of the whole . . the softness of the bones ; whereof many are as yet gristly and flexible , and that by so much the more , by how much the foetus is further from maturity . in the head there are several differences . as . the head in respect to the proportion of the rest of the body is bigger , and the shape of the face less neat . . the bones of the skull are softer , and the crown is not covered with bone , but onely with a membrane . . the bone of the forehead is divided , as also of the under jaw : and the os cuneiforme is divided into four . . the bone of the occiput or hinder part of the head is distinguisht into three , four or five bones . . the brain is softer and more fluid , and the nerves very soft . . the bones that serve the sense of hearing are wonderfully hard and big . . the teeth lie hid in the little holes of the jaw-bone . there is no less diversity in the thorax● for , . the dugs swell , and out of them in infants new born whether male or female , a serous milk issues forth sometimes of its own accord , sometimes with a light pressure : yet there are no glandules very conspicuous , but there is some fashion of a nipple . . the vert●brae of the back want their spinous processes , and are each one made of three distinct bones , whose mutual concourse form that hole whereby the spinal marrow descends . . the heart is remarkably big , and its auriculae large . . there are two unions of the greater vessels , that are not conspicuous in adult persons : viz. . the foramen ovale , by which there is a passage open out of the cava into the vena pulmonaris just as each of them are opening the first into the right ventricle , and the latter into the left ventricle of the heart . and this foramen just as it opens into the vena pulmonaris has a valve that hinders any thing from returning out of the said vein into the foramen . . the canalis arteriosus , which two fingers breadth from the basis of the heart joins the arteria pulmonaris to the aorta . it has a pretty large cavity , and ascends a little obliquely from the said artery to the aorta , into which it conveys the bloud that was driven into the pulmonary artery out of the right ventricle of the heart , so that it never comes in the left ventricle ; even as that bloud that is sent out of the left ventricle into the aorta never came in the right , ( except a little that is returned from the nutrition of the lungs ) but passed immediately into it out of the vena cava by the foramen ovale . so that the bloud passes not through both the ventricles as it does after the foetus is born , for then it must have had its course through the lungs , which it cannot have , because they are now very dense and lie idle and unmoved . yea they are so dense and heavy that if one throw them into water they will sink , whereas if the foetus be but born and take only half a dozen breaths , they become so spongy and light that they will swim . which ( by the way ) may be of good use to discover whether those infants that are killed by whores , and which they commonly affirm were still-born , were really so or no. for if they were still-born the lungs will sink , but if alive , ( so as to breath never so little a while ) they will swim . . the gland thymus is notably large , and consists as it were of three glands . in the lower belly there are these differences . . the umbilical vessels go out of the abdomen . . the stomach is narrower , yet not empty , but pretty full of a whitish liquor . . the caul is hardly discernible , being almost like a spiders web . . the guts are seven times longer ( or more ) than the body . . in the small guts the excrements are pituitous and yellow , but in the thick somewhat hard and blackish , sometimes greenish : the caecum is larger than usual , and often filled with fae●es . . the liver is very large , filling not only the right hypochondre , but extends it self into the left side , and covers all the upper part of the stomach . it has a passage now more than in the adult called canalis venosus , which arising out of the sinus of the por●a carries the greatest part of what is brought by the umbilical vein directly and in a full stream into the cava above the liver ; but assoon as the infant is born , and nothing comes any longer by the said vein , this canalis presently closes , as the vein it self turns to a ligament ; as also do the vrachus and the two umbilical arteries . . the spleen is small . . the gall-bladder is full of yellow or green choler . . the sweet-bread is very large and white . . the kidneys are bigger and unequal in their superficies , and look as if they were compounded of a collection of very many glandules . . the renes succenturiati are exceeding large ; they do not only border upon the kidneys , as in the adult , but lie upon them , and embrace their upper part with a large sinus as it were . . the ureters are wide , and the bladder distended with urine . . in females the vterus is depressed , the tubae long , and the testes very large . the difference in the limbs consists . in the tenderness and softness of the bones . . the little bones of the wrist and instep are gristly and not firmly joyned together . xxxv . of the birth . the foetus swimming in the liquor of the amnios , and the navel-rope being so long , it must needs have scope enough to change its situation , and that is the reason that anatomists differ so much about it . but according to doctor harvey its usual posture is thus . its knees are drawn up to the belly , its legs bending backwards , its feet across , and its hands lifted up to its head , one of which it holds to the temple or ear , the other to the cheek ; where there are white spots on the skin as if it had been rubb'd upon . the back-bone turns round , the head hanging down towards its knees . it s head is upwards and its face commonly towards the mothers back . ] but towards the birth ( sometimes a week or two before ) it alters its situation , and tumbles down with its head to the neck of the womb , with its feet upwards . then the womb also settles downwards and its orifice relaxes and opens . and the foetus being now ill at ease sprawls and moves it self this way and that way , whereby it tears the membranes wherein it is included , so that the waters ( as they call them ) flow into the vagina , which they make slippery for the easier egress of the infant : though sometimes the membranes burst not but come forth whole , ( as they do commonly in brutes . ) at the same time the neighbouring parts are loosened and become fit for distension : the joyntings of the os sacrum and pecten with the coxendix , as also of the ossa pubis are so relaxed , that they yield very much to the passage of the foetus . and its motion gives that disturbance to the vterus , that presently the animal spirits are sent plentifully by the nerves to its constrictory fibres , and the muscles of the abdomen , which all contracting together , very strongly expell the foetus , which ( in the most natural birth ) goes with the head foremost : and if the feet or any other part ( besides the head ) do offer it self first , the travail is always more painfull and dangerous . the several sorts of creatures have sundry terms of going with young : the stated and most usual time of women is nine months ; though some bring forth some weeks sooner and others later . but when it is given out that perfect and sprightly infants are born at seven months end ; it is either to hide the faults of some new-married woman , or from the mistake of the ignorant mother . as also when sometimes the mother has affirmed her self to go eleven months or upwards , it is either through mistake , or to keep fast some fair estate , when the pretended father's dead without an heir , for which the cunning widow plays an after-game . divers reasons are given why the foetus at the stated time of birth is impatient of staying any longer in the womb. as the narrowness of the place , the corruption of its aliment or the defect of it , the too great redundance of excrements in the foetus , and the necessity of ventilation or breathing . all these are plausibly defended by their several authors . but without blaming ingenious men for exercising their wits on such a subject , we choose however rather to be content with resolving all into the wise disposal of the great creatour , whose power and wisedom were not more eminent in creating man at first out of the dust of the earth , than out of those principles and in that method whereby he is produced in ordinary generation . the explanation of the table . figure i. representeth the usual situation of the foetus in the womb. a it s head hanging down forwards , that its nose may be hid betwixt its knees . bb its buttocks , to which its heels close . cc it s arms. d the vmbilical rope passing by its neck , and wound round over its forehead . figure ii. sheweth the foetus taken out of the womb and as yet tyed to the placenta , the umbilical vessels being separated at their rise . aaa the abdomen opened . b the liver of the foetus . c the vrinary bladder . dd the intestins . tab. viii . p. . fig . fig . e the vmbilical vein . ff the vmbilical arteries . g the urachus . h the vmbilical vessels united and invested in their common coat . i the funiculus umbilicalis reaching to the placenta . kkkk the veins and arteries dispersed through the placenta . lll the placenta of the womb. the end of the first book . the second book . of the breast . chap. i. of the common containing parts of it . hitherto of the lower belly or abdomen , and of the parts contained in it , whether appointed for nutrition or procreation : now it followeth that we describe the middle cavity , called thorax , which containeth the organs of elaborating the bloud and vital spirits , and the rise of the vessels whereby they are distributed into all the parts of the body , for their instauration , and the preservation of their natural heat . it is bounded above by the claviculae or chanel-bones , below by the diaphragm or midriff ( whereby it is severed from the abdomen ; ) in the fore-part by the breast-bone and cartilages ; in the sides by the ribs ; behind by the vertebrae of the back . the figure of it is in a manner oval , somewhat flat before and behind , ( whereas in beasts it is somewhat sharp : ) so that only man lieth on his back . the parts whereof it is composed , are either containing , or contained . the parts containing are either common or proper . the common containing parts are in number four , cuticula , cutis , pinguedo , and membrana carnosa . of which having at large discoursed in book i. chap. . when we treated of the common containing parts of the lower belly , we shall not here repeat what is there delivered , but only shew some small matters wherein they differ . as first , the skin and scarf-skin are hairy under the arm-pits , and above the pit of the heart ; the skin of the back is both closer and thicker , and so is less hairy . secondly , the skin of the back-parts is of a more exquisite feeling : first , because many twigs of sinews are bestowed upon it from the nerves proceeding from the spinalis medulla ; secondly , by reason of the muscles of the thorax that lie under it , which being tendinous are very sensible . as for the fat , it is not so plentifull here , as in the belly : first because the natural heat here is sufficiently preserved without it ; secondly , because it would have hindred the motion of the breast . only here it is somewhat yellowish . the membrana carnosa hath nothing peculiar , saving that in the fore-part of the neck it is more fleshy , and assumes the nature of a muscle where the musculus quadratus is framed , which pulleth aside the cheeks and lips , ( according to spigelius . ) chap. ii. of the proper containing parts ; and first , of the dugs . the proper containing parts are either external or internal . the external are in number three , the dugs , the muscles , the bones . the internal proper containing parts are three in like manner ; the pleura , the mediastinum , and the diaphragm . dugs are granted to both the sexes , and are seated in the middle of the thorax , on each side one , upon the pectoral muscle that draweth the shoulder forwards . in men they are framed of the cutis , the membrana carnosa , fat , and the nipple , and serve only for beauty , and are called mammillae . in women , besides these parts , they have remarkable vessels , glandules , and pipes to contain the milk separated by the glandules , and are called mammae . they differ much as to their bigness in several women , and in the ●ame woman in regard of age and other circumstances : for before they have their menses , and when they are very old , they bunch out but very little . and in the middle or flower of their age , when they give suck or are with child , they are bigger than at other times . they are made up of many glandulous bodies of a different bigness , and are not of one continued glandulous substance ( as dr. wharton affirmeth , lib. de gland . p. . ) there is one in the middle just under the nipple that is bigger than the rest . the spaces between the glands are filled up with fat , and there are abundance of vessels that go from one to another . they are all inclosed by the membrana carnosa , and make up as it were an half globe . they are whiter of substance in women than in brutes . through these glands the milk is separated from the bloud , being nothing but the chyle issuing out of the left ventricle of the heart with the bloud ( to which it is not as yet assimilated ) and driven hither along the thoracick arteries . unless we will admit venae lacteae to come hither , which opinion we shall examine afterwards . upon the middle great gland standeth the papilla or nipple , which is round and of a spongy substance , covered with a very thin skin , and has many little holes in it for the milk to distil out by when the child sucketh it . it is of an exquisite sense , and resembles something the glans of a man's penis , in that by handling or sucking it becomes erect or stiff , being otherwise commonly ●laggy . it is red in virgins , livid in those that give suck , and blackish in old women . all the tubuli lactiferi or milk-conduits end in it . it differs in bigness , being as big in some as a mulberry , in others as a raspberry , in others less : when women give suck , it is longer than at other times . it s use is , to be like a pipe or tunnel , which the child taking in its mouth may suck the milk through out of the breast : and it is of so exquisite sense that the milk passing through it may cause a kind of titillation , whereby mothers and nurses may take the greater delight and pleasure to suckle their infants . there is a little circle that surrounds it called areola , which in virgins is pale and knotty ; in those that are with child or give suck , brown ; and in old women , black . the breasts have all sorts of vessels , veins , arteries , nerves , lympheducts , which are common to them with other parts ; and tubuli lactiferi proper to themselves , and , according to some , venae lacteae . of all these in order . the veins are of two sorts , for some are external , some internal . the external spring from the axillar branch , and run only under the skin which covereth the dugs , and are called thoracicae superiores , or the uppermost breast-veins . and these are they that look so blue in the breasts of fine-skin'd women . the internal , called mammariae , spring from the rami subclavii : they are in number two , on each side one . these enter in among the glands of the mammae , where they send forth a great many branches ; but descending thence by the mucronata cartilago , they pass out of the breast , and go downward under the musculi recti . when they are come to the umbilical region almost , they are said to be joyned by sundry inosculations with the venae epigastricae , which meet them there ; though most late anatomists deny any such inosculation . these venae epigastricae spring from the external ramus iliacus , and by a streight way pass upward under the aforesaid muscles . and from the internal branch of the said ramus spring the venae hypogastricae , which are inserted into the neck and bottom of the matrix . of which in book i. when we treated of the womb. they have the same number of arteries as veins , and of the same denomination , viz. arteriae thoracicae superiores which are sent forth from the axillar , and arteriae mammariae in like manner which spring from the subclavian , and from the breasts descend to about the navel . whither when they are come , they are said ( but erroneously ) to be united by inosculation with the arteriae epigastricae ascending . the use of both veins and arteries shall be shewn by and by when we come to the use of the breasts . they have nerves ( according to spigelius ) from the fourth intercostal nerve springing out of the vertebral marrow of the thorax , which about the middle of the rib , perforating the intercostal muscle , is divided into four branches , which are sent afterward to the pectoral muscle , and so into the breasts , the thickest passing to the nipple . they have very many lympheducts . doctor wharton saith they are very conspicuous and numerous in the vbera of cows , but one can hardly trace them into the parenchyma . wherefore ( saith he ) 't is likely that they carry back all the exhalations resolved into sweat by help of the membranes — which they rather minister to than to the par●nchyma . besides these four sorts of vessels that are common to them with most other parts of the body ; they have proper to themselves certain ●actiferons ( or milk-carrying ) pipes , which are the store-houses wherein the milk is reserved , and through which as by conduits it flows to the nipple when the child sucks . bartholin has observed ten or more of them , full of milk in women giving suck , with their outer ends encompassing the papilla circular-wise , each of which as they pass further into the breasts , are divided into sundry branches , which end in the mammary glands ( above spoken of ) from whence they bring the milk , and pour it into the common duct of the papilla . the several branches of these tubuli amongst the glands many do take for true lacteals , and therefore do believe that there are some venae lacteae that conduct the chyle directly to the mammae . but from whence those lacteals have their origine , is not agreed among the defenders of that opinion . some affirm them to rise from the stomach , some from the pancreas , and some from the ductus thoracicus . the truth is , it is no wonder they should not agree concerning their rise , seeing the opinion is grounded more upon rational conjecture , than ocular discovery . for as was said in the former book ( chap. . ) discoursing of the venae lacteae their being said to convey the liquor into the amnios , that that were a plausible opinion , if such could be demonstrated by anatomy ; so we may say as to their conveying the chyle to the breasts , where it comes to be called milk. but with all due respect and deference to the espousers of this hypothesis ( such as the most learned sir george ent , caspar martianus , diemerbroeck , &c. ) we must crave leave to dissent therefrom ( with doctor wharton , doctor needham , &c. ) till there shall be observed more certain footsteps of such vessels . the use of the breasts in women is to prepare or separate milk for the nourishment of the child . which how it is done , we shall shew in as few words as may be . it was an old opinion that milk was made of bloud sent from the womb by the epigastrick vessels ascending , and as was thought inosculating with those branches of the mammariae that descend towards the navel . but as later anatomists have found those anastomoses only imaginary ( invented to serve an hypothesis ; ) so it is generally denied that either bloud sent from the womb , or from wheresoever , is the true matter out of which milk is made . for not to mention ( which yet is very considerable ) that it is incredible that the mother could every day endure the loss of so much bloud ( suppose a pound and half ) as the child sucks daily milk from the breasts ; i think the argument urged by dr. wharton may satisfie any man. viz. nature does nothing in vain ; she goes not forward and backward by the same path . but if she make bloud of chyle ( which is certain ) and then make chyle of bloud again , she goes so . for chyle is a sort of milk , as appears by the opening of the lacteal veins . if therefore that chyle be first excocted into bloud , and then return again to the nature of milk , nature should certainly frustrate her first work . ] we shall not therefore spend further time to refute so improbable ( and now obsolete ) an opinion ; but shall avow , that chyle is the true matter out of which milk is made , which is done after this manner . the chyle being received into the common receptacle from the venae lacteae of the mesentery , ascends up by the ductus thoracicus , and by it is conveyed into the subclavian veins , where it is mixed with the bloud , and from whence it is circulated with it through the ventricles of the heart . and when it comes out of the left ventricle by the aorta , a good part of it ( as yet not assimilated to the bloud ) is sent to the breasts by the mammary and thoracick arteries , whose capillaries are inserted into the glands , through which it is strained or filtrated into the tubuli lactiferi , even as the serum of the bloud is separated from it by the glands of the kidneys into their tubuli or syphons . and as those syphons of the kidneys carry the serum into the pelvis , so do these of the mammae , the milk into the common duct of the nipple . as for the bloud that came along with the chyle to the glands , that returns back again into the subclavian and axillar veins , and so to the heart . besides this matter of the milk ( viz. chyle ) dr. wharton ( suitable to his hypothesis of the succus nutritius of the nerves ) thinks that the nerves contribute their share , which he calls spermatick , for the nourishment and encrease of the spermatick parts of the child . but if it should be supposed that the nerves have such succus in them ( which we do not believe ) what weakness must it needs induce upon the mother to have so much of it ( with the animal spirits ) daily drain'd out of them ? whereas we see that many women are more chearfull and healthfull when they give suck , than at other times . we cannot therefore consent to that opinion . and here a most difficult question may arise , why the chyle ( whether it be brought by some venae lacteae , or by the arteries ) flows only to the breasts at some certain times , and not always , seeing the vessels that carry it are not obliterated , nor it self exhausted . they that taught , that the milk was made of bloud , and that that bloud was sent from the womb by the hypogastrick vessels inosculating with the mammary ; these i say deriving the milk from the menstrual bloud as its matter out of which it is made , thought that the stopping of the menses ( as commonly happens to nurses , unless very plethorick ) occasioned the regurgitation of the bloud by the said vessels up to the breasts , where so free a vent was found for it , after it was first changed into milk by their glandules . they assigned the same bloud for the nourishment of the foetus in the womb , and that after the birth it ascended up to the breasts . but having in the former book ( chap. . ) shewn that the foetus is not nourished at all by the mothers bloud , as also in this chapter that milk is not made of it ; we need not ( though it were easie to ) shew how ill this hypothesis would satisfy the question , if bloud should be supposed the material cause of the milk. and indeed it is far easier to invalidate the reasons that have been urged for it , than to produce any new ones that are more satisfactory . for as above ( in book i. ) discoursing of the manner and matter of the nourishing the foetus in the womb , we scrupled not to expose our selves to the smiles of our so oversagacious virtuosi , in resolving all into the wise disposal of the creatour ; so we shall not be ashamed to profess our ( i think invincible ) ignorance in this also , and acquiesce in the wise providence of nature . however we will not omit to give diemerbroeck's opinion , which if it cannot satisfy , may for its ingeniousness delight . the cause of it ( says he ) is a strong imagination , or an intense and often thinking of milk , breasts and their suction , which worketh wonderfull things in our bodies : not indeed simply of it self , but by mediation of the appetitive power , or of the passions of the mind , which induce various motions on the spirits and humours . so the imagination and thinking of a great danger maketh a man tremble , fall , be cold , fall into a swoon , yea hath sometimes turn'd all the hairs grey in a short time : the imagination of a joyfull matter causeth heat and animosity of the body : thinking on a shamefull thing , or a view of it , causeth blushing ; thinking on a terrible thing , paleness ; on a sad thing , cold . lustfull thoughts make the body hot , relax the strict genitals of women , erect the penis , and do so open the seminary ways that are otherwise invisible , that seed issueth out of its own accord in involuntary or nocturnal pollution . the same intense imagination ( adds he ) and a desirous cogitation of suckling the infant , is the cause that the chyliferous vessels ( by which he means venae lacteae properly so called ) are loosened and opened towards the breasts , especially if some outward causes tending that way favour and further incite that strong imagination , as wanton handling of the breasts , the moving of the foetus in the womb , the sucking of the papilla , &c. for according to the different influx of the animal spirits , the parts are sometimes straitned , sometimes relaxed , as every one knows ; and according to that different constriction or relaxation the bloud and other impelled humours , flow sometimes more , sometimes less into the parts ; and sometimes beget heat , softness , redness ; sometimes constriction , cold and paleness . amongst these impelled humours is the chyle , &c. — ] to confirm this opinion he gives several instances wherein nothing but imagination could move the chyle to tend to the breasts . his first is that known story of santorellus , that a poor man's wife dying , and not having means enough to hire a nurse for the infant she had left behind her , he used , ( to still it a little ) often to lay it to his paps ( without doubt ( says diemerbroeck ) with a great desire to yield it some milk ) and so at length by that intense and continual thought , and often repeated sucking of the papillae , his breasts afforded milk enough for the suckling the infant . ( which ▪ by the way , seems to make much against his opinion of the chyle's being conveyed to the mammae by the venae lacteae ; for seeing men according to nature give no suck , to what purpose should venae lacteae be distributed to their mammillae ? and yet here is an instance of a man giving suck , and therefore the chyle is more likely to be brought by the arteries , which men have as well as women : unless we will grant that force to imagination , to make venae lacteae as well as to send the chyle by them , which would be an equal force of imagination to imagine . but to proceed . ) he tells another story of an old woman that came to give suck , and he delivers it with such circumstances as may create a belief of the truth of it . at vyanen a town not far from us ( viz. from vtrecht , in which province it is ) about thirty years agoe there was an hostess that kept the bores-head inne without the gate , who was brought to bed a little after her husbands death , and died in child-bed or very soon after , leaving a healthfull child behind her : and having left very little estate , her mother whose name was joan vuyltuyt , being also poor and not able to put it out to nurse , yet had such pity on her daughters child , as to undertake to nourish it , and she was now threescore and six years old . now having sometimes used , with the greatest commiseration , to hold it to her breasts when it cried , and offered it the nipple to suck ; by that strong imagination , and desirous cogitation of nourishing the infant , her breasts began to give milk , and that in a few days so plentifully , as was abundantly sufficient to feed the child , so that it had scarce any need of other sustenance : and so , to the admiration of all , the infant was well nourished with the milk of this old woman , whose breasts for many years had been wither'd and flaggy , but now became plump and full like a young woman's . there are many still alive in that city that remember the thing very well . ] i confess the story is very odd , but whether to be resolved into the force of imagination i leave the curious to meditate . however he very plausibly answers several objections that may be made against it , which it will be worth the while for the latine reader to peruse , in his anat. corp . human .. lib. . cap. . p. , , &c. the two other proper containing parts of the thorax are the muscles and the bones . as for the muscles , they are set down in the treatise of muscles , book . cap. . the bones are set down in the doctrine of bones , book . cap. , , . chap. iii. of the proper internal containing parts . these are in number three , the pleura , the mediastinum with the thymus growing to it , and the diaphragm . the pleura hath its denomination from the ribs under which it is placed , ( for a rib is in greek called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 ) and so it may be termed in english , the costal membrane . it is a membrane , white , thin , hard , resembling the peritonaeum , and lining all the cavity of the thorax . spigelius de human . corp . fabr . lib. . cap. . will have it to be thicker and stronger than the peritonaeum , contrary to the opinion of riolanus , who affirmeth the peritonaeum to be thicker and stronger , because it is appointed for the sustaining the weight of the guts . it is every where double : the inner part is thickest , smoothest , and as it were bedewed with a waterish humour , that it should not offend the lungs by its roughness : this waterish humour doth spring from the vapours raised from the bloud , condensed by the respective coldness of the membrane . the outer part is thinner , yet is rougher ; that it should cleave the more firmly to the ribs , and muscles . as for its figure , without it is arched , within hollow ; above it is narrower , below broader , chiefly towards the sides . from it sometimes spring some sinewy fibres , by the which the lungs are tied to it . if these be too strait , the motion of the lungs is hindred , and so an incurable difficulty of breathing procured . above , it is perforated in six or seven places , to give way to the vena cava , and the aorta ascending , the gula , the wind-pipe , lacteals , lympheducts and nerves . below , where it covereth the midriff , it is perforated in three places , to give way to the vena cava , and the aorta descending , as also to the gula. it is said to be framed of the membranes covering the spinalis medulla , from whence it comes forward on each hand by the sides to the breast-bone , under which the membranes of each side are joyned together , and so being doubled it goes back again streight from the middle of the breast to the back , dividing the cavity of the thorax , and the lungs also , into two parts , like a partition-wall , and this is called mediastinum , of which by and by . its veins spring from the superiour intercostal branch , and from the vena sine pari . the arteries in like manner proceed from the superiour intercostals , ( which arise from the subclavian ) and these descend to about the fourth rib , below which it has its arteries from the hinder part of the aorta descending . it hath twelve nerves according to the number of the vertebrae of the thorax ; from betwixt each of which there springs a pair of nerves , and each pair is immediately divided into the fore - and hinder-branches : the fore-branches are they which serve the intercostal muscles , external and internal , and also the pleura : as for the hinder , they are bestowed upon the muscles which are placed upon the back . the veins and arteries according to spigelius run between the two membranes of the pleura , and therefore he thinks that when an inflammation of the pleura ( called a pleurisie ) imposthumates , the matter is rather gathered betwixt its membranes than betwixt the intercostal muscles and it . the second proper internal containing part is the mediastinum : so called because it standeth in the middle of the breast , and divideth the right side from the left . it springeth from the membranes of the pleura meeting at the sternum , ( as was said before ) so that at its rise it consists of four membranes , because the pleura , of the duplicature whereof it is made , consists of two . but as the mediastinum tends from the sternum through the middle of the thorax towards the back , it s duplicated membranes are so severed , that the heart with its pericardium are contained in its cavity . yet when they arrive near the back , they join again as close as they did at the breast , though they presently part again , ( saith diemerbroeck ) and make another narrower cavity , but as long , for the gullet , &c. to descend by . some have formerly imagined a third cavity at its origine under the sternum , wherein they thought there were sometimes collected corrupt humours , that were the cause of many occult distempers . and indeed if the dissection be begun at the sternum , when one has pull'd it off from the mediastinum , one would think at first sight that there were as great a distance betwixt the membranes of the mediastinum , as the sternum is broad . but it is a great errour , for if one begin the section at the back and loose the ribs there , and so come to the sternum , he will see the pleura doubled knit close to the sternum without any cavity . the substance of it is membranous ; where it is parted , it is thinner and softer than the pleura . the outer side towards the lungs is smooth , and hath fat about the vessels ; but the interiour is rougher , by reason of the fibres whereby it adheres to the pericardium in some places , and its own two membranes at their meeting are united . it reacheth from the throat to the midriff . as for its vessels : veins and arteries it hath from those called mammariae internae , but small ; and veins besides from vena sine pari . it hath moreover one special vein called mediastina , which springeth from the lower part of the ramus subclavius . the nerves called phrenici , and stomachici , springing from the sixth pair , ( dr. willis's eighth ) descend betwixt its membranes , and send forth small twigs into it . bartholin says it has lympheducts , which rising here and there in many rivulets , enter the ductus thoracicus at last in one channel . these imbibe the water that is condensed betwixt its duplicature , and convey it into the said duct . it hath three uses : first , it divideth the breast and lungs into two parts , that one being wounded or any way hurt , the other might perform the task of respiration . secondly , it holdeth up the heart inclosed in the pericardium so , that it may not rest upon the back-bone , when we lie upon our back ; or fall upon the breast-bone , when we bend our selves towards the ground ; or touch the ribs , when we lie upon our sides . thirdly , it giveth a safe passage to the vessels which pass by it , and holdeth up the diaphragm so that it is not pulled too much down by the weight of the bowels that hang by it , viz. the liver and the stomach . to the upper part of the mediastinum at the throat there groweth a kernel called thymus , seated between the divisions of the subclavian veins and arteries . it is a whitish , soft , spongy , glandulous body , ( in shape resembling a tyme-leaf , from which it has its name . ) it is larger in children and women than in men. in infants it consists of three glands , and is in substance something like the sweet-bread ; but in adult persons it dries up and contracts into one continued substance . the jugular veins and arteries pass through it as they go up to the neck , but if they send forth any twigs into it , they are so small as not to be discovered in dissecting it . dr. wharton says it has nerves from the sixth pair and from the subclavian plexus , which deposite their succus nutritius in it , whose superfluous or impurer parts are separated from it in this gland and conveyed away by the lympheducts , and the refined liquor is resumed by the nerves dispersed in it , for the use of the nervous parts of the whole body . and because he foresaw how open this opinion ( which himself calls scruposa sententia ) lay to the objection , that it is very improbable that the nerves should bring the succus nutritius to this part , and after depuration should resorb it ; he answers that either the nerves must do it , or it cannot be done at all , seeing there are no other vessels fit for the resuming of it . but he had better have suspected his supposed office of the thymus , when he saw himself so hard set to maintain it . for it is more probable that when there is found any whitish liquor in it , ( as there is in infants , and in calves , &c. ) that liquor is chyle which is brought thither by lacteals , and descends from thence into the subclavian veins ; seeing if one kill a calf about two hours after it has been plentifully suckled , the thymus abounds with this juice , as diemerbro●ck affirms ; who also denies that there are any perceptible nerves inserted into it , but grants lympheducts . its uses are , first , to prop and strengthen the divisions of the vessels , namely of the vena cava and great artery ; and secondly , to defend them from compression by the claviculae , in stooping forward . in adult persons it seems to be of little other use ; but in infants , in whom it is larger and has liquor like chyle in it , it seems to contribute something towards the re●ining or depuration of it . the third and last internal proper containing part is the midriff or diaphragm ( derived 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , to distinguish , because it divides the trunk of the body into two ventricles , the abdomen and thorax . ) it is also called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , or 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , the mind , because when it is inflam'd or otherwise much distempered , the mind and senses are disturbed , through the great consent it has with the brain , as being a very nervous part . the latines call it septum transversum for the same reason as the greeks call it diaphragma . now this part being truly a muscle assisting respiration , we might on that account have deferred to treat of it till we come to describe the muscles of the thorax : but because it is wholly an internal part , and serves to make up the cavity of the breast , we rather chuse to discourse of it here , and omit it in the treatise of muscles . it is almost round , ( excepting its two appendages whereby it is fastened to the muscles or vertebrae of the loins ) and is seated transversly or across the body , only sloping a little backwards . it is as broad as the width of the thorax , for its edges are fastened to the lower part of the sternum , to the ends of the lowest ribs , and to the lowest vertebra of the thorax . it s circumference is carnous , but in its middle or centre ( as it were ) it is nervous and membranous , for thither do all the carnous fibres run from the edges . wounds in the nervous part of it are mortal , because the party presently falls into convulsions , and respiration faileth ; but if it be wounded in its fleshy part , the patient oft escapes . it is clad with two membranes , the upper from the pleura , to which the mediastinum and pericardium are joined , and sometimes the lowest tips of the lobes of the lungs ; the under , from the peritonaeum . it is perforated on the right hand near the nervous centre by the trunk of vena cava ascending from the liver , and on the left hand near the said centre by the gullet and two stomachick nerves springing from the par vagum . behind at the vertebrae there descend betwixt its two appendages or productions the aorta , a branch of the vena azygos , and the intercostal nerve ( distinguisht from the par vagum by dr. willis ) for the use of the parts of the abdomen . it has two arteries , called phrenicae , from the aorta descending , and as many veins from the trunk of vena cava ascending through it . nerves it hath first from the second pair of the vertebrae of the neck which ( according to dr. willis ) communicate with the intercostal pair . by this communication of the intercostal nerve with that from whence this nerve of the diaphragm springeth , yea with this nerve it self , ( for the said author says that two or three nerves are sent from the cervical plexus of the intercostal into the trunk it self of the nerve of the diaphragm ) he very ingeniously gives a reason of the great consent of the midriff with the heart , brain and face , when a man laughs . for , says he , as often as the imagination is affected with some pleasant or wonderfull conceit , the heart would presently fain triumph ( ovare ) and be lighten'd by throwing off its burthen as it were : wherefore that the bloud may the quicklier be emptied out of its right ventricle into the lungs , and consequently out of the left into the aorta , the diaphragm being instigated by the nerves that goe to it from the abovesaid plexus , is drawn upwards with a more rapid systole , and often repeating its jumps as it were , it bears up the lungs , and causes them the quicker and frequenter to discharge the air and bloud : and then inasmuch as the same intercostal nerve , that communicates below with the nerve of the diaphragm , is also continued above with the maxillar nerves , when a cackling is begun in the breast , the gestures of the mouth and face pathetically answer thereto . ] and when the diaphragm is wounded in its nervous part , then the muscles of the face suffer convulsions , and the laughter called risus sardonius ( which is involuntary ) is caused . besides the abovesaid nerves it has secondly small twigs from the stomachick nerves and intercostal as they descend through it . it s use is first to divide the thorax from the abdomen , that noisom and impure vapours may not ascend from the more ignoble parts as the guts , to offend the more noble as the heart , &c. secondly , to help the muscles of the abdomen in compressing and excluding the excrements , and ( in women ) the foetus . but thirdly , its chief use is to assist respiration , in which it is the principal muscle . in inspiration it is stretched out plain ; in expiration it grows slaggy . it s motion seems to be a kind of mixt motion , but rather animal than natural ; for though we move it in our sleep , and so it may seem natural , yet seeing when awake we can stop , slacken or hasten its motion as we please , it seems to be voluntary or animal . and thus much of the parts containing , now to the parts contained . chap. iv. of the pericardium , and the humour contained in it . the parts contained are either viscera or vasa , bowels or vessels . the bowels are the heart and lungs . but the heart being inclosed in a membranous cover called pericardium , we will first treat of it , in this chapter . it is called pericardium because it is placed 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 about the heart . it is called also capsula cordis , the heart-case , and involucrum , the cover , &c. it is membranous and encompasseth the whole heart , whose shape it therefore resembles , but is larger , both to grant a free motion to the heart , and to contain its proper liquor . it springs at the basis of the heart from the outer common coats ( that are borrowed of the pleura ) of those vessels that enter into the heart . whence it has five holes according to the number of vessels that go in or out of the heart . as first one made by the ascending trunk of the cava , another by the vena subclavia , both which enter the right ventricle of the heart , from whence there goes out vena arteriosa into the lungs , which makes a third hole . a fourth is made by the arteria venosa entring the left ventricle of the heart , and a fifth by the arteria magna going out of the same . it s outside adheres to the mediastinum by many fibres , and is continued to it at the basis of the heart , where the vessels perforate it . it s lower end is knit firmly to the centre or nervous part of the diaphragm , which ( bartholin says ) is peculiar to men , for in all other creatures it hangs loose . it has veins below from the phrenicae , above from the axillares . its arteries are so small that they can hardly be discover'd . it receives nerves from the pair commonly called the sixth . bartholin affirms it to have lymphaticks also ; which is very probable , that they may absorb part of the liquor contained in it , lest it abound too much , seeing it receives continual supply : for i am not of opinion that this liquor is spued out of the lympheducts , as steno thinks , but that they rather imbibe it and convey it to the ductus thoracicus . it contains in it a serous liquor , that in healthfull bodies is a little reddish , much like water wherein flesh has been washt . it is bred of vapours exhaling out of the heart , which are stopt by this dense membrane , and condensed into humour . dr. lower opposing this opinion brings for argument , that if it were collected this way , because it would be continually a gathering , it would soon encrease so much that this capsula could not hold it . but the abovesaid lympheducts absorbing what is superfluous , wash away this objection ; which if they did not , his own opinion , that it drops out of the glands seated at the basis of the heart , would be liable to the same inconvenience . for such destillation would be as continual as this condensation is supposed to be . naturally it is not in quantity above two spoonfulls . this is that liquor that is supposed to have slown from the side of our saviour when the souldier pierced it with a spear , for saith the text ( john . . ) there came forth bloud and water . the pericardium is some sort of fence to the heart , but it seems to be chiefly made for the sake of the liquor it contains , which serves for the moistening of the heart and making it slippery , that it may move more glibly . chap. v. of the heart , in general , and of its motion . the heart ( in latine cor , in greek 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 or 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , to burn , because it is the source of vital heat ) is the principal bowel of the whole body , which no perfect animal does want , nor can long survive its wounds . vital spirit and natural heat are communicated from it to all the parts of the body , though perhaps not so much owing to its substance as to the fermentation of the humours in it ; as shall be discoursed hereafter . it is seated in the middle of the breast , encompassed with the pericardium and mediastinum , it s lower tip or mucro bending a little to the left side . neither its mucro nor sides are knit to any place , but it hangs loose in its case , only suspended by the vessels that go in and out of its upper part or basis . it s situation in beasts that feed upon grass is near the middle of the whole body , reckoning from the head to the tail ; but in man ( and most carnivorous animals ) it is nearer the head ; whereof the learned dr. lower gives an ingenious reason . seeing , says he , the trajection and distribution of the bloud depends wholly on the systole of the heart , and that its liquor is not driven of its own nature so readily into the upper parts as into vessels even with it , or downwards into those under it : if the situation of the heart had been further from the head , it must needs either have been made stronger to cast out its liquor with greater force ; or else the head would want its due proportion of bloud . but in animals that have a longer neck , and which is extended towards their food as it were , the heart is seated as far from the head as from the other parts ; and they find no inconvenience from it , because they feed with their head for the most part hanging down , and so the bloud , as it has farther to go to their head than in others , so it goes a plainer and often a steep way . it has a firm , thick , dense substance , thinner and softer in the right side , thicker and more dense in the left , but most compact and hard at its tip ; only on the left side of the tip it is thin , as consisting mostly of the concourse of the inner and outer membrane . it s parenchyma is for the greatest part made up of musculary fibres so that it self may truly be reputed a muscle . it s fibres are a few of them streight , but far more oblique . both are inserted into a tendon that is spread over its basis under the auricles . part of which tendon at the egress of the aorta in some creatures becomes bony , as in a stag , &c. on the outer superficies of the right ventricle there run a few slender fibres streight upwards and are terminated in its basis . in which also terminate the oblique ones next under these , ascending from the left side towards the right , spiral-wise . the fibres that lie under these , go clean contrary . for they arise every where from the right side of the heart , whence being carried obliquely towards the left , and having embraced each ventricle of the heart , they rise to the basis of the left side spiral-wise as the other . but they run not all of them the whole length from the basis to the cone ; for then would the heart be as broad or thick at the lower end as the upper : but some reach not above half way , others a little further , &c. and some to the very apex . the fibres of the left ventricle differ not from those of the right as to kind , only they are considerably stronger . which they are for this reason , that whereas the right ventricle only promotes the circulation of the bloud through the lungs , the left must cast it forth with that force as that it may circulate through the whole body . the curious reader may find a most accurate description of these fibres in dr. lower's treatise de corde , whither i refer him ; for , to insist too long on such minute similar parts , would not be suitable to this epitome of anatomy . though by a view of those figures that i have borrowed of him , their structure may be pretty plainly apprehended . it s shape is like a boy 's top ( save that it is flattish behind ) or a pyramid turn'd topsy turvy ; whence it is divided into its basis , which is its broader part and upper ; and into its cone or apex , or narrower and lower part , which ends in a tip or mucro . it is bigger in men than in other creatures , considering the proportion of their bodies . it is lesser but more dense in hot and bold men , than in the cold and cowardly . in adult persons it is commonly six fingers breadth long , and four broad at the basis . outwardly it is cover'd with a proper coat , which is thin , but strong and dense , and very hard to separate from it ; it is the same with the outer coat of the great artery , as that which cloaths the ventricles on the inside is continued and common with that thin skin that covers the inside of the arteries like a cuticula : and hence 't is likely ( says diemerbroeck ) that the arteries borrow these coats of the heart , as the nerves borrow their two tunicles from the pia and dura mater of the brain . upon this membrane that invests the heart , there grows some hard fat about the basis , which serves to moisten it . it is not nourished by the bloud or nutritious juice received into its ventricles , but by vessels running through its parenchyma . its arteries are two , springing out of the aorta before it pass out of the pericardium , and are called coronariae , because their trunks do not presently sink into the parenchyma of the heart , but fetching a circuit on its surface the better to branch out themselves towards its cone , they encompass its basis . and though at their rise they turn one on one side and t'other on the other of the heart , yet at their ends they meet again and inosculate one with the other : so that if one inject any liquor into one , it will run into the other . it has also two veins called coronariae which encompass its basis in like manner , and communicate one with the other . these receive and carry back the arterial bloud that remains from the nutrition of the heart , and refund it into the cava . nerves it has from the sixth pair ( dr. willis's eighth ) which passing between the arteria pulmonalis and the aorta do send forth divers twigs on each side into the auriculae , and then are branched out into the substance of the heart . dr. lower says they are manifestly apparent over all the outer superficies of the heart of a calf or other animal newly brought forth . great controversie hath been and still is about the motion of the heart , whether it depend on the influx of the animal spirits , or on the dilatation , ebullition , or accension of the bloud in its ventricles , or partly on one , partly on the other . plausible arguments are produced on every side , but such as rather tend to shew the shortness and insufficiency of the contrary opinions to solve this phaenomenon , than pretend to demonstrate any certain reason of it . that the immediate instruments of its motion are its fibres , none can doubt ; but what sets these fibres on work is all the question . that it cannot be the animal spirits conveyed by the nerves ( only ) is apparent , first , because the heart moves in the embryo before either brain or nerve are so perfectly formed , that the animal spirits can be elaborated out of the bloud by the former , or transmitted to the heart by the latter : yea seeing they are made of arterial bloud , that must be sent to the brain by the pulsation of the heart before they can be generated . and secondly , because those muscular motions that depend on the influx of the animal spirits , are voluntary , which this of the heart is not , for we can neither stop it nor hasten it at our pleasure . lastly , because the heart of living foetus's ( as of young puppies ) and of eels , being cut out of the body and from all the nerves by which any animal spirits should flow into it , will continue beating as long as 't is warm : yea when it has ceas'd beating , if one throw warm bloud or but warm water upon it , it will recover some kind of pulsation again . which may serve also to convict the second opinion of errour ; for if its motion depended only on the dilatation of the bloud , it would cease assoon as the bloud flows no longer into its ventricles . and as to ebullition or accension , dr. lower's experiment , or his observation , are a sufficient confutation of their being the reason of this pulsation . his experiment is this : he drew out of the jugular vein of a dog about half of his bloud away , injecting by turns into the crural vein a like quantity of beer mixt with a little wine ; and this he repeated alternatively so often , till instead of bloud there flow'd out of the vein only a paler tincture like water wherein flesh had been wash'd , or claret diluted with very much water ; and yet the heart in the mean time remitted but a little of its former pulsation ..... his observation , which he had from a physician worthy of credit , is this : a youth about sixteen years old , continuing bleeding for two days together , his friends and those that waited on him gave him good store of broth to keep up and recruit his spirits ; which swallowing down greedily , his bleeding was now and then encreas'd thereby , so that at length having poured forth almost the whole mass of his bloud , that which now run out was dilute and pale , neither of the nature nor colour of bloud , but liker the broth he had drunk so much of : and this kind of flux continued a day or two , ( the heart the mean while retaining its pulsation ) till at length being stopt , the youth was restored by degrees to entire health , and grew to a robust and lusty fellow . ] this experiment and observation i say do make it apparent , the motion of the heart depends not on the ebullition or accension of the bloud , for then when in the first the beer and wine , in the second the broth flow'd into its ventricles instead of bloud , its motion must either have been more notably alter'd , or rather have quite ceas'd , these liquors being so far distant from the nature of bloud , especially the broth. and lastly , that this motion is not caused partly by the influx of the animal spirits , and partly by the ebullition or accension of the bloud , may be evinced by the arguments produced against each opinion apart : and yet if a reason could be given , this seems the most probable . namely , that the bloud destilling into the ventricles of the heart , is in them accended and rarefied , and wanting more room expands or bears against their sides : and then the parenchyma of the heart being molested by that expansion , calls in the animal spirits for help , which coming in in convenient plenty contract the muscular fibres that make up the parenchyma of the heart , and so by straitning its ventricles drive forth the bloud contained in them into the arteries . but we had rather ingenuously confess our ignorance of the reason of so admirable an action , and profess with dr. lower that it is too hard for man to conceive of , and that it is the prerogative of god only , who searcheth the secrets of the heart , to know the reason of its motion also . chap. vi. of the pulse , and the circulation of the bloud . the motion of the heart is called in greek 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , in latine pulsus , pulse or beating . and this is performed by diastole , or dilatation , in which it receives bloud into its ventricles ; and systole , or contraction , by which it expells it . contraction being the proper motion of a muscle , the systole is the proper motion of the heart , and the diastole is but a ceasing or restitution from that motion . for in the diastole the fibres of the heart are relaxed , so that the bloud destills down into its ventricles out of the veins , whereby when they are filled and in some measure distended , the fibres both streight and oblique begin to contract themselves , and compress or straiten the cavities of the ventricles , and also draw up the cone nearer its basis , whereby the heart becomes rounder and harder , and the bloud is expelled with force out of the ventricles into the arteries ; which motion is called the systole . but why the heart should keep such stated turns of systole and diastole , and continue them for ( may be ) fourscore years together , that ( as we said above ) we cannot conceive the reason of , but admire the wisedom and power of the creatour , in beginning and continuing such a motion . now seeing by this continual reciprocation of the pulse there is a constant expulsion of bloud from the heart ; there must needs be a continual influx of bloud into the heart out of the cava . and seeing the cava from whence the supply is , is never drawn dry , and on the other hand seeing the arteries that receive the bloud continually from the heart , are not unduly swell'd with it , it necessarily follows that this motion proceeds circularly , viz. that the bloud is continually driven out of the heart into the arteries , out of these into the veins and parts to be nourished , then from the lesser veins returns to the cava , and so at length to the heart again . the invention of which circulation is owing to our countreyman dr. harvey , and may be prov'd invincibly by these reasons . . the great quantity of bloud that is driven out of the heart into the arteries at every pulse . for though the ancients who knew not this circulation , imagin'd that only a drop or two were expelled by every systole , which they were necessitated to suppose , to avoid the great distension that the arteries must be liable to , if any considerable quantity issued into them ; yet it is certain and demonstrable that there must needs an ounce or more be driven into them each time . for ( taking it for granted that there is no other way for any liquor to pass from the stomach to the kidneys but through the heart , along with the bloud ) seeing if some men at some times drink three pints of drink , they shall piss it out again in half an hour , yea more of tunbridge waters in that space ; and seeing secondly , that there is commonly as much bloud as serum that flows to the kidneys ( the bloud returning back by the emulgent veins ) it is clear that by the two emulgents ( which are none of the largest arteries ) there must pass in half an hours time six pounds of liquor , all which must come from the heart ; and how much more then may we conceive to be driven through all the other arteries that run through the whole body ? this is more accurately evinced by dr. lower's experiment , which is this : i cut asunder ( says he ) both cervical arteries in a large dog , and at the same time through an hole made in the left side of his breast over against the heart , i comprest the trunk of the aorta below the heart with my finger , to hinder any bloud from descending by it ; and lastly i took care also to straiten the brachial arteries under the axillae , by which means almost all the bloud was driven out of the heart through the cervicals ( besides that which was sent into the vertebrals ) and which is wonderfull to be related , within the twentieth part of an hour the whole mass issued out ; so that it is not to be denied but that it all past through the heart in that space . ] and though it may be granted that amidst such wounds and tortures the heart does beat somewhat quicker in such a case than at other times ; yet the same thing is partly evident from wounds in the limbs when some notable artery is cut asunder , for 't is strange in how small a time a man will bleed to death even at that one artery . yea we may give a great guess how much bloud is sent out at every pulse , even from the ordinary opening of one vein in the arm , from whence a notable quantity of bloud will issue in a short time ; how much then may we suppose would flow out of all the veins , if they were opened at one time ? seeing then 't is evident that so great a quantity of bloud is expelled out of the heart at every systole , and that for all that the arteries are not unduly distended nor any part swell'd by it , neither yet the cava and other veins emptied , 't is certain that the bloud that is driven into the arteries flows back to the heart by the veins , in a constant circulation . . a second argument to prove it , may be taken from the valves in the veins , which are so framed that bloud may freely flow through them out of the lesser veins into the greater , ( and so into the cava ) but not on the contrary out of the greater into the less . yea if one blow into the cava through a pipe , there will no wind pass into the smaller veins ; but on the contrary , if you blow up the lesser veins , the wind will readily pass to the larger and so to the cava . . and lastly , the same thing is most clear by the ligature in bloud-letting . for whether you let bloud in the arm or foot , you always tie the fillet above where you intend to make the orifice , and then the vein below the ligature will presently fill and grow tumid , but above it will fall and almost disappear . which must needs be from hence , for that the bloud being driven along the arteries towards the extreme parts , returns by the veins and ascends upwards , which coming to the ligature and being stopt there , swells the vein below the ligature , and spurts out assoon as the orifice is made : but when the fillet is loosed again , the bloud flows no longer out thereat , but holds on its wonted channel , the vein , and the orifice closes up again . having sufficiently demonstrated the circulation of the bloud we will shew two things further , first , how the bloud passes out of the arteries into the veins , and secondly in how long a time the whole mass of bloud may be supposed to pass through the heart in its ordinary circulation . as to the first , it was the opinion of riolanus that the bloud circulated only through the larger vessels , by anastomoses or inosculation of the veins with the arteries , and that that which run into the smaller , was all spent on the nutrition of the parts . but it is clear that there must be a circulation even in the smallest , from the great quantity of bloud that will flow out of the least artery in the hand or foot , when it is cut ; which it were very absurd to imagine to be all spent on the nourishment of the respective part . now there are but two ways whereby the bloud can be supposed to pass out of the arteries into the veins , viz. either by the former opening into the latter by inosculation , or else by the capillary arteries letting out their bloud into the pores of the substance of the parts , on whose nutrition part is spent , and the remainder imbibed by the gaping mouths of the capillary veins . and it seems necessary to admit both these ways ; this latter , because if part of the arterial bloud did not issue into the substance of the parts , they could not be nourished by it , for while it is in the vessels it may add warmth indeed to the parts through which it flows , but cannot nourish them , seeing even the vessels themselves are not nourished by that stream of bloud that glides along their cavity , but by capillaries running through their coats ; and if the bloud be driven into the substance of the parts , and that in a greater quantity than suffices for their nourishment ( as was just now shewn ) what is superfluous must needs enter the mouths of the capillary veins , from which it goes forward to the larger and so to the heart : but seeing this way of transfusing the blood through the substance of the parts answers not to that hasty circulation of the bloud we above demonstrated ; it is necessary also to admit of the former way , namely anastomoses , in which the veins are continued to the arteries , and that not only in their larger branches ( as that notable one of the splenick artery with the splenick vein ) but also in their smaller twigs in the extreme parts . and secondly as to the space of time in which the whole mass of bloud may ordinarily circulate through the heart , it is probably much shorter than many have imagined . for supposing that the heart makes two thousand pulses an hour ( which is the least number any speak of , and some have told twice as many ) and that at every pulse there is expelled an ounce of bloud ( which we may well suppose , seeing the ventricles are wide enough to contain two ounces , and that it is probable both that they are filled near full in the diastole , and that they are near if not quite emptied by the strong constriction of the heart in the systole ) seeing the whole mass usually exceeds not four and twenty pound , it will be circulated six or seven times over through the heart in the space of an hour . and by so much the oftener , by how much the bloud comes short of the supposed quantity , or the pulse either naturally , or by a fever or violent motion is rendred more frequent . by which quick motion the bloud it self is kept from coagulation and putrefaction , and the parts are cherished with vital heat , which heat of the parts is much according to the slowness or rapidness of the circulation ; so when we sit still and the pulse is slow or rare , we grow cold , but when upon running or any violent exercise the pulse becomes more frequent and quick , we become hot . chap. vii . how bloud is made of chyle , of its colour , and whether the body be nourished by it . according to dr. harvey's observations there appears in an embryo a punctum saliens , or red beating speck , which is bloud , before any the least lineament of the heart . so that whatever instrument of sanguification the heart may appear to be afterwards , it contributes nothing to the elaborating of the first bloud ; but it seems rather to be made for the bloud 's sake to transmit it to all the parts of the embryo or foetus , than the bloud to be made by it . but it must be confest that things proceed in the grown foetus far otherwise than they do in the first formation . for the parts of an embryo are nourished and encreased before it have a stomach to concoct any thing , and yet in a perfect foetus none can deny that the stomach does concoct and prepare nourishment for it : so it moves before the brain is formed so perfectly as to be able to elaborate animal spirits ; and yet after it is perfected , every one knows that the brain does elaborate such spirits , as being sent into all the parts of the body by the nerves enable them to move . in like manner though there be bloud in the embryo before the heart be formed , yet after it is perfected , nothing will hinder but it may at least contribute something to sanguification . we will suppose then , that as all the other parts are formed by the vis plastica or generative faculty of the ( first ) vegetative and ( then ) animal soul , seated in the ovum , but assoon as they are perfected and the foetus excluded , are nourished by the bloud ; so the bloud it self being at first made in like manner , assoon as the veins , heart and arteries are compleated so as it can circulate by them , may , not improperly , be said to be nourished by the chyle , the heart assisting the assimilation of the one into the other . and this is done in this manner . the chyle ascending by the ductus thoracicus ( as was described book . chap. . ) and flowing into the subclavian vein , together with the returning venal bloud is poured into the right ventricle of the heart in its diastole or relaxation , then by its systole or contraction it is driven out from thence into the lungs , from whence it ascends again into the left ventricle of the heart , out of which it is expelled through the aorta , and passing along with the bloud through the arteries of the whole body , returns again with it by the veins to the heart . for it undergoes many circulations before it can be assimilated to the bloud . which is evident , both because it is the chyle ( but little alter'd ) that is separated in the placenta uteri for the nourishment of the foetus , and in the breasts for the infant to suck , in the form of milk ; and also from hence , that if one be let bloud four or five hours ( or later ) after a full meal , there will a great quantity of the milky chyle it self swim a top the coagulated bloud . but every time the new infused chyle passes through the heart with the bloud , the particles of the one are more intimately mixed with those of the other in its ventricles , and the vital spirit and other active principles of the bloud work upon the chyle ; which being full of salt , sulphur and spirit , assoon as its compages is loosened by its fermentation with the bloud in the ventricles of the heart ( especially , but also in the arteries ) these principles having obtained the liberty of motion do readily associate themselves , and are assimilated with such parts of the bloud as are of a like and suitable nature . now whether this alteration that happens to the chyle , especially in the heart , should be said to be by fermentation , or accension , or by what other action , is a thing not yet ( nor likely to be ) agreed upon , it is so full of difficulty . but it seems to be by fermentation , from the considerable heat observable in the arterial bloud ; and if there be any thing of accension , that seems to proceed , not from any part inherent either in the bloud or chyle , nor to be effected so much in the heart and arteries , as in the lungs , whiles the bloud passes through their parenchyma out of the vena arteriosa into the arteria venosa , and is inspirited or impregnated with nitrous air drawn into them by inspiration . which will be more evident by what follows . why the bloud should be of a red colour rather than any other , no reason can be given but the will of the creatour , though some attribute it to the heart , others to the mixture of salt and subacid juices with sulphureous ; even as the oyl of vitriol being poured upon conserve of roses , or other thing that is of a palish red ( if it contain any thing of sulphur ) makes it of a most deep red . we will not spend time to shew in how many respects this similitude falls short of explaining the reason of the phaenomenon , but shall content our selves with inquiring from whence the difference of colour arises between the venal and arterial bloud . every one knows that bloud let out of a vein into a porringer , is indeed of a florid scarlet colour in its surface , but all that coagulates is of a dark red colour from the superficies to the bottom , and of such a colour it appears as it streams out of the orifice of the vein . but if an artery be cut , the stream then looks of a far brighter colour , like the superficies of the venal bloud when it is congealed in a porringer . now the arterial bloud receives not this florid colour in the heart but in the lungs . for if it receiv'd it in the heart , then might the right ventricle be supposed to give it as well as the left : but that it does not do so , is clear by this experiment of dr. lower's . if you open the vena arteriosa which receives the bloud out of the right ventricle , the bloud differs nothing in colour from the venal , but its curdled part looks every whit as black . but if one open the arteria venosa as it is entring into the left ventricle , it has the perfect colour of arterial bloud ; which shews , that as it ows not that colour to the left ventricle any more than to the right , ( being not yet arriv'd at it ) so it must receive that alteration of colour in the lungs , in which the nitrous air being diffused through all the particles of the bloud is intimately mixed with it , and ( if you will ) accends it . for if there be any such thing as a flamma vitalis ( properly so called ) in animals , though the bloud be to it instead of the oyl or other matter whereon it feeds , yet it oweth the continuance of its burning to the air , without the continued inspiration of which the animal cannot live , but instantly dies , even as a candle is presently extinguished if you put it in a close place where the air cannot come to it , or by some engine be suckt from it . but this by the bye . for i must confess that ( notwithstanding the plausibleness of the opinion ) this alteration of the colour of the bloud by the air in the lungs , is no sufficient argument to prove any such vital flame , seeing the arterial bloud being extravasated , retains its florid colour , when no doubt if there ever was any accension , the flame is extinguished . but this scarlet colour is meerly from the mixture of the particles of the air with the bloud , from which it transpires , in a great measure , through the pores of the skin , while the bloud circulates in the habit of the body out of the arteries into the veins , whence the venous bloud becomes so much darker in colour than the arterial . and yet the venous bloud it self when extravasated appears of a scarlet dye in its surface , which is meerly from its being exposed to the air ; for if one turn the congealed bloud in a porringer upside down , the bottom which at the turning is blackish , will in a little while turn red . though we have confessed that the chyle does circulate through the body several times before it be perfectly assimilated to the bloud ; yet we do not think that it passes into the nourishment of the parts in the form of chyle . and therefore when speaking of the nutrition of the foetus in the womb ( book . chap. . ) we often mentioned a nutritious juice ( which was chyle a little alter'd ) we did not call it so with respect to the solid parts of the foetus , but to the bloud it self whose pabulum or nourishment it is , assoon as the umbilical vein is formed , as the bloud is of the body . for as to the increase of the first delineated parts of an imperfect embryo , that is far different from ordinary nutrition . the bloud then consisting of particles of a different nature , each particle passes into the nourishment of that part which is of the same nature . so the salt and sulphureous particles being equally mixt , are agglutinated and assimilated to the fleshy or musculous parts ; the oily and sulphureous to the fat ; the salt and tartareous to the bones , &c. now this is not done by any election or attraction of the parts , as if they pick'd and choos'd ( with a kind of discretion ) such particles of the bloud as are suitable to their own nature : for the mass of bloud is equally and indifferently carried to all the parts : but there is that diversity of figure both in the several particles of the bloud and in the pores of each part , that in the circulation through the habit of the body some stick in these , and others in those , where they are fasten'd aud united to the substance of the respective parts ; and those which through their peculiar figure are unapt to adhere to one or other , return again to the veins and so to the heart , where they receive some new alteration . so that as the life of the flesh is in the bloud ( according to levit. . . ) so has it its vital heat and nourishment from it also . chap. viii . of the parts of the heart , viz. the auriculae , the ventricles and the septum that divideth them . having treated of the heart in general , and of its action , &c. we now come to discourse in specie of the parts which it is compounded of , viz. it s two auriculae , two ventricles and the septum . the auriculae or ears of the heart are so called from some similitude of shape they have with those of the head ; for they rise from a long basis , upon the basis of the heart , and end in an obtuse point , making an obtuse triangle . they are as it were two appendages of the heart , seated at its basis over the ventricles . they are of the same fabrick and use , being both muscles , and made up of the same order of fibres , which are carried into opposite tendons , whereof that at the basis of the heart is common to it and these auriculae , and the other runs along their upper part . the right is larger and softer , the left is less , but more firm . their superficies is smooth when they are filled ; but when empty , it is wrinkled , and the left more than the right . when they are cut open , there appear in their cavity many fleshy columns running from the upper to the lower tendon , and betwixt them there are pretty deep ditches or long cavities , but fewer in the right than the left . they are dilated and contracted in like manner as the heart , but at different times : for the systole of the ventricles is at the same time with the diastole of the auriculae ; and on the contrary , the systole of the auriculae with the diastole of the ventricles . so that the auriculae are a receiving their bloud from the veins , while the ventricles are expelling theirs into the arteries ; and when the ventricles are relaxed and empty in their diastole , the auricles force their bloud into them by their systole . they serve to receive the venal bloud immediately out of the vena cava , and pulmonalis , and to measure it as it were into the ventricles . whither that they may expell it with the greater force , the internal fibres or columns of their cavity arising from their root where they are joined to the basis of the heart , reach directly outwards towards the vena cava , and pulmonaris , and in the systole of the auriculae grasp the bloud contained in their cavity like so many fingers , and squeez it into the ventricles whilst they are relaxed in their diastole . the heart hath two cavities , called ventricles , whereinto it receives the bloud from its two auricles , and out of which it expels it into the arteria pulmonaris and aorta . the right is wider and not exactly round but almost semicircular , nor reacheth down to the mucro or tip of the heart ; the left is narrower but rounder and longer , reaching down to the very tip . now though the outside of the heart be smooth , yet these ventricles are very unequal , having their sides hollowed into divers interstices or furrows , and interwoven with carnous fibres reaching this way and that way . they are more numerous in men's hearts , than in those of any other animal ; though such as are big , as horses and the like , have them larger . these fibres or fleshy columns serve to straiten or constringe the ventricles , and the clefts or furrows betwixt them help their sides to close more exactly in their systole than they could have done , had they been smooth . the fibres are more and stronger and the furrows deeper in the left ventricle than in the right , yea they are also in that side of the septum that makes part of the left , though that side that looks to the right be well nigh smooth . for there was need of greater and stronger constriction in the left than in the right ; seeing the right expels the bloud to no greater circuit than through the lungs , but the left to the extreamest parts of the body . they are divided from one another by the septum , or a partition that stands like a wall betwixt them . it is hollow towards the left ventricle , and ( as was just now said ) has such like fibres and clefts as the rest of the cavity ; but towards the right it is convex or bunching out , and has but very little inequality . many have been of opinion that it has some wider pores through which part of the bloud does pass immediately out of the right into the left ventricle ; but he that searches for them diligently will find none , unless he first make them with his probe . and indeed if there were any in grown persons , we may much more suppose them to be in foetus's in the womb , in whom are several passages that after the birth are obliterated . but if these were in the foetus , then should nature have made those two other passages in vain , namely the foramen ovale , whereby the bloud passes out of the cava into the vena pulmonaris as it is entring the left ventricle ; and the canalis arteriosus , which carries the bloud out of the arteria pulmonaris into the aorta . i say if the bloud could have passed out of one ventricle into the other ( without going through the lungs ) by any pores that perforate the septum , these other passages had been superfluous . and therefore we may suppose , that as in grown persons they cannot be found by any probe or bristle , so they were not there even while the foetus was in the womb , seeing there was no occasion for them . as to the use of the ventricles , it may be learned partly by what has been discoursed in the three former chapters , and partly by what shall be said further in the following , wherein we are to describe the vessels opening into and out of them . whither also we transfer the treating of their valves that are placed at their orifices . chap. ix . of the ascending trunk of vena cava . because the vessels contained in the thorax either open into the heart or run out of it , having finished the description of it , we shall discourse next of them as appendages to it . but we shall not need to repeat here what we said book . chap. . of the ductus chyliferus thoracicus , that runs up the thorax by the spine , and opens into the subclavian vein , but shall desire the reader to look back thither for the description of it . and now shall only meddle with the sanguiferous vessels that are four in number , viz. vena cava , arteria pulmonaris ( or vena arteriosa ) vena pulmonaria ( or arteria venosa ) and the aorta or arteria magna ; and in this chapter of the first , viz. vena cava . in the former book chap . and . where we discoursed of the vessels contained in the abdomen , we supposed ( with the galenists ) that both the vena portae and cava had their rise from the liver , not dogmatically asserting it , but supposing it for methods sake . and in chap. . describing the branches of the cava in the abdomen , we found it presently dividing it self ( after its rise out of the upper part of the liver ) into the ascending and descending trunk ; the description of the branches of the latter ( in the lower belly ) we there finished ; but traced the ascending trunk no further than its penetrating through the midriff up into the thorax , deferring the further prosecution of it till this place that we come to treat of the vessels contained in the thorax . as it ascends through the midriff it sends forth a small sprig on each side , called venae phrenicae ; these run through the midriff , the mediastinum and pericardium . if at any time matter gathered in the cavity of the thorax be afterwards discharged by urine , ( which many physicians have affirmed ) it is probable that it is absorbed by the mouths of these veins gaping in the upper side of the diaphragm , ( upon which such matter must be supposed to fluctuate ) whereby it is brought into the cava , and so in the circulation is separated by the kidneys out of the emulgent arteries , and descends by the ureters to the bladder . from the diaphragm it passes undivided to the right ventricle of the heart , but before it enter it , having pierced the pericardium it sends forth sometimes one , sometimes two twigs called venae coronariae , which compassing the basis of the heart bring back into the cava the bloud that is superfluous from its nutrition . as these open into the cava there is a valve placed , which permits the bloud to return by them into the cava , but hinders any to pass out of the cava into them . before this trunk of vena cava open into the ventricle it is joined to that other trunk that descends from the claviculae , ( though for method's sake we must consider that as a continuation of this , by and by ) and both of them discharge the bloud contained in them by one mouth into the said ventricle . as they are going to join , there comes a tubercle or protuberance betwixt them , that hinders the one from opening into the other in a direct line , but makes them both go obliquely towards the left hand as they enter the auricula ; without which provision , that bloud that is a descending from the claviculae would have faln so full on that which is ascending by this trunk of the cava , we have been a describing , as must have made it either to stagnate ( if not regurgitate ) or however would have retarded its motion . now immediately below this protuberance , out of the united trunk there goeth a passage along the basis of the heart to the vena pulmonaria in foetus's in the womb , which assoon as they are born closes up and becomes obliterate . the reason of this passage of the bloud in them is , because their lungs having either none or but a very obscure and imperfect motion , the bloud does but little of it pass through them , but a good part of it through this foramen out of the cava into the vena pulmonaria just as it is entring into the left ventricle , into which this bloud is discharged together with that little that is returning by the said vena pulmonaria from the nutrition of the lungs . for though there be expelled out of the right ventricle a pretty quantity of bloud at every pulse into the arteria pulmonalis , yet there is but a little of it that goes to the lungs ( though all do in adult persons , that it may be there impregnated with air ) but the greatest part by a pipe called canalis arteriosus runs into the aorta , which pipe does degenerate into a ligament after the foetus is born . so that the foetus in the womb liveth after the manner of fish or other creatures that have no lungs and but one ventricle of the heart ; for there is but very little of its bloud that passeth any more than one of its ventricles in one circulation , that which circulateth through one missing the other . but to return : the united trunk of the cava opens by one large orifice into the right ventricle of the heart , into which is poured all the bloud that returns from all the parts of the body ( except the lungs ) in its circulation . and lest in the systole or constriction of the heart , the bloud should be expelled the same way that it comes in by ; at the orifice of the cava there grows a membranous circle , which is cleft into three membranous valves , looking inwards , called tricuspides ( or three-pointed ) which permit the bloud to come in , but not to go out . and this office these valves perform in this manner , ( as is most ingeniously described by dr. lower . ) out of the sides of the right ventricle there grow certain papillae or round and long caruncles ( called before , fleshy columns ) from whose top there proceed certain tendinous fibres that are knit to these membranous valves . now these membranes encompass the orifice of the cava round about , so that whereas the mucro or tip of the heart is in every systole drawn up towards the basis , the papillae being also moved upwards do slacken their fibres ( like bridle-reins ) whereby it comes to pass that the membranes ( or valves ) also , to which they are tied , hanging loose are driven upwards ( like sails filled with wind ) by the bloud that is squeezed in every systole of the heart , and thereby they shut this inlet into the heart so closely , that not a drop of liquor can flow back again into the auricula or cava , but is expelled all into the arteria pulmonalis that is now open : but , as in every systole of the heart ( its tip being brought nearer its basis ) the papillae do much relax their fibres ; so in the diastole the tip receding from the basis again does also draw down the papillae and their fibres with it : whence it comes to pass that the membranes or valves being also drawn down do presently unshut this orifice , and open the door as it were for more bloud to come in , what came in before being expelled in the last systole . the united trunks of the cava discharging themselves thus into the right ventricle , that which ascends towards the claviculae ( for so we must consider it for orders sake , though in truth it descends from thence ) assoon as it is gone out of the pericardium , sendeth forth a notable branch called vena sine pari , ( or 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 ) because it is but one , having no fellow . it ariseth out of the hinder part of the cava , but more towards the right hand , and descends through the right side of the cavity of the thorax . after its beginning , which is betwixt the fourth and fifth vertebra of the breast , it bends a little forward toward the right hand , till it be descended as far as the eighth or ninth vertebra , where it begins just to keep the middle . it sends forth on each side intercostal branches to the interstices of the eight lowest ribs ; and at the eighth rib it is divided into two branches : one whereof , being the larger , descends toward the left hand betwixt the processes of the diaphragm , and is inserted sometimes into the cava above or below the emulgent , but oftner into the emulgent it self : the other being the right is joined also to the cava , commonly a little above the emulgent , but seldom into the emulgent it self . it was formerly held , before the circulation of the bloud was found out , that in an empyema of the thorax , the matter was absorbed by the mouths of this vein , and carried directly to the emulgent veins , where it was separated with the serum by the kidneys . but seeing the bloud does indeed ascend from the emulgents by this vein , and that at its insertion into them there is commonly a valve that hinders any thing from issuing out of the vena sine pari into the emulgent , but permits the contrary ; it is certain that if this vein be at any time an instrument to evacuate such pus , it must first ascend to the cava and pass through the heart , and so be carried to the kidneys by the aorta and the emulgent arteries arising out of it . but though it is difficult to conceive how the mouths of this vein should open so wide into the cavity of the thorax , as to imbibe slimy roapy pus , and yet not let forth the bloud that is more fluid ; so that one would hardly assign this office to it : yet when the pus is collected betwixt the pleura and intercostal muscles and the tumour does not burst , i see not why it may not be supposed that the intercostal branches of the vena sine pari do imbibe the matter out of the tumour , and carry it that way which was just now spoken of . and if ever pus be imbibed out of the cavity of the thorax , because it floats upon the diaphragm , the venae phrenicae are liker to do it than this , as was noted before in this chapter when we described those veins . of this vena sine pari we shall say no more , but that at its rise out of the cava it has a valve that opens towards the cava , which having sent forth this vein , ascends on towards the claviculae strengthned and sustained by the mediastinum and thymus , and before it is divided into the two rami subclavii ( sometimes after ) sends out yet two other small veins called the superiour intercostals , on each side one , each of which has a valve where it joins to the cava , permitting the influx of the bloud into it , but hindring its relapse . these run along the interstices or intervals of the three or four uppermost ribs . yet sometimes the vena sine pari sends twigs to these four interstices of the ribs as well as to the eight lower , and then these superiour intercostals are wanting . afterwards the trunk of the cava is divided into two large veins , one of which goes to the right hand , the other to the left . these while they are within the breast are called venae subclaviae , running along the channel-bones ; but assoon as they are gone out of it , axillares . they send forth several branches both upwards and downwards . sometimes the superiour intercostals just now mentioned ( though seldom ) arise out of them . next , the mammariae descend from them , ( though these sometimes spring out of the trunk of the cava ; so uncertain is the origine of some of these veins . ) these send forth double branches , internal and external . the internal run to the gristly ends of the ribs and their intercostal spaces , and some of their twigs also are terminated in the glands of the mammae . the external pass down on the outside of the breast , and send many twigs into the said glands , and marching further by the sides of the cartilago ensiformis descend out of the thorax , continuing their course down the abdomen , under the streight muscles thereof , till about the navel , where it hath been an old tradition that they inosculate with the venae epigastricae ; but this was a mistake , as has been noted more than once already . bartholin says that sometimes there is but one mammaria . the second vein that ariseth out of the subclavian is the mediastina ; this sends twigs to the mediastinum ( from which it has its name ) to the pericardium and to the gland called thymus . this also sometimes springeth out of the trunk of the cava . the third is cervicalis or vertebralis ; this turns backwards towards the vertebrae of the neck , into whose lateral holes it enters by some small twigs , which disperse themselves through the membrane that invests the marrow contained in these vertebrae ; and other twigs it bestows upon the muscles that lie next upon the vertebrae . the fourth is muscula inferior ; this is spent upon the lower muscles of the neck and the upper of the thorax . it riseth sometimes from the external jugular . all these spring from the lower side of the subclavian veins ; but these that follow from the upper . as the muscula superior , which is dispersed through the muscles of the neck . then the jugulars , which are double , external and internal . as they go out of the subclavians there is placed sometimes one thin valve , sometimes two , to hinder the return of the bloud out of these into them . the external ascend on the outside of the neck , and these are they which are opened when any one is let bloud in the neck for any distemper of the head , or quinzy , &c. they ascend but just under the skin , and provide for the outward parts of the neck , chaps , head and face . they make the temple-veins and the forehead-vein , both which are wont sometimes to be opened . yea they send small capillaries through the sutures of the skull into the membranes that cover the brain . the internal , in men , are larger than the external . they ascend from the subclavian by the sides of the wind-pipe , on which they bestow small twigs . assoon as they are come to the basis of the skull , they are each divided into two , the greater and less . the greater is carried backwards , and by that hole of the os occipitis by which the sixth pair of nerves ( dr. willis's eighth ) comes out of the head , they enter in , and are dispersed through the dura mater , &c. the less enters in by the holes made for the third and fourth pair of nerves , and is also bestowed on the dura mater , &c. when the subclavian veins have sent forth all these branches , they then pass out of the thorax , and begin to be called axillar , of which we shall treat in the fourth book , chap. . into the vena subclavia are inserted also the ductus chyliferus thoracicus ( of which in the first book chap. . ) and lymphaticus ramus , which returns the lympha from the arms , neck , &c. but sometimes this opens into the jugular . chap. x. of vena arteriosa , and arteria venosa . the second vessel in the breast is called arteria pulmonaris , otherwise vena arteriosa . it is an artery from its office : for it carrieth bloud out of the right ventricle of the heart to the lungs . it s coat is double also like that of other arteries . as it riseth out of the right ventricle of the heart , there stand at its orifice three membranous valves looking outwards , called semilunares , because they make as it were a half circle ; as also sigmoides or sigmoideae , from the shape of the greek letter sigma , which of old was of the same figure with an english capital c. in the systole of the heart they open , and permit the bloud to issue out of the ventricle into this artery ; but in the diastole they shut , so that none can return back again . assoon as it is past out of the pericardium , it bends towards the aspera arteria or wind-pipe , and is divided into the right and left branch , which applying themselves to the like branches of the aspera arteria do every where accompany them on the under side , and as they run along send out very many twigs on every side , which presently associate with those of the wind-pipe , and of the vena pulmonaris . and where the small pipes of the aspera arteria end into the little round cells ( which we shall describe in the chapter of the lungs ) the twigs of this artery being complicated with those of the vein do embrace them like a net. whence one may guess that the reason why the sanguiferous vessels do so exactly accompany all the branches of the wind-pipe and it s annexed little bladders , is , that the whole mass of bloud passing this way may be inspired or impregnated with the particles of the nitrous air. for there is but a very little spent on the nutrition of the lungs , but the greatest part of it is driven into the small twigs of the vena pulmonaria which inosculate with those of the artery in all its ramifications . the third vessel is called vena pulmonaria or arteria venosa ; this has but a single coat as the other veins have . after it has accompanied the wind-pipe and arteria pulmonaris in all their branchings in the lungs , and by its small twigs has received the bloud by anastomoses out of the artery , it unites first into two trunks ( viz. the right and left ) afterwards into one , and opens into the left ventricle of the heart . at its orifice there are placed two membranous valves called mitrales , because when they are joined together they do in some manner resemble a bishop's mitre . they are of a stronger contexture than those called tricuspides at the orifice of the cava in the right ventricle ; and so are the fibres that ascend to them from the papillae or fleshy columns , stronger . for seeing the bloud is expelled more impetuously out of the left ventricle than out of the right , ( for the bloud sent out of the one is to circulate only through the lungs , but that out of the other , through the whole body ) it was convenient that the valves and fibres should be stronger , to sustain the violent motion of the bloud , and hindring it from returning into this vein again , to direct its course into the aorta whose orifice opens in the systole of the ventricle . just as this vena pulmonaria is entring into the left ventricle , there is , in a foetus in the womb , a pipe called foramen ovale that opens into it coming from the cava , as was noted above . to which we shall here add , that at its orifice into this vein there is a valve placed , that hinders any bloud from returning into the foramen out of the vein . and here there is one thing worth noting concerning the pulmonary artery and vein , that whereas in all the other arteries and veins through the whole body besides , the bloud contained in the arteries is of a bright scarlet colour , and that in the veins of a black purple ; on the contrary , the arteria pulmonaris containeth black purple bloud , and the vein scarlet-coloured . the reason whereof was shewn before , chap. . viz. that the scarlet colour of the bloud is wholly owing to the mixture of air with it in the lungs . and therefore that bloud which the pulmonary artery brings into the lungs out of the right ventricle of the heart , being the venal bloud that was brought thither from the circulation by the cava , changes not its colour till it passes out of the small twigs of the said artery into those of the pulmonary vein , where the airy particles insinuate themselves into it , and so alter its colour . the pulmonary vein hath no valve in it , except that at its opening into the left ventricle . of which dr. willis giveth this reason , that the bloud within the praecordia may always , because of the impetus of the passions , freely fluctuate and regurgitate both ways , backwards and forwards . and lest the left ventricle of the heart should at any time be suffocated by the bloud rushing too impetuously into it , the fleshy fibres in the root of the vein ( for both this and the cava have such there ) by the instinct of nature contracting themselves invert its course , and make it flow backward towards the lungs . chap. xi . of the great artery , or aorta . the fourth vessel is the great artery called aorta ( arcula , a little chest ) and by way of eminency arteria magna , because it is the greatest artery of the whole body , from which all the others ( except the pulmonary ) are derived . it springeth out of the left ventricle of the heart , and at its rise hath three valves looking outwards , called semilunares , being altogether like those at the orifice of the arteria pulmonaris in the right ventricle . these hinder the bloud from returning out of the great artery into the heart again . the orifice of the aorta ( or else the tendon of the heart that adheres to it ) in some creatures ( especially in harts ) does often grow bony ; and sometimes in men , according to the observations of bartholin and riolanus . assoon as the aorta is gone out of the heart , it ascends not in a direct course towards the head ; for if it had , seeing it openeth streight upward out of the ventricle , it would have poured the bloud in too rapid a stream into the brain , and the lower parts of the body would have been defrauded of their due share : but it first bends arch-wise , so that its bowed corner sustains the first impetus of the expelled bloud , and directs the greatest torrent towards its descending trunk , and a lesser quantity passes up by the ascending , being to convey the arterial bloud to fewer and smaller parts . in a foetus in the womb there comes a pipe out of the arteria pulmonalis into the aorta , called canalis arteriosus , which brings out of it the greatest part of the bloud that was expelled out of the right ventricle ; little more passing into the lungs than may serve for their nourishment : of which we gave the reason before , chap. . after the foetus is born , this canalis degenerates into an impervious ligament . before the aorta come out of the pericardium , it sendeth forth sometimes one , but oftener two small twigs , from each side one , which compass the basis of the heart like a garland , and send down according to the length of the heart other twigs : these are called coronariae . when these two twigs have encompassed the basis and meet , they inosculate with one another , but not with the veins . at their rise out of the aorta there is a valve placed , that permits the bloud to flow out of the great artery into them , but hinders its reflux . when it hath pierced the pericardium , and bended a little arch-wise backwards , it is divided into two trunks , whereof the one is called truncus ascendens , the ascending trunk ; the other descendens , the descending . of these two , the descending is largest , because it ministreth to more parts . the ascending trunk running up under the vena cava lies upon the wind-pipe , and is presently divided into two branches , whereof one passeth to the right , the other towards the left arm : they are called rami subclavii , because they march under the channel-bones ; and assoon as they are gone out of the breast are called axillares . the right is the larger , and arising higher goes a more direct way towards the arm ; the left is less , and arising lower ascends more obliquely towards the left arm. they send out several branches both from their lower and upper side . from the lower proceeds the superiour intercostal , which runs along the interstices or intervals of the four uppermost ribs , and sends slips to the neighbouring muscles and spinal marrow . these sometimes arise from the cervical arteries , coming out through the holes of the vertebrae . from the upper side of each subclavian springs first mammaria , which descends towards the breasts through the muscles that fill up the interstices of the cartilages of the true ribs ; and a considerable branch of each descending out of the thorax by the sides of the cartilago ensiformis , run down the abdomen under the musculi recti , spreading there into many twigs : which are said to inosculate with the extremities of the like twigs of the epigastrick artery ascending . but that opinion is so opposite to the circulation of the bloud , that it is impossible to be true . for no bloud can ascend by the mammariae , nor descend by these ascending twigs of the epigastricae . the next is cervicalis ( otherwise called vertebralis ) which sendeth slips to the vertebrae and muscles of the neck , at whose seventh vertebra it enters in by the holes of the transverse processes and pierceth the membrane that invests the spinal marrow , bestowing twigs both on the membrane and marrow , and runs up therewith in at the great hole of the occiput , and being enter'd the skull , both branches ( the right and left ) join under the marrow , and then are divided into innumerable most small twigs which make wonderfull net-like plexus in the pia mater about the cerebellum , and run into the substance of the cerebellum it self ; and some of them being united with those of the carotides make part of the very rete mirabile . the third artery that rises out of the upper side of the subclavian is muscula ; this bestows branches on the muscles of the neck , and sometimes on some of the arm. after the subclavians have had all these pairs of arteries going out of them , they pass out of the thorax , and begin to be called axillar , of which in book . chap. . at the same place , or very near , where the ascending trunk of the aorta sends out the subclavians side-ways , it ascends directly upwards , divided into two , called carotides , ( though the right sometimes arises from the right subclavian . ) these at their rise are sustained by the thymus , and having bestowed twigs on the larynx , tongue , the muscles of the os hyoides and the neighbouring glands , pass up on each side by the sides of the wind-pipe to the jaws with the internal jugular vein , and there are each subdivided into the external and internal branches . the external is smaller , and is dispersed into all the muscles of the cheeks , fore-head , temples , lips ; and in general , through all the outer parts of the head and face . the internal , which is larger , sends first some more twigs to the larynx , tongue , &c. as also to the glands behind ▪ the ears , and the spongy parts of the palate and nose . then it entreth the upper jaw , and bestows a small slip on the root of each tooth ( as the external did to the teeth of the lower jaw ) whereby sharp humours flowing in upon them sometimes cause a very painfull tooth-ach . the remainder of it climbs upon the skull , being about its basis divided into two branches . the less and hinder whereof having sent one slip to the inner muscles of the neck , and another through the hole of the uppermost vertebra into the membrane that invests the spinal marrow , ascending further enters the skull at the hole by which the sixth pair of nerves ( commonly so called ) comes out , and creeping along the dura mater ends near its sinus , ( which yet some say it enters . ) the larger branch , tending upwards is carried through the bony channel in the wedge-like bone with a winding duct to the sella equina ; at whose basis , after it has sent out a twig on each side into the dura mater , it opens it self into many small slips , which being infolded with those of the cervical artery ( above-mentioned ) make the rete mirabile , which is more observable in beasts than in men. yet it is not all spent on the said slips , but perforating the dura mater , it enters the pia mater with two notable branches , which being divided into very small twigs are mingled with those of the cervical artery , with which they pass out of the skull and accompany the spinal marrow even to the loins . afterwards it sends a small branch through the second hole of the wedge-like bone with the optick nerve , out of the skull , to the eye . and yet still supplying more twigs to the substance of the brain and pia mater , and being united with some other twigs of the cervical artery , it makes the plexus choroides . the descending trunk of the aorta , which is larger than the ascending , goes down by the gullet , to which it cleaveth . and hence is a man that is hot , so much cooled with a draught of cold drink ; for the gullet being cooled thereby , the bloud in the aorta contiguous to it must needs be cooled likewise . before it arrive at the diaphragm it sends out of its hinder side the inferiour intercostals which run along the interstices of eight or nine of the lower ribs , namely those which the superiour intercostals did not supply . they likewise send sprigs by the holes of the vertebrae made for the nerves , to the marrow of the back , and to the muscles which rest upon the vertebrae ▪ and also to those of the thorax . sometimes above this and sometimes below it , there arises also out of the hinder part of the aorta , an artery called bronchialis , first found out and so named by frederick ruysch , which accompanies all the bronchia of the wind-pipe . when it comes to the midriff , there spring out of it the phrenicae , one on each side : these running through the diaphragm , pass up into the mediastinum , and sometimes into the pericardium . then having penetrated the midriff it descends in one trunk to the fifth vertebra of the loins ; in which passage it first sendeth forth coeliaca which ariseth single , and is so called , because it sendeth twigs to the stomach . this springeth from the fore-part of the trunk , at the first vertebra of the loins , and descending under the hollow of the liver , upon the trunk of the vena portae it is divided into two branches , the right and left . the right which is smaller , ascending , produces in its upper part the gastrica dextra , that comes to the pylorus , whence spigelius calls it pylorica . and besides , the cysticae gemellae , which are very small , and are dispersed through the gall-bladder . and out of its lower side there spring out of it . . epiplois dextra , which runs through the right side of the lower leaf of the caul and the colon that is annexed to it . . intestinalis , bestowed on the duodenum and beginning of jejunum . . gastroepiplois dextra , on the bottom and middle of the stomach , and also on the caul that is knit to its bottom . . hepaticae , which are two small ones : these are spent on the investing membrane of the liver ( for its parenchyma is nourished by the porta ) the capsulá communis , the gall-bladder and porus bilarius . the remainder of this right branch enters the mesentery with many twigs . the left branch of the coeliaca , which is called splenicus ( sometime springing immediately from the aorta ) is larger than the right , and as it goeth towards the spleen it sendeth forth of its upper side gastrica major , which after it hath bestowed a slip on the higher and middle part of the stomach , is divided into two others ; the first whereof is called coronaria stomachica , which encompasses the upper orifice of the stomach like a garland , and sends many twigs to the body of the ventricle it self . the other is called gastrica sinistra , and this is carried towards the right hand into the upper part of the stomach and the pylorus . out of its lower side spring , first epiplois postica , which runs to the lower leaf of the omentum , and the colon annexed to it ; secondly epiplois sinistra , which is bestowed on the lower and left side of the omentum . just as this splenick branch is entring into the spleen , there arise out of its upper part vas breve arteriosum , which goeth streight to the left part of the bottom of the stomach ; and the gastro-epiplois sinistra , which being sustained by the upper leaf of the omentum sends some twigs thereto , and also to the left part of the bottom of the stomach , and to both its fore and hinder sides . then it enters into the spleen , whose branchings therein we described in the former book , chap. . of the spleen . all these arteries spring from the coeliaca , and accompany the veins of the porta of the like denomination . the next that arises out of the trunk of the aorta is the upper mesenterick , which springs from the fore-part of it as the coeliack did . it accompanies the vena mesaraica of the porta , and runs through all the upper part of the mesentery , and bestows many branches on the guts jejunum , ileum and that part of colon that lieth in the right hypochondre . immediately below this , about the second vertebra of the loins , there go out of each side of the descending trunk of the aorta an emulgent artery , each of which being after its rise divided into two and sometimes three branches , enters the kidney of its own side . the right springs out of it a little lower than the left . both are subdivided into innumerable twigs in the parenchyma of the kidneys , and their capillaries end in the glands , wherein the serum that these arteries bring with the bloud is separated therefrom , and carried from them by the urinary siphons into the pelvis , of which more in the former book , chap. . of the kidneys . next to these arise the spermaticae ( called arteriae praeparantes . ) these go out of the fore-part of the trunk very near together ( very seldom either of them out of the emulgents , as the left spermatick vein does ) and the right passes over the trunk of the vena cava . about two fingers breadth from the emulgents they are each joined with the vena praeparans of their own side , and descend with them in men through the process of the peritonaeum to the stones , being divided into two branches a little before they arrive at them , one of which runs under the epididymis , and the other to the testis . in women , when they come near the testes , they are divided also into two branches , one whereof goes to the testis , and the other to the bottom of the womb. next below the spermaticks springs the lower mesenterick out of the trunk a little before it is divided into the rami iliaci . this entreth the lower region of the mesentery , and distributes many branches to the left part of the colon and to the streight gut , and lastly descending to the anus , makes the internal hemorrhoidal arteries . very near to this , out of the trunk still , arise the lumbares , reckoned four in number . these go out of the backside of the aorta , and are distributed not only to the neighbouring muscles of the loins , and to the peritonaeum , but enter in at the holes of the vertebrae of the loins , and run along the membrane that involves the spinal marrow , and penetrate into the marrow it self . besides these some reckon other two , on each side one , called musculae superiores , ( which run to the muscles of the abdomen ) unless these be two of the four called lumbares . when the trunk is descended as low as the last or fifth vertebra of the loins and the top of os sacrum , it begins to climb upon the vena cava , under which it passed thus far . but as it begins to get upon it , it is divided into two equal branches called rami iliaci , and at its very division there springs out of it arteria sacra , whose small twigs entring in at the holes of os sacrum penetrate into the marrow contained in it . the trunk of the descending aorta being divided into the rami iliaci , these are subdivided presently into the interiour and exteriour branches . from the interiour , which is less , proceed three others . first , the inferiour muscula ( called otherwise glutea ) which is bestowed on the muscles named glutei that make the buttocks , and also on the lower end of the iliack muscle and the psoas . secondly , the hypogastrick , which is large , and at the lower end of os sacrum runs to the bladder and its neck , and the muscles that cover the ossa pubis . in men it goes also along the two nervous bodies of the penis as far as the glans : and in women it is distributed in numerous branches into the bottom of the womb and its neck , out of which for the greatest part issue the menses in their monthly purgation . it goes also to the podex , where it makes the external hemorrhoidal arteries . thirdly , the umbilical artery , which ascending by the sides of the bladder , and being inserted into the duplicature of the peritonaeum , proceeds to the navel , out of which it passes in a foetus in the womb , and runs into the placenta uterina , of which before , book . chap. . but after the infant is born , when there is no more use of it , it closes up , and hardens into a ligament , sustaining the bladder , and hindring it from pressing on its neck . from the exteriour branch of the ramus iliacus two arteries arise . first , the epigastrick , which turning upwards on the outside of the peritonaeum runs betwixt it and the musculi recti of the abdomen as high as the navel , where the mammary artery meets it , and according to tradition ( though false ) inosculates there with it . of which before , in this chapter . secondly , pudenda , which sends forth a notable artery on each side into the nervous body of the penis in men , and into the clitoris in women . hence it is carried inwards by the jointing of the ossa pubis to the pudenda and groins , and their glands , and is spent on the skin of those parts , and of the yard . when all these pairs of arteries have arisen out of the rami iliaci , they run down out of the peritonaeum to the thighs , where they begin to be called crurales , where we shall leave them till we come to speak of the arteries of the limbs , book . chap. . having now traced all the arteries springing out of the aorta ( whether out of its ascending or descending trunk ) in the thorax and abdomen , taking occasion to doe so , because the great artery out of which they all arise , has its origine in the heart , to which we have considered it as an appendage ; we shall pass on to the description of the remaining parts in the breast , not yet spoken to . pag . tab. ix . fig. . fig. . fig. . fig. . fig. . fig. . fig. . the explanation of the table . figure i. representeth the vessels that go into and out of the heart . a the basis of the heart . b the mucro or cone of the heart . c the trunk of the cava ascending from the liver . d the trunk of the cava above the heart descending from the claviculae . e the uniting of these two trunks as they enter into the right auricle of the heart . f the arteria pulmonaris rising out of the right ventricle , and passing towards the lungs . g the canalis arteriosus from the arteria pulmonaris to the aorta , pervious in a foetus in the womb. h the vena pulmonaria coming from the lungs , and entring into the left ventricle of the heart . i the aorta ascending out of the left ventricle of the heart . k the ascending trunk of the aorta . j the descending trunk of the aorta . figure ii. representeth the oblique fibres of the heart ( lying under the streight , which are outermost , but here removed ) which ascending from the left side towards the right obliquely , terminate in the basis of the heart , ( from doctor lower . ) a the basis of the heart . b the cone . c the fibres that encompass the left ventricle . d the fibres encompassing the right ventricle . e a sinus in the interstice of the ventricles made for receiving the vessels of the heart . figure iii. representeth a second rank of oblique fibres lying under the former , and running clean contrary , from the right side of the heart to the left , ( also from dr. lower . ) a the basis of the heart . b the cone . c the right side of the heart . d the left . e the fibres of the right ventricle . f the fibres of the left . figure iv , v , vi , vii . represent the valves of the vessels that go into and out of the ventricles of the heart . figure iv. a the orifice of the vena coronaria . b a print of the anastomosis between the vena cava and pulmonaria , by means of the foramen ovale . cc the valvulae tricuspides with the fibrillae by which they are tied . figure v. a the right ventricle of the heart opened . bbb the valvulae sigmoides of the arteria pulmonaris . figure vi. aa the vena pulmonaria laid open . b a print of the foramen ovale opening into it . cc the two valvulae mitrales . d the left ventricle laid open . figure vii . a the aorta cut open near the heart . bbb the valvulae semilunares in the orifice of the aorta . chap. xii . of the aspera arteria and lungs . as in the first book , being to treat of the stomach , we first described the gullet , which serves as a tunnel to it ; so the same reason induces to begin with the windpipe , called trachea or aspera arteria , thereby to usher in the description of the lungs , to which it performs the same office as the gullet to the stomach , this receiving in air , as that does meat and drink . the aspera arteria then is a long pipe , consisting of cartilages and membranes , which beginning at the throat or lower part of the jaws and lying upon the gullet descends into the lungs , through which it spreads in many branchings . it is commonly divided into two parts , the upper which is called larynx , and the lower , that is named bronchus . of the former we shall speak in chap. . where we shall treat of the parts contained in the neck ; of the other here . by the bronchus we mean all the trachea besides the larynx , as well before as after it arrive at the lungs . it is joined immediately to the larynx , to whose lowest cartilage all those of the bronchus are assimilated . these cartilages are like so many ribs , hopes or rings , seated one below another at equal distances , and kept in their places by the inner membrane of the trachea , which fills up their interstices and ties them one to another like a ligament . yet these rings have not their circle intire , but on the back-side of the bronchus next the gullet , that they might give way to the meat in swallowing , they pass into a membrane , which is the same with the inner membrane that ties them together . so that they are in figure like the letter c. besides the inner there is also an outer membrane that helps to connect these cartilages the more firmly one to another , and the whole trachea to the neighbouring parts , that it may more safely and firmly descend into the thorax . this is much thinner than the other : for the inner ( according to dr. willis ) has two rows of muscular fibres , the outer streight , the inner oblique ; the first by their contraction shorten the trachea , the latter straiten it : so that he thinks they assist expiration , especially when it is violent , as in coughing , hawking or the like . it is also of most exquisite sense , as every one knows , being the least thing offends it and causes a cough , which is a sort of convulsive motion . and this it ows to the recurring nerves of the sixth pair ( dr. willis's eighth ) creeping along it more than the outer . it is usually besmear'd with a fattish and mucous humour , to hinder its drying , and to make the voice smoother : for when this humour is fretted off in catarrhs , or it becomes unequal from any cause , the voice becomes hoarse ; and when it is dryed by too much heat , as in fevers , it becomes squeaking . the aspera arteria has veins from the external jugulars . arteries from the carotides , and from the arteria bronchialis , ( first found out by frederick ruysch ) which springs from the backside of the descending trunk of the aorta , a little above the lower intercostals . nerves it receives from the recurring branches of the par vagum , as abovesaid . when it is descended as low as the fourth vertebra of the thorax , it is divided into two trunks , whereof one goes into the right lobe of the lungs , the other into the left , and each is presently again divided into two , and those into others , till at last they end in very small branches , which are dispersed among the roots of the pulmonary artery and vein , and end into and are continued with the little bladders that make up the greatest part of the parenchyma of the lungs . for though the lungs ( called in greek 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , à 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 to breath ) have been held to be of a carnous substance , not much unlike the liver or spleen ; yet malpighius hath discover'd them to have a far other parenchyma , namely soft , spongie and rare , made up of most thin and fine membranes continued with the inner coat of the trachea , which membranes compose an infinite number of little round and hollow bladders , so placed that there is an open passage from the trachea out of one into another , and all are terminated at the outer membrane that incloseth the whole lungs . these bladders though they are continued to the bronchia , yet they have no cartilages as those have ; but though they are very fine , yet they have muscular fibres , whereby they contract themselves in expiration , but not so close as to expell all the air included in them ; for if the parenchyma of the lungs had fallen flat and close in expiration , it would have given some stop to the circulation of the bloud through them out of the pulmonary artery into the vein ; whereas now that there remains still so much air in these vesiculae as to keep the lungs a little pufft up and rare , the bloud can pass the more easily and swiftly through them . that there are such bladders annexed to the bronchia , diemerbroeck shews by two notable stories : the one of a stone-cutter's man that died of an asthma , in whom he found these vesiculae so stufft with the dust of the hewn stone , that when he cut his lungs open , his knife seem'd as if it went through an heap of sand : the other of one that being employed to pick and cleanse feathers , died of a long continued asthma , and had these bladders quite fill'd with the fine dust or down of the feathers . from whence he concludes , that whereas in a natural state the air in inspiration is received as well into these bladders as the bronchia , seeing they could not now admit any air , being stufft with the aforesaid matters , the patients were necessarily asthmatical , and dyed so . we said before that all these vesiculae were invested with a common membrane in the superficies of the lungs ; and this dr. willis will have double : the outer tunicle is thin and smooth , which seems to be a fine texture of nervous filaments ; the inner rough and thicke● , consisting almost wholly of the extremities of the vessels and vesiculae ; and through the little pits that are all over made in it by them , its inner superficies looks like an honey-comb . this investing membrane consisting thus of two tunicles has many large pores , but such as admit not any thing to pass from within outwards ; for if one fill the lungs newly taken out of a sheep or the like ( before they are cold ) with a pair of bellows never so full of wind , there will none pass out of the membrane , not so much as to make the flame of a candle to wave : but on the other side they do admit even liquors to pass from without inwards ; so when the breast has been opened to let out matter in an empyema , ( which was too thick to be absorbed by the too narrow pores ) and bitter cleansing injections have been squirted into the cavity of the thorax , to clear it from the purulent matter stagnating in it , it has been observed that a good part of such injections have been hawkt and cough'd up . and though some think that whensoever pus is cough'd up , it is certainly bred in the lungs themselves ; yet i am of opinion that in an empyema when it is thin , these pores may be so large as to imbibe it even out of the cavity of the thorax ; otherwise i see not how any labouring of an empyema should ever be cured without tapping : for of the two i think this a far more probable way to discharge the matter by , than that it should be imbib'd by the mouths of the veins gaping ( as is suppos'd ) either in the superficies of the pleura or diaphragm . but to proceed . the lungs are divided into the right and left part , being parted by the mediastinum , and each part is otherwise called a lobe . and because they are two , that have no communication one with the other ( save in one trachea , by which the air comes into and goes out of them ) hence in common speech we say lungs in the plural . each of these parts or lobes is subdivided into two , sometimes three others , and those into many lesser lobules , as may be seen in the following figure taken from dr. willis . the lungs hang by the aspera arteria that runs through the middle of their substance , and so by its means adhere to the neck . preternaturally ( though pretty often ) they cleave by their outer superficies to the pleura , and sometimes with their lower end to the diaphragm . they have all sorts of vessels , that are common to them with other parts ; but peculiar to themselves they have bronchia or the branches of the wind-pipe , for bringing in and carrying forth of air. their arteries and veins are the arteria and vena pulmonaris , that accompany all the divisions of the aspera arteria within their several lobes . these open one into the other by many anastomoses , and are interwoven one with another all through the coats of the vesiculae . but of these we discoursed so largely before , chap. . that we shall say no more of them here . besides these , that were all the sanguiferous vessels anatomists had observed to reach to the lungs , there has of late been found out an artery by frederick ruysch ( which he calls arteria bronchialis ) that seems to convey bloud for the nourishment of the lungs and bronchia . but of this likewise before ( in this chapter . ) they have abundance of lympheducts that attend upon the veins and arteries . their small twigs running upon the outer superficies of the lungs , towards their root unite into several greater trunks ; which being inserted into the common thoracick duct , discharge thereinto the lympha imbibed by them in the lungs . they may be made to appear very plain in the outward surface , if in dissecting a live-dog , one press upon the top of the thoracick duct , so as nothing be poured from thence into the subclavian vein : for then the lympheducts of the lungs , seeing they cannot unload themselves into the common duct that is now stopt and full , will swell very much and be very conspicuous . if these lympheducts at any time be obstructed or broken , dr. willis thinks there often proceeds from thence a dropsie of the breast or lungs , yea coughs and phthisical distempers . the last sort of vessels dispersed in the lungs are the nerves . and these proceed from the recurring nerves of the par vagum , usually called the sixth pair , but dr. willis's eighth , who says they are distributed all over the lungs along with the sanguiferous vessels and ducts of the bronchia , to supply animal spirits to the muscular fibres of their coats . their action is respiration , of which in the next chapter . the explanation of the table . figure i. representeth the sternum cut off and lifted up , the mediastinum , thymus , lungs , diaphragm , &c. aaa the inner superficies of the sternum and of the cartilages knit to it . tab. x pag. fig. . fig. . fig. . bb the mammary veins and arteries descending under the sternum . c the glandulous body called thymus . dddd the sides of the mediastinum pull'd asunder from the sternum . ee the space between the membranes of the mediastinum , arising from the tearing of it from the sternum . gg the lungs . hh the diaphragm . i the cartilago ensiformis . figure ii. representeth the diaphragm with its processes . a the left nerve of the diaphragm . b the right . c the upper membrane of the diaphragm a little separated . d the carnous substance of the diaphragm bared . e a hole for the gullet to descend by . f a hole for the vena cava . ggg the membranous part or centre of the diaphragm . hhh its processes or appendices , betwixt which the great artery descends . figure iii. representeth a piece of one lobe of the lungs , ( according to the ramifications of the aspera arteria ) divided into many lesser lobules , ( from dr. willis ) a the muscular villi or fibres running streight lengthways in the inside of the aspera arteria , upon which other circular ones lie . bbb a part of the trunk of the trachea , as also its branches that make the lesser lobules , uncut open , that their annular cartilages may be seen . cccc the secondary lobules hung upon the stems of the bronchia like grapes ( which might yet be divided into lesser lobules ) all whose inner ducts pass out of the bronchia into the air-bladders , or vesiculary cells . dddd the sanguiferous vessels creeping along the superficies of the lobules . chap. xiii . of respiration . the action for which the lungs are appointed by nature is respiration , which is an alternative diastole and systole , or dilatation and contraction of the breast , whereby the air is received in , and driven forth of the lungs . now the lungs do not dilate themselves by any proper power or faculty of their own , being destitute of instruments to perform such an action ; nor do they attract the air by any magnetick property , in inspiration : but the muscles of the thorax being so framed , that though contraction be the only and proper action of a muscle , yet the thorax is dilated by certain of them , as it is contracted by others ; whilst it is dilated , there is greater space given for expanding the lungs , and then the air by its proper elastick virtue does of its own accord issue in at the trachea , and insinuates it self into all its bronchia and into the vesiculae , and puffs them all up ; namely to the end that its nitrous particles may every where meet with the bloud as it glides through all the parts of the lungs : and when the breast receding from that dilatation is contracted , the lungs , being partly compressed thereby , and partly by the muscular fibres of the vesiculae and of the inner coat of the trachea and bronchia , expell the air out again . the muscles that assist the dilatation of the breast , are those that lift up the ribs and draw them backwards ; which shall be described book . chap. . and besides these there is another internal muscle , namely the midriff , that contributes towards it , as was shewed chap. . of this book , where we treated of it . and as for the straitning or concidence of the thorax , that it is not only a motion of restitution , or a cessation of the foresaid muscles from their action , as evident , seeing sometimes expiration is performed more laboriously and violently than inspiration , as in coughing , hollooing , or the like . and therefore nature has provided peculiar and proper muscles for that purpose , described in the same chapter of the fourth book ; and these are assisted partly by some muscles of the abdomen , and partly by the muscular fibres of the vesiculae , trachea and bronchia , as abovesaid . there hath been great controversie among philosophers whether respiration be an animal or natural motion . that it is natural , is thought to be proved , both in that it is performed as well when we are asleep , as awake ; and also that though it be continued through a man's whole life , yet we are never wearied with it as we are with animal and voluntary motions . on the other side some prove it to be animal , first because it is performed by such instruments as serve for animal motion , namely muscles ; and secondly because at our pleasure we can make it quicker or slower , stronger or weaker , or alter it how we please . others thinking the arguments on either side convincing , take both in , and suppose it a kind of mixt action , partly natural , and partly spontaneous . but i think there is no necessity from the arguments alledged to grant this motion to be natural , or any more than animal or spontaneous . for as to the first argument , that the motion is as well performed when we sleep as when we are awake , and therefore it cannot be voluntary ; if this were allowed to be of force , we must also grant walking and talking to be natural motions , because many perform them both , when they are asleep . and as to the second , from our not being wearied by it , in answer to it we may distinguish of animal actions , into such as are done by instinct and are free , and into such as serve the affections of the mind : the former proceed always and without impediment , even when we think not thereon , but may notwithstanding be directed and moderated when we do think of them , and such is respiration ; the latter is not performed continually , as to run , leap , write , &c. in the former there is a plentifull and continual influx of animal spirits into the muscles , of custom or course ; whence there follows no weariness , though they be continual : in the latter , seeing by the determination that is made in the brain the spirits now flow in and anon cease , sometimes in greater plenty and sometimes in less , from this mutation and unaccustomedness does the weariness proceed . respiration is so necessary to the continuance of life , that after once the foetus comes into the open air and begins to breath , it can hardly live two minutes without it . but upon what account it becomes so necessary is not agreed among learned men , each party exhibiting such reasons of it , as may best suit with their hypotheses . hence some ( and those the most ) think that respiration serves for the cooling and ventilating of the bloud that acquires a great heat in the right ventricle of the heart , and also for the carrying out fuliginous streams therefrom . others , that it serves for the better mixture of the particles of the bloud as it passes through the lungs , as also to further its circulation . others , that the air is inspired for the greater subtilization of the bloud , and inkindling of the vital spirits , or ( to continue the metaphor ) vital flame . more opinions there are , but this last is ( if not the truest ) the most ingenious , and is very learnedly maintained by dr. willis , dr. charleton , &c. whom the reader may be pleas'd to consult for further satisfaction . a secondary use is to form the voice ; for such creatures as breath not ( as fish , &c. ) are mute . chap. xiv . of the neck and the parts contained in it , viz. the larynx , pharynx , tonsillae , &c. having now dispatched all the parts of the middle venter or thorax , we should next proceed to the highest , viz. the head ; but betwixt these two is the neck , like an isthmus between them , which therefore we must take in our way , and describe the parts contained in it . it is called collum , either à colendo , because it used to be adorned with chains , &c. or because it riseth out of the trunk of the body instar collis like an hill. collum is a general name for the whole neck ; yet the hinder part of it is particularly called cervix . the parts of it are either containing , or contained . the containing are the same which are found in the rest of the body , saving that the membrana carnosa seemeth to be more fleshy . the parts contained are these . . the larynx , which is the upper part of the wind-pipe , and the instrument of forming the voice . it is almost round and circular in figure , only jetting out a little before , and something flattish behind , to give way to the gullet in swallowing . it s bigness differs according to age , sex , and temperament , whence proceeds the great diversity of voices . such in whom it is narrow , as in younger people , have shrill and small voices ; such as have it wide and are come to maturity , have fuller and more hoarse . the voice is altered also in respect of the length or shortness of the larynx , and as the air is more strongly or weakly expelled . it has arteries from the carotides , veins from the external jugulars , and nerves from the recurring branches of par vagum . besides the membranes which are common to it with the rest of the trachea ( described before , chap. . ) it is made up of five cartilages and thirteen muscles . the first cartilage is called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 scutiformis , or buckler-like ; for within it is hollow , but without embossed or convex : that part which sticketh out is called pomum adami , from an idle fable , that part of the fatal apple by god's judgment stuck in his throat , and that this cartilage being thereby distended was made to jet out , and the protuberance propagated to posterity . it is greater in men than in women . the second cartilage is called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 annularis , because it is like a turkish ring , and compasseth the whole larynx ; in the hinder part it is broad and thick . the third and fourth because of the membrane that invests them , seem but one , but it being removed they appear to be two . however they have but one name which is 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 guttalis , because when their two processes are joined together , they are instar gutturnii like to that part of the neck of a jug or ewer at which we pour out the water . for by their juncture they frame a rimula or little chink for the modulating of the voice , called glottis . the fifth is called epiglottis , because it is placed above the glottis or chink , and covereth it . it is of the form of a tongue , and is appointed to hinder the falling down of any thing which may prove offensive unto the wind-pipe , when we eat or drink . it is pressed down by the weight of the things which are swallowed , and turneth them down to the gula. the muscles by which these cartilages are moved in forming the voice , are thirteen in number ; but as for their names and description , the reader may please to consult book . chap. . the second part contained in the neck is the upper part of the gullet , which is called pharynx , from 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , because it conveyeth the meat and drink towards the stomach . it is continued to the fauces , ( ●or indeed is the greatest part thereof ) reaching up behind to the vvula , on the sides to the tonsillae , and before to the epiglottis . it is membranous , but not purely so , for it is thick and in some sort carnous . it has seven muscles , to assist it in swallowing , three pair to open it , and an odd one , which is called its sphincter , to straiten it , of which book . chap. . the next parts are the tonsillae , commonly called almonds , which are two glands seated at the root of the tongue , on each side of the vvula , and at the top of the larynx , covered with the common membrane that invests all the mouth . they are of a yellowish colour , and dr. wharton compares their substance to concreated honey , only they are of a more firm consistency , but they look sandy like it : they have small vessels from the jugular veins and arteries , and nerves from the fifth and sixth pair . they have each a large oval common duct or sinus that opens into the mouth , so wide in an oxe that one may put the top of ones little finger into it . into this many lesser open , and by it discharge into the mouth , &c. the liquor that is separated in the gland . the use of these glands is to separate a certain mucous or pituitous matter from the bloud , for the moistening and lubricating of the larynx , tongue , fauces , and gullet . dr. wharton ascribes a more noble use to them , viz. to make a ferment to further the concoction of the stomach , yea thinks that they are the chief instrument of taste . there are several other glands that are near to these , as . the thyreoideae that are seated towards the lower part of the larynx at the sides of the cartilages thyreoides and cricoides , &c. . the jugular , placed by the jugular vessels ; of which dr. wharton has told fourteen on each side : . parotides , situated at the root of the ear ; which whoso would see accurately described , may consult the said dr. wharton , in his adenographia , cap. , , . for they are too minute and inconsiderable parts to fill up any large room in this epitome . neither shall we mention the veins and arteries that pass through the neck to the head , having described them before in chap. . and . as to other parts that make up the neck , viz. the seven vertebrae , and eight muscles , those will come to be treated of in their proper books : and therefore we shall pass immediately to the highest venter , the head. the end of the second book . the third book . of the head . chap. i. of the head in general , and its common containing parts . now followeth the third and highest venter of the body , called caput , the head. this is the most noble cavity of the three , containing the brain , wherein the rational soul more especially operates , and whereby all the animal motions of the whole body are moderated and determined ; as well as performed by means of the spirits elaborated in it , and sent into all the parts by the nerves . it is placed in the highest region , most fit for the organs of the senses , but chiefly for the eyes ; for they ought to be placed there as in a watch-tower : and besides having but soft nerves which could not endure a long passage , it was requisite that the brain should be near them . of figure it is spherical ; yet somewhat flattish , and longish . it is bigger in man than in other creatures , considering the proportion of their bodies ; as his brain also is . the parts are of three sorts , for they are either . distinctive , or . expressive of the regions , or . constitutive of the whole . the parts distinctive are two , the hairy scalp called calva , and that without hair called facies . the parts which express the regions ( of the first , ) are four : . sinciput or the fore-part , reaching from the forehead to the coronal future . . occiput the noddle , or hinder part , beginning at the future lambdoides , and reaching to the first vertebra of the neck . . vertex , the crown , which is situated on the top of the head between the bounds of the sinciput and occiput . and . the lateral parts descending from this on each side between the ears and eyes are called tempora , or the temples . the parts constitutive are either containing , or contained . the containing are either common or proper . the common are those we treated of in chap. . of the first book , viz. the cuticula , cutis , pinguedo , and membrana carnosa . the cuticula is thinner and softer ; but the skin thicker than in any other part of the body , yet porous , to give way to the nourishment of the hair. the membrana carnosa in some cleaveth so to the skin , that they can move it at their pleasure . we shall not need to say more here of these common containing parts , but refer the reader to the above-cited place ; and now proceed to the proper , having first discoursed a little of the hair. chap. ii. of the hair. the hairs of the head are called in latine capilli , quasi capitis pili , and differ not from the hairs in any other part of the body , save in length . now an hair may be defined to be a body cold and dry , small , thread-like , hard and flexible , budding from the skin . the hairs are seldom round , but generally four square , as the stalks of some plants ; sometimes triangular , but always porous , the pores running lengthways . all these things may be observed in a good microscope . they are sometimes curled , and sometimes hang lank . hairs are commonly divided into congeniti , such as we bring into the world with us , as those of the head , eyelids , and eyebrows ; and postgeniti , such as begin to grow at certain seasons in our life-time , as the beard , the hairs growing about the pudenda , on the breast , in the arm-pits , and the like . they are no parts of the body , and therefore have no animal life ; yet they have a vegetative life , and that peculiar to themselves , and not owing to the life of the body , seeing they continue to grow after a man is dead , as has been observed in embalmed bodies . the matter out of which they are bred and nourished is commonly reputed to be a moist , fuliginous , crass , earthy and somewhat viscid excrement of the third concoction . spigelius thinks they are nourished by bloud : which opinion he grounds on an analogy he supposes there is between hair , and the feathers of fowl ; and these latter he says are apparently nourished by bloud , for if one pull one from off a young fowl , its end is bloudy . diemerbroeck dissents not much herefrom , but thinks the bloud to be prepared and concocted in a specifical manner into a crass , earthy and viscid juice . whatever the matter be , it is attracted by the white roots of the hairs , and is carried even to their very ends by the pores ; just as plants receive nourishment out of the earth by their roots , and communicate it to their outmost parts . the colour of them is answerable to the climate , or to the natural constitution of the party , or to the diversity of those humours that are mixed with the juice whereby they are nourished . in those of cold flegmatick constitutions they use to be of a light colour , in cholerick , reddish , &c. they are most commonly streight in those which are born in cold countries , but curled in those who inhabit hot climates . and as the reason of the difference of the colour of the hair in several persons is from different temperaments , &c. so the reason why men in old age grow grey , whenas their hair before was of another colour , seemeth to be the predominance of flegm in that juice that nourisheth them : whence also the hairs of the head and face soonest turn white , because the brain does more abound with pituitous humours than any other part of the body . but it is not so easy to give a reason of some men's turning grey in one nights time , when they have been under great fears ; of which there are many instances credibly reported . the hairs have three uses : for they serve . for defence , . for beauty , and . shew the temperature of the whole body and skin . chap. iii. of the proper containing parts . the proper containing parts are five ; to wit , the muscles , the pericranium , the periosteum , the cranium , and the meninges . look for the muscles in the fifth book , and for the cranium in the sixth . of the other here . and first the pericranium is a membrane thinnish , dense and white , of exquisite sense , immediately seated under the membrana carnosa . it covereth the whole skull , except where the temporal muscles lie upon the cranium , for it is stretched over them , and seeing it is very sensible and tender , it causeth horrible pain and inflammation , when the temporal muscle is wounded . it is tied to the dura mater by some nervous fibres , which pass within the skull by its sutures , to stay firmly the dura mater , and also the brain which it invests , from inordinate moving . and although in infants new born these be strongly united , insomuch that the pericranium is said by some to spring from the dura mater ; yet in process of time they part , and become joined only by some fibrous ties , by which , inflammations may be communicated from the pericranium to the brain . next under the pericranium is spread the periosteum , which immediately cleaveth to the skull and gives it that sense which it hath . it self is a very thin and nervous membrane , and of very acute sense . all the bones of the whole body ( except the teeth ) are invested with such alike membrane , and owe their sense to it . some deny it to be found here , affirming that the pericranium supplieth its place : but that cannot be so , for the pericranium ( as was noted above ) goeth above the temporal muscles , whereas the periosteum always cleaveth close and immediately to the bone , as here it doth to the skull under the said muscles . these two membranes outwardly investing the cranium have arteries from a branch of the external carotides , and veins from the external jugulars . the meninges follow , called by the arabians , matres ; as if all the membranes of the body were propagated from them . these are immediately within the skull as the other were without ; but adhere not close thereto , as those do . they are two in number : the crassa meninx or dura mater , and the tenuis meninx or pia mater . the dura mater is the outer , that is , is next to the skull , through whose sutures sending fibres to the pericranium , it is suspended thereby ; for in other places it is loose from the cranium , saving in its basis , to which it is so firmly knit , that it can hardly be pulled from it ; or where it is suspended by vessels entring into it from the perforations of the skull . it is thicker and harder than the inner , whence it has the epithet of dura , hard . it consists of a double membrane , the outer of which is more rough , towards the cranium ; and the inner is more smooth and slippery , and as it were bedewed with water . it is knit to the pia mater by many vessels that pass from it thereto . it has many foramina or holes for the transit of the vessels ; and besides , one very large one at the descent of the spinal marrow , and another toward the glandula pituitaria : and where it adheres to the os cribriforme , it is perforated like a sieve . it has arteries from the larger branch of the carotides , entring into it through the holes of the wedge-like bone , and that of the forehead . these in some places run out of it into the pia mater , by means whereof they are in some measure knit together . veins it has from the internal jugulars . at the crown of the head it is doubled , from whence its duplicature descending inwards , divides the brain into the right and left side . this duplicature , because it is broader backwards , and grows narrower forwards , and so resembles in some manner a reaper's sickle , is called falx . now this falx reaches as far forwards as to the top of the nose , where it grows to the partition-bone that distinguishes the processus mammillares , and is called galli crista or cock's comb . but it s hinder and broader part towards the occiput , being severed , descends towards both the right and left side , and distinguishes the cerebellum from the cerebrum . in the said duplicature are formed four sinus or cavities , three pretty large , and one little one . the first which is the highest and longest , runs along the upper part of the falx , from the top of the nose lengthways of the head towards the occiput , where it is divided into two lateral sinus descending by the sides of the lambdoidal future to the basis of the occiput . and at the said division the fourth short sinus proceeds inwards to the glandula pinealis . into these cavities the mouths both of arteries and veins are said to open ; by the former whereof bloud is extravasated into them , and absorbed again out of them by the latter . whence if one open the skull of a live-creature , one may observe a beating in the long uppermost sinus , from the bloud discharged into it by the arteries . and some are of opinion that the veins also convey some bloud into them , which being superfluous to the nourishment of the brain and meninges is poured in hither by the veins from the respective parts , and is imbibed again by other veins opening into them , namely the inner branches of the jugulars , to be returned to the heart . the place where all these sinus meet together at the occiput , is called torcular herophili . the second ( and inner ) membrane investing the brain is called tenuis meninx or pia mater . this is of most exquisite sense , and endowed with very many arteries and veins . it immediately cloaths the brain and hinders it from running about , and also involves all its windings and circuits , and tying their summities together makes all the superficies of the brain plain as it were : which upper connexion being loosed , the windings of the brain , because they are invested with this membrane , may easily be separated and laid open . from this same meninx proceeds also a most thin membrane investing the inner ventricles of the brain . this membrane is interwoven with many admirable plexus or nets of most small vessels , springing from the carotides and cervical arteries and jugular veins joined every where by mutual inosculations , that by so great a number of vessels there might on every hand be affused bloud enough for the nourishment of the brain , and making of animal spirits . dr. willis writes that he has observed very small glands intermixt among these plexus of vessels , which he saith may be easily perceived in a moist or hydropick brain , but not so well in others . both the spinal marrow extended to the bottom of os sacrum , and all the nerves that arise out of it , and out of the brain , have a double coat from these two meninges , with which being cloathed they run to their designed parts . chap. iv. of the brain in general . the pia mater being taken away , the brain offereth it self , called by the greeks 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 . it is the general organ of sense , in which the soul , the governour of the body , perceives and judgeth of the sensations of all sentient parts , and out of which , as out of a fountain , it communicateth the beams of its benignity ( namely the animal spirits bred in the brain ) by the ducts or rivulets of the nerves to all the sentient parts of the body , and thereby endows them with the faculty of performing animal actions . it s substance is thick , viscous , soft , and white . it is not a glandule , for it is the work-house and seat of the animal spirits ; but glandules are appointed to receive excrementitious humours , and it is more curiously framed than any glandule . neither is it of a marrowy substance ; for marrow swimmeth in water , but this sinketh . besides , marrow nourisheth the bones ; but the brain nourisheth no part . and lastly , marrow being cast into the fire flameth , but so will not the brain . it seemeth therefore to be a viscus or bowel , endowed with a peculiar sort of a parenchyma , part of which malpighius by the help of his microscopes has observed to be of this substance , viz. that all the white part of the brain ( called the corpus callosum ) is evidently divided into flattishly round little fibres , which in the brains of fish are so apparent , that if you hold them betwixt you and the light , they represent the small teeth of an ivory comb . these fibres he saith are inserted by their ends into the cortex or the ash-coloured outer part of the brain , through which abundance of sanguiferous vessels are dispersed , and out of which therefore the aforesaid fibres seem to draw their nourishment . dr. willis calls these fibres canales or striae , whence the corpus callosum might as well be called striatum . for nutrition and confection of animal spirits it receives bloud by arteries derived from the carotides and cervical , whose capillaries are dispersed through its substance : and what is superfluous to the said uses is partly imbibed by the veins of the meninges , and partly deposited in the sinus's by the arteries themselves , to be carried to the internal branches of the jugulars , and thereby to the heart . the arteries inosculate one with another ( i. e. the right carotides with the left ) as well as with the veins . and it is from the pulse of the arteries altogether , that the beating ( or systole and diastole as it were ) of the brain proceedeth . a man of all other living creatures hath the biggest brain ; for it weigheth four or five pound in some ; and is as big again as an oxe's brain . the outer surface is full of windings , like those of the guts , which are severally invested with the pia mater , as also tied together by it . the whole brain is much of the same shape with the head , viz. roundish , but with bunchings out towards the forehead . of its action we shall speak in the th chapter . chap. v. of the parts of the brain properly so called , viz. cortex , corpus callosum , septum lucidum , fornix , three sinus , infundibulum , glandula pituitaria , plexus choroides , rete mirabile , nates , testes , anus , and glandula pinealis . the brain taken in a large signification hath three parts , cerebrum , that which properly is called the brain : the cerebellum , or little brain : and that part of the spinalis medulla , which is within the skull . now there are several methods of dissecting the brain , some beginning behind , as dr. willis ; some on the right side , as sylvius ; and some at the crown , which is the old way , and this we shall follow , beginning with the cerebrum properly so called , which lieth uppermost . the brain differeth from the cerebellum ; first , in substance , for it is softer ; secondly , in colour , for it is whiter ; thirdly , in bigness , for it is three times as big . the upper part of the brain is divided into two parts by the falx above-described , to wit , into the right and left . but this partition descendeth no deeper into the brain than the thickness of the ash-coloured part of it , which is called its cortex . for if this be removed , that which lieth under it , being of a whiter substance , is a continued body , commonly called corpus callosum , whose substance we described above in the foregoing chapter out of malpighius . dr. willis says , it is wholly medullar : whence some divide the brain ( properly so called ) into cortex and medulla . the inferiour part of the corpus callosum maketh a partition , which is called septum lucidum . it is loose and wrinkled ; but if it be spread out , and held to the light , it appeareth clear . it cleaveth above to the corpus callosum , but below to the fornix . some will have it to be a reduplication of the pia mater ; others a portion of the brain . under the corpus callosum , the fornix or vault is seated , of the like substance . in the upper part it is arched ; but in the lower part convex : in figure it is triangular . it holdeth up the weight of this upper part of the brain from bearing down on the subjacent parts . there are several sinus or cavities in the brain , that are continued indeed to one another , yet because at the first view they seem separate , are considered by anatomists as distinct , and they commonly reckon four of them : three of which are seated in the cerebrum , of which in this chapter ; and the fourth is common to the cerebellum and medulla oblongata , of which in the next . the brain being taken away as far as the corpus callosum , there appear two of the said sinus , which are called the superiour , lateral , or anteriour , and which are divided into the right and left by the septum lucidum just now described . they are something of the shape of half-moons , or horse-shoes , and being invested with a very thin membrane , they descend forwards by a pretty large duct to the processus mammillares . and backwards they descend to the basis of the brain , in which place branches of the carotides enter their membrane , and make in it the plexus choroides , together with some twigs of veins interwoven with them . the membrane wherein this plexus is formed , has very many small glandules , which separate a pituitous matter or flegm from the vessels into the sinus . along which it has been supposed to flow to the processus mammillares , and from them to destill through the os cribriforme into the nose . but dr. lower denies any such office of the os cribriforme , affirming that the holes in it are only for the transit of the nerves and membranes going forth from the processus , and that these fill them so close that nothing can flow through them . and says , that flux of rheum through the nose , upon the vvula , and into the mouth , &c. in catarrhs , falls not from the head , but is separated from the arteries in the glands of the respective parts , as into the nose through the glands of its investing membrane , &c. and as to the serous matter that is infused into these sinus in the brain , he says it is all absorbed again by the vessels opening into them , and returns by the jugular veins to the heart . the third ventricle is nothing else , but the meeting of the former two , towards the hinder part . in it there are two passages : the first in the fore-part , which marcheth streight-ways down to the infundibulum . the second passeth under the testes and nates to the fourth ventricle , and is called foramen ani or vulva . the infundibulum , or funnel , is a certain cavity under this third ventricle , passing down from about the middle of it , say some , but doctor wharton says out of the fourth . it is framed of the pia mater , which being wide at its beginning , and becoming narrower towards its end , representeth a funnel . it endeth in the glandula pituitaria , which is placed in the cavity of the sella equina , and upon the wedge-like bone , through which it has been thought to destil upon the palate , the flegm poured upon it by the infundibulum . but dr. lower denies this , appealing to the structure of the parts , and his often experiments upon calves heads : in which , he says , the wedge-like bone lying under the glandula pituitaria is sometimes perforated in divers places , at least by one large duct , which being divided into two does on each side open into the jugular veins : so that if milk or ink be injected through those ducts by a syringe , it presently passeth through on each side into the said veins ; and nothing of tincture will appear about the palate , nostrils , mouth , fauces or larynx . so that in a calf the humour that proceeds from the brain , returns all again into the veins . and the same thing he says he has lately tried in a man's skull , wherein though the wedge-like bone be never perforated , yet nature has framed other ducts whereby all the serum may be again derived out of the ventricles of the brain into the bloud : for there are two vessels seated on each side the sella turcica ( to be described book . chap. . ) which with gaping mouths as it were receive all the water destilled out of the glandula pituitaria , and deposite it on each side into the jugular veins without the skull ; whose ducts will easily appear if water or milk be squirted forcibly out of a syringe into either jugular vein near the skull , for the liquor will by and by break out near the glandula pituitaria , which makes it evident , that whatever serum is separated into the ventricles of the brain , and issues out of them through the infundibulum , destils not upon the palate , but is poured again into the bloud and mixed with it . ] so that according to this opinion , the rheum that issues so plentifully sometimes into the mouth and fauces , &c. falls not from the brain , but , as was noted above , is separated from the arteries immediately by the glands of the respective parts . about this glandule , all over the sides of the aforesaid cavity , there is a membranous plexus framed of innumerable twigs of arteries ; which spring from the largest branch of the carotides , that passeth by a proper hole in the bones of the temples , into the capacity of the cranium : it is called rete intrabile , representing a net spread abroad . about the hindermost passage of the third ventricle which leadeth to the fourth ventricle , certain round bodies appear , being small protuberances or portions of the medulla oblongata . as first , and uppermost , there are the two ends of the roots of the said medulla , which are called corpora striata , being of such a like substance as the corpus callosum before described . the rest lying under these have their denomination from those things which they resemble . the first is glandula pinealis , or penis ; because it representeth the pine-nut , or a man's yard . it is seated in the beginning of that pipe , by which the third and fourth ventricles are united . it s basis is downwards , and its apex or end looks upwards . it is of a substance harder than the brain , of a pale colour , and covered with a thin membrane . this gland des cartes thinks to be the primary seat of the soul , and that all animal operations draw their origine from it . but bartholin has sufficiently confuted that opinion ; for it seems to be but of the same use as other glands , and particularly the glandula pituitaria placed near it , viz. to separate the lympha from the arterial bloud ; which lympha is resorbed by the veins ( or it may be by vasa lymphatica ) as was shewn above from dr. lower . near to this on both the sides of this third ventricle four round bodies appear . the two upper are lesser , and are called testes : the two greater are lower , and are called nates . the chink betwixt the nates is called anus . the use of these ventricles is first for the more easie passage of the bloud ; for it were not convenient for the sanguiferous vessels to be carried through the soft substance of the brain ; lest being compressed by the weight of it , the passage of the bloud should have been hindred . whereas now it has no such lett , seeing the vessels are interwoven in the membranes that invest these sinus , and make the plexus choroides and rete mirabile abovementioned . another use is for the reception of the serous excrement of the bloud separated from it by the glandulous membrane of the plexus choroides , and glandula pituitaria ; which according to the old doctrine was discharged out of them by the sieve-like bone at the top of the nostrils , and through the wedge-like bone upon the vvula , fauces , &c. but according to the new , is absorbed again by the veins and descends by the jugulars to the heart . chap. vi. of the cerebellum , and the fourth ventricle . the second part of the brain is called cerebellum , or the little brain . it is seated in the hinder and lower part of the head or skull , and is separated from the cerebrum by the two membranes wherewith it is wrapped , namely the dura and pia mater . it differeth not much from the brain properly so called , saving that it is harder . it does not run in such windings as the brain , but its substance is made up of lamellae or plates that lie one upon another , and are each kept apart from other by the pia mater , that invests each one singly , and is much interwoven with arteries . within , it is very white , but outwardly more dusky or greyish . it is framed of four parts , whereof two are lateral , the right and the left : these are spherical . two are in the middle ; to wit , the foremost and hindermost : these are round , and are framed of sundry orbicular portions ; which because they are like unto the worms that are in rotten timber , are called processus vermiformes , or worm-like processes . the one is in the fore-part of the fourth ventricle ; the other in the hinder part . the use of the cerebellum seems to be the same as of the brain . only dr. willis not content with this general opinion , distinguishes their uses : writing that in the brain are elaborated those spirits that perform voluntary motion , and in the cerebellum those that assist natural , as that of the heart , &c. but against this new hypothesis of his , lie many objections ; as first , that fowl have no cerebellum , and yet their heart , &c. moves . secondly , the motion of the heart , &c. called natural , depends at least partly on the animal spirits brought by the par vagum , which arise out of the medulla oblongata , and therefore one cannot easily conceive how they should receive spirits from the cerebellum ; or if they did , why thirdly , not only the natural motion of the heart should be performed by the said pair of nerves , but voluntary motions also , as those of the larynx , &c. between the lower part of the cerebellum and the crura or roots of the medulla oblongata , is the fourth ventricle formed . this is commonly called the noble ventricle , from an opinion that the animal spirits are elaborated unto perfection herein , as they were prepared in the three other . but as we have assigned other uses to the other , in the foregoing chapter ; so we cannot grant any such office to this , as shall be further shewed in the eighth chapter . it s lower part that runs in betwixt the forked roots of the medulla oblongata , from its shape , ending in a point , is called calamus scriptorius , or a writing pen. chap. vii . of the medulla oblongata and spinalis . now followeth the third part of the brain , called medulla oblongata within the brain , and assoon as it is descended out of it into the spine , spinalis , or dorsalis medulla . the substance of it is fibrous , being composed of many slender long filaments , which whether they are hollow or no , cannot be discovered through their fineness . it hath two parts ; viz. that which is contained within the brain , and that which is included within the vertebrae of the back-bone , or spine . that which is within the skull is about four inches in length . that which is without , and beginneth at the great hole of the occiput , reacheth to the coccyx , growing smaller and smaller in the os sacrum towards its end . if one cut through its substance , there will innumerable little specks or sprinklings of bloud appear , but the vessels are so small , that they cannot be discern'd . but there are plainly discoverable very many twigs of arteries and veins running through the membranes that invest it ; from which arteries the bloud is infus'd into the pores of the medulla , as it is imbib'd again from thence by the veins . it seems not to be a separate part from the brain , but rather a production of it and the cerebellum together , out of both which it seems to rise by six roots ; the two uppermost and foremost are the most considerable , and are called corpora striata , being the ends of its two crura , by which it is joined to the brain ; the four lower and backer are the protuberances of the nates and testes , by which it adheres more to the cerebellum . it hath three membranes . the first is that which immediately toucheth it . this springeth from the pia mater , and passeth between both the parts of it , alone without the outer . the twigs of arteries and veins run mostly through this . the second covereth the first , and springeth from the dura mater . there is no distance between them , as there is in the brain , but one toucheth another being knit together by fibres . the third proceeding from the ligament which joineth together the vertebrae , covereth both these . it is divided all along from the very first meeting of its crura within the skull , to the end of os sacrum , by a membranous partition parting it into two ; but this division is not apparent in the spine , because of the dura mater that covers it ; but it may be discovered if that be taken off , and the medulla severed in the middle . the partition is made of the pia mater , and by means of it it is that the use or motion of one side only is sometimes taken away in the palsie . from this medulla within and without the brain proceed all the nerves of the whole body . chap. viii . of the processus mammillares . treating above of the two lateral sinus of the brain , we said they descended forwards to the two processus mammillares , which we shall now describe . they are called mammillares or papillares , because in their end they are round like the nipple of a woman's breast . but they are hollow within and pretty full of moisture . anatomists are not agreed from whence their rise is , some affirming it to be from the brain , others from the crura of the medulla oblongata , amongst whom dr. willis is a leading man. from which soever it is , they proceed as far forwards as the sieve-like bone , seated at the top of the nostrils . dr. willis takes them to be truly the smelling nerves , and calls them the first pair . he says they are very marrowy and soft , till they come to the os cribriforme , but then they borrow coats of the dura mater , with which being divided into many fibres and filaments , and passing through the holes of the said bone , they go out of the skull : whence being carried into the caverns of the nostrils , they are distributed all through the membrane that invests them . yet besides this use of smelling , he thinks they may destil some of their moisture into the nostrils through the holes of the os cribriforme by the duct of the fibres and filaments . diemerbro●●k thinks they have only this latter use ; only that the rheum or lympha destils from them as well upon the fauces and their glands , as into the nostrils . dr. lower grants only the former use ; and says , that it is incredible that the humour that is contained in the cavity of these processes should issue out by the nerves into the nostrils , for if it did , the sense of smelling must needs be much prejudic'd thereby . and besides , if this water could destil by and out of the nerves , much more might the spirits , that are thinner and more subtil , fly away . and as to the humour contained in the cavity of the processes , he supposes it to be of very great use : namely , that when effluvia or most subtil particles exhaling from an external object are delivered to the olfactory nerves , that their species may reach the brain the better , it was necessary that those nerves or processes should be made hollow from their very rise , and be filled with a limpid humour : not that i believe , says he , that the species themselves are conveyed through their cavities into the ventricles of the brain , or that the animal spirits are lodged in those ventricles , as the ancients thought ; but that they are therefore hollow and moisten'd within with water , that their marrowy bodies may serve the better both for retaining and conveying smells into the brain : for as things smelled are better perceived from moist bodies and in a moist 〈◊〉 in a dry season from the parched ground ( as huntsmen know too well ) so it is likely that in the same manner as they are best perceiv'd outwardly , they are also best conveyed ●nwardly , &c. ] and indeed if we will allow them to be olfactory nerves , it is very incongruous that they should serve for an emunctory to the brain , to discharge its superfluous serum . and therefore we think it fit to acquiesce in this learned physicians opinion : and to believe that the lympha gathered in the ventricles of the brain is emptied by those ways we before observed out of the same author , and not at all by the nervous filaments that pass from these processes through the os cribriforme into the nostrils . chap. ix . of the action of the brain , and the supposed succus nutritius of the nerves . it is generally agreed that the proper action of the brain ( in a large sense ) is the elaborating of animal spirits ; and that they are sent from it by the nerves into the several parts of the body , for performing both natural and animal actions . but what these animal spirits are , and in what particular part of the brain they are generated , is not agreed upon by learned men. some are of opinion that the animal spirits differ in no other regard from the vital , but only as they are conveyed by proper vessels , and minister to other purposes , and are of a cooler temperament ; but that there is no specifical difference betwixt them . others on the other side think they differ in specie , and agree in nothing , but only that the vital spirits and bloud are the matter from whence the animal spirits are formed . a third sort deny the arterial bloud to be the matter of these spirits , and affirm that the nerves absorb a part of the chyle , of which they are made , and besides , a nutritious juice , ( of which by and by . ) and some there are that suppose air also to be an ingredient , which ascends into the brain through the os cribriforme . we cannot stand upon the examination and refutation of several of these opinions here ; but upon a due consideration of the arguments urged for each , we think that the animal spirits are specifically distinct from the vital , but that the vital , with the arterial bloud , their vehicle , are the true and only matter , out of which they are elaborated . and there is no less difference in what part of the brain the animal spirits are made . some thinking in the sinus of the falx . others the four ventricles of the brain , especially the fourth , a third sort the plexus choroides and rete mirabile ; des cartes , that they are separated out of the arteries of plexus choroides in the glandula pinealis into the ventricles ; and others lastly assign the whole substance of the brain for the place of their confection . as to the sinus of the falx , the use of that was shewn above chap. . and as to the ventricles , seeing they are often almost quite full of waterish humour , but always have some , they seem very unfit for the making or receiving such subtil and volatile spirits as the animal are . as for the plexus choroides and rete mirabile , there is no vessel in either that contains any thing , but under the form of bloud ; so that seeing there are no vasa deferentia ( or call them what you will ) to convey the spirits to the origine of the nerves , these also seem improper for such an action . we must therefore subscribe to the last opinion that ascribes this work to the very substance of the brain , and is performed in this manner . the heart is like the primum mobile of the body , to which the motion of all the humours , that have once past it , is owing . this by its systole impells the bloud , as into all other parts , so into the brain by the several branches of the carotides , whose innumerable twigs run partly through the outer cortex or greyish part of the brain , and partly into the inner medullar or white substance . these twigs of arteries spring partly from the plexus choroides and rete mirabile , and partly from the carotides themselves immediately . the superfluous serum of the bloud is separated by the glands above described ; and that which is not elaborated into animal spirit , is returned again to the heart , by the veins . but those particles that are fit and proper to be converted into them , are extravasated into the very parenchyma of the brain , or at least are distributed through it by invisible capillaries , in which being perfected into spirits , these by help of the fibres or filaments which the inner substance of the brain chiefly consists of , are conveyed to the corpora striata ( or other processes of the medulla oblongata that adhere to the brain ) which consist of the like filaments , and by them to the nerves , whose inner substance is fibrous like the medulla from whence they spring . and the reason of this successive motion from one to another , is the pulse of the heart , whereby that which comes behind , always drives forward what is before . whence the true cause of an apoplexy ( wherein motion and sense are almost quite abolisht ) is from the obstruction or compression , &c. of the arteries in the brain ; whereby both little bloud and vital spirit can be conveyed thither to make animal spirit of , and also when it is made , it is not impelled out of the brain along the fibres into the nerves , to enable them to perform their functions . there is no less controversie about the nutritious juice of the nerves : some contending for it to that height , as to affirm that all the parts of the body are only nourish'd by it , and not at all by the bloud , which by its rapid motion they say is liker to wear and carry away something from the parts through which it passes , than to adhere to them for their restauration . others are more moderate , and suppose that nourishment is dispensed only to the spermatick parts by the nerves , which the nerves receive not from the bloud , but imbibing the most thin part of the chyle out of the stomach and guts do carry it up to the brain , from whence it is conveyed again by the same nerves to the parts to be nourish'd by it . diemerbroeck is of opinion , that the juice of the nerves ( which is as a vehicle to the spirits ) being somewhat acid , does contribute or yield assistance to the nourishment of the spermatick parts , not as it is the matter of , but as it separates from the bloud such particles as are fit for , their nourishment . whence it is , he says , that such parts of the body as are most exercised , and by consequent into which most animal spirits flow , grow the strongest , having more of such particles of the bloud as are fit for their instauration , separated in them . so they that are used to walk , will endure it better , than others that are not so used , though otherwise much stronger . and hence the right arm is usually stronger than the left , in those that are right-handed ( as we say . ) but he thinks that the nerves have no juice in them which they did not first receive from the bloud . dr. willis is much of his opinion , saving as to this last particular ; for he says , it is without doubt that the nervous fibres and filaments which cloath the sensory of the taste , and the bowels that serve concoction , do immediately take some taste of the aliments for the supply of the brain , especially at such times as the spirits are much wasted in too long fasting or over much exercise . but then that juice that may be supposed to be made thereof in the brain , and to be dispensed by the nerves into all the parts of the body , he believes not to be the matter of the nourishment of any part whether spermatick or sanguineous : but that it is as the form only , and the bloud the matter , whose several particles being analysed or severed by the said juice , are directed and adapted by its directive faculty or plastick power as it were , to such parts respectively as they are suitable for . and from hence he draws a reason why paralytick parts do waste so much , though the bloud flow plentifully enough into them , because the nerves being obstructed and no animal spirits ( with their vehicle ) passing by them , the particles of the bloud are not separated for the supply of such parts . ] as for the nervous juice , it must needs be very little in quantity , seeing if one make a ligature upon the nerve , it will not swell betwixt the head and ligature , nor if one cut the nerve in sunder will any thing destil out of it . so that 't is very absurd to think that it should be sufficient for the nourishment of all the parts of the body , according to the first opinion . nor does it seem reasonable to imagine that the chyle should ascend from the stomach , &c. to the brain by the nerves , whiles this nervous juice that is contended for , with the animal spirits , is descending by the same ; for one cannot conceive how such contrary motions of liquors in the same vessel can be at the same time . though from the sudden refection that persons ready to faint receive from spirituous liquors , &c. it be probable that certain effluvia or subtil and spirituous vapours do enter the nervous silaments of the mouth and stomach , and recruit the animal spirits immediately , without fetching that compass that i believe all the chyle does . and as the nerves imbibe no chyle from the stomach , &c. so receive they no more from the arteries , than some of its most spirituous and volatile particles elaborated in the brain into animal spirits , which have indeed some little moisture accompanying them as a vehicle , but which is neither of a suitable nature nor of proportionable quantity for the nourishment even of the spermatick parts only . for seeing the nerves have no conspicuous cavity , but only imperceptible pores , by which any liquor can drill along them ; such liquor must needs be most thin and watery , and therefore unfit to be assimilated to any part . and lastly , as to the opinion that it separates the particles of the bloud , and so distributes those that are respectively proper for , unto , each part , as the sulphureous to the fat , &c. or is to the bloud as the form is to the matter ; it is an ingenious hypothesis i confess , but whether true , i dare not affirm . chap. x. of the nerves arising within the skull , and first of the first and second pair . so much of the substance of the brain and of the animal spirits , &c. it follows that we shew the nerves which proceed from it . of them there have been reckoned seven pair , comprehended in these verses : optica prima ; oculos movet altera ; tertia gustat : quarta , & quinta audit ; vaga sexta ; at septima linguae est . but assenting to dr. willis , that most accurate describer of them , who holds the processus mammillares to be the olfactory nerves , and the par vagum and intercostale to be two distinct pairs , we reckon nine in all : of the two first of which in this chapter . of all the pairs of nerves that rise within the skull , the olfactory or smelling pair are the first , otherwise called processus mammillares . they spring from the crura of the medulla oblongata betwixt the corpora striata and the little hillocks or eminences out of which the optick nerves rise ( called by galen , their thalami . ) though diemerbroeck , that denies them to be nerves , affirms that they spring not from the said medulla , but from the globous marrow of the brain ( properly so called ) and its fore ventricles . but having discoursed of these in a particular chapter , ( viz. chap. . ) we shall adde no more of them here . the second pair the optici or visorii nervi make ; these bestow upon the eyes the faculty of seeing . they spring from the crura or trunks of the oblongata medulla behind the corpora striata , as was noted in the foregoing paragraph . they march on from thence drawing nearer one to another , untill they meet at the sella of os sphenoides ; where they are united by the closest conjunction , but not confusion of their fibres , which run lengthways in these nerves as they do in all other . these of all the rest are biggest and thickest , but softest . in their beginnings they are softest , but in their progress become harder , that they may pass the more securely so long a way . dr. willis says they have many fibres from the third pair of nerves , and many sanguiferous vessels running along them . they are hollow untill they be united ; but after , their hollowness cannot be discerned . this hollowness may be shewed in a large beast newly killed , and in a clear light . after their unition they are separated again , and each of them , passing through the first hole of os cuneiforme , are inserted obliquely into the centre of the eye . these nerves have two membranes , and the inner soft marrowy substance , or fibres . the membranes spring from the two meninges . the inner substance from the medulla oblongata . from the whole substance of these nerves are the tunicles of the eyes framed ; for the cornea or sclerotica doth proceed from the thick membrane or dura mater , the vvea from the thin membrane or pia mater , and the retina from the marrowy substance . chap. xi . of the third and fourth pair . the third pair is termed motorium oculorum , because it moveth the muscles of the eyes . it hath its beginning at the innermost part or basis of the medulla oblongata behind the infundibulum . this pair is united at its rise ; whence is commonly drawn a reason why one eye being moved towards any object , the other is directed also to the same . it is smaller and harder than the former , and being presently divided passes along by the optick pair , and penetrating the second hole of os cuneiforme , is carried towards the globe of the eye , where it is divided into four branches . the first whereof mounting above the optick , is bestowed upon the attollent muscle , and the eye-lid . the second easie to be seen is bestowed upon the adducent muscles by sundry small twigs . the third by many fibres is inserted into the depriment muscle . the fourth is inserted into the middle of that muscle that draws about the eye obliquely downwards to the inner corner . so that this pair only moveth four muscles . the fourth pair proceedeth from the top of the medulla oblongata , ( contrary to all others , which arise either from its basis , or sides ) behind the round protuberances called nates and testes : whence bending forwards by the sides of the medulla oblongata , it presently hides it self under the dura mater ; under which proceeding a while , it passes out of the skull at the same hole with the others designed for the eyes , ( communicating with no other nerve in its whole progress ) and is bestowed wholly ( as dr. willis affirms ) on that muscle of the eye called trochlearis . chap. xii . of the fifth , sixth , and seventh pair . the author last mentioned says , the fifth pair arises out of the sides of the annular process jetting out from the cerebellum : but i think it is more probably affirmed by others , that this pair arises also from the medulla oblongata a little below the former nerves . it s trunk is very large , consisting of very many fibres , some soft and some hard : so that it seems to be not one single nerve , but a collection or bundle of many small ones , some of which are designed for one part , some for another ; some serving for motion and others for sense . and the reason why they are all united together in their rise , dr. willis thinks to be , that there may be a sympathy and consent of actions in the several parts to which they are distributed . hence it is that seeing or smelling what is pleasing to the appetite makes ones mouth water , &c. it s trunk is divided into two notable branches , sometimes before but oftner after it has penetrated the dura mater . the first whereof tending streight downwards , and passing out of the skull by its proper hole , in its descent towards the lower jaw ( for whose parts 't is chiefly design'd ) is divided into many lesser branches , which provide for the temporal muscle , as also for the muscles of the face and cheeks . from these also there go twigs to the lips , gums , roots of the teeth , fauces , tonsils , palate and tongue . the second branch of this fifth pair , being the larger , goes a little streight forward by the sides of the sella turcica , and over against the glandula pituitaria sends little twigs to the trunk of the carotides ; then inosculates with the nerve of the sixth pair , and afterward sends back a slip or two , which being united with another slip returned from the nerve of the sixth pair constitute the trunk of the intercostal pair , which we shall reckon for the ninth , and speak of it by and by . after this it is divided into two notable branches ; the less and upper whereof tends towards the globe of the eye , and being again divided sends forth two other , the first of which is parted into two more , that go one to the nose and the other to the eye-lids ; and the second into four or five slips , that are mostly spent on the eye-lids , but partly on the vvea tunica and the glands of the eye . the greater branch ( of its second division ) being carried towards the orbit of the eye is divided into two new branches . the lower whereof bending downwards is bestowed on the palate and upper region of the fauces ; and the upper being carried beyond the orbit of the eye passes through an hole of the upper jaw with the vein and artery which it twists about , and sends many slips to the muscles of the cheeks , lips , nose , and roots of the upper teeth . from its twisting about the sanguiferous vessels designed for the cheeks and other parts of the face , may a reason be drawn why one blushes when he 's ashamed : for the animal spirits being disturbed by the imagination of some uncomely thing , as if they took care to hide the face , enter this nerve disorderly ; so that its twigs embracing these sanguiferous vessels , by compressing and pulling of them , cause the bloud to flow too impetuously into the cheeks and face by the arteries , and detain it there some time by constringing the veins . the sixth pair rises just by the fifth , and presently sinking under the dura mater goes out of the skull by the same hole with the nerves of the third and fourth pair , and is carried by a single trunk towards the orbit of the eye ; but so , as by the side of the sella turcica it inosculates with the second or greater branch of the fifth pair , ( as was noted in the former paragraph : ) whence sending back sometimes one , sometimes two twigs , these being united with the recurring twigs of the fifth pair ( above-mentioned ) make the beginning of the intercostal nerve . afterwards going forwards , near the orbit of the eye it is divided into two branches ; of which one is inserted into the abducent muscle of the eye placed in its outer corner ; and the other being cleft into many fibres is bestowed on the seventh muscle proper to brutes , whereby they defend the eye from external injuries without closing the eye-lids , when they are said nictitare , which i think we have no word to express in english . the seventh pair , by the ancients commonly reckon'd for the fifth , ministers to the sense of hearing . it has two processes , one soft , and the other harder , which might seem to be two distinct pairs , but are usually accounted one . they have been held to spring from the sides of the medulla oblongata , but dr. willis says ( i cannot tell how truly ) from the annular protuberance of the cerebellum that lies by the sides of the said medulla . the soft part or process that is properly the auditory nerve , is carryed through an hole of os petrosum into the caverns of the ear , which it cloaths with a most thin membrane . by this are sounds conveyed to the common sensory . the harder process serves rather for motion than sense ; which passing out also through its proper hole , presently admits a twig from the par vagum or eighth pair , after which it is immediately divided into two branches ; one whereof tending downwards , is bestowed on the muscles of the tongue and os hyoides ; and the other winding about the auditory passage , and bending upwards , is divided into three twigs ; of which the first corresponding to the nerve of the first division bestows certain slips on the muscles of the lips , mouth , face and nose , and so actuates some outward organs of the voice , as the former some of the inner ; the second is distributed to the muscles of the eye-lids and forehead , and the third on the muscles of the ears . whence upon some unusual and astonishing sound , by a certain natural instinct the ears prick up and the eyes open . chap. xiii . of the eighth and ninth pairs . the next pair in order is the eighth , which has used to be called the sixth , and par vagum , or wandring pair , from its being distributed to sundry parts . it springs below the auditory nerves , out of the sides of the medulla oblongata , its root consisting of twelve fibres at least ( in man ) to which a notable fibre , or rather nerve ( much greater than any of these twelve ) coming from the spinal marrow about the sixth or seventh vertebra of the neck , is joined , and invested with the same coat from the dura mater as if they grew into one nerve ; but if their common coat be removed , this accessory nerve , and many of the other fibres remain still distinct , and after they are gone out of the skull together , are dispensed to several parts ; the accessory nerve to the muscles of the neck and shoulder ; and one notable fibre of the eighth pair to the harder process of the auditory or seventh pair , as also two others to the muscles of the gullet and neck . but the other fibres of this par vagum continue united , and instead of those companions they have parted with , they entertain a new one , namely a branch from the intercostal or ninth pair , whereby is made a notable plexus ( which in a nerve is like the jointing of a cane , or the knot upon the trunk of the tree where a bough goes out ) and out of the same plexus there springs a considerable branch , which being carried toward the larynx is divided into three twigs , of which one goes to the sphincter of the gullet , a second to the upper muscles of the larynx , and the third going under the cartilago scutiformis , meets the top of the recurring nerve and is united to it . below the aforesaid plexus of this par vagum , its trunk goes streight down by the side of the ascending carotides , on which it bestows some slips . and at the bottom of the neck it receives a second branch from the intercostal , ( viz. from its first plexus ) and near thereto sends out another twig into the recurrent nerve , but only on the left side . from hence the trunk of this eighth pair descends without any notable ramification , till it be come over against the first or second rib ; where out of a second plexus ( or knot ) many twigs and fibres go towards the heart and its appendage , but not altogether in the same manner on both sides . there is one notable difference ( which we cannot but note ) of the two recurring nerves that spring out of the trunk of this eighth pair , viz. that that on the right side arises out of it higher and windes about the axillar artery ; whereas that on the left springs much lower therefrom , and twisting about the descending trunk of the aorta returns back from thence . dr. willis says that the recurring nerve is really a distinct nerve from the par vagum from the very original , and was only included in the same case or cover for the more convenient and safe passage . the branches of the par vagum do frequently unite with others of the intercostal pair about the praecordia . and many twigs go out of the eighth pair into the lungs , &c. whence each of its trunks descending by the sides of the gullet are divided into two branches , outer and inner : the outer unite with the outer , and the inner with the inner , and both descend to the stomach , in which they terminate . as for their more particular distribution , we have spoke thereof while we treated of the parts themselves on which they are bestowed . tab. xi . p. . fig. . fig. . and thus we have done with all the nerves that proceed from the medulla within the brain , in describing of which we have followed dr. willis for the most part , that most accurate tracer of them . the explanation of the table . figure i. representeth the outer or upper superficies of the brain taken out of the skull ; where the limbus of the brain being loosed from its coherence with other parts by membranes , is lifted up and bent forwards , that the crura of the medulla oblongata , the fornix , nates and testes with the glandula pinealis , and other processes may be clearly and distinctly seen , ( from dr. willis . ) aa the limbus of the brain , which in its natural situation was contiguous to the cerebellum . b the border or margent of the corpus callosum spread over both hemispheres of the brain , which in its natural situation lay upon the glandula pinealis . c the fornix . dd its arms embracing the crura of the medulla oblongata . ee the crura of the medulla oblongata , ( out of which the optick nerves proceed ) whose ends ( being placed further , out of sight ) are called corpora striata . f the glandula pinealis , betwixt which and the root of the fornix is the chink that leads to the infundibulum . gg the orbicular protuberances called nates . hh the lesser protuberances called testes , which are processes of the former . ii the medullary processes , which ascend obliquely from the testes to the cerebellum , and make a part of each of its meditullia . k the joining of those processes by another transverse process . l the rise of the pathetick nerves ( or fourth pair ) out of the joining of the foresaid processes . mm a portion of the medulla oblongata lying under the foresaid processes and protuberances . n the foramen of the ventricle of cavity that lies under the orbicular protuberances . oo a portion of the annular protuberance let down from the cerebellum and embracing the medulla oblongata . pp the outer and upper superficies of the cerebellum . figure ii. representeth the eye cleft in two ( from behind forwards ) that the divers situations of the humours may appear , ( from dr. briggs . ) bab the tunica cornea , or fore and more convex arch of the eye . ee the tunica uvea ( whose foramen o is called tab. xii . p. the pupilla ) swimming in the watry humour cccc . d the crystalline humour in situ . ff the tunica choroides , which in this figure ( as being too much separated from the sclerotica mm ) cannot be duly represented . g a portion of the optick nerve . h some of its small fibres cut off near the exit of the nerve . i the centre of the humor vitreus , and of the retina . , , , , , &c. the capillamenta of the optick nerve , whose ends on each side being cut off did adhere to the ligamentum ciliare ( namely by the region of the crystalline humour . ) the table representeth the basis of an humane brain taken out of the skull , with the roots of the vessels cut off short , ( from dr. willis . ) aaaa the fore and hinder lobes of the brain . bb the cerebellum . cc the medulla oblongata . dd the olfactory nerves , or first pair . ee the optick nerves , or second pair . ff the motory nerves of the eyes , or third pair . gg the pathetick nerves of the eyes , or fourth pair . hh the fifth pair . ii the sixth pair . kk kk the auditory nerves , and their two processes on each side , the seventh pair . ll iii , &c. the par vagum or eighth pair , consisting of several fibres . mm the spinal nerve coming from a far to the origine of the par vagum . nn the ninth or intercostal pair , consisting also of many fibres ( that tending downwards , unite into one trunk ) which emerges a little above the process of the occiput . oo the tenth pair tending downwards . pp the trunk of the carotid artery cut off , where it is divided into the fore and hinder branch . qq its branch passing betwixt the two lobes of the brain . r the fore branches of the carotides , being united , part again and proceed to the fissure of the brain . s the hinder branches of the carotides united , and meeting the vertebral trunk . ttt the vertebral arteries , and their three ascending branches . u the branches of the vertebral arteries uniting into the same trunk . ww the place where the vertebral and carotid arteries are united , and a branch on either side ascends to the plexus choroides . x the infundibulum . yy two glands placed behind the infundibulum . aaaa the annular protuberance which proceeding from the cerebellum embraces the root of the medulla oblongata . chap. xiv . of the nerves of the spinalis medulla ; and first of the nerves of the neck . we observed above , chap. . that the medulla oblongata seemed not to be any separate part , but only a production from the cerebrum and cerebellum : and that when it is descended out of the skull into the spine , it loses its name of oblongata , and acquires that of spinalis , which name it borrows from the spine through which it passes , but is of the same fibrous or filamentous substance as it was within the brain . and now we come to describe the nerves that spring out of it , which assist the motion of all those parts , which those nine pair already described that arise within the skull , reach not to . in its whole progress from the skull to the coccyx , there spring out of it thirty pair of nerves : seven of which are of the neck , twelve of the breast , five of the loins , and six from the holes of os sacrum . the first and second pair of the neck come not out of the sides of the vertebrae , as all the rest do ; but because of their peculiar articulation spring out before and behind . the fore nerve of the first pair cometh out between the bone of the occiput and the first vertebra of the neck , and is bestowed upon the muscles which bend the neck , and lie under the oesophagus . the hinder nerve cometh out of the hole which is common to the os occipitis and the first vertebra of the neck . this hath two twigs : the smaller is bestowed upon those muscles which stretch out the neck ; the bigger is inserted into the beginning of the muscle which lifteth up the shoulder-blade . the fore nerve of the second pair ( which is smaller ) cometh out between the first and second vertebrae , and is bestowed upon the skin of the face . the hinder cometh out at the sides of the hinder process of the second vertebra , but presently is parted into two twigs . the thicker of which is bestowed upon the whole skin of the head even to the crown ; the smaller upon the greater streight , and the lower oblique muscles which stretch out the head. dr. willis says , that the first and greatest root of the nerve of the diaphragm ariseth from this second pair of the neck : of which nerve we shall speak more by and by . the third pair cometh out of the lateral holes , which are between the second and third vertebrae , and each is immediately divided into two branches ; the formore whereof hath four twigs : the first cometh to the long muscle or the first of the benders of the neck ; the second descending is bestowed upon the muscles which lie under the oesophagus , being first united to a twig of the fourth pair ; the third ascending goeth to the skin of the back-part of the head , having first joined with the thicker twig of the hinder nerve of the second pair ; the fourth is bestowed upon the transverse muscles of the neck , and the muscle which lifteth up the shoulder-blade . the hinder branch is bestowed upon the second pair of muscles which heaveth up or wideneth the breast . the fourth pair cometh out of the holes common to the third and fourth vertebrae , and each hath two branches , like the third pair . the formore hath three twigs : the first of which uniting with a twig of the third pair is bestowed on the first of those muscles which bend the neck , called longus ; the second upon the transverse muscle of the neck , and the cucullaris of the shoulder-blade : the third being slenderer than the other two , is joined with a twig of the fifth pair , and both with one of the sixth , and lastly all three ( according to dr. willis ) with that of the second pair above-mentioned : and the trunk made up of all these descendeth by the sides of the gullet down the neck and thorax without any branchings till it come to the diaphragm , where it is divided again into three or four twigs , on each side , and is inserted into its fleshy or musculous part , being known by the name of nervus diaphragmatis , or phrenicus . the hinder branch goeth back to the spine under the muscles of that part , upon which it bestoweth twigs , and going down between the muscles of each side of the neck it is carried to the musculus quadratus that draweth the cheek down . the fifth pair marcheth out between the fourth and fifth vertebrae , and hath likewise two branches on each side . the formore of which hath four twigs : the first goeth to those muscles that bend the neck : the second is that which joineth with the twigs of the second , fourth and sixth pairs , and makes up the nervus phrenicus : the third goeth to the deltoides : the fourth goeth to the same deltoides , and to the coracohyoideus , or the third pair of the muscles of os hyoides . the hinder branch bendeth back to the spine , and is bestowed upon the muscles there , as the like branch of the fourth pair was . the sixth pair cometh out under the fifth vertebra , and hath , as the rest , two branches . the formore sendeth first one twig to make the trunk of the nervus phrenicus ; then proceeding further it is united with the three following , namely the last of the neck and two first of the thorax , making one plexus with them , out of which those nerves proceed that are carried to the arm. the hinder branch goeth to the muscles behind , which stretch out the neck and head. the seventh pair cometh out of the hole common to the sixth and seventh vertebrae . the formore and larger branch is joined with the sixth of the neck and two first of the thorax , as aforesaid , and is carried to the arm. the hinder and smaller is bestowed upon the muscles of the neck , and quadrat muscle which pulleth down the cheek . about where this sixth or seventh pair of nerves rise , there springeth another , described by dr. willis , and by him called nervus spinalis ad par vagum accessorius . it rises small out of the side of the spinal marrow , and ascends up by the side of it , growing thicker as it goes , ( but without being inserted any where into the marrow ) till having enter'd the skull it is joined to the fibres of the par vagum or eighth pair . it s progress from thence we observed in chap. . when we described the eighth pair . chap. xv. of the nerves of the vertebrae of the breast . from the marrow of the vertebrae of the thorax twelve pair spring . in all of which the formore branch is bigger ; and the hinder , which is bestowed upon the muscles seated in the back , smaller . the first springeth out of the hole which is common to the seventh vertebra of the neck , and the first of the breast , and therefore 't is indifferent whether it be esteemed to belong to the neck or thorax , some reckoning it to be the eighth of the neck , and others ( as we do here ) the first of the breast . each nerve is presently divided ( as all the rest are ) into two branches ; the formore of which is united to the sixth and seventh of the neck as was noted in the foregoing chapter , and so is all spent on the arms , except one little twig that springing out of its beginning marcheth forward towards the sternum , and bestoweth twigs on the musculus subclavius , and those muscles which arise from the top of the sternum ; and another that goes to that muscle which fills up the hollowness of the shoulder-blade . the hinder branch creeping under the muscles which cleave to the vertebrae , is bestowed upon the muscles of the neck , head and shoulder-blade . the second issueth out of the space between the first and second vertebrae of the breast ; and its fore branch is united with the first of the thorax , and together with it is joined to the sixth and seventh of the neck , which all together make one plexus that sendeth forth all the nerves to the arms that they have , ( as shall be further explained book . chap. . ) but besides that branch by which it unites with these , it sends a twig also to the intercostal nerve ( or ninth pair ) descending down the thorax , ( as also does every one of the remaining ten pair ) and from that twig before it join with the intercostal there proceed small slips to the muscles that lie upon the breast . the hinder branch hath the same distribution with the hinder of the foregoing pair . the rest of the ten pair come out of the lateral holes of the vertebrae , and are all immediately divided into two branches ; whereof the formore being larger , always sendeth one twig to the intercostal nerve , and the remainder of it is bestowed on the intercostal muscles internal and external , and on those that lie on the thorax ; as also on the obliquely descending muscles of the abdomen , &c. the hinder bend backward to the spine , and are spent upon the muscles and skin of the back . chap. xvi . of the nerves of the vertebrae of the loins . although there be but four lateral holes in the vertebrae of the loins ; yet there are five pair of nerves . the fore branches being greater go to the muscles of the belly : the hinder to those which rest upon the vertebrae . the formore are joined together , the first with the second , the second with the third , the third with the fourth , and the fourth with the fifth , as the two last of the neck and two first of the breast were . the first cometh out of the lateral hole between the last vertebra of the breast , and the first of the loins . the fore branch is bestowed upon the fleshy part of the midriff , especially it s two processes , and on the muscle psoas . this nerve being compressed by a stone in the kidney , there is caused a numbness in the thigh of the same side . it sendeth also a twig along with the arteria praeparans to the stone , according to spigelius . from whence it is partly , that too immoderate venery causeth a weakness in the loins . the hinder is bestowed upon the musculus longissimus of the back , sacrolumbus , &c. the second cometh out between the first and second vertebrae of the loins , under the muscle psoas , which is the first of those that bend the thigh . the formore branch is bestowed upon the second muscle of the benders of the thigh that fills up the cavity of os ileum , and on the musculus fascialis and the skin of the thigh . the hinder is bestowed upon the musculi glutaei , and the membranous muscle which stretcheth out the leg. that twig which from this pair joineth with the intercostal , goeth to the testis of its own side ( according to vesalius , &c. the third marcheth out between the second and third vertebrae , under the psoas also . the formore sendeth one twig to the knee and skin thereof , and another which doth accompany the saphoena . the hinder turneth back , and is bestowed upon the muscles which rest upon the loins . the fourth being the largest of the muscles of the loins , marching under the psoas and os pubis , doth accompany the vein and artery which pass to the leg. the fifth cometh out between the fourth and fifth vertebrae . it s fore branch passeth through the hole that is between the bones of the coxendix , pubes and ileum , and is bestowed upon the obturatores musculi of the thigh , the muscles of the penis , and on the neck of the bladder , and of the womb. the hinder is bestowed upon the muscles and skin which are above the vertebrae . chap. xvii . of the nerves which come from the marrow of o● sacrum . from the marrow of os sacrum six pair of sinews spring . the first issueth out between the last vertebra of the loins , and the first of os sacrum , in the same manner as those that spring out of the vertebrae of the loins , and like them is divided into two branches . the fore branch is a great part of it mixed with those other of the loins that go towards the legs , yet it sends one twig to the muscles of the belly , and the second which bendeth the thigh . the hinder is bestowed upon the skin of the buttocks , and the greatest glutaeus . the other five pair spring after a different manner from the foregoing . for before they come out of the os sacrum , they are every of them double on each side ; and so from each on either side there arise two nerves , one of which is carried into the fore or inner , and the other into the hinder or outer side . the three uppermost formore nerves go towards the leg , as the greatest part of the first pair did : the two lower to the muscles of the anus and bladder ; in men to the penis , in women to the neck of the womb , and in both to the external privity . all the five hinder nerves are distributed to the muscles of os ilium and sacrum , towards the back part , which are longissimus , sacrolumbus , sacer , and the glutaei . and thus we have done with all the thirty pair of nerves that arise out of the spinal marrow , having shewn which way they pass and to what parts they are distributed : which should be diligently noted and well remembred , that we may the better know to what place to apply remedies , when from any outward cause , as from a fall , bruise or the like , any part has lost either sense or motion or both . for the medicine is to be applied always to the beginning or rise of that nerve that passes to that part , and not to the place in which the symptom appears . and the same thing is to be observed in palsies , when the use of some particular limb is taken away from an inward cause . chap. xviii . of the face and its parts . in the former chapters we have discoursed of that part of the head that is decked with hair , of the brain , &c. contained within it , of the medulla oblongata arising out of it and prolonged into the medulla spinalis , with the nerves that spring out of the same both within the skull and in the spine of the back , all which we have considered as appendages to the brain , seeing both the marrow out of which they arise , springs out of it , and also all the nerves have their animal spirits from it . and now we come to speak of that part which is not altogether garnished with hair. in latin it is called facies , the face , and vultus , the countenance . now though all the parts of the body sufficiently shew the wisedom of the creator ; yet both the beauty of the face , and its admirable consent with the mind doth epitomise as it were the comeliness and dignity of all the other parts , and exhibits their affections as in a glass . for from it are not only taken signs of health , diseases , and imminent death ; but also most clear tokens of the very disposition , manners and affections of the mind . for as shame and frightedness betray themselves in the cheeks , so do anger , joy , sadness , hatred , and especially love , in the eyes . so from the forehead are known ones gravity and humility ; from the eyebrows ( or supercilia ) pride ; from the nose , sagacity or blockishness ; &c. from the motion of the face , wisedom or foolishness , honesty or wickedness , civility or incivility , good-will or hatred ; from its colour , the temperament of the whole body . besides , the sex , the age , the stock , and one man from another may be distinguished by the face . the parts of the face are either containing , or contained . the containing are proper or common . the common are the cuticula , skin and fat. the membrana carnosa from the eyes to the chin is so thin that some have affirmed there is none : but in the brows it is thicker and cleaves very close to the skin . of these common parts we have discoursed book . chap. . the proper are the muscles , bones and cartilages , which shall each be described in their proper places . the parts contained are the organs of the four senses , viz. the eyes , ears , mouth and nose . the face is divided into its upper and lower part . the upper is from the hair to the eye-brows , and is called frons the forehead . this while the body is entire belongs to the face , but in a skeleton to the skull . the lower is extended from the eyebrows to the chin , and includes all the parts betwixt them . chap. xix . of the eye in general , and its outward or containing parts . the eyes ( in latin oculi , from occludo to shut , or occulto to hide , because they lie hid under the eyelids ) are the organs of sight , consisting of many similar parts ; and are as the two luminaries of the microcosm , to afford us light ; or like two watchmen placed in the upper part of the body as in a watch-tower , to give notice of any approaching danger . to lose them is the greatest misery can befall a man : for 't is the same as to be thrown into a dungeon , when these windows of the body are shut up . they are in number two , partly to make the sight stronger , and partly that one being hurt , the other might perform the office in some measure , though more imperfectly . the eye alone , devested of its muscles , is of a round or sphaerical shape , both that it might move the better , and also that it might more conveniently receive the visible rays . the colour of the eyes in men is sometimes grey , sometimes brownish , sometimes black : which variety is most conspicuous about the pupilla in the iris , and proceeds from the colour of the vvea . brutes of the same species have not that diversity of colours . some have much larger eyes than others ; but those which are largest and stand much out , have not so acute and piercing a sight as those that are less and stand further in . they are each placed in a large cavity , called orbita ( or the socket ) on each side the nose , which is hollowed out of the bones of the skull . and these orbits are invested on their inside with the pericranium , to which the fat and origins of the muscles cleave firmly . these may be reckoned the first containing parts of the eye ; as may also in the second place the palpebrae or eyelids , which serve as curtains to the eyes , by which dust and troublesome smokes and vapours , too much light and the injuries of the air are kept out , and the outward membrane of the eye called cornea is moisten'd , wip'd and clean'd . they consist outwardly of a very thin skin which has no fat under it ; inwardly they are lined with the pericranium , that is here most thin and smooth . betwixt these parts comes the membrana carnosa , which is also very thin . each eye has two . in man the lower is less , and is but very obscurely moved in comparison with the upper : but in birds the lower is the larger , and in most seems only to be moved , the upper remaining unmoveable . as for their muscles to which they owe their motion , those may be seen in the fifth book . at their edges they have little soft cartilages , ( called cilia in latin ) to strengthen them , and that they may meet the more exactly . upon these cartilages there grow hairs , which having grown to a certain length , will naturally grow no longer , so that they never need to be cut . those on the upper eyelid turn something upwards , and those on the lower downwards . above the upper eye-lid grow also a set of hairs , betwixt it and the forehead , out of the supercilia or eyebrows ; these lie pretty flat bending from within outwards , and hinder sweat , dust or other things from falling into the eyes . the eyelids have two corners called canthi . the outer of these is less , and in its upper part it has a gland placed ( usually called innominata , or nameless , but might be named lachrymalis , as affording the most of that lympha that makes the tears . ) this gland is conglomerate , being made up of many lesser , and has small twigs of arteries that creep to it and deposite serum or lympha in it to supply matter for tears upon occasion . but the ordinary use of this lympha is to moisten the inner side of the eyelids and th● superficies of the eyes , that they may move more glibly . diemerbroeck having reckoned eight opinions concerning the cause , origine and matter of tears rejects them all , and this we have mention'd with the rest : and thinks that their matter is the more serous and thin particles of the pituitous humour gathered in the brain , and flowing to the eyes , upon its contraction , through the foramen lachrymale . which the learned reader may see defended in his anat. lib. . cap. . there is another gland in the inner canthus or corner , which helps the former in its office . dr. briggs says , there are two or three lymphatick vessels , that receive lympha from it , and end in the inner part of the eyelid ; and that eight arise out of the former gland and end in the tunica adnata , where they continually deposite something of lympha , to keep the eye moist . nerves come to them from the fifth pair , which communicating with the intercostal , are much irritated in the passions of sudden joy or of sadness , and so twitch and compress these glands that the lympha is squeezed or milked as it were out of them , as dr. willis ingeniously supposes . as for the muscles of the eye , they shall be described in the fifth book . chap. xx. of the tunicles of the eye . having done with the outward or containing parts of the eye , we come now to the eye it self , and first of its tunicles . the outmost tunicle of the eye is common , and is called adnata . it springs from the pericranium and is spread over all the white of the eye above the sclerotica , reaching as far as the iris. by this the eye is kept firmly within its orbit , from whence it is also called conjunctiva . it is of very exquisite sense , and has many capillary veins and arteries creeping through it , which are most conspicuous in an ophthalmy or inflammation of the eyes . under this tunicle are the tendons of the muscles extended and expanded to the circumference of the iris , which encrease its whiteness ; and some take them for a second tunicle , calling it innominata . the proper tunicles of the eye are three , according to the threefold substance of the optick nerve . for this nerve ( as all the other ) consists of two tunicles springing from the dura and pia mater , and an inner marrowy substance . from the dura mater springeth the outmost coat of the nerve , and from this the tunicle that is spread next under the adnata , called sclerotioa from its hardness ; but in its fore-part where it covereth the iris and pupilla , it is named cornea , from its transparency ; though sometimes this latter name includes the whole tunicle , as well behind as before . that which lieth next under the cornea is much thinner than it , and is called choroides , from its resembling the membrane chorion wherein the foetus is included in the womb. its fore-part is otherwise called vvea , because it is somewhat of the colour of a grape . this springs from the pia mater , and is spread from the bottom or centre of the eye , behind all over the eye to the pupilla ; to whose circumference when it is come , it becomes double , making with one part the iris , with the other the ligamentum ciliare . on the inside it is of a duskish colour , ( in man ) but blacker on the outside . but where it makes the iris , it is of divers colours resembling the rainbow , from whence it borrows its name : yet in some it is more blue , in others black , in others grey . this tunicle is perforated before as wide as the pupilla ( or sight of the eye ) to permit the rayes of visible species to pass in to the crystalline humour . next unto which crystalline humour lies the ligamentum ciliare , the second part of the duplicated vvea . this consists of slender filaments or fibres , ( like the hairs of the eye-lids ) running like so many black lines from the circumference of the vvea to the sides of the crystalline humour , which they encompass and widen or constringe as there is occasion , by contracting or opening the foramen of the vvea . the third tunicle is made of the medullar substance of the optick nerve , and is called retina or retiformis ( net-like : ) this seemeth to be the principal organ of sight . for as dr. briggs well argues , neither the crystalline humour , through which the rayes pass much refracted ; nor the tunicle choroides , are at all fit for this use . for this latter part ( as rising from the pia mater ) cannot communicate the impressions of the rayes to the medullar part of the brain , which it does not at all touch . whereas the medullary fibres of the retina have communication therewith , and therefore can well perform that office . the fibres of this tunicle are extended from the bottom or inner centre of the eye , where the optick nerve enters it , as far as the ligamentum ciliare , ( to which it affords animal spirits for the continuance of its motion . ) if one take this tunica retina and put it into warm water , shaking it a little , to wash off the mucous substance that cleaves to it , and then hold it up to the light , these filaments will appear very numerous like the threads of the finest lawn . chap. xxi . of the humours and vessels of the eye . next to the tunicles of the eyes are the humours contained in them to be considered . and these are in number three , viz. aqueus , crystallinus , and vitreus . the second weighs as much again as the first , and yet not so much as the third by a sixth part . the crystalline is the most d●nse of consistence by much ; and the glassy more dense than the watry . the aqueous humour is outermost , being pellucid and of no colour ( as neither are the other two . ) it fills up that space that is betwixt the cornea and the crystalline humour before . if any thickish particles swim in it , then gnats , flies , spiders webs and the like will seem to be ●lying before the eyes . but if those particles grow still thicker , and close together so as to make a film , and this be spread before the hole of the pupilla , then is the sight quite taken away , which disease is called a cataract . the crystalline humour ( so called from its being as clearly transparent as crystal ) is placed betwixt the aqueous and the vitreous , but not exactly in the middle or centre of the eye , but rather towards its fore-part . it is inclosed in the bosom as it were of the vitreous humour , and is flattish on the foreside , but rounder behind . it is more bright and solid than either of the other two . it has been the common opinion that it is inclosed in its proper membrane , which is called either crystallina from its transparency , or aranea from its most fine contexture . but dr. briggs , a very accurate anatomizer of the eye , denies any such tunicle , affirming that it is meerly adventitious when the humour is exposed for some while to the air , or is gently boiled . as to the collection or reception of the rayes of things visible , this humour is the primary instrument of sight : though as was said before , the tunica retina is the principal as to perception , because through it the rayes are communicated to the common sensory . the third and last humour of the eye is the vitreous , so called because it is like to molten glass . this is thicker than the aqueous , but thinner than the crystalline ; and much exceeds them both in quantity , for it fills up all the inner or hinder he●isphere of the globe of the eye , and a pretty deal ( toward the superficies ) of the formore . it is round behind , but hollowed in the middle forwards , to receive the crystalline into its bosom . this humour is also said to be separated from the other two by a proper tunicle , called vitrea , which the aforesaid ingenious author likewise denies . see the situation of these humours represented in fig. . of the table inserted p. . the eyes have arteries from the carotides , which bestow twigs on their muscles , and on their tunicles . and these are accompanied with veins springing from the branches of the jugulars . as for their nerves , they either assist the sense of seeing , and are called the optick nerves , which we have reckoned for the second pair and described before chap. . or serve for the moving of them , being inserted into their muscles , and to this purpose serve the third and fourth pair , and some twigs of the fifth . as to their lympheducts , we have spoken of them above chap. . when we discoursed of the glands placed at each canthus or corner of the eye-lids . chap. xxii . of the auricula . as the eyes are placed in the upper part of the body like two watchmen to descry approaching danger ; so are the ears there seated also , that they might give information of what the eyes cannot discover either in the night for want of light , or through some thick and opaque body which the sight cannot penetrate . and as the eyes contemplate the wonderfull works of god , whereby the mind may conceive of his infinity ; so the ears are the inlets or receivers of verbal instruction in all wisedom and science . for they are the organs of hearing , and are in number two , that the one failing , yet we might hear with the other . they are placed in the head , because sounds ascend . the parts of the ear are either outward or inward . the outward is called auricula , which is only an adjuvant instrument of hearing , being spread like a van to gather and receive the sounds . it s upper part is called ala or pinna the wing ; and its lower and soft lobe , usually infima auricula . it has several protuberances or eminences , and cavities . it s outer protuberance that makes its circumference , from its winding is called helix ; and that which is opposite to it , anthelix : but that next the temple , because in some it is hairy , is called hircus or tragus ; and that which is opposite to it , to which the soft lobe of the ear is annexed , antitragus , which likewise in some is hairy . its cavities are three . the inmost , because of the yellow ear-wax ( as we call it ) that is gathered in it , is named alvearium ; as also meatus auditorius : the next to this outwards which is bigger , from its tortuosity or winding is called concha . the third is that betwixt the helix and anthelix , which has had no name imposed on it . the constituent parts of the auricula are either common or proper . the common are cuticula , cutis , membrana nervea , and fat in the lobe . the proper are the muscles , veins , arteries , nerves and the cartilage . as concerning the muscles , they are set down in their proper treatise . the veins come from the external jugulars ; the arteries from the carotides ; the nerves from the second pair of the neck , being joined with the harder process of the seventh pair . as for the cartilage , it is a substance that is fittest for this place . ●or if a bone had been here , it had been troublesome , and might by many accidents have been broken off : if flesh , it had been subject to con●usion . it serves to keep this outer part of the ear expanded and open , and is tied to os petrosum by a strong ligament which riseth from the pericranium . the uses of the outward ear are these : first , it serveth for beauty . secondly , to help the receiving of the sounds . for first , it gathereth them being dispersed in the air. secondly , it doth moderate their impetus , so that they come gently to the tympanum . such as have it cut off upon any occasion , are very much prejudic'd in their hearing , which becomes confused with a certain murmur or swooing like the fall of waters . both behind and below the ears there are several glands outwardly under the skin , that are called parotides . but there are two more notable than the rest , near one another ; of which one is lesser , and is conglobate ; but the other bigger , consisting as it were of many lesser , and is conglomerate . these serve to sustain the vessels that ascend this way , and are usually reckoned as emunctories of the brain . in the conglomerate gland the saliva is separated . chap. xxiii . of the inward part of the ear. the inward part of the ear is that which we properly call auris , and begins at the meatus auditorius , or that inmost cavity in which the ear-wax is collected . this cavity ascends something with a winding duct , partly that if any thing fall into it ▪ it may more easily be got out again ; and partly that the vehement impetus of the sound may be a little in●ringed . the wax that is gathered in it is an excrement of the brain , and by it insects are hindred from creeping in , entangling them as bird-lime . before its inner end is spread the tympanum or drum , which is a nervous , round and pellucid membrane , of most exquisite sense . some will have it to spring from the pericranium , others from the pia mater , a third sort from the dura mater , a fourth from the softer process of the auditory nerve expanded . and lastly , some think that it has a proper substance , springing from no other membrane , but made in the first conformation of the parts . it is very dry , that it might give the better sound . it is strong , that it should the better endure external harms . it hath a cord behind it for strength and stretching of it , even as the military drum hath , which some take to be a nerve , others a ligament . it hath two muscles to move it , which shall be described in the fifth book . when it is taken away , in the first cavity on the inside of it ( which also by some is called tympanum ) there appear four small bones . these have no marrow in them , nor are covered with any membrane or periosteum , yet at their extremities where they are joined , they are bound with a small ligament that proceeds from the cord or ligament of the tympanum above-mentioned . and ●●ey have this also peculiar to themselves , that they are as big in infants as in grown persons . the first is called malleolus , the little hammer . it hath a round head , which is inarticulated into the cavity of the anvil by a loose ligament . this head is continued into a small neck , which reaching beyond the ●iddle of the tympanum , adhereth to it . about the middle it hath two processes : the one of which , b●ing shorter , has the tendon of the internal muscle inserted into it ; and the other , being longer , the tendon of the external , the tympanum coming between . the seconds is called incus , the anvil , having one head , and two feet , being somewhat like one of the grinding or double teeth that has two roots . the head is somewhat thick , having in the top of it a little smooth cavity , which receiveth the knob or head of the hammer . the smallest and longest foot is tied to the top of the stirrop by a loose but ●irm ligament ; but the thickest , broadest and shortest resteth upon the os squamosum . the third is stapes , or the stirrop . in figure it is triangular , in the middle hollow , to give way to the passing of the air to the labyrinthus . in the upper part of it is a very small and round knob , upon which the longest foot of the anvil resteth . it s shape is much adapted to the fenestra ovalis ( which opens into the labyrinth ) about which it is tied round somewhat loosely , so that it may be driven to within its sinus , but cannot without violence be pulled outwards . the fourth bone was found out by franc. sylvius , and from its round shape is called orbiculare . it is tied by a slender ligament to the side of the stapes , where the stapes is joined to the incus . from the lower side of this first inner cavity , wherein these bones are contained , there is a round meatus to the palate of the mouth near the root of the vvula , and another that runs to the cavity of the nostril , by which pituitous matter collected in it is discharged . and by the help of that which opens into the mouth it is , that deafish people are assisted in hearing , for we commonly observe such to open their mouth when they listen attentively . in the middle also of this cavity there are two holes , the greater and higher of which is shut by the basis of the stapes ( when no sounds penetrate the ear ) and is of an oval figure , whence it is called fenestra ovalis , and opens inwards or backwards pretty wide into the labyrinth . the other is less and lower , and is of a round shape , whence it is called rotunda . and this is always open , having no covering , and is divided into two pipes divided by the os squamosum , one of which tends to the cochlea , the other to the labyrinth . this labyrinth is the second inner cavity , being far less than the former , and was first so called by fallopius , from the hollowed bony semicircles ( cloathed with a thin membrane ) returning circularly into the same cavity . the fenestra ovalis opens into it out of the first cavity : and besides this hole it has five others , one of which opens into the end of the larger gyrus or winding of the cochlea : the other four are so small that they hardly admit an hair , through which the most slender fibres of the auditory nerve proceed to the inner membrane that encompasses this cavity . the third and last inner cavity is called cochlea , because in its spiral winding it resembles a snail 's shell . it is less than the labyrinth , and has two , sometimes three or four such windings , which are cloathed inwardly with a most thin membrane , into which , as into the labyrinth , the slender fibres of the auditory nerve enter , through three or four very small holes . these three inner cavities are all formed within the inner processus petrosus of the temple-bone . and in them is contained a most pure and subtile air , which some think to be included in them in the very first formation of the parts , and therefore call it aer insitus and congenitus . some suppose it to be animal spirit , effused into them by the auditory nerve . this inner part of the ear has veins , arteries and nerves from the same origines as the outer : only the harder process of the auditory nerve goes to the outer , and the softer to this inner , which coming by the hinder meatus of the os petrosum is inserted into and dispersed through the circles of the cochlea and labyrinth . all the parts of the auricula and auris concur to the perfecting the hearing , which is a sense whereby sound is perceived from the various trembling motion of the external air , beating upon the tympanum , and thereby moving the internal air with the fibres of the auditory nerve , and communicated to the common sensory . now sound that is the object of it is nothing else but a quality arising from the air or water beat upon and broken by the sudden and vehement concussion of solid bodies . and the diversity or greatness of such sound is distinguished by the four bones that stand on the inside the tympanum : for as from the greater or less , gentle or harsh impulse of the external sonorous air ( fluctuating like waves caused by a stone thrown into the water ) the membrane of the tympanum is accordingly driven or shak't against the malleus , the malleus against the incus , and the incus against the stapes ; so , as the same stapes and os orbiculare open the fenestra ovalis more or less , is there a freer or straiter passage granted to the internal air into the labyrinth and cochlea , in whose tortuous and unequal windings it is variously infringed and modulated , from whence the species of sound that is made thereby , ( according to the diversity of the external impellent ) is sometimes more acute , sometimes more full , sometimes more harsh , sometimes more gentle , sometimes bigger , sometimes less : the idea of which species is carried to the common sensory ( and so represented to the mind ) by the auditory nerve that expands it self through the membrane that invests the said labyrinth and cochlea . chap. xxiv . of the nose . the organs of seeing and hearing being described in the foregoing chapters , we come now to the instrument of the third sense , viz. smelling , which is the nose . the parts of the nose are either external or internal . the external parts are these , the skin , muscles , veins , arteries , nerves , bones and cartilages . first , the skin cleaveth so fast to the muscles and cartilages , that it cannot be severed without renting . secondly , as for the muscles , they are set down in the description of the muscles book . thirdly , the veins come from the external jugulars , as the arteries from the carotides . fourthly , the nerves come from the third pair , on each side one . fifthly , the bones of the nose are set down in book . chap. . sixthly , the cartilages are in number five ; the two upper are broader , and adhere to the lower side of the bones of the nose where they are broader and rough , and being joined to one another pass from thence to the tip of the nose , making up one half of the alae ; the two under make up the other half ; the fifth divideth the nostrils . these cartilages are moved by the muscles . the inner parts of the nose are these : first the membrane which covereth the inside of the nose , which proceedeth from the dura mater , and passeth through the holes of the os cribriforme . this membrane on its backside hath abundance of little papillae or glands ; in which the serum or rheum is separated that runs out by the nose . secondly , the musculous membrane , which draweth together the nostrils . thirdly , the hairs which disperse the air , and hinder the creeping in of insects . fourthly , the red fleshy spongious substance , with which the holes of the os spongiosum are filled up ; from which the polypus springeth . the length of a comely nose is the third part of the length of the face . the upper part of the nose which is bony , is called drosum nasi , or the ridge . the lower lateral parts , where the cartilages are , alae , or pinnae . the tip of the nose , globulus , and orbiculus . the fleshy part , that at the bottom of the septum reaches from the tip of the nose to the upper lip , is called columna . and the two holes that are caused by the partition , nares the nostrils . and these about their middle are each divided into two , one of which goes up to the os cribriforme , to convey scents thither ; the other descends down upon the palate to the fauces , by which rheum falls down either of its own accord if it be very thin , or by snuffing the air up strongly in at ones nose , if it be thick , which we may hawk and spit out at pleasure . the nose is an external adjuvant organ of smelling , as the auricula is of hearing . for when smells exhale out of odoriferous bodies into the air , by taking our breath in at the nose , the scents accompanying the air ascend up the nostrils to the top of their cavity , viz. to the os cribriforme , through whose holes the olfactory nerves ( otherwise called processus mammillares ) issue out by their fibres , and are the inward immediate and adequate organ of smelling . other inferiour uses the nose has also ; as first , sometimes to take in our breath by , that we may not keep our mouth always open for that purpose . secondly , to help the speech , which is very much impaired by the loss of it . thirdly , it serves for the separation and discharge of the superfluous humours in the bloud . and the like . chap. xxv . of the lips. as to the cheeks , their substance being muscular , this is no proper place for the description of their parts ( but book . ) only we shall note that their upper part next under the eyes , that jets out a little and is commonly highest of colour , is called malum or pomum faciei , in english commonly the ball of the cheek ; and their lower part that is stretched out in blowing of a trumpet or the like , is called bucca . therefore we shall pass on to the mouth , wherein is contained the tongue the instrument of tasting , &c. the use of it is fourfold ; for it serveth for breathing , taking of food , speaking , and discharging of the excrements of the brain , lungs , &c. the parts of the mouth are either external or internal . the external are the lips : these are framed of a carnous soft fungous substance , and of the muscles , covered with a thin skin . they are in number two , the upper and the lower . ( of their muscles see book . ) the upper lip has a little dimple in its middle which is called philtrum ; and its sides are named 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , whence the hair that grows thereon is called mustaches . the inside of the lips is covered with a membrane common to the mouth and stomach ; and from hence cometh the trembling of the lower lip before vomiting . the uses of the lips are these : first , they help to retain the meat in the mouth while it is chewing . secondly , they serve for beautifying of the face , if they be well fashioned . thirdly , for the containing of the spittle in the mouth , that it should not run out at unseasonable times . fourthly , to keep the gums and teeth from external injuries . fifthly , for framing of the speech . chap. xxvii . of the inner parts of the mouth . the inner parts of the mouth are these : the gums , the teeth , the palate or roof of the mouth , the almonds , the vvula , the tongue , and ductus salivales . the gums ( gingivae ) are two , made up of a hard fleshy substance , destitute of motion , set like a rampire about the teeth for the keeping of them in their sockets . as for the teeth , look for them in book . chap. . the roof of the mouth is its upper part , something concave like a vault , formed in the os sphenoides , and serves partly for perfecting of the voice by repercussing the air , and partly assists the sense of tasting . it consists of bones ( of which , book . chap. . ) of a peculiar glandulous flesh and a thick tunicle , with little holes for the saliva that is separated in the glands to destil through into the mouth . of the tonsillae or almonds we have spoken before in book . chap. ult . the vvula is a red , spongie and longish caruncle , that being somewhat broad at its basis hangs down from the middle of the palate ( where the nostrils open into the mouth ) with a small but bluntish end . it is covered with a very lax and soft skin , and is often swelled with defluxions of rheum , hanging down flaggy , which is called the falling of the vvula , and by ignorant people , the falling of the roof of the mouth . the tongue ( lingua , à lingendo , from licking ) is the instrument of taste and speech . it is long and broad , thicker at the root than towards the tip . it is cloathed with two membranes ; the outer covers only the upper part of the tongue , and is very porous , being pretty smooth in men , but in brutes it is rough with abundance of copped bodies arising out of it , ( and bonding towards its root ) like the teeth of wool-cards , of something a cartilaginous substance . this membrane has a line that runs lengthways of it in its middle , dividing the tongue into two parts . the inner covers the whole tongue , the lower side as well as the upper . this is thin and soft , and has many papillae protuberating out of it , which are inserted into the pores of the outer . as to the substance of the tongue there is great diversity of opinions . some think it to be a gland ; others , that it has a peculiar substance ; spigelius , that it is truly a muscle ; and so does dr. wharton call it verus musculus , though towards its root ( he saith ) it hath something of a glandulous substance . malpighius ( exercit . epistol . de lingua , p. . ) says it is rather musculous than glandulous ; and describes its substance thus . immediately under the aforesaid membranes there lie streight fleshy fibres , whereby the tongue is drawn inwards and shortned . but the centre of the tongue consists of a manifold kind of fibres , long , transverse and oblique , which riding one upon another are interwoven like a mat. ] but though this be its substance , yet it cannot properly be called a muscle , both because no muscle serves to move it self , but some other part ; and also because one muscle is not moved by another , as the tongue is by several pair , described book . it is connected to the os hyoides , larynx , and fauces , and by a membranous ligament to the parts under it . the extremity of which ligament is called fraenum , which being too short , or extended to the top of the tongue , hindreth sucking in children , when they are said to be tongue-tyed . its veins proceed from the external jugulars , and are very apparent under the tongue , where they are called ranulares . the arteries come from the carotides . nerves it hath from the fifth and eighth pair . the actions and uses of the tongue are these : first , it is the instrument of tasting ; especially the papillae in its inner membrane , which have the extremities of the nerves inserted into them . secondly , it formeth or modulateth the speech . thirdly , it helpeth the chewing of meat , by tossing of it to and fro , and turns it down to the stomach . besides the several glands in the membrane that invests the inside of the mouth , there is a very notable one that lies deep under the tongue , from whence two pipes , called ductus salivales , ascend obliquely to the sides of the fraenum of the tongue , where each is inserted into another small gland , through which they pour that saliva into the mouth which they first received from the foresaid notable gland . these were not unknown to the ancients , but are more particularly described by dr. wharton . besides these , steno about twenty years ago found out two more , which arising out of the greatest ( conglomerate ) gland at the root of the ear run on the outside of the jaw-bone to the center of the musculus buccinator ; and there end into the cavity of the mouth , into which they discharge the saliva they had imbibed out of the glands . now this saliva or spittle is first separated from the arteries by the glands , and is not a meer excrement , but serves for the furthering of the fermentation of meats in the stomach , if it be not the main ferment of it . that it has a fermentative quality diemerbroeck proves by this experiment , that if a piece of white bread be chewed and moisten'd with much spittle , and then be mixed with wheatpaste kneaded with warm water , it will make it ferment . the end of the third book . the fourth book . containing a description of the veins , arteries and nerves of the limbs . chap. i. of the veins of the arms. in book . chap. . treating of the ascending trunk of the vena cava we shewed that when it arrived at the top of the thorax it was divided into two branches called rami subclavii ; which running obliquely under the claviculae , assoon as they were past them and come to the arm-pit , were called axillares ; and each of these parteth it self into two veins , the cephalica , and basilica . but before their division they send forth two small veins , viz. scapularis interna and externa ; whereof the first passeth to the muscles that lie in the cavity or inside of the scapula , the latter to those on the outside . the cephalica passeth through the upper and outward part of the arm , to the bending of the elbow , where it is divided into two branches ; of the which one , joining with the basilica , makes the mediana , which is very frequently opened when one is let bloud in the arm : the other , marching according to the length of the radius , reacheth to the hand , through which it is spread ; but chiefly in that part which is between the ring-finger and the little finger , where it is called salvatella . the basilica passeth through the inner and lower part of the arm , accompanied with the artery and nerves . about its beginning there spring out of it the thoracica superior and inferior , ( though sometimes these arise from the axillar before its division ) of which the former runs to the inside of the pectoral muscle , &c. the latter to the musculus latissimus of the back , and all over the side of the thorax , where 't is said to inosculate with the twigs of vena sine pari . basilica about the bending of the elbow is divided into that which is called subcutanea , and that which is called profunda . profunda , the deeper , is annexed to the artery about the bending of the elbow , not under . then passing between the vlna and radius it is carried to the hand by the outer part of the vlna . the subcutanea , or the shallowest branch , near to the bending of the arm being turned up to the outer part of the vlna , is carried along it to the hand . the mediana is also double , profunda and subcutanea ; both which run by many twigs through the muscles of the cubit to the hand and fingers . note , that since the circulation of the bloud has been generally believed , it is held indifferent which of these three veins ( the cephalica , basilica or mediana ) are open'd in bloud-letting ; for they all receive their bloud from one common artery , viz. the axillar , which returns by them all indifferently towards the heart : only it is best to open that which is fairest . chap. ii. of the arteries of the arm. assoon as the subclavian branches of the ascending trunk of the aorta are past out of the thorax , they are called axillar , ( like the veins ) as we shewed in book . chap. . this artery before it arrive at the arm sendeth out of its upper part the humeraria , which is bestowed on the muscles of the shoulder : and out of its lower , thoracica superior , inferior , and scapularis , which run to the same parts with the veins of the like denomination in the foregoing chapter . then having communicated small twigs to the glands in the arm-pit , it accompanieth the basilica along the arm , ( for there is no cephalick artery . ) when it is come to the bending of the elbow , it is parted into two branches , which pass almost wholly to the inner side of the hand ; for the backside hath no artery but from a small twig that runs betwixt it and the bone of the thumb . the one of these resting upon the radius , is that which beats about the wrist , and is commonly felt by physicians . the other marcheth by the vlna , and with the former is spread through the hand . chap. iii. of the nerves of the arm. the nerves that spring from betwixt the three lowest vertebrae of the neck , and the first three of the back do every one send a branch towards the arm ; all which for their greater strength uniting with one another , and again separating are carried under the claviculae to the armpit , where they are interwoven together like a net ; but they pass out of it again separate one from another . the first of them that springs from the fifth pair goes to the muscle deltoides , to the second muscle of os hyoides , and to the skin of the arm. all the other five are bestowed wholly on the muscles and skin of the arm and hand . chap. iv. of the veins of the thigh , leg and foot. the iliacal branches of the vena cava after they are descended as far as the thigh ( where we left them b. . ch. . ) are called crurales , which being past the groins are each divided into six more notable veins , viz. saphoena , ischias major and minor , muscula , poplitea and suralis . the first called saphoena descends down on the inside of the thigh and leg betwixt the skin and membrana carnosa , and appears pretty large on the inside of the ankle , where it is frequently opened in diseases of the womb , and may with great safety , having neither artery nor nerve accompanying of it . the ischias major is that which runs down on the outside of the ankle ; but the minor goes no further than the muscles of the hip. the other three are spent on the muscles , skin , &c. of the thigh , leg and foot. chap. v. of the arteries of the thigh , leg and foot. in b. . ch. . describing the descending branches of the aorta , we traced them to the thighs , where the rami iliaci begin to be called crurales , as was said of the veins . the crural artery is less than the vein , and before it arrive at the ham sendeth forth three branches , viz. muscula cruralis exterior , interior , and poplitaea . the first enters the fore muscles , the second the inner muscles of the thigh ; and the third runs down the hinder muscles as low as the ham , whence it has its name . when the trunk of the crural artery is past the ham , it sends out three more called tibiaea exterior , posterior elatior and posterior humilior , which are bestowed on the muscles , skin , &c. of the leg and foot ; and what remains of it descends to the foot , upon which it is spent . chap. vi. of the nerves of the thigh , leg and foot. the three lower pair of nerves of the vertebrae of the loins , and the four uppermost of os sacrum constitute the crural nerves . for all these very near their rise joining together , and proceeding united for a while , make four nerves . the first and third enter the mu●cles that lie upon the thigh-bone whether for its motion , or of the leg. the second accompanies the crural vein and artery down by the groins and the inside of the thigh , on whose formore muscles it is most of it spent , but sends one notable branch down the leg , as far as to the great toe . the fourth is the thickest , hardest and strongest of all the nerves in the body . this distributeth twigs to the skin of the buttocks and thigh , to the muscles of the thigh and leg , and being descended to the ham is divided into the outer and inner branches , which bestow twigs on all the muscles and skin of the leg and foot , to which there comes no other nerve , but the foresaid branch of the second . the end of the fourth book . the fifth book . containing a treatise of all the muscles of the body . chap. i. the description of a muscle . a muscle in greek is called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 a mouse , of which musculus in latin is but a diminutive ; as if it resembled a fley'd mouse : or else from 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 to contract . it is a dissimilar or organical part , ( framed of its proper membrane , a fibrous flesh , a tendon , veins , arteries , and nerves ) appointed by nature to be the instrument of free motion . the parts then are either common or proper . the common are three : the vein , the artery , and the nerve . the proper as many , viz. the fibrous flesh , the membrane , and the tendon . the arteries bestow on the muscles , ( as on all the other parts of the body ) vital heat and nourishment ; the veins carry back from them what bloud is not assimilated to them ; and the nerves bring animal spirit whereby their action is performed . and these nerves spring either from the medulla oblongata within the brain ; or from the spinalis , so called after it is descended out of the skull into the spine . the nerve is implanted either into one end , or about the middle of the muscle ; but at what part soever it is inserted , that is the head or beginning of the muscle . as soon as it hath entred into the substance of the muscle , it is dispersed into a number of twigs , which end in it , and are continued or elonged into fibres . a fibre is thus defined by dr. glisson in cap. . de ventric . a body in figure like a thread , slender , tenacious , tensile , and irritable , made of spermatical matter , for the sake of some motion and strength . which he thus explains : in figure like a thread ] i. e. oblong and round ; slender ] like a spiders web ; tenacious ] whose parts firmly cohere and are not easily broken ; tensile ] viz. that may be extended as to longitude , its latitude being lessen'd , and in like manner that may be thicken'd as to latitude , its longitude being shortn'd ; irritable ] i. e. which by irritation may be excited to contract it self , and the irritation ceasing , to be remitted of its own accord ; made of spermatick matter ] namely if it be a bare fibre ; but if it be stuft with a parenchyma , perhaps it is not always made of only spermatick matter ; ( for the stuft fibres may be divided into sanguineous and spermatick ; of the former kind are those of the muscles ; of the latter , those of the stomach and guts : ) for the sake of motion and strength ] for in that it is tenacious it adds strength to the part , and that which is apt to be extended and contracted is destin'd for some motion . ] these fibres being stuft in their interstices with a sanguineous parenchyma , are that which we properly call flesh ( without fat . ) for ( saith dr. croone ) all the flesh of a muscle ( which makes the greatest part of it , and of which the bulk of the whole body chiefly consists ) seems to be nothing else but that portion of the bloud that flows through the intervals of the fibres , which thickning by their coldness is staid amongst them , and makes the musculous flesh . the fibres are commonly streight ; wherefore the muscles of the belly ( called oblique and transverse ) have not their denomination from their fibres , for they are all streight ; but from their own position and situation : so the muscle called masseter , is accounted double , because it hath two sorts or ranks of fibres , one lying upon another . every muscle hath a proper membrane that invests it , and distinguishes it from others . it is continued unto the tendon in such muscles as have one . the last proper part of the muscle is the tendon . it is a similar body , of a sinewy-like substance , ( yet it hath a peculiar substance differing from a sinew ) white with a kind of brightness , dense , hard , and smooth , extended according to the length of the muscle . it s beginning may be reckoned to be at the head of the muscle , whence passing through the belly of it , it endeth in the tail . all muscles which are appointed for the moving of bones , have tendons which are inserted into them ; but commonly those which move other parts , as the tongue , lips , &c. as also the sphincter of the bladder , and anus , have none , or however such as are not easily discoverable ; for indeed some affirm ( as dr. croone ) that every muscle has its tendon . it is not framed of the nerve and ligament mingled together , as many have imagined : first , because a nerve being lax and soft , will not admit commixtion with the ligaments being hard . secondly , because the nerve is not carried in the form of a nerve to the tendon , but is either continued to or makes the fibres of the muscle . thirdly , ligaments are insensible , but tendons are of exquisite sense ; as appeareth by the great pain which ensueth if they be pricked . but either it is framed by nature out of the first matter of the embryo , as other parts called spermatick are , and so is an independent part : or else it is a coalition of the fibres of the muscle , being emptied or freed of their parenchyma . the tendons are sometimes round , as in the musculus biceps ; sometimes broad , as in the oblique and transverse muscles of the belly . these are the parts constitutive of a muscle . it hath besides these , parts derived from the position ; and those are three : the head , the belly , and the tail. the head is the beginning , or that part unto which the muscle is contracted : the belly is the thickest part and the most fleshy : the tail is the ending of it , and is inserted into the part which is moved . it is called in greek 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , and commonly tendo . the use of a muscle was set down in the last part of the description , in that it was said to be the instrument of free motion ; which word we rather make use of than of voluntary , because beasts have muscles and motion , unto whom will properly so called is denyed , because it presupposeth reason . chap. ii. of the differences and actions of the muscl●s . the differences of muscles are taken from sundry things : first , from their substance : so some are fleshy , as sundry of the tongue and larynx : some are membranous , as the constrictores or internal adducents of the nose : and some are partly fleshy , and partly nervous , as the temporal . secondly , from the quantity . some are long , as the streight muscle of the abdomen , the longest of the back , &c. others short , as the pyramidal at the bottom of the abdomen : some broad , others narrow ; some thick , others thin and slender , &c. thirdly , from the situation : from hence some are called external , some internal ; some oblique , some streight , some transverse . fourthly , from the figure : as deltoides , because it resembleth the greek letter 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 delta . some round , others square , &c. fifthly , from their beginning : so some proceed from bones , one or more ; some from cartilages or gristles , as those of the larynx . sixthly , from the variety of parts ; so some are called bicipites and tricipites , having two and three heads ; others biventres , having two bellies . seventhly , from their composition ; so some are single , some double ; because some have more heads , some more tails than one . the unity of the belly and membrane which enwrappeth the muscle , causeth the unity of it ; and the plurality of the membranes and bellies , the plurality of muscles . eighthly , from their action . four differences of muscles are taken from hence : for first , some are hence called fraterni or congeneres , brotherly ; some antagonistae , adversaries . secondly , some onely move themselves , as the sphincters ; some other parts , as the rest . thirdly , some have one onely action , as the greatest part of the muscles ; some have divers actions , as the masseter and trapezius . the fourth difference is taken from the variety of the action ; so some are called flexores , others extensores ; some elevatores , others depressores ; some adductores , others abductores . others suspensores , rotatores , &c. as for the proper action of a muscle , it is nothing else but the contraction of it towards its beginning . the diversity of the action proceedeth from the diversity of the situation of the muscles : so a streight muscle hath a streight motion ; a transverse , a transverse motion ; an oblique , an oblique motion ; and that which compasseth a part hath an orbicular motion as the sphincters . so all internal muscles serve for bending ; all external for stretching out . now of the motion of the muscles there are four differences ; first , the contraction : secondly , the perseverance of the contraction : thirdly , the relaxation of the contraction ; and fourthly , the perseverance of the relaxation . this perseverance is called motus tonicus , whenas the member is still kept in the same posture . the efficient cause then of the action is the soul , moved by its appetite . it useth three instruments , the brain , the nerve , the muscle : the brain receiveth the charge , the nerve carrieth it to the muscle with the animal spirits , and the muscle doth perform the action . so that a muscle from its action may thus be described : a muscle is an organical part of the body , appointed for the free contraction of it self towards the beginning , for the moving of the part into which it is inserted . chap. iii. of the muscles of the eye-lids . the lids of each eye have three muscles : the first is called rectus or aperiens , to lift it up . this is placed in the upper region of the orbit of the eye , and springeth from the same origine with the elevator of the eye , ( above it ) namely at the hole through which the optick nerve passes into the orbit , and holds the same course with it , being of the same figure and substance , viz. fleshy , till at last parting from it with a pretty broad but thin tendon , it is inserted into the cartilage of the upper eyelid , which it serves to lift up , and so to open the eye . the two others are called claudentes , or shutters of the eyelids , as also semicirculares ( others call them circulares taking them for one . ) they are placed between the membrana carnosa and that membrane that is extended from the pericranium . each eyelid has one , the upper a larger , the lower a less . that which draweth down or shutteth the upper , ariseth from the inner corner of the eye and that part of the supercilium that is next to the nose , with a sharp beginning : from whence it passes transversly toward the outward corner , growing presently fleshy and broader , so that it filleth up all the space betwixt the eyebrows and the lowest edge of the eyelids on which the hairs grow , ( which is called cilium or tarsus ) and at length is inserted into the outer corner . that which moveth the lower ( though but obscurely ) in order to shut it , is membranous and thin , arising from the side of the nose with a sharp beginning as the other ; whence being carried transversly it comes to the middle of the eyelid , where becoming something fleshy it continues its course to the outer corner which it turns about , and ascending to the upper eyelid is inserted into it with a broad end . these two muscles being contracted shut the eye , the greater drawing down the upper eyelid , and the less pulling up the lower . but it is to be noted that besides the rectus aforesaid to open the eye , there sometimes concur , when we would open them very wide , the musculi frontales , ( on each side one ) which springing from the skull near the coronal future , and having one side knit to the temporal muscles , do meet one another with the other side upon the forehead , and descend with streight fibres to the eyebrows , where they terminate . by the help of these we draw up and wrinkle the forehead , and by consequence pull up the upper eylid a little . the skin grows very close to these muscles . chap. iv. of the muscles of the eye . these are in number six ; four streight , and two oblique . the streight move the eyes upwards and downwards , to the right hand and to the left : the oblique move them obliquely . the streight are more thick and fleshy than the oblique . as to their beginning , ( viz. of the streight ) they have all the same origine ; as to their progress , the same structure ; and as to their end , the same insertion . their origine is contiguous and acute , being at the hole through which the optick nerve enters the orbit of the eye , from whose membrane they spring . their middle , or belly , is fleshy and almost round . their end is a most thin and membranous tendon , whereby they are inserted into the tunica cornea , where it is pellucid , near the iris , and so do encompass the whole eye before as far as it is white . the first of the streight is called attollens , or superbus ; that which pulleth up the eye . the second is deprimens , or humilis , that which draweth down the eye . the third is adducens , or bibitorius , that which pulleth the eye to the nose . the fourth is called abducens , or indignatorius , that which pulleth it from the nose towards the outer corner . the first is placed in the upper region of the orbit , the second in the lower , ( opposite to the upper ) the third in the inner corner of the eye , the fourth in the outer . the oblique muscles are called circumagentes , winders or rollers about , and amatorii , or amorous ; and are in number two . the first is obliquus major , or superior , the uppermost and largest . this beginneth within the orbit of the eye , by the hole of the optick nerve , and passing to the upper part of the inner corner of the eye , endeth in a small and round tendon , which passeth through a transverse cartilage there placed , ( called by fallopius trcchlea ) as a cord through a pully , and is inserted into the upper side of the cornea . the second is obliquus minor , or inferior , the lowermost and smallest . this springeth from the lower and almost outer part of the orbit ; about the chink which doth unite the first bone of the upper jaw to the fourth , with a carnous beginning . it is slender but not quite round , and passeth obliquely to the outer corner of the eye , which having turned about , it ends in a short , roundish and nervous tendon , which meeteth with the tendon of the other oblique muscle , and is inserted in an oblique line near the iris betwixt the tendons of the attollens and abducens , with the other , so that both seem to have but one tendon . this bringeth the apple of the eye to the nose , as the other draweth it from it . before you shew the muscles of the eye , cut off the fat with the scissers , then shew first the obliquus major , then the obliquus minor , and last of all the four streight muscles . nevertheless let the obliquus major remain last , when all the rest are taken away , that you may shew how the tendon of it passeth through the pulley the more plainly . and it will not be amiss here to describe this same pulley or trochlea , which we shall do out of spigelius : it is a little round cartilage , hollowed like a pipe or piece of a straw , that is suspended by a ligament in the inner corner of the eye , from which the said greater oblique muscle has the name of trochlearis . chap. v. of the muscles of the nose . the nose is not all of it moveable , but only its lower gristly parts , which are called alae or pinnae . and these are either drawn together to shut the nostrils , which is performed by the adducent muscles ; or drawn asunder to open the nostrils , which is done by the abducent . and there are two pair to serve each office. so that in all there are eight muscles that belong to the nose . the first pair of the abducent or opening muscles is small , rather carnous than membranous , arising from the upper jaw-bone , near the first proper pair of the lips ; this is inserted partly into the lower part of the ala of the nose , and partly into the upper part of the upper lip , and is called philtrum . the second pair covering each side of the nose , begins at its top near the foramen lachrymale , with an acute and fleshly origine , and descending obliquely by the bones of the nose it ends in a broad basis , and still remaining fleshy is implanted into the alae . it is near of a three-square or triangular shape , like the greek letter delta , whence it is called by some deltoides . these two pair by drawing the alae upward widen and open the nostrils . the abducent or closing muscles are very small ones , so that they can hardly be discovered or distinguish'd exactly but in them that have large noses . the first pair of these is external and fleshy , rising about the root of the alae , which it ascends creeping transversly over them to the ridge or tip of the nose , into which it is inserted . the second is internal , and is hid in the cavity of the nostrils under the inner coat that covers them : it is membranous , and arises from the bones of the nose , where they end about the gristles , and is inserted into the alae . the former being contracted depresses the alae ; the latter draws them inwards , and so closes or constringes the nostrils . and to the same end or purpose there is another that serves ( which is common ) namely the orbicularis of the upper lip , which by drawing the lip downwards , doth at the same time constringe the nostrils . bartholin writes , that besides these muscles , he has sometimes found a small carnous muscle reaching streight down from the frontal muscle with a broad basis , but presently growing narrower , to end about the cartilage of the nose . chap. vi. of the muscles of the lips and cheeks . the muscles of the lips are either common to the cheeks and lips , or proper only to the lips. the common are two on each side . the first is called detrahens quadratus : this is a thin but broad muscle , resembling a membrane enterlaced with fleshy fibres . it hath its beginning from the vertebrae of the neck in the outer side , the shoulder-blade , the clavicula and the breast-bone , and mounting up by oblique fibres to the face , is implanted in the chin , lips , and root of the nose ; which parts it draws obliquely downwards . sometimes it proceeds also to the root of the ear , and is reckoned for one of its muscles . it is called quadratus or four-square from its shape . when a convulsion happens in this muscle , it causes the spasmus cynicus , which we can imitate voluntarily by drawing down one side of the mouth . the second is called contrahens , or buccinator the trumpeter . this lieth under the former , in the upper part of it . it doth make up all that part of the cheek which is blown up when a trumpet is sounded . it is round , and springing from the brims of the upper jaw-bone circularly , doth end in the brims of the lower jaw-bone . it is wholly membranous , and interlaced with divers fibres , and is knit so close unto the membrane which covereth the inside of the mouth , that it hardly can be severed from it . this muscle is not only of use to move the cheeks with the lips , but when it is contracted , it turneth in the meat upon the teeth again , that had got to betwixt them and the cheek , in chewing of it . the muscles proper to the lips , are five pair , and one odd one . first , par attollens . if both of these act together , they draw all the upper lip directly upwards and outwards ; but if only one , then is but one side of the lip drawn up obliquely . this pair springeth from the first bone of the upper-jaw , or os jugale , where the ball of the cheek is . at its rise it is broad and fleshy : from thence marching obliquely to the fore-part , each is inserted into its own side of the upper lip near to the nose . the second is called abducens , and assisteth the motion of the former , or rather draweth the upper lip more to one side . it ariseth out of the cavity that is under the ball of the cheek with a fleshy but slender and round beginning , and being covered with much fat , it is implanted into the fraenum or little dimple in the middle of the upper lib. the third pair is called by riolanus zugomaticum or jugale , arising outwardly from the jugal process . it is fleshy and round , and descending obliquely through the cheeks , is terminated near the corner of the mouth on each side ; and serves to draw both lips upwards sideways ; for it is common to them both . the fourth pair is deprimens , which pulleth down the lower lip. it springeth from the sides of the chin , where the two small bunchings are : there it is fleshy . from thence marching obliquely , it is inserted into the middle of the under lip. it is every where broad . the fifth pair may be called oblique detrahens , for it draws the lower lip obliquely downwards and outwards . it springs from the sides of the lower jaw with a fleshy and broad beginning , ( being sometimes extended to the middle of the chin ) from hence it goes upwards , and growing narrower by degrees it is inserted obliquely into the lower lip near its corner . some make but one of this and the immediatly foregoing ; as also of the second and third , but they are indeed distinct . and these are all of them pairs , one on each side : but this which follows is single , namely the orbicularis or constringens , and is common to both lips. it is otherwise called osculatorius , because it contracteth the lips in kissing . this is that which makes the proper figure and soft substance of both the lips , encompassing the whole mouth like a sphincter , which by its orbicular fibres it constringes or purses up when one is said to simper . it is closely knit to the red skin of the lips. chap. vii . of the muscles of the lower jaw . the lower jaw ( for the upper is immoveable , and therefore has no muscles ) is moved upwards , downwards , towards the right side , towards the left side , and towards the back-part . to procure these motions five pair of muscles are appointed , of which there is only one pair that draweth the jaw downwards , all the others in some measures upwards : whence one may be easily made to shut his mouth , there being only one pair of muscles to oppose ; but it is difficult to open it against ones will , through the great strength of the muscles that shut it . the first pair of muscles is called temporale , and is the strongest and largest : it springeth from the bones of the frons , synciput , temples and sphenoides , with a fleshy , large and semicircular beginning , and on its outer side is covered with the pericranium , its inner lying next the periosteum . it s fibres the further they are from its middle , the more obliquely are they carried towards its tendon , for the further it descends , the narrower ( but thicker and more carnous ) it grows ; and at length passing under the os jugale , it embraceth and is inserted into the acute process of the lower jaw ( called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 ) with a short but very strong tendon . spigelius says , this tendon is extended through the whole muscle , in its middle fleshy substance . wherefore if this muscle be wounded , fearful symptoms ensue , partly because the tendon passeth so ; partly because it is covered with the pericranium . this muscle forcibly pulleth up the lower jaw , and so shutteth the mouth . the second pair is called deprimens , digastricum , or biventre , because it hath two bellies , between which a tendon lyeth : this doth pull down the jaw , and so openeth the mouth . wherein it is partly assisted by the quadratus described in the foregoing chapter . it hath its beginning from the process of the bone of the temple , called styloides , where it is nervous and broad ; and afterward becoming fleshy , small , and round , it passeth downward , and in its middle , where it comes to the flexure of the lower jaw-bone , it loseth its fleshy substance , and degenerates into a nervous and round tendon ; but by and by it becomes carnous again , and goes along the inner side of the lower-jaw , to its forepart that is under the chin , where it is inserted . the third is called masseter , because it serveth for chewing by moving the jaw to the right and the left side : from its situation it may be called laterale . this hath two beginnings : one is nervous , springing from the suture where the first bone of the jaw is joyned to the fourth . this beginning is large and strong . the other beginning is fleshy , proceeding from the os jugale , and so marcheth towards the chin , and is implanted into the whole breadth of the lower jaw strongly . the fibres of this muscle , by reason of the two beginnings , cross one another ; so that these muscles do not only move the jaw laterally , but backward and forwards also . the fourth pair is called pterygoideum externum , aliforme externum , or maxillam abducens . this hath also a double beginning , partly nervous and partly fleshy ; springing partly from the upper external sides of the wing-like process of the os sphenoides , partly srom the rough and sharp line of the same bone . whence marching down by streight fibres , it becometh greater and thicker . and at length is inserted by a strong tendon into the internal lateral part of the lower jaw , which is under the tendon of the temporal muscle . this moveth the jaw forward , which appeareth when the lower teeth are stretched further out than the upper . the fifth pair is termed maxillam adducens , or pterygoideum internum . this draweth the jaw towards its head , or backward . this , in the beginning being nervous , doth spring from the inner cavity of the wing-like process of the os sphenoides ; then becoming fleshy , large and thick , and marching down by a streight passage , it is inserted into the inner and hinder part of the lower jaw by a nervous , broad and strong tendon . besides its more proper action of drawing the jaw backwards , it also helps the temporal muscle to draw it up . chap. viii . of the muscles of the ear. the ear consists of an outer and an inner part : and each has its proper muscles . the outer part is moved but very obscurely , because in men the muscles are exceeding small ; so that galen calls them , only lineaments or resemblances of muscles . there are four of them , which by their situation seem fit to move this outer part of the ear ( called auricula by spigelius , to distinguish it from the inner part called auris ) four manner of ways . the first is called attollens . this is seated in the fore-part of the face , and lies upon the temporal muscle that draws up the lower jaw . it arises at the outer end of the frontal muscle ( where it is contiguous to the temporal ) with a thin and membranous beginning , but by degrees becoming narrower as it goeth down , it is inserted into the upper part of the ear , which it moveth upwards and forwards . the second is called detrahens . this ariseth broad and carnous from the mammillary process , and growing narrower is inserted into the root of the cartilage of the ear sometimes by two , sometimes by three tendons . it draweth the ear upwards and backwards . the third is called adducens ad antericra , whereby the ear is drawn forward and downward . this is but a particle of the musculus quadratus , that pulleth down the cheeks , described before , which ascending with its fibres , is implanted into the root of the ear. the fourth is abducens ad posteriora , which draws the ear backward . this hath its beginning in the back-part of the head , from the tunicles of the muscles of the occiput , above the processus mammillaris , where it is narrow , but waxing broader it is carryed downward transversly , and is inserted into the ear behind . all these muscles in horses , oxen and the like , are very large to what they are in men ( yea they have more than these ) whereby they can move their ears more ●trongly and apparently , to shake off flies or any thing that offends them . in the inner part of the ear ( called auris ) there are two . the first is called externus . it is small , springing pretty broad from the upper part of the passage of the ear ; then becoming narrower it grows into a very fine and small tendon , which is carryed on the outside of the membrane , called tympanum , till it arrive at its centre or middle , into which it is inserted , just there where on the inside of the said membrane the little bone called malleus sticketh , which with the membrane this muscle draweth a little outward and upward . the second is called internus . this is very small , and is placed within the os petrosum . it hath its beginning in the basis of the wedge-like bone , there where it is joined with the processus petrosus , and at about its middle it is divided into two small tendons , whereof the one is inserted into the upper process of the malleus , and the other into the neck of it . this draws the head of the malleus obliquely forward , and pulls it inward from the incus . chap. ix . of the muscles of the tongue . the tongue being the chief instrument of speech , and a part which serves to roll the meat in the mouth this way and that way , has all manner of motions , being moved forward ( when we put out the tongue ) and backward , upward and downward , to the right hand and to the left ; it is also stretched out broad , or contracted . its muscles are either proper to it self , or common to it with the os hyoides ( to be described in the next chapter . ) it has five pair of proper muscles . the first is genioglossum , so called from its rise and insertion ( 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 the chin , and 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 the tongue ) as most of the rest are . this pulleth the tongue without the teeth and lips. it springeth from the ruggedness which is in the middle of the chin , in the inner and lower part of it , and is inserted into the lower side and towards the root of the tongue . the second is called hypsiloglossum ( on the same account . ) it ariseth from the middle and upper part of the os hyoides , and ends in the middle of the tongue , which it draws streight backwards or inwards . the third is called myloglossum . this springeth from the inner part of the lower jaw , where the farthest grinding teeth are , and is inserted into the ligament by which the tongue is tyed to the fauces . authors differ about the use of this pair ; some thinking that it draws the tongue downward ; others , that if both of them act together , they draw the tip of the tongue streight upward and backward to the palate and upper teeth ; if but one , that it draws it obliquely upward toward its own side . the fourth is called ceratoglossum , because it ariseth from the two horns of the os hyoides . it is inserted into the sides of the tongue . if both of these be contracted at once , they draw the tongue streight downward and inward ; but if only one , then is the tongue drawn obliquely to that side . the fifth pair is called styloglossum , because it ariseth from the styloides processus ; from which springing fleshy and small , but afterwards becoming broader and thicker , it is inserted into the sides of the tongue , at about the middle of its length . if both these act together , they pull the tongue upward and inward ; but if one only , then to the right hand or to the left . chap. x. of the muscles of the bone of the tongue , called os hyoides . this bone is moved upwards , downwards , forward , backward , and toward the sides , as the tongue is ; for it is moved according as the tongue is , seeing it is joined to it , and its muscles are common to both . to perform these motions it hath four pair of muscles . the first is called sternohyoideum . this springing from the upper , but inner part of the sternum with a broad and carnous beginning , and ascending under the skin of the neck by the wind-pipe , still keeping the same largeness and substance , is inserted in the root or basis of the hyoides , which it moveth ( and the tongue with it ) downward and backward . the second is opposite to this , and is called geniohyoideum . this springing from the inner part of the chin , ( by the genioglossum ) fleshy and broad , is inserted into the upper part of the root of the bone , where a cavity is made to receive it , and draweth it streight upwards and a little forwards . the third is coracohyoideum . it riseth from the upper side of the scapula near the coracoides processus , having a carnous beginning , and passing under the levator of the shoulder-blade , called musculus patientiae , it ascends under the par mastoides that bends the head , where it loses its fleshy substance , as giving way to one more worthy than it self , and degenerates into a nervous and round tendon . but as soon as it is past this , it becomes carnous again , and so continues till it is inserted into the horns of the hyoides . considering its slenderness it is the longest muscle of the body , and has two bellies like the par deprimens that pulls down the lower jaw . it pulleth the bone obliquely downwards . the fourth is styloceratohyoideum . this riseth from the root of the processus styloides , and endeth in the horns of the hyoides , which it draweth obliquely upward . chap. xi . of the muscles of the larynx . the muscles of the larynx are either common ▪ or proper . the common are four ; two called par sternothyreoideum , and as many called par hyothyreoideum . the hyothyreoideum springeth from the whole basis almost of the bone of the tongue , having a broad and carnous beginning ; from whence descending with streight fibres , and covering all the outside of the cartilage thyreoides , it is inserted into its lowest part . when this is contracted , it draws the buckler-like ( or thyreoides ) cartilage upwards and inwards , and thereby straitens the chink of the larynx . the other pair called sternothyreoideum ( vulgarly bronchium ) springing from the upper and inner part of the sternum with a carnous and broad beginning , ascends with streight fibres up by the sides of the wind-pipe ( continuing the same largeness and substance ) and is at last inserted into the lower side of the buckler-like cartilage , by drawing down which it opens or widens the chink . diemerbroeck assigns clear contrary actions to these muscles , viz. that the former widens and this latter straitens the rima of the larynx . the proper muscles are in number nine . the first pair is called cricothyreoideum anticum . this springeth from the fore-part of the cricoides or ring-like cartilage , and is inserted into the lateral parts of the thyreoides . it extends the cartilage and so widens the rimula , for the forming of a big voice . bartholin , from the insertion of the nerve , says it arises from the thyreoides , and is inserted into the cricoides . also if this pair be very broad , he says , it may be divided into two pair ( which riolanus has done ) and then the second may be called cricothyreoideum laterale . the second pair is called cricoarytaenoideum posticum , springing carnous from the hinder and lower part of the cricoides , whose cavity it fills , and ascending with streight fibres it is inserted with a nervous end into the lower side of the arytaenoides , which it pulls upward and backward , and thereby opens and widens the larynx . the third is cricoarytaenoideum laterale , which springeth above from the sides of the cricoides , with a slender beginning , but growing presently larger , it is implanted into the sides of the arytaenoides , in that part that the foregoing did not cover . this openeth the larynx by drawing the cartilages obliquely aside . the fourth pair is called thyreoarytaenoideum . this is internal , carnous and broad , arising from the fore interior part of the thyreoides , and is inserted into the sides of the guttalis or arytaenoides , which make the glottis . it draws these cartilages one to the other and so straitens the larynx . the fifth and last is reckoned to be but one muscle , and is called arytaenoides , because it has its rise from the cartilage so called , namely from its hinder line , from whence being extended with transverse fibres , it is also inserted into its sides , and by constringing of it shuts the larynx . chap. xii . of the muscles of the uvula and throat . the uvula is said by veslingius , riolanus , &c. to have two muscles to hold it up ; of which one is called pterygostaphilinus externus , which springeth from the upper jaw , a little below the furthermost grinder , and is inserted into the side of the uvula : the other pterygostaphilinus internus , proceeding from the lower part of the internal wing of the pterygoides processus , and inserted into the uvula in like manner . but these muscles are very hard to discover : and indeed there seems no occasion for them , seeing the uvula has no apparent motion , and its own frame seems sufficient to suspend it . the throat , or the beginning of the oesophagus , called pharynx , hath seven muscles , to wit , three pair and a sphincter . of the pairs , the first is sphenopharyngaeum . this springeth from the sharp point of the sphenoides with a small and nervous beginning , and passing downward , ends in a fine tendon , which is inserted obliquely into the lateral parts of the palate and pharynx , which it widens in swallowing . the second pair is called cephalopharyngaeum , and springeth from that part where the head is joined to the first vertebra of the neck , and marching down it is spread about the pharynx with a large plexus of fibres , and seemeth to make its membrane . this straitens the throat in swallowing . the third is stylopharyngaeum . this springing from the styloides process , is inserted into the sides of the pharynx to dilate it . that which hath no fellow is called oesophagiaeus , which springing from one side of the thyreoides , and circularly compassing the pharynx with transverse fibres , is inserted into the other side of the thyreoides ; and serves to contract the mouth of the gullet , as the sphincters of the anus and bladder do those parts . chap. xiii . of the muscles of the head. the muscles of the head are either common , or proper . the common are those which together with the neck move the head. these are to be described in the next chapter . the proper are those which only move the head when the neck remaineth unmoved , and these are in number sixteen , or eight pair . the first pair called mastoideum bend the head forward , if both act together ; but on one side obliquely , if but one . these have each a double beginning ; one nervous from the top of the sternum , the other carnous from the upper side of the clavicula ; which origines joining , it becomes wholly carnous , and ascending obliquely by the neck , at last is inserted with a carnous end at the hinder part of the head into the process called mastoides , or mammillaris . this is the only pair that is placed in the fore-part and bows the head forward ; all the rest are seated behind , and bend it backward or to the sides . of which the first pair is called splenium or triangulare . it rises with a nervous beginning from the five uppermost vertebrae of the thorax , and five lowermost of the neck ; from whence ascending and becoming thick and carnous , it is implanted into the occiput with a broad and fleshy end . if both the muscles of this pair act together , they draw the head directly backward ; if one singly , then a little to one side . the second is called complexum or trigeminum , because it has so plainly a threefold beginning , that it seems to be compounded or made up of three muscles . one beginning is from the transverse process of the fourth and fifth vertebrae of the breast , a second from the first and second of the same , and a third from the spine of the seventh vertebra of the neck : all which in their ascent being united into one , are inserted into the occiput sometimes by one and sometimes by a triple tendon . this has the same action with the foregoing , as have also the three following . the third pair is called parvum & crassum , because it is small and thick . this lyeth under the second pair . it arises nervous from the transverse processes of the six uppermost vertebrae of the neck , and is inserted into the hinder root of the mammillary process . the fourth pair is rectum majus . these springing from the edge of the second vertebra of the neck , are inserted into the occiput . the fifth , rectum minus . these lye under the former , and proceeding from the back-part of the first vertebra end into the occiput . the sixth is obliquum superius . this pair lies under the two recta , answering to them in substance and form . it springs from the process of the first vertebra of the neck , and is implanted into the occiput by the outer side of the recta . some say its rise is here , and its insertion into the vertebra . the seventh , obliquum inferius . this is longish , fleshy and round , rising from the spine of the second vertebra of the neck , and is inserted into the transverse process of the first vertebra of the same . these oblique muscles serve to turn the head about . chap. xiv . of the muscles of the neck . the head is not only moved by the proper muscles abovesaid primarily , but secondarily also by these of the neck , which are eight in number , on each side four . the first and second pair bend the neck backward , or obliquely ; the third and fourth forward , or to one side , as both or one act . the first is called spinatum . this proceeding from the spinae of the upper seven vertebrae of the thorax , and of the five lowest of the neck , is inserted strongly into the lower edge of the second vertebra of the neck . the second , transversale . this rising from the transverse processes of the six upper vertebrae of the thorax , is inserted outwardly into all the processes of the vertebrae of the neck . the third , longum . this being placed under the oesophagus , doth spring from the fifth and sixth vertebrae of the back , and as it ascends is knit to the sides of all the vertebrae , till it come to the first or highest of the neck , where each touching other , they are both inserted into its process . the fourth , triangulare , or scalenum . it proceeds carnous from the first rib , and is inserted into the inside of all the transverse processes of the neck , except sometime the first and second . it is perforated to make way for the veins , arteries and nerves which pass to the arms. chap. xv. of the muscles of the breast . having done with the muscles that belong to the head , the highest venter , we come now to those of the middle or thorax , which assist respiration . of these some dilate the breast in inspiration , some contract it in expiration . of the dilaters the first is called par subclavium . this ariseth fleshy from the inner part of the clavicula , and passing obliquely is inserted into the first rib , near to the sternum . the second is serratum majus . this doth arise from the inside of the shoulder-blade , and the two upper ribs , and is inserted into the lower five true ribs , and two upper short ribs , before they end into cartilages . it is called serratum or saw-like , because its unequal extremities being intermixed with the like unequal beginnings of the obliquely descending muscle of the abdomen , imitate the teeth of a saw. the third is serratum posticum superius . this lying under the rhomboides , springeth membranous from the spines of the three lower vertebrae of the neck , and of the first vertebra of the back , and is inserted into the three of four upper ribs . the fourth is serratum posticum inferius . this ariseth from the spines of the three lowest vertebrae of the back , and of the first of the loyns , and is inserted into three or four of the lowest ( short ) ribs . fifthly , the eleven external intercostals , which perform the office but of one muscle . these spring from the lower part of the upper rib , and are inserted into the upper part of the lower rib obliquely . there is another muscle besides these , that assists the widening of the breast , namely the diaphragm : but of it we spoke at large in book . chap. . where the reader may find its description and use . these that follow contract the breast . first , the par triangulare . this arising from the middle line of the sternum , is inserted into the bony ends of the third , fourth , fifth and sixth true ribs ( where they are joined to the cartilages . ) the second is sacrolumbum . this arises from the os sacrum , and the processes of the vertebrae of the loins ; and ascending up to the ribs , is implanted into each of them in their lower side , about three fingers breadth from the spine , by a particular tendon . ( diemerbroeck describes another pair opposite to this ( which he calls cervicale descendens ) springing from the third , fourth , fifth , sixth and seventh vertebrae of the neck , and is inserted into the upper side of each rib as the sacrolumbum is into the lower . and says , that this pair by pulling the ribs upwards in inspiration widens the breast , as the other by drawing them down in expiration straitens it . ) thirdly , the eleven internal intercostals , which are as one muscle . these pass obliquely from the lower to the upper rib. their fibres run opposite to those of the external , representing a st. andrew's cross , or the letter x. these muscles are much assisted in their action , secondarily , by the muscles of the abdomen , scapulae and arms. chap. xvi . of the muscles of the back and loins . the back , but especially the loins being moved diversly , viz. backward and forward and to the sides , into every vertebra there are tendons of the muscles inserted , as if there were a great many muscles in all . but there are but four ( proper ) pair to assist the motion of both . the first pair are two triangular muscles , which being joined together make a kind of a quadrature , and are therefore called par quadratum . these arise broad and thick from the hinder upper cavity of os ileum , and the inner side of os sacrum , and are inserted into the transverse processes of the vertebrae of the loins even up to the lowest rib. if both these act together , they bow the vertebrae of the loins streight forward , if one alone , obliquely forward . the second and principal pair are the musculi longissimi , which springing at the bottom of os sacrum and ileum , and ascending up the spine , reach as far as to the processus mammillares near the temple-bones , bestowing tendons on the processes of all the vertebrae of the loins and back , ( whence some have divided this pair into as many as there are vertebrae ) being almost confounded with the two following from their rise till the lowest vertebra of the thorax , where this pair begins to be separated from them . and hence because these three muscles are something hard to separate , some account them for one . the third pair are the muscles called sacri , which arise behind from the os sacrum , with an acute and fleshy beginning , and end in the spine of the lowest vertebra of the thorax , and for the most part also are inserted , by the way , into the spines and oblique processes of the vertebrae of the loins . this pair helpeth the action of the former . the fourth and last pair are the semispinati , which springing by a nervous beginning from all the spines of os sacrum and the loins , end in the transverse processes of the vertebrae of the loins , and of the lowermost of the thorax . this pair erects the thorax . now there are none of these muscles but the first pair , that bend the loins and back forward ; but these are much assisted in that action by the recti of the abdomen , which we shall describe in the next chapter . chap. xvii . of the muscles of the abdomen . in the first book , chap. . where we discoursed of the common containing parts of the abdomen , or lowest venter , we only barely mentioned its muscles , deferring the further description of them till this place , where it seems more proper . the abdomen then hath ten muscles , five on each side . the first pair is oblique descendens . it s rise is parted into seven or eight fleshy portions , like comb-teeth , which being intermixed with the tendons of the serratus major of the breast divided in like manner imitate a saw. it springeth from the lower side of the sixth , seventh , eighth , ninth , tenth , and eleventh ribs , and the transverse processes of the vertebrae of the loins , adhering also to the edge of os ilium ; from all which places its fibres descend obliquely , and it endeth by a broad tendon in the middle of the belly in the linea alba ; which tendon cleaves so fast to that of the obliquely ascending ( lying next under this ) that they cannot be separated without tearing . ( the linea alba in which these tendons end , is a white part or line running from the mucronata cartilago at the pit of the stomach down the middle of the belly by the navel to the ossa pubis , and is made of the concourse of the tendons of the muscles of the abdomen ; namely of this pair already mentioned , and of the oblique ascendens , the transverse and pyramidal . the second pair is the oblique ascendens . these lye next under the former , and their fibres ascending obliquely cross those of the other like an x. they spring from the transverse processes of the vertebrae of the loins and the spines of os sacrum with a membranous beginning , and from the edge of os illum with a fleshy . ascending carnous from hence they are joined to the cartilages of the eighth , ninth , tenth and eleventh ribs , and end in the linea alba with a broad and nervous tendon . the third pair is the rectum or streight . these arise fleshy from the lower part of the sternum , from both sides of the cartilago mucronata , and from the cartilaginous ending of four ribs ; and so marching streight down along the belly , it is inserted by a strong tendon into the ossa pubis . each hath sometimes three , sometimes four transverse inscriptions or intersections , that appear tendinous : whence some divide them into four or five muscles , accordingly as they have three or four intersections . and indeed if galen's rule be true , that wheresoever the nerve is inserted into the muscle , there is its head ; we must confess they are distinct muscles . for nerves are inserted into both their upper and lower parts , and into each of those that lye betwixt the intersections . and by supposing them thus distinct , we may conceive how they may better perform their primary action , which is strongly to compress the belly for the expulsion of the faeces or foetus . under these muscles do the arteriae and venae mammariae descend to about the navel , as the arteriae and venae epigastricae ascend under them to near the same place ; and these were held to inosculate one with another , ( the descending with the ascending ) till of late that such inosculation is discovered to be meerly imaginary . the fourth pair is the pyramidal . these are placed above the lower part of the musculi recti . they spring from the ossa pubis , small and carnous , where they receive their nerves . they are broader at their basis , and grow narrower as they ascend , whence they have their name of pyramidal . they climb up upon the recti about four fingers breadth ( the left being shorter and narrower ) and insert their acute tendon into the linea alba . they are said to assist the recti in their action , and are for that reason also called succenturiati . but they seem more particularly to serve to compress the bladder in making water . sometimes one , and sometimes both of these are wanting , and then the ending of the recti is broader and more carnous . the fifth pair is the transverse , which is firmly knit to the peritonaeum , and whose fibres run cross or athwart the belly . they spring from a ligament that grows from the transverse processes of the vertebrae of the loins , from os ileum , and the cartilaginous ends of the lower ribs , ( having the same arteries , veins and nerves with the obliquely ascending ) and end in a broad and membranous tendon in the linea alba . the use of all these muscles hath been held to be , first , while the body is at rest , to strengthen the parts subjacent , and to encrease their heat : and secondly , when they are in action , first , to further the excretion of the excrements ; secondly , to help the delivery of the infant in labour ; thirdly , to assist the breast in strong expiration and expectoration ; and fourthly , to help to bend the spine in stooping , &c. diemerbroeck thinks that the streight , pyramidal and transverse do serve for the compression of the belly , but that the oblique do elevate or dilate it ; for in inspiration the abdomen is elevated as well as the thorax : and an alternate elevation and depression seems necessary for the furthering the motion of the aliments and humours through the parts contained in the lower belly . chap. xviii . of the muscles of the genitals , both in men and women . in the first book , chap. . of the yard , we described its muscles and their action , whither the reader may please to turn , and here we shall but just name them . they are two pair . the first are the erectores or directores , which arise from the inner knob of the coxendix , and are inserted into the nervous bodies of the penis . the second are the acceleratores , which arise from the sphincter of the anus , and passing on the under side of the penis ( by the sides of the urethra ) end about its middle . the clitoris in women , ( something resembling the penis in men ) hath also two pair of muscles , which having described book . chap. . we shall not insist on here , but remit the reader thither . as to the cremaster muscles by which the testes are suspended in men , see them described book . chap. . as for womens testes , they have no cremasters . chap. xix . of the muscles of the bladder and anus . the bladder hath but one muscle , called sphincter , which doth compass round its neck , and the prostates . in men it is about two inches broad , and is nothing else but the middle membrane here grown more carnous than in the rest of the bladder . it s fibres are orbicular , whereby it constringes or purses up the neck of the bladder , that the urine cannot pass out without a voluntary relaxing of this muscle . in women it reacheth to the hole by which the urine passeth into the vagina uteri , and seemeth to form it . the anus hath three muscles . the first is sphincter : this is fleshy , and encompasses the end of the streight gut , being two inches broad . it s fibres are orbicular . it doth not spring from any adjacent bone , but only adheres to the coc●yx . it serves to purse up the fundament . the second and third are called levatores . these spring from the ligaments of the coxendix and os sacrum , being broad and membranous , from whence passing by the sides of the streight gut , they stick to it , and are inserted into the upper part of the sphincter . these hinder the falling out of the fundament , which sometimes happens when they are too much relaxed . chap. xx. of the muscles of the scapula or shoulder-blade . thus we have done with the muscles of all the three venters : now we come to those of the limbs . and first of the scapula or shoulder-blade . it is moved forward , backward , upward and downward . each scapula hath four proper muscles . the first is called trapezius or cucullaris , because it with its fellow covering the back resembles a monk's cowl . it hath its beginning from the lower part of the occiput towards the ear , fleshy ; but from the posterior processes of five vertebrae of the neck , and the eight upper vertebrae of the breast , it springeth membranous and broad , and growing narrower in its progress , is inserted into the whole spine of the scapula , the top of the shoulder , and broader part of the clavicula . the second is levator , or patientiae musculus . this hath its beginning from the transverse processes of the first , second , third and fourth vertebrae of the neck ; which beginnings being united about the middle of the length of the muscle , it is inserted into the upper corner of the shoulder-blade . the third is serratus minor anticus . this lies under the pectoral muscle , and springs from the four uppermost ribs ( except the first ) before they become cartilaginous , by four fleshy portions representing the teeth of a saw , and is inserted by a broad tendon near to the anchor-like process of the scapula . the fourth is rhomboides . this is placed immediately under the cucullaris . it springeth fleshy from the hinder processes or spines of the three lowest vertebrae of the neck and so many uppermost of the breast ; and is inserted by as broad a fleshy ending , as the beginning was , into the basis of the shoulder-blade . these are the four proper pair of muscles belonging to the scapulae : of which the first pair , because of its several origines and several fibres , moves them diversly , upward , or downward , streight backward , or obliquely , according as these or those fibres are contracted . the second draws them ( with the shoulders ) upwards ; the third forward toward the breast ; and the last a little upward and backward . it hath other muscles that are common to it with other parts , which in some measure assist its motions , as the serratus major , described above , chap. . and the deltoides , which we shall describe in the next chapter . chap. xxi . of the muscles of the arm. the arm in common acceptation is meant of all the distance betwixt the top of the shoulder-blade and the wrist ; but we take it more strictly here for that part only that reaches from the shoulder to the elbow , ( which it self is otherwise called humerus ) and consists of one bone , which we shall call the shoulder-bone . it hath five motions , for it moveth backward , forward , upward , downward and circularly . it is moved upward by two erectors , deltoides and supraspinatus . first , deltoides ( so called because in shape it resembleth the greek letter delta ) springeth nervous and broad from the middle of the clavicula , the top of the shoulder , and the whole spine of the scapula , and is extended as far as to the middle of this shoulder-bone , where it is inserted . this besides its raising up the humerus , helps also to draw up the scapula . the second is supraspinatus , or superscapularis superior . this arises from the basis of the scapula , and fills up all that cavity that is betwixt its spine and upper edge , and passing over the jointing of the scapula with the shoulder-bone , by a broad and strong tendon is inserted into the neck of the latter . some think this doth not only lift the arm upward , but help to turn it round . it is pulled down by latissimus , and rotundus major . latissimus is so called from its largeness ; for with its fellow it covereth almost the whole back . it is called also ani scalptor , or tersor ; for without it those offices could not be performed . it springs by a broad membranous beginning from the hinder processes of all the vertebrae of the back-bone , that are betwixt the sixth of the thorax , and the middle of os sacrum , as also from the upper part of os ilium : then passing upwards , when it is come to that part of the back , where the ribs begin to bend , it becometh fleshy , and is carryed over the lower corner of the scapula ; where becoming narrower , it is inserted under the upper head of the shoulder-bone , by a short broad tendon , between the musculus pectoralis , and this that follows , viz. rotundus major , or more properly , teres major . ( for rotundus means a thing sphaerical , but teres long and round , like a thread , as this is . ) it springeth carnous from the whole lower costa of the scapula , and is inserted by a short and strong tendon into the shoulder-bone , a little below the neck of it . it is drawn forward by pectoralis and coracoideus . pectoralis hath a very large and for the greatest part membranous beginning , arising from divers parts , yet is one and continuous . in its upper part it rises from the middle of the clavicula on that side next the breast ; in its middle , from the whole length of the sternum and the cartilages of the ribs annexed to it ; in its lowest , from the cartilages of the sixth , seventh , and eighth ribs . it presently becomes carnous and thick , but narrower , and running towards the shoulder it is inserted into the shoulder-bone , a little below its head , between the deltoides and the biceps of the cubit . coracoideus beginneth at the coracoides process of the scapula , and endeth about the middle of the shoulder-bone . it is moved backward by three : infraspinatus , subscapularis , or immersus , and rotundus minor . infraspinatus or suprascapularis inferior springeth from the lower basis of the scapula , and filleth up all that space that is betwixt its spine and lower edge , as the supraspinatus did that between the spine and upper edge . it is inserted by a broad and short tendon into the fourth ligament of the shoulder-bone . subscapularis or immersus possesseth the whole inner cavity of the scapula . it springeth from the inner part of its basis , fleshy , and so continuing , passeth forward ( but becoming still narrower ) to the neck of the scapula , and at the last by a broad tendon is inserted into one of the ligaments of the arm. rotundus minor ariseth from the lowest corner of the scapula by a fleshy beginning , and is implanted into the neck of the shoulder-bone . some make but one muscle of this and the rotundus major . as to the circular motion of the arm , that is not performed by any particular muscle , but several of these contribute towards it , namely the supraspinatus , infraspinatus and subscapularis , and in some measure the others also . chap. xxii . of the muscles of the ulna . the lower part of the arm from the elbow to the wrist is called cubitus , which consisteth of two bones , called ulna and radius . the ulna serveth for flexion , and extension ; but the radius turneth it inward or outward , so as to make the back or palm of the hand look upward or downward . the ulna is bended by two , to wit , biceps , and brachiaeus internus . biceps hath two beginnings from the shoulder-blade . the first is that which is outward , tendinous and round , springing from the upper brim of the hollowness of the scapula ; the second is broader , and is framed partly of a tendon , and partly of flesh : it springs from the anchor-like process of the shoulder-blade ; then descending by the inner head of the shoulder-bone , it meeteth with the former , and becometh a strong fleshy muscle : which lying on the inside of the arm , afterwards ends in a thick , round , and strong tendon , which is inserted into the inner prominence or knob of the ulna . this is that tendon which causeth great pain if it be pricked in phlebotomy . brachiaeus internus lyeth under the biceps , being shorter than it , and altogether fleshy . it riseth where the deltoides endeth , viz. from the middle of the shoulder-bone , unto which it cleaveth firmly , and is inserted between the ulna and they radius where meet , in their foreside . the ulna is extended by four muscles , longus , brevis , brachiaeus , externus , and cubitalis . longus has two beginnings ; the one is partly fleshy and partly nervous , at the lower brim of the scapula , near its neck , ( where it hath a peculiar hollowness to receive it : ) this descends on the inside of the shoulder-bone , and when it is come as far as the insertion of the ani scalptor ( described in the foregoing chapter ) there arises another carnous beginning towards the outer side , that ( according to spigelius ) joins with it and makes up one muscle , which is inserted into the inner side of the hinder process of the olecranus ( or gibbous knob of the ulna . ) brevis rising from the hinder part of the neck of the shoulder-bone , endeth in the outer side of the olecranus ; namely , in that part of the elbow that we lean upon . brachiaeus externus ( so called by riolanus to distinguish it from , the internus ) is placed on the outside of the shoulder-bone , and is confounded with the other two and endeth where they do . this seemeth to be spigelius's second beginning of the longus , which he says grows into one muscle with it . cubitalis or anconaeus ariseth from the lower and hinder part of the shoulder-bone , and passing by the jointing of the ulna , it endeth by a nervous tendon in its lateral part about an inch below the olecranus or ancon , whence it is called anconaeus . some make one muscle of this and the brevis . note that both these benders and extenders of the ulna have only streight fibres , and so only move the cubit streightwise . chap. xxiii . of the muscles of the radius . the radius , the other bone of the cubitus , hath two sorts of muscles : for some are called pronatores , such as turn it inwards , and the palm of the hand downwards ; and some supinatores , which turn the radius outwards , and the palm of the hand upwards . the pronatores are two in number . the first is , pronator superior rotundus or teres . this springeth from the root of the inner knob of the shoulder-bone , and from the inner side of the ulna , where it is joined to the shoulder-bone ; and running obliquely on the inside of the radius endeth about its middle by a membranous tendon . the second is pronator inferior quadratus , which is altogether fleshy . it springeth from the lower and inner part of the ulna two inches broad ; then marching transversly above the ligament which joyneth the radius to the ulna , it endeth in the inside of the radius . the ending is as broad as the beginning ; wherefore it is called quadratus or four-square . the supinatores are in like manner two . the first is supinator longus , so called , because of all the muscles which march by the ulna , it hath the longest belly . this springeth fleshy from the edge of the outer knob of the shoulder-bone ; and marching obliquely under the radius , is implanted by a membranous tendon into the upper part of the lower appendix of the radius , bending somewhat to the innerside . the second is supinator brevis . this springeth from the outward part of the ligament in the jointing of the lower end of the arm-bone , and from the hinder process of the ulna ; from whence it passeth on obliquely , being without membranous , and within fleshy , and is inserted into the middle of the radius . note that though for orders sake we have described the muscles of the radius next to those of the ulna ; yet when one would shew them in dissection , the muscles of the fingers , thumb and wrist are first to be raised , and then these of the radius after those are taken away . chap. xxiv . of the muscles of the wrist . the carpus or wrist has three motions : it is either bended , extended , or moved side-ways . for its flexion and extension it has proper muscles : but as for its motion sideways , that is not performed by any proper muscles , but as one , or two of the same side ( of the benders and extenders ) act ; for then is it moved upward or downward accordingly . it is bended by two muscles in the inside . the first is cubitaeus internus : this ariseth by both a fleshy and nervous beginning from the inner knob of the shoulder-bone ; then passing fleshy the length of the ulna or cubitus , it doth end by a tendon , partly nervous , and partly fleshy , in the fifth , some say the fourth bone of the first rank in the wrist . the second is radiaeus internus : this arising from the same place , and passing along the radius , is inserted into that bone of the back of the hand which sustains the fore-finger . two external muscles stretch out the carpus . the first is radiaeus externus , or bicornis : this ariseth from the sharp edge of the outer knob of the shoulder-bone in the upper part of it , by a broad beginning : then becoming fleshy , it passeth to the middle of the radius , where it becometh a strong tendon , which presently is divided into two almost round tendons . both these pass a little asunder by the radius under the ligament , whereof one is inserted into that bone of the back of the hand which stayeth the fore-finger , and the other into the bone which stayeth the middle finger . the second is cubitaeus externus : this hath its beginning from the root of the external knob of the shoulder-bone : it passes along the ulna , and when it is come to the wrist , it endeth in a strong round tendon , which is inserted into the upper part of that bone which stayeth the little finger , not far from the wrist . chap. xxv . of the muscles of the palm of the hand . this is thought to have two muscles . the first is palmaris , which ar●seth from the inner knob of the shoulder-bone , round and nervous , but presently becoming fleshy it continues its course along the cubit , under all the other muscles , till at length it turns into a round tendon , which passing over the ligamentum annulare of the wrist , is afterwards dilated into a broad nervous membrane , which cleaveth firmly to the skin of the palm of the hand , for firm apprehension or griping , and quickness in feeling , and endeth at the first joints of the fingers . the second is caro quaedam quadrata , or a four-square fleshy substance : this springeth from the membrana carnosa under mons luniae , where the eighth bone of the wrist is placed . from thence it is carried under the musculus palmaris , to the middle of the palm of the hand , and is inserted into the outside of that tendon which moveth the little finger outwards . this representeth two or three muscles , and serveth for the hollowing of the palm of the hand , to form diogenes his cup by , bringing the fleshy eminence under the little finger , unto the tenar . chap. xxvi . of the muscles of the four fingers . the fingers are bended , extended , and moved laterally . but seeing the motion of the thumb differs very much from that of the other four fingers , we shall describe its muscles in the next chapter , seeing they are altogether distinct from those of the fingers . the fingers are bended by three muscles . the first is called sublimis , or perforatus . this springeth from the inside of the inner knob of the shoulder-bone ; and about the wrist it produceth four tendons , which end in the second joint of the fingers . near their end they are cleft , to give way to the tendons of the profundus passing through . the second is named profundus . this ariseth from the upper parts of the ulna and radius , a little below the joint of the elbow , and being separated at the wrist into four tendons , these run through the clefts of the tendons of the sublimis , and are implanted into the third joynt of the fingers . the third sort of muscles are called lumbricales . these are very small , and arise from the tendons of the musculus profundus , and end in a round tendon in the first joint of the fingers , being confounded with the tendons of those muscles that move the fingers laterally ; yea sometimes they proceed further along with them , by the sides of the fingers , to the third joynt , and assist their lateral motion . the fingers are extended by three muscles , whereof one is common to all the four fingers , and two proper to two particular . the common is extensor magnus . this arising from the outer knob of the shoulder-bone , about the wrist is divided into four tendons , which are inserted into the second and third joynts of the fingers ; some make two of this . the proper are two . the first is called indicator , because it belongeth to the fore-finger . it ariseth from the outward and middle part of the ulna , and by a double tendon it endeth in the second joynt of the fore-fingers : but one of the tendons becometh one with the tendon of the extensor magnus . the second is named auricularis , because it belongeth to the little finger . it ariseth from the upper part of the radius , and marching between the ulna and the radius , it is inserted by a double tendon into the outside of the little finger . the fingers are laterally moved two manner of ways : for either they are brought to the thumb , or they are carried from it . these motions are performed by eight muscles , called interossei , because they are placed between the bones of the metacarpium . they are fleshy and round , and spring from the bones of the metacarpium , to which they adhere , passing streight along them . when they are come to the roots of the fingers , they pass into tendons which cleave to the sides of the fingers , and end in the last joynt of the fingers near the root of the nails . when the tendons of the lumbricales joyn with these , they may be reckon'd amongst the movers of the fingers laterally ; and then there will be twelve in all , the lumbricales being four , and these interosse● eight . besides these muscles , the fore-finger and the little finger have each one proper muscle . that of the fore-finger may either be called abducens in respect of the middle finger from which it draws it ; or adducens , in respect of the thumb towards which it draws it . it springs from the inside of the first joint of the thumb , and ends in the bones of the fore-finger , which it pulls towards the thumb . that of the little finger is called abductor ( by some hypotenar ) and springs from the third and fourth bone ( of the second rank ) of the wrist ; whence proceeding along the palm of the hand , it is implanted by a small nervous tendon into the outside of the first joint of the little finger , which it draws outwards from the rest . chap. xxvii . of the muscles of the thumb . the thumb is extended by two muscles . the first is that which is called longior . this ariseth fleshy from the outer and upper side of the ulna , near the membranous ligament which tyeth together the ulna and radius . from thence it is carried obliquely upon the radius , and before it come to its appendix , turneth into a round tendon ; which passing under the annular ligament of the wrist , marcheth along that side of the thumb , which is next to the fore-finger , and is inserted into its third bone . the second is named brevior . this ariseth from the same origine with the other , and passeth obliquely above the radius . by one tendon it is implanted into the root of the first joint of the thumb ; the other becoming membranous , cleaveth fast to its second and third bone . it is bended also by two muscles ; one of which springing from the upper part of the radius , is implanted into the first and second joint of the thumb ; the other being less , proceeds from the bone of the carpus , lying under the other , and reacheth to the middle of the thumb . these two spigelius , de hum . corp . fabric . l. . c. . divides into five muscles , which together with the abducens of the thumb , make the monticulus lunae . it is moved laterally by two muscles . the first is called thenar or abducens . this springeth from the inner part of that bone of the wrist , which stayeth the thumb , by a nervous beginning : then becoming fleshy , it is inserted into the first joynt of the thumb by a membranous tendon , and draweth it from the fore-finger . some make three of it . the second is antithenar , or adducens , which lyeth in the space between the thumb and fore-finger . this doth arise from the outside of that bone of the metacarpium which sustaineth the first finger ; and being fleshy is inserted into the whole inner side of the first joynt of the thumb , and sendeth a membranous tendon to the second . this draweth the thumb to the fore-finger . some describe a second arising from the inner side of the bone of the wrist that sustaineth the thumb , and ending in its second joynt . chap. xxviii . of the muscles of the thigh . the thigh has four manner of motions : it is either bended ( and that forwards , or backwards ) or drawn inward , or outward , or moved round . it is bended forward by three muscles . the first is called psoas , or lumbaris : this lyeth in the inner part of the abdomen , upon the vertebrae of the loins , &c. it ariseth fleshy from the transverse processes of the two lowermost spondyls of the thorax , and two or three uppermost of the loins , from whence descending by the inside of os ilium , it is inserted by a round and strong tendon into the lesser rotator . the second is iliacus internus : this springeth with a slender and fleshy beginning from the inside of os ilium , and being joyned to the psoas by its tendon , it endeth before between the greater and lesser rotator . the third is pectineus : this arising broad and carnous from the upper part of the os pubis , is implanted a little below the neck of the thigh-bone , on the inside , and draweth the thigh upward and inward , and so helps us to lay one thigh over the other when we sit cross-leg'd . it is bended backward or extended by the three glutaei , which make up the buttocks , and serve to go backward withal . the first is the outermost and the greatest , called glutaeus major . it springeth very carnous from the coccyx , from the spine of os sacrum , and from all the circumference of the spine of os ilium , and is inserted by a strong tendon four inches below the great rotator . the second is the middlemost , called glutaeus medius : this springeth from the foreside of the spine of os ilium a little lower than the former , and is inserted into the outer and upper side of the great rotator . the third is the lowermost , called glutaeus minor : this springeth a little lower , from the outer or back part of os ilium , lying wholly under the second , and is implanted into the upper and inner part of the great rotator . it is drawn to the inside by the musculus triceps : this is the thickest of all the muscles of the body , and might more justly be called quadriceps , seeing it has four beginnings ; but they that imposed the name of triceps , made a particular muscle of the fourth head , and called it pectineus , or lividus . the first head doth proceed nervous from the upper part of the share-bone , and is inserted into the rough line of the thigh-bone . the second springing from the lower side of the same bone , being lesser , is inserted a little higher up into the said line . the third arising from the whole lower part of the coxendix , is inserted a little under the lesser rotator . the fourth springing from the apex or tip of the coxendix is implanted into the inner and lower tubercle of the thigh by a round tendon , which is joyned with the slender tendon of the first part of this muscle . it is turned towards the outside by four small muscles called quadrigemini . they are placed above the articulation of the thigh one by another . the first is called from its situation iliacus externus , and from its figure pyriformis ; it is longer than the rest , and ariseth from the lower and outer part of the os sacrum . the second ariseth from the knob of os ischium . the third ariseth from the same part . these three are inserted into the hollowness of the great rotator . the fourth is called quadrigeminus quadratus , more fleshy and broad than the rest : it lyeth two inches distant from the third , and ariseth from the inner part of the knob of the ischium , and is implanted into the outward part of the great rotator . it is turned about obliquely by two muscles called obturatores . the first is obturator internus , this turneth it outward . it ariseth from the inner circumference of the hole that is between the ischium and os pubis , and is inserted into the cavity of the great rotator . the second is obturator externus : this ariseth from the external circumference of the said hole , and turning about the neck of the thigh-bone , as about a pulley , it endeth in the cavity of the great rotator , under the fourth quadrigeminus , and turneth the thigh inward . note , that though for orders sake we have describ'd the muscles of the thigh before those of the leg , yet the dissector cannot so easily nor conveniently raise and shew them , till those of the leg are first raised and removed . chap. xxix . of the muscles of the tibia or leg. the leg is either bended , extended , or moved obliquely . there are five that bend it . the first is longissimus or fascialis . this ariseth from the inner knob of os ilium , and descends outermost just under the skin on the inside of the thigh , being slender , and near the knee it ends in a tendon , which is inserted under the knee , into the fore and inner side of the tibia . the second is called gracilis , and springeth with a nervous and broad beginning at the joynting of the ossa pubis ; from whence it runs down the inside of the thigh , and is implanted by a round tendon into the inner side of the tibia , near the insertion of the first , but a little lower . the third is named seminervosus : this beginneth nervous and slender at the knob of the ischium , and descending obliquely to the back and inner part of the thigh endeth in the inner side of the tibia , towards the backside , about the middle of its length . the fourth is semimembranosus : it proceedeth from the same knob , partly nervous , and partly membranous ; and marcheth by a broader tendon than the third to the hinder part of the tibia . the fifth is biceps : this ariseth from the same knob of the ischium ; and being carried on the outside of the thigh , about its middle it becometh fleshy , as if it begun there with a second head ; from whence descending it is inserted by a notable tendon into the outer side of the upper process of the fibula . the leg is extended by five muscles . the first is membranosus : this proceeding fleshy from the upper part of the spine of os ilium , on the outside near the great process of the thigh-bone it turns into a broad membrane , wherefore it is called fascia lata , for it covereth almost all the muscles of the thigh and tibia , and at last is inserted a little below the knee , into the outer and foreside of the tibia and fibula . the second is longus : this ariseth from the upper and fore-part of the appendix of os ilium , and passing by the inside of the thigh obliquely , it endeth in the inside of the leg a little below the knee . it extends the leg , drawing it inwards ; and because it helps to lay one leg upon the other when we go to sit cross-leg'd , some call it sutorius , the shoomakers or tailors muscle . the third is rectus : this springing from the lower brim of the os ilium , and passing with a carnous and round belly streight down the thigh before , when it is come to the patella , it ends in a broad and strong tendon , by which it adheres close to the patella , as if it would end in it ; but it passes further , and is inserted into the foreside of the tibia a little below the knee . the fourth is vastus externus : this springeth from the root of the greater trochanter , and endeth a little below the patella , near the same place with the former . the fifth is called vastus internus : this ariseth from the root of the lesser trochanter , and endeth a little below the patella with the other . the vastus externus descends on the outside of the rectus , and the internus on the inside thereof , whence they have their name . to these some add a sixth muscle called crureus , which springeth from the fore-part of the thigh-bone , between the two trochanters , and endeth in the same place with the former . note that these four last muscles being joined together about the knee , make one common broad and strong tendon , by which they involve the patella or knee-pan , and which being inserted into the tibia , tyes it and the thigh-bone together like a strong ligament . note also that the muscles which extend the leg are stronger than those which draw it in , that the weight of the body may be the more firmly upholden when we stand . there is also a single muscle called poplitaeus , or subpoplitaeus , which moveth the leg obliquely : this lyeth in the hollow of the ham , and springeth from the lower and outer knob of the thigh-bone , and is carried obliquely to the hinder and inner root of the upper appendix of the tibia . chap. xxx . of the muscles of the tarsus or instep . the foot is bended , extended and moved side-ways , according to the motion of the instep , which first is bended when it is drawn upwards . to perform this motion it hath two muscles . the first is tibiaeus anticus : this ariseth from the upper appendices of the tibia and fibula , and cleaving unto the whole os tibiae , about the middle of it , it becometh narrower , and turneth by degrees into a tendon , which passing under the annular ligament of the instep , that springs from the lower appendices of the tibia and fibula , is commonly divided into two ; whereof the one is inserted into the first of those bones which are called innominata , and the other into that bone of the metatarsus that is set before the great toe . if the tendon continue one , then it is implanted into the inner side of this last bone. the second is peronaeus anticus : this ariseth from the outer and upper part of the fibula , and being carried through the chink of the outer ankle , it is inserted into that bone of the metatarsus which sustaineth the little toe . it descends all along by the outside of the foregoing muscle , and hath sometimes two tendons . the foot is extended when it is drawn backwards . to perform this motion it hath three muscles . the first is gemellus externus , or gastrocnemius externus : this muscle hath two heads , the first of which arises under the ham , from the inner part of the end of the thigh-bone , fleshy and broad . it marcheth down by the back and inner part of the tibia , and when it is come to the middle of it , it becometh tendinous . the other head likewise ariseth under the ham , but from the outer part of the end of the thigh-bone , and passing down by the outward and back part of the leg , becometh tendinous a little above the former , and joyning with it they both grow into one strong , broad , and sinewy tendon , which is inserted into the heel . this is the muscle that maketh up the greatest part of the calf of the leg. the second is gemellus internus , or gastrocnemius internus , or soleus . this lyeth under the former , and is of a livid colour . it springeth from the hinder appendix of the fibula by a strong nervous beginning , and growing pretty bulky it continueth so till it hath passed the middle of the tibia , when it becometh narrower , and tendinous ; and a little above the heel it is so united to the tendon of the former gemellus , that both seem to be but one , and is inserted with it into the heel . the third is plantaris . this springeth from the outer part of the end of the thigh-bone in the ham , being very small but carnous . it descends but a little way before it ends in a very long and slender tendon , which joyning very closely with those of the two former is fastened to the heel , but reaches as far as the middle of the soal of the foot ; spigelius says , as far as the toes , and is inserted into each of them , imitating the palmaris of the hand . the three tendons of these three muscles thus uniting make one most strong and thick tendon , usually called the great cord ; and this being implanted into the heel makes a wound there so very dangerous . the foot is moved sideways by two . the first is tibialis posticus , adducens pedem , or nauticus , because sailers use it much when they go up by the ropes . it springeth both from the tibia and fibula , and from the ligament which tyeth them together , whence descending among the hinder muscles , near to the inner ankle it becometh tendinous : then passing by it , it goeth to the soal of the foot , and is inserted into the lower part of that bone of the tarsus which is next to the cubiforme . this moveth the foot inwards . the second is peronaeus or fibulaeus posticus : this ariseth from the upper and hinder part of the fibula or perone , by a nervous and strong beginning ; and cleaving to the outside of the fibula , it passeth down round and fleshy : the outer part is of a livid colour , but the inner of a red . when it is come to the middle of the fibula it becometh tendinous , and descends with the pernoaeus anticus by the fissure of the outer ankle , but joins not with it , for it goes under the soal of the foot , and is inserted into the root of the greater os cuneiforme that is seated before the great toe . sometimes , though seldom , there is another muscle , called peronaeus tertius , which being very slender accompanies the posticus in its whole progress , and is inserted into the same place , assisting its action . chap. xxxi . of the muscles of the toes . the great toe is moved by its proper muscles , as the thumb of the hand was : but the other four , by common ; which we will first describe . they are extended by two . the first is tensor longus . this ariseth by a nervous and sharp beginning from the upper and fore appendix of the tibia , and presently becoming carnous , it goeth streight down , and being come to the instep it is divided into four tendons , which passing under the annular ligament , go each to one of the lesser toes , and are inserted into their second and third joint on the upper side . the second is tensor brevis . this lyeth under the former , having its beginning from the transverse or annular ligament , fleshy and broad , and by its four tendons is inserted into the first joynts of the four toes . the benders of the toes are in like manner two , and four lumbricales . the first is flexor longus , or perforans : it lyeth under the gemellus internus , and ariseth from the upper and hinder part of the tibia by a long and fleshy beginning ; and passing down lengthways of the tibia , ( unto which it cleaveth ) when it is past the middle of it , it becometh tendinous : then running by the inner ankle , under the ligament of the tibia and heel , to the soal of the foot , it is there divided into four tendons , which passing through the holes of the flexor brevis , are inserted into the third and last joynt of the four toes . the second is flexor brevis , or perforatus : this springeth from the lower and inner part of the heel-bone , and when it hath passed the middle of the foot , it is parted into four round tendons , whcih are inserted into the second joint of the four toes , being perforated to give way to the tendons of the former muscle to pass to the third joint . they are also bended by four lumbricales , which agree altogether with the lumbricales of the hand both in their use , figure and rise . these spring from the tendons of the two former small and round , and are inserted by a small tendon into the side of the first joint , which they help to bend . the fleshy substance , which riseth with two sharp beginnings from the fore part of the lower side of the heel-bone , and reacheth to the rise of these muscles , seemeth much to further their action , and to afford them their carnous substance . the toes are moved obliquely by the interossei , which are so called , because they are placed between the bones of the metatarsus . they are ten in number , whereas there are but eight in the hand , because the metatarsus hath one bone more than the metacarpus . each of them doth spring from the under side of that bone where it is placed ; and all marching according to the length of the bone fleshy , they are inserted the outer into the first joint , the inner into the second of the toes , by short and somewhat broad tendons . if the inner be contracted , the toe is moved inwards ; but if the outer be moved , the toe is carried from the rest outwards . but if they both act together , then are the toes extended . in the four distances between the bones , there are eight such muscles ; at the outside of the great toe one , and another at the outside of the little toe . but besides it , the little toe hath a proper abductor to move it outwards , which arising from the heel passes on the outside of the fifth bone of the metatarsus , and is inserted into the outside of its first joint . the great toe hath five peculiar muscles . the first is extensor : this springeth by a fleshy beginning from the outside of the tibia , where it parteth from the fibula . it cleaveth fast to the ligament which ties the tibia to the fibula , and marching along the upper part of the foot , it is inserted into the whole upper part of the great toe . the second is flexor : this springeth from the upper and back part of the fibula , and descending by the side of the flexor longus to the inner ankle , it there becometh tendinous , and is inserted into the third or last bone of the great toe , by one strong tendon . but sometimes it is divided into two tendons , whereof one is inserted as abovesaid , and the other into the second toe : and when this happens , the flexor longus sends but three tendons to the three last toes , and none to the second . the third is abducens pollicem , which draweth the great toe from the rest , to the inner part of the foot. it springeth nervous from the ligament which tieth together the heel-bone and the talus , ( or according to some from the inner side of the heel it self ) and running forwards on the inside of the foot , it is inserted by a round tendon into the outside of the first joint of the great toe . the fourth is adducens pollicem major . this springeth from the ligament of that bone of the metatarsus that sustains the little toe and the next to it , and proceeding obliquely over the other bones it is implanted into the inner side of the first joint of the great toe . the fifth and last is adducens pollicem minor ( otherwise called transver salis . ) this ariseth from the ligament of the little toe that tieth its first joint , and passing cross the first bones of the toes it ends in the inside of the first bone of the great toe . some think this serves only to tie together the first bones of the toes ( like a ligament : ) but casserius ( who first found it out ) says it draws the great toe to the little one , and so makes the foot hollow , grasping the ground as it were , when we go in stony and uneven places , to fix the foot more firmly . the end of the fifth book . the sixth book . of the bones . chap. i. of the nature of a bone. a bone is called in greek 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , from 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 to stand ; for according to hippocrates , 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , it affords stability , streightness and form to the body . it may be defined to be a similar part , most dry and cold , inflexible , void of sense , affording stabiliment and form to the whole body . bones have been commonly taught to be made of the more crass , tartareous or earthy part of the seed , in the womb , and that they are nourished with the like particles of the bloud , and moisten'd with their contained marrow . and i see no reason to recede from this doctrine , unless one would commence litem de nomine , brangle about a term : for though women have no true seed , and the man's being only an active principle of generation affords nothing of matter to the parts of the foetus , but only impregnates the ovum , ( as was shewn in book . ) yet if we will but grant the name of seed to the humour in the ovum , ( which we may do without absurdity ) we may continue the old manner of speaking . now though they are continually nourished , yet towards manhood , by the encreased heat of the body , the primigeneal moisture is so lessened , that the bones through their hardness are not apt to be any longer extended ; and so men cease to grow any higher of stature . their nourishment is brought to them by the arteries , and what is not fit for their use returns back by the veins . several of them , as the shoulder and thigh-bones , have apparent holes for the entrance of the vessels into their marrow : and such as have no marrow and so want such holes , they are commonly of a more spongie or fungous substance , into which no doubt some nutritive particles of the bloud pass from the arteries , though their branchings therein are not so apparent . there are no nerves that are inserted into them ( except into the teeth ) but these only run through the membrane or periosteum that invests them . the efficient cause of the bones is the same vivisick spirit or plastick power seated in the ovum , that forms all the other parts of the body ; galen call it facultas 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , the ossifick faculty : some think this same spirit might be called the essential form of the bones ; though commonly that is said to be their cold and dry temperature ; as their accidental form is their figure , which is commonly either round or flat . but these are too dry notions to be insisted on in this place . their substance is whitish and hard , ( in some bones , and at some ages , more , and in others less ) not altogether dry in living persons , but bedewed with a fat and unctuous moisture , which the more it abounds , the bones are the tougher and less apt to break ; and when they are broken , they are the apter to grow together again with a callus , which such viscous juice contributes very much to . and it is only by a callus that any bone is joined after fracture ; for a bone being of the number of those parts that are called spermatick , can never be generated anew . chap. ii. of the natural affections of bones . the affections of bones are either common to all , or proper to some only . the common are seven . for first , a bone must be hard , the more firmly to sustain the body . secondly , of a whitish colour , because it is a spermatick part . thirdly , destitute of feeling , for avoiding of pain in motion . fourthly , it must be either hollow to contain marrow in its cavity for moistening of it ; or spongious and porous , that some nutritive particles of the bloud may pass through its very substance . fifthly , its ends must be covered with a cartilage , and that bedewed with an unctuous humour , to procure an easie motion . sixthly , it must be covered with a membrane , to preserve it from cariosity ; except the four bones of the ear , and the parts of the teeth above the gums . seventhly , it must be equal . wherefore the callus wherewith a broken bone is united , and nodes in the pox , are not natural affections . these tokens that follow , shew a bone to be preternaturally affected : first , if it be soft ; because that must cause the member to be too flexible . secondly , if it be too dry ; for then it is distempered . thirdly , if it be black ; for then it is carious . fourthly , if its figure be altered ; for then it must hinder the action of the part . the proper affections are four : the first is a cavity ; and it is twofold : for it is either deep , as in the hip-bone , and is called cotyle ; or shallow , as in the knee , and is called glene . the second is a protuberance , of which there be two kinds : for it is either a continued part of the bone jetting manifestly above its plain superficies , for the more commodious insertion of the muscles , &c. and is called apophysis , a process ; or else it is like an additional bone growing to another by simple and immediate contiguity , ( and generally softer and more porous than it ) and is called epiphysis , an appendage . if the protuberance of the bone be round , it is called its caput ; under which is the cervix , as in the upper end of the thigh-bone : if it be flat , it is called condylus : if pointed , corone . other protuberances are named from the similitude they have to other things ; as styloides , coracoides , &c. the third is inequality : this is seen in the outside of the occiput for the insertion of the muscles . the fourth is smoothness , as in the outside of the rest of the skull . chap. iii. of the differences of the joining of bones together . they are coupled together either by articulation or jointing ; or else by symphysis or growing together . articulation is either for manifest , or obscure motion . the jointings which serve for manifest motion are three . first , enarthrosis , which is when a large head of a bone is received into a deep cavity , as the thigh-bone into the hip-bone . secondly , arthrodia , which is when the cavity which receiveth is shallow , and the head of the bone which is received , flattish : such is the articulation of the lower jaw with the temple-bone . the third is ginglymos ; when the same bone receiveth , and is received . this falleth out three manner of ways . first , when the bone is received by another , and receiveth the same ; this is seen in the articulation of the shoulder-bone with the vlna . secondly , when a bone receiveth one bone , and is received by another : this may be seen in the spondyls or vertebrae of the back , where the middle bone receiveth the upper , and is received by the lower . the third is , when the process of the bone being long and round , is inserted into another upper bone , and so is turned in the cavity like an axle-tree in a wheel ; so is the second vertebra of the neck jointed with the first . articulation for obscure motion is called synarthrosis ; and such is the jointing of the ribs with the vertebrae , of the bones of the carpus and metacarpus , and of the talus with the heel-bone . bones grow together either without some middle heterogeneous substance , or with it . without some middle substance they are joined three manner of ways . first , by a simple line , as the bones of the upper jaw and nose : this is called harmonia . secondly , by a suture , as the bones of the skull . thirdly , when one bone is fastened in another , as a nail in wood ; and so are the teeth fastened in the jaw-bone : this is called gomphosis . if bones grow together by a middle substance , it is either by a cartilage , as the share-bones are joined ; which unition is called synchondrosis : or by a ligament , and so the thigh is joined with the hip-bone ; this is called syneurosis , or more properly , according to spigelius , syndesmosis : or last of all by flesh , and so is the bone of the tongue by its muscles to the adjacent parts ; this is termed syssarcosis . spigelius reckons two other heterogeneous middle substances by which bones are united ; one when they are joined by a tendon , as the knee-pan to the thigh-bone and tibia , which unition he calls syntenosis ; the other by a membrane , as in infants the bones of the synciput with the os frontis ; and this he calls synymensis . chap. iv. of the sutures of the head. the bones of the whole body belong to these four parts of it ; the head ( and neck ) the breast , the lower belly , and the limbs . the head is that part which is above the vertebrae of the neck : of it there are two parts , the skull and the face . the skull is that bony substance which containeth the brain , and is decked with hair . in the description of the bones of the head these two things are to be noted ; the sutures , and the number of the bones . the sutures are either proper , or common . the proper are those which join the bones of the skull one with another ; and they are either true sutures , or ( mendosae ) counterfeit . the true are those which represent two saws joined together by their teeth ; and these are three in number : the first is coronalis , which is seated in the fore part , and passeth from one temple to the other transversly , joining the os frontis to the synciput . the second is lambdoides , opposite to this , resembling the greek letter Λ. this beginning at the basis of the occiput ascends obliquely to either ear , and joins the bone of the occiput to the bones of the synciput and temples . the third is sagittalis , which beginning at the top of the lambdoides comes streight forward by the crown to the middle of the coronalis , and in children for some years ( sometimes in the adult ) it runs to the top of the nose , dividing the bone of the forehead into two . the counterfeit or mendosae resemble a line only , and might more properly be called harmoniae than sutures . they are two in number . the first passing from the root of the processus mammillaris upwards with a circular duct , circumscribes the temple-bone on each side of the head , descending down again to the basis of the ear : this joins the bones of the synciput , occiput and sphenoides with the temple-bones , these lying upon those like the skales upon fish , whence these sutures are called squamosae . the second runs from the top of this squamous conjunction obliquely downwards towards the orbit of the eye , to the beginning of the first common suture , and joins this bone above with the bones of the synciput , below with the bone of the forehead . the common sutures are those which belong to the skull , the wedge-like bone , and the upper jaw . the most remarkable are these : first , frontalis , by which the outer process of the os frontis is joined with the first bone of the upper jaw . the second is cuneiformis , by which the wedge-like bone is joined with the first bone of the upper jaw . the third is cribrosa : this is common to the wedge-like bone , and the septum or partition of the nose . the sutures have three uses . the first is to help to stay the brain from tottering , and its parts from being misplaced in violent motions , by permitting some fibres to pass through from the dura mater to the pericranium , by which the said mater and the brain invested in it are suspended as it were . the second is to permit the steams and fumes in the brain to evaporate . and the third , to hinder the fissures that happen in the skull from knocks or falls , &c. from extending any farther than through one bone , for they generally stop at the next suture . chap. v. of the proper bones of the skull . these are in number six , one of the forehead , another of the occiput , two of the crown , and two of the temples . first , os frontis , the forehead-bone . it is bounded by the coronal and first common suture , before ; and in the sides by the temporal bones . it is but one in those of ripe age , but double in children , being divided by a suture passing from the coronal to the nose . betwixt the laminae of this bone in the upper part of the eye-brows at the top of the nose , there is a large cavity , ( often two ) from whence two holes pass to the nostrils . the outer lamina that constitutes this cavity , makes the upper plane part of the orbit of the eye ; but the inner , on each side above the eyes forms a bunchy protuberance uneven with many jettings out like little hills . the cavity is invested with a very thin greenish membrane , and contains a clammy humour . what its use may be is hard to say ; some think it gives an echo to the voice , making it more sonorous ; others that it receiveth the odoriferous air drawn in by the nose , to stay it awhile before it be sent to the brain . it hath two holes in the middle part of the eye-brow , which go to the orbit of the eye , by which the first branch of the nerve of the fifth conjugation of the brain goes to the muscle of the forehead , &c. it hath also four processes ; the greater two are seated at the greater corner of the eye , but the lesser two at the lesser , making the upper part of the orbit . the bones of the crown are in number two . before , they are joined with the bone of the forehead , by the coronal suture ; behind , with the os occipitis by the suture lambdoides ; and on each side to the temple-bones , by the suturae squamosae . they are joined to one another in the middle of the crown by the sagittal suture . on the outside they are smooth , but on the inside uneven , for they have a great many furrows running along them for the passage of the veins of the dura mater . their substance is thinner and more rare even in the adult than that of the other bones ( for the better exhalation of vapours ) but in infants that abound with much humidity , they are membranous and soft , hardening by degrees . under these on each side are the bones of the temples . they are joined in their upper part to the outside of the bones of the crown by the suturae squamosae ; before , to the first bone of the upper jaw , by its first process ; behind , to the os occipitis , by a counterfeit suture . these bones are even and thin in the upper part , like a skale ; but below thick , hard and unequal or eraggy ; wherefore they are called petrosa . they have each two sinus ; the outer greater , lined with a cartilage , betwixt the meatus auditorius and the process of os jugale , that receives the longer head of the lower jaw ; the inner less , common to the bone of the occiput , placed on the hinder side of the said process . by these sinus there stands a slender , sharp and longish appendix , from its shape called styliformis , which in infants is cartilaginous , but in the adult becomes bony . besides this appendix they have three other processes , two external and one internal . the first external is blunt ; thick and short , a little hollow within , and because it somewhat resembles a cow's pap is called mammillaris . the second is carried forward from the meatus of the ear , and is joined with the bone of the upper jaw , both of them framing the os jugale , of which in the next chapter . the third , that is internal , is pretty long , jetting out to the inner basis of the skull , within which it has two holes , through one of which an artery , and through the other the auditory nerve pass to the inner cavities of the ear , that are excavated in this bone , namely the tympanum , labyrinthus and cochlea ; and without the skull it hath three holes ; the first of which is the meatus auditorius ; the second is narrow , short and oblique , near to the first , by which the jugular vein enters the inner cavities ; the third is seated betwixt the processus mammillaris and the styloides appendix , and ends into that passage that goes from the ear to the mouth . as to the four little bones that are contained in its cavities , viz. incus , malleus , stapes , and os orbiculare , we have spoken of them before in book . chap. . the os occipitis , that makes the hinder and lower part of the head , is five-corner'd , by two of which corners it is joined in its upper part to the bones of the synciput by the lambdoides suture , by two other in its foresides to the temple-bones by a counterfeit suture , and by its fifth corner to the os cuneiforme , ( according to spigelius . ) it is but one in the adult , but it consists of four or more in infants . it is the thickest and most compact of all the bones of the skull . it is said to have nine sinus , two external , and seven internal . of the internal the two largest are those that receive the protuberances of the cerebellum . it has also five protubernances , and five foramina , of which the lowest and largest is that by which the medulla oblongata passes out of the skull into the cavity of the vertebrae . the rest are less , and are for the transit of the vessels . these bones of the skull consist of two tables or laminae , all but the squamous part of the temple-bones . the uppermost is hardest , thickest and smoothest : the lower is unequal , and pitted , to give way to the vessels dispersed through the dura mater . between these two tables there is a certain spongious substance , containing a marrowy and red juice , for the nutrition and humectation of the bones , and is call'd diploe . it is red , by reason of the many small veins and arteries passing that way . many times in the pox a virulent humour is gathered herein , which eats through and corrupts the laminae , and causes most tormenting pains in the periosteum and pericranium . chap. vi. of the bones common to the skull and upper jaw . hitherto of the bones proper to the skull : now follow those which are common to it and the upper jaw . these are three : first , the wedge-like bone , sphenoides or cuneiforme ; so called , not that it is like a wedge , but that it is seated betwixt the bones of the skull and the upper jaw . before , it is joined with the forehead-bone ; behind , to the os occipitis . at the sides it doth accompany a good way the os petrosum . above , it doth touch the first , fourth , and sixth bone of the upper jaw ; and below , the bones of the palate of the mouth by the wing-like processes . it is thick in the middle , but thinner at the edges , and in the adult it consists of two laminae and a diploe , like the other bones proper to the skull . in infants it consists of three or four . it has four external processes , of which two , that are contiguous to the upper jaw , are called aliformes wing-like ; and four internal also , that compose the sella turcica , upon which the glandula pituitaria lieth , that receiveth the pituitous excrements falling from the brain by the infundibulum . but this sella turcica is not perforated , as we intimated from dr. lower in book . chap. . though that has been generally taught , supposing that the pituitous matter did destil through its holes upon the palate , &c. whereas it is resorbed by the veins , as that learned doctor affirms . it hath sundry perforations , by which the motory and optick nerves of the eye , and other nerves for the motion of other parts , as also veins and arteries do pass . the second common bone is os cribriforme , because , like a sieve , it hath many holes , by which smells pass to the processus mammillares or olfactory nerves . it is covered with the dura mater , and seated in the middle basis of the forehead at the top of the nostrils , and is joined by the sutures called harmoniae to the os frontis , the second bone of the upper jaw and to the cuneiforme . on its upper side in the middle it has growing upon it a kind of triangular process , like to the comb of a cock , which is therefore called crista galli . and opposite to this in its lower side it has another that is thin and hard , dividing the nose into two parts or nostrils , the right and the left , and is called septum nasi . to this os cribriforme , in the cavity of the nostrils , there adhere two other bones called spongiosa , because they are full of holes like a pumice-stone . but most anatomists consider them as parts of the os cribriforme , confounding their names one with the other , calling this , os spongiosum or cribriforme indifferently . the third common bone is os jugale , or the yoke-bone . it is placed on each side of the face between the meatus of the ear and the first bone of the upper jaw , being framed of two bones , of which the hinder is a process of the temple-bone that is carried from the meatus auditorius ; and the fore-bone is a process of the first bone of the upper jaw , which maketh the lower side of the lesser corner of the eye . these two processes are joined by an oblique suture , and make the os jugale . it sustaineth the tendon of the temporal muscle which passeth to the lower jaw , and that of the muscle masseter . chap. vii . of the jaws . now follow the bones of the face , which are the jaw-bones with their teeth ; to which we shall subjoin the bone of the tongue . the jaws are two , the upper and lower . the substance of the upper jaw especially on its inside is not solid but spongious ; and unequal , because it is framed of sundry bones . they are six pair , six in each side . the first is zygomaticum : this maketh up the best part of the os jugale , and the outer corner of the eye . the second is os lachrymale . it is a round , little and thin bone in the inner corner of the eye , whereon the caruncula lachrymalis resteth . in the lower part of it there is a hole which passeth to the cavity of the nose : by this a branch of the fifth pair of nerves passeth to the inner membrane of the nose . the third is thin as the former , but quadrangular . it is placed between the two former in the inner side of the orbit of the eye , and is continuous to the os spongiosum of the nostrils . the fourth is os malae , the cheek-bone , the greatest and thickest . this maketh up the greatest part of the cheek and palate , and containeth all the upper teeth in its caverns . it is joined above , on that side next the nose , to the bone of the forehead , but below with the wedge-like bone ; before with the os lachrymale , behind with the third , and last of all with its fellow . under the eye it has a hole for the passage of a branch of the fifth pair of nerves that is bestowed on the face ; and another near the bottom of the nose , by which an artery and a vein pass from the palate to the nostrils . the fifth is long , hard , and reasonable thick ; it with its fellow maketh up the bony part of the nose . it is joined with the cartilages of the nose below , ( to which purpose it is very rough and unequal on that side ) but to the internal process of the os frontis above . the sixth doth make up the roof of the mouth , ( with its fellow . ) six bones then make up the orbit of the eye . the first is frontale , which maketh the upper vaulted part . the second is placed in the outside , where the lesser corner is , and is a portion of the wedge-like bone. the third is the first bone of the upper jaw , and maketh up the outside , concurring with the former portion of the wedge-like bone. the fourth and fifth are the second and third of the said jaw , and make up the inside . the sixth maketh up the lower part . these are joined one to another partly by common , and partly by proper sutures . the lower jaw in those of ripe age is but one bone , but in children , till they are a year or two old , it consists of two , which are joined together at the chin by synchondrosis , and afterwards grow into one . this is moveable , but the upper immoveable . it resembleth in shape the greek letter v. at both the ends of it there are two processes , whereof the one from a broad basis grows sharp , and is called corona : this receiveth the tendon of the temporal muscle , which is also the first of the lower jaw . the other may be called articularis , because it serveth for articulation . this has a neck and a longish head ( called condylus ) that is covered with a cartilage for its easier motion . by this head it is inarticulated into the sinus of os petrosum that is also lined with a cartilage , and is knit strongly thereto by a membranous ligament . this bone has a cavity within , especially in the fore part toward the chin , which contains a marrowy juice for its nourishment . it has four foramina ; of which two are at the roots of the processes , by which a branch of the fifth pair of nerves together with a vein and artery pass to the teeth ; and two other in its fore-part by the sides of the chin , by which two twigs of the said fifth branch pass out again to the lower lip and its muscles and skin . both the jaws have alveoli or sockets for the teeth , in number equal with the number of the teeth . but when in old age the teeth fall out , the sockets close together , so that in time there remains no print of them , but the bone becomes sharp . chap. viii . of the teeth . the teeth are called in latin dentes , quasi edentes , from their office ; and are fixed in the jaw-bones as a nail into a post , by gomphosis . their root is tied to the mandible by a nerve , by syneurosis ; and the upper part as far as 't is compassed by the fleshy substance of the gum , by syssarcosis . their substance is the hardest of all other bones . that part of them that stands out naked above the gums is smooth and covered with no periosteum ; but that part within the sockets of the jaws is rough and invested with a thin membrane or periosteum that is of exquisite sense . the grinders have a manifest cavity within , ( but the incisores and dog-teeth but an obscure one ) whereinto by the very small holes of their roots they each receive a capillary artery from the carotides , a vein from the jugulars , and a twig of a nerve from the fifth pair ( as abovesaid ) which last being expanded through the thin membrane that invests the said cavity gives it a most acute sense ; but the bony substance of it self is wholly insensible . the vein , artery and nerve are united together and clad with a common membrane when they enter the jaw , within which they have a proper channel to run along in under the roots of the teeth , sending twigs to each as they pass under them . the rudiments or principles of the teeth are bred with the other parts in the womb , but lie hid for some months within the jaws and gums , in which they encrease and are perfected by degrees , some breaking through the gums sooner , others later , as every one may observe in children . but though after such a term of man's life , no new teeth spring ; yet they grow continually as long as a man lives , else would they be soon worn to the stumps by their daily use ; and we see that when a tooth is lost out of either jaw , that which is opposite to it in the other jaw , will grow longer than the rest , having none to grind against . when children come to be seven or eight years old , they change several of their teeth ; but very rarely , if ever , all . the incisores or fore-teeth , the canini , or eye-teeth , and the foremost double-teeth most change ; but the rest of the double-teeth very few . now concerning this changing of the teeth we must note , that the old ones do not come out by the roots , but their upper part only drops off , their root remaining still in the socket of the jaw , which ( being like seed for the new ones ) by degrees grows up above the gums to supply the place of that which was faln off . commonly about the twentieth year ( or upwards ) there spring out two double-teeth behind the rest , which till then had lain hid in their sockets . these are called genuine teeth , or dentes sapientiae , because men are then come to years of discretion . as for the number of them , commonly there are found sixteen in each jaw ; if there fall out any difference in number as to individual persons , it commonly falleth out in the molares . there are three ranks of 〈◊〉 ▪ those of the first rank ( or the foremo●● ) are called incisores , cutters . most commonly 〈…〉 found in each jaw : they have but one root o● phang , and so easily fall out . these first make way out of the gums in children , because the tops of them are sharpest . those of the second rank are called canini , or dog-teeth , from their length , hardness and sharpness above the rest . in each jaw there are two , at each side of the cutters one . they are commonly called eye-teeth , either from an opinion that their roots ( viz. of the upper ) reach as far as the eyes , or that the same nerve that moves the eye sends a twig to these teeth ; neither of which conceits are true . the roots of these are single as those of the incisores , but they are both sometimes crooked ; and if such people in whom they are so , chance to have one of them drawn , they can hardly be pulled out without breaking off a piece of the alveolus in which they are sixt . those of the third rank are called molares , grinders ; because like milstones they grind the meat . most commonly they are twenty in number ▪ five in each side of both jaws . the two foremost that stand next to the dog-teeth , are less than the rest , having but two knobs at the top , but the three hindmost are larger and have four , being in a manner foursquare . the two foremost also have but two roots at most , but the three hindmost commonly three or four . but those of the upper jaw have for the most part one root more than those which are opposite to them in the lower . the reason whereof may be , first , because they hang ; and secondly , because the substance of the upper jaw is not so firm as that of the lower . the ●se of the teeth is principally to chew the meat to prepare it for the stomach , that it may the easilier concoct it into chyle . the incisores bite off the morsel , the dog-teeth break it , and the grinders make it small ; wherefore they are flat in the top , that they may the better receive and keep the meat , and rough , that they may grind it the better . the teeth contribute also to the formation of the sp●●●h , especially the fore-teeth ; for those that have lost them , lisp as we say , and cannot pronounce pl●inly such syllables as have c. x. &c. in them . chap. ix . of the bone of the tongue called os hyoides . this bone is seated under the lower jaw , in the uppermost part of the larynx . it is shaped like the greek vowel ● , ( whence it is also called os ypsiloides ) or to the lower jaw ; because it is arched before , and extended with two points like horns behind . it is commonly compounded of three bones . that in the middle is gibbous forwards and hollowinwards , and by its gibbous side is joined to the basis of the tongue . the other two are lateral , and are called cornua , or horns . each of these has a cartilage adhering to it ; and the middle , two . they are all tied to the adjacent parts , partly by a fleshy , partly by a nervous substance . in its sinus it receiveth the epiglottis . it moves together with the tongue , and serveth to keep the throat open , that the meat may descend into the stomach , and the air have passage to the wind-pipe while we speak and breath . chap. x. of the bones of the neck . hitherto of the bones of the head , now follow those of the neck . they are of two sorts , to wit , the claviculae or channel-bones , and the vertebrae . as to the claviculae , some reckon them to the thorax , others to the shoulder ; but considering their situation , they may as fitly be reckoned as pertaining to the neck . they are called claviculae from their resembling the shape of old-fashioned keys , which were of the figure of an italick s ; such as spigelius says he has seen belonging to old houses at padua . they are not so crooked in women as in men. their substance is thick and spongie , but more about the heads than about the middle . in number they are two , one on each side . near the throat they are round ; but towards the shoulder flattish . they are joined to two bones , to wit , one end to the shoulder-blade , and the other to the top of the breast-bone . the use of them is to uphold the shoulder-blades , that they should not fall upon the breast together with the shoulder-bone ; which falleth out , when there is a fracture in them . the vertebrae of the neck are in number seven . the bones of these are less , but harder than those of the other , because they are more moved . these have first a large hollowness to give way to the spinalis medulla to descend by : then two holes in their transverse processes , one in each side , through which veins and arteries pass to the head. their bodies have processes oblique , transverse and posteriour ; which last are forked , except in the first and last vertebrae . the first vertebra is called atlas , because the head stands upon it , like a little world. it hath no spine behind ( only a little blunt knob ) lest the two small muscles of the head springing from the second vertebra should be hurt , when the head is extended . it has two ascending and also two descending processes , ( otherwise called oblique ) and both of them a little hollowed ; the upper receiving the tubercles of the occiput , and the lower the ascending . processes of the second vertebra . upon these the head is moved forwards and backwards . the substance of this vertebra is harder , solider , but thinner than that of the rest , because it is the least , and yet its cavity is biggest . within on the foreside of its great foramen , it has a semicircular sinus lined with a cartilage , whereby it receiveth the tooth-like process of the second vertebra . the second is called vertebra dentata , because out of its upper side between its two ascending processes , there springs a round , longish and hard process , in shape like a tooth , which being invested with a cartilage is jointed into the foresaid sinus● of the first vertebra , upon which as upon an axis the head turns round . and when a luxation happens here ▪ the neck is said to be broken . this tooth-like process in that part which enters not into the said sinus , is environed with a ligament , by which it is knit to the occiput . the hinder processes of this vertebra are cleft into two , as those of the four following are , for the better connexion of the muscles and ligaments . it s transverse processes are less than theirs , and have also smaller holes . the four that lie under these , in all things are like them , save that their lateral processes are larger , and divided into two as well as the hinder . the seventh is the largest of all . it is liker to the vertebrae of the thorax than of the neck ; for neither are its transverse processes like the foregoing , nor is its hinder one forked , but both are like those of the thorax , to be described in the next chapter . chap. xi . of the vertebrae of the thorax . the bones of the thorax are the vertebrae of the back , the ribs and breast-bone . as for the vertebrae , they are twelve in number , unto which so many ribs answer ; whereof seldom doth one abound , more seldom lack . their spines or hinder processes are not divided into two as those of the neck , but are solid and simple . the transverse are short and blunt , and have each a shallow sinus for the inarticulation of the ribs ; but are not perforated like those of the neck . the oblique processes are four , two ascending , and two descending : these serve for articulation . the descending are a little hollowed , and receive the ( something protuberant ) heads of the ascending processes of the next vertebra below them , successively . the forepart of their body next to the cavity of the thorax is round . as for their holes , they have a large one in the middle , which containeth the marrowy substance ; and two lesser besides , on each side one , betwixt their jointings one with another , for the egress of the nerves , and ingress of the veins and arteries . chap. xii . of the ribs . the ribs are twelve in number . their substance is partly bony , partly cartilaginous ; the first serving for firmness , the second for articulation , and the easier motion of the breast in respiration . the bony substance towards the vertebrae of the back is thick and roundish , but towards the sternum flat and thin . within , it is fungous or spongie , whence the ribs being broken are more readily joined together by a callus than most other bones . the cartilages in bigness answer the bigness of the ribs : for the bigger ribs have the bigger cartilages ; and on the contrary . the ribs in the upper side are blunt or broadish , but in the under sharper . in the lower and inner side they have a furrow that runs along them to receive the intercostal vessels , the veins , arteries and nerves . the ribs are of two sorts ; for they are either long , or short . the long ( otherwise called the true ribs ) are seven in number ( being the uppermost ) and by their cartilaginous productions are immediately knit to the breast-bone by the articulation called arthrodia ; for in the breast-bone there are an equal number of cavities , which receive their cartilaginous heads . their bony end is covered with a cartilage and articulated into the shallow sinus of the transverse processes of the vertebrae of the back by synarthrosis ; and is knit to the said vert●brae by very strong ligaments . note that the cartilages of these true ribs are usually observed to be harder in women than in men ; which may seem to be for the better sustaining of the weight of their breasts that lie upon them . the short ( otherwise called nothae or spuriae , bastards ribs ) are five in number ; of which the four uppermost having their cartilages bending upward and cleaving one to another are joined before to the lower side of the cartilage of the seventh true rib : but the last , which is the least , grows sometimes to the diaphragm , and sometimes to the musculus rectus of the abdomen , as also sometimes does the lowest of the four next above it . behind they are joined to the vertebrae of the back , like as the true ribs were . their use is first , to keep the breast and the upper part of the abdomen distended , that in the former the heart and lungs may have free space for their motion ; and in the latter , the stomach and liver might not be prest upon by the circumajacent parts . secondly , to preserve those parts from external injuries , as from bruises or the like . and lastly , to sustain the muscles that serve for respiration , and to promote their motions ; for if the breast had been environ'd with one continued bone , it had not been capable of dilatation in inspiration , nor of contraction in expiration . chap. xiii . of the breast-bone or sternum . this bone is seated in the middle of the thorax before , serving as a breast-plate , and having the cartilaginous productions of the true ribs inarticulated into it . it is of a red fungous substance , and in children almost wholly cartilaginous , only its uppermost part is somewhat more bony than the rest , perhaps because one end of the clavicula is jointed into it . in infants it consists of seven or eight , but after some years they so coalesce one to another , that in the adult it is compounded but of three , and in aged persons it seemeth but one bone , yet it is distinguished by two transverse lines , shewing the former division , which are more conspicuous in the former division , which are more conspicuous in the inside than outside . the uppermost bone is thickest and broadest ; it hath in each side a longish cavity , lined with a cartilage , to receive the points of the channel-bones ; between these in its middle and upper part is a pit called jugulum . it has also a small cavity on the inside , to give way to the wind-pipe descending . the second bone is neither so thick nor broad , yet four times as long . it is joined to the former by an intervening cartilage , and in each side has five or six cavities for the inarticulation of so many of the true ribs . the third is least of all , yet it is broader than the second , unto the lower end of which it is joined . what ribs were not jointed into the middle bone , are received by this . to its lower end is annexed the cartilage called mucronata or ensiformis , sword-like . this cartilage is triangular , about an inch long , and on the outside of it there is formed a cavity in the breast , called scrobiculus cordis or heart-pit ; and the gnawing pains felt there , cardialgiae ; though those pains are not from any affection of the heart , but of the upper orifice of the stomach , which lies under this cartilage . chap. xiv . of the vertebrae of the loins . the bones belonging to the abdomen are these ; five vert●brae of the loins , five or six of os sacrum , os cocoygis and os ischii . the five vertebrae of the loins are larger than those of the breast , and the lowest of them are biggest . they are jointed with the last vertebra of the back and the first of os sacrum , and with one another , by an intervening clammy cartilage , but more loosly than those of the back , because the body bends more upon them . they have each one large hole , to give way to the spinalis medulla ; and two small , by which nerves pass out to the adjacent parts , and veins and arteries come in . as for their processes , their posteriour ( or spines ) are shorter and more blunt , but broader and thicker than those of the vertebrae of the thorax , and turn something upwards ; but their lateral are longer . they also differ in their inarticulation , one with another ; for whereas in those of the thorax the upper processes were knobby , and the lower hollow , to receive them ; in these the contrary is seen ; for the upper processes are hollow , and the lower knobby . only the last or twelfth vertebra of the thorax has both its ascending and descending oblique processes hollowed to receive the heads or knobs of the processes of the last but one of the thorax , and the first of the loins . chap. xv. of the os sacrum , and os coccygis or rump-bone . the os sacrum is the broadest of all the bones of the back , and doth sustain all the other vertebrae . on the inside it is smooth and hollow , on the outside convex and uneven , being of something a triangular shape . in its upper part on each side it is knit firmly to the ossa ilia by an intervening cartilage . it consists of five or six bones , plainly distinguishable in infants , but more obscurely in grown persons . these bones have the resemblance of ( and are usually called ) vertebrae , for each of them hath a body and processes , and a large hole to receive the spinalis medulla . in this , these differ from the other vertebrae ; because in those , the lower part is bigger , but in these the lesser ; wherefore the uppermost of them is the biggest , and the lowest the least . besides the large cavity to receive the spinalis medulla , they have other lesser for the egress of the nerves ; and these are not in their sides , as those of the vertebrae of the neck , thorax and loins , but before and behind , between their jointings : of these holes those before are much larger than those behind . as for their processes , the oblique can hardly be discerned , except in the first . the transverse are pretty long , but so united , that all seem but one . the hindermost are like the spinae of the loins , but less , and still the lower the lesser ; insomuch that the lowest hath no process , but only a round protuberance . to the os sacrum the os coccygis or rump-bone is joined by a cartilage , somewhat loosly , that it may bend a little backwards in women in travail for the freer passage of the foetus , &c. it is compounded of thr●● or four bones , of which the first hath a small ●ollowness which receiveth the last vertebrae of os sacrum . the rest of its bones grow each less than other , so that the lowest ends in a cartilaginous point . it is called os coccygis , because in shape it resembleth the cuckow 's bill . it s lower end bends inward , to stay the streight gut and the sphincter muscle , which are tied to it . the bones of it are spongious and soft , and have neither process nor any hollowness , for the spinal marrow descends no further than the bottom of os sacrum . chap. xvi . of the hip-bone . this bone was by galen called os innominatum , because it had then no proper name imposed upon it , that he had met with . but homer had long before him called it 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , from whom it is now generally known by that name . there is one on each side , and they are knit to the sides of os sacrum ( through the intervention of a cartilage ) by a most strong ligament , and together with it frame the pelvis , or that cavity in which the womb , bladder and part of the intestines are contained . in children it plainly appeareth to be framed of three bones ( called os ilium , coxendicis , and pubis ) joined by a cartilage , untill the seventh year ; but in men of ripe age these three , the cartilage being dried and harden'd into a bone , seem but one entire bone. however for the more exact description of its parts , we must consider it as consisting of three . the first is called os ilium , because under it lieth the small gut called ilium . this is the uppermost and broadest ; in figure , semicircular ; arched without , within hollow . it s edge which makes the semicircle is called spina , the arched part dorsum , the hollow part costa . it is joined with the os sacrum by a common membranous and most firm ligament , with a cartilage intervening , as abovesaid . the second is called os coxendicis , by some particularly os ischium , and in english the hip-bone : though more commonly both these last names are taken in a larger signification , and include all the three . this bone is the lower and outer part of os innominatum , and has a large cavity in it ( which is called acetabulum coxendicis ) which receives the round head of the thigh-bone , by the articulation called enarthrosis . the brims of this cavity are tipt as it were with a cartilage , called its supercilium . it s lower end has a large appendix which we lean or bear upon when we sit . the third bone is called os pubis , and pectinis , or the share-bone . it is seated in the fore-part , and in the middle it is joined to its fellow by a cartilage , which is much thicker , but looser and softer in women than in men. it has a very large foramen in its middle , which makes it the lighter . and above , it has a sinus , by which the crural veins and arteries pass to the thighs . the pelvis that is composed by these three bones and the os sacrum , is bigger in a woman than in a man , to make the larger room for the foetu● . chap. xvii . of the scapul● or shoulder-blade . now follow the bones of the limbs , which are the legs and arms. the bones of the arms are either above the joint of the shoulder , or under . above the joint lieth the shoulder-blade , in greek called 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , in latin , scapula . ▪ the substance of it is for the greatest part thin , but hard and solid . the outside is somewhat arched , but the inside hollow . it is somewhat of a triangular figure , and joined to sundry parts by means of the muscles ; which sort of union we called above , syssarchosis . thus it is joined with the bone of the occiput by the cucullar . muscles or the first pair that move the scapula ; to the vertebrae of the neck by its second pair ; and to the back by the muscle rhomboides . it has three processes : of which the first is extended along its middle , and is called its spine ; and that end of it that by a shallow sinus receives the clavicula , acromium , its point or tip . the second is lower , less and acute , something like a crow's bill , whence it has the name of coracoides ; by others it is called ancyroides , anchor-like . the third is the shortest , called cervix its neck , which ends in a sinus that in its upper part is acute , but in its lower round : this cavity being but shallow of it self has its brims tipt with a cartilage , which makes it the deeper , in which the head of the shoulder-bone is jointed . this jointing is strengthened by very strong ligaments and tendons , and is partly hindred from luxation by the top of the second process . the shoulder-blade hath a three-fold use . first , it receiveth the os humeri in the cavity of its third process by the articulation called arthrodia ; as it does the clavicula in the sinus of its first process by synarthrosis . secondly , sundry muscles spring from the shoulder-blade , which serve for the motion of the shoulder-bone . thirdly , it defendeth the back , so far as it reacheth , from external injuries , like a shield . chap. xviii . of the os humeri or shoulder-bone . the bones of the arm under the joint of the shoulder are the shoulder-bone , the cubit-bones , and the bones of the hand . the shoulder-bone is but one in each arm , reaching from the shoulder to the elbow . in figure it is round , only a little flattish behind towards the elbow ; of a hard and solid substance . it is hollow all along like a pipe , wherein a marrowy substance is contained . that end that is jointed to the scapula has a great and round head , cover'd with a cartilage , which is received into the cavity of the scapula by that kind of articulation which is called arthrodia . on the hinder side of this head there stand two rough and uneven prominences , into which the ligaments are inserted . and betwixt these two prominences there is a round and long chink through which the nervous head of the musculus biceps doth pass . it s lower end is articulated with two bones , viz. the vlna and radius , by ginglymus , for it both receives them and is received by them , having three processes and two sinus betwixt them ; so that by these it resembles a pully , whence it is called trochlea . the vlna is jointed with its inner side , and the radius with the outer . on its inside , besides the three foregoing , it has a large process or tubercle from whence those muscles arise that lie on the inside of the cubit ; and another less on its outside , from which those muscles spring that lie on the outside . on the hinder side of the trochlea there is one deep large cavity , and on the foreside two small ones , into which the bones of the cubit hit , when they are moved backward or forward , and are stopped from being carried further . about the middle of this bone in the inside , you may perceive a hole , through which vessels pass to the marrowy substance for nourishment . chap. xix . of the bones of the cubit . these are in number two ; to wit , the lesser above called radius , and the larger below called vlna . their substance is firm and solid , all but their appendages . they are near of the same length ( but the vlna is the longer of the two ) and both have a cavity in which they contain a marrowy substance . they are somewhat rough in their superficies by reason of their lines that are appointed for the rise or insertion of the muscles . the vlna is larger in its upper end that joints with the os humeri , and grows smaller and smaller towards the hand , ending into a round tubercle , with a round sinus in it , ( having on its hinder side a small sharp process , from its shape call'd styloides ) whereby it is knit ( by arthrodia ) to the little bones of the wrist , by ligaments , ( a cartilage intervening . ) it s upper end is articulated with the os humeri by ginglymus , to which end it has two processes , of which the hinder enters into the hinder cavity of the shoulder-bone behind the trochlea , ( by which the cubit is stayed from further extension than to a streight posture ) and is called ancon or olecranum . and at the same end it has also two sinus , by the outer and less whereof it receives the head of the radius , and by the hinder and larger one of the processes of the os humeri , which moves in it as a rope in a pully . as it receives the radius in its upper end , so is it received by it in its lower : but in the midst it bends or recedes a little from it , yet is knit to it by a long ligament . the second bone is upper and something shorter , called radius . it s upper end is slenderer , having a round head , one side of which is received by the vlna ; but its tip has a round shallow cavity in it , which receives a process of the os humeri , by diarthrosis . it s lower end is thicker , which by a little sinus in its side receives the vlna ; and at its extremity it has two other small sinus , into which it admits the two first and highest bones of the carpus . chap. xx. of the bones of the hand . the hand is divided into three parts : the wrist , called carpus ; the distance between the wrist and fingers , called metacarpus ; and the fingers themselves . the bones of the wrist are eight in number , whereof there are two ranks or orders . the upper rank hath three bones so joined together , that they seem but one ; these are articulated to the vlna and radius by arthrodia : but the fourth being the least of all , is placed a little out of its rank on the outside of the third . the inferior hath four bones ; they are joined to one another by harmonia , but to the bones of the metacarpus by arthrodia synarthrodes , having some motion though but obscure . they are firmly knit to one another by both a membranous and cartilaginous ligament ; and besides , by another called annular , which compassing the wrist , comprehendeth both them and the tendons of the muscles which pass to the fingers . the metacarpus hath four bones ; they are of a solid substance , round , hollow within like a pipe , being full of marrow . they are bigger than those of the fingers : that which answereth the fore-finger is thickest and longest , and the rest grow each shorter and slenderer than the foregoing . between each two a distance is left for the musculi interossei of the fingers . both in their upper and lower end they have an appendix ; by the upper they are joined to the little bones of the wrist , by the lower to the fingers : the upper hath a cavity , and so receiveth the bones of the carpus ; but the lower a round long head , covered with a cartilage , and is received by the sinus of the fingers . in the palm of the hand there is a transverse ligament , which doth tie the bones of the fingers to the metacarpium . the fingers ( taking in the thumb ) have fifteen bones , each three . the first are largest , the second less , and the third the least on the outside they are round , but on the inside plain and a little hollow , that they may lay the firmer hold upon things . each has a process at each end . the upper processes are round , and those of the first bones have one round sinus in them whereby they receive the round head of the bones of the metacarpus : but the upper processes of the second and third bones have each two sinus , parted by a small protuberance . the lower processes have two heads divided by a sinus , which are received by the double sinus of the upper process of those bones that join to them : except only the last or third bone , which is received by none , but is fenced by a nail . the second bone is joined to the first , and the third to the second by ginglymus , and by them the fingers are only stretched out and contracted . for as for their motion sideways , that depends only upon the articulation of the first bones with the bones of the metacarpus , which is done by enarthrosis , or at least by arthrodia . the jointings of the thumb answer to these of the fingers , saving that its upper appendix is not joined to any bone of the metacarpus ( with which it has no communication ) but immediately to the wrist ; and its lower has but one head , whence the second bone has but one sinus in its upper appendix to receive it . besides these bones there are in the inside of the hand , at the joints of the fingers , some small bones called from their figure and bigness sesamoidea , like the grains of sesama , ( a sort of indian corn so called by pliny . ) they resemble in figure the knee-pan , and seem to serve for the same use ; for in strong extensions of the fingers they strengthen the tendons of the muscles upon which they are placed ▪ and hinder the luxation of the joint . authors differ very much as to their number , because being so small they are seldom all found : but most agree upon the number of to each hand , placing them thus . at the second joint of the thumb there are two . the second and third joint of the fore-finger have each one ; but its first joint , as also the first of the other three have each two . in children they are of a cartilaginous substance , but grow bony by degrees , ( being invested with a cartilage ) yet not solid but fungous or porous . chap. xxi . of the thigh-bone , and patella . the leg ( in a large sense ) is divided into three parts , the thigh , the shank ( or leg strictly so called ) and foot. the thigh hath but one bone : but of all others it is the longest and thickest . before , it is round : but behind , something depressed and hollow . in the upper part it has a round head ; the slender part under this is called its neck , and is pretty long and oblique . the neck is an apophysis or process to the bone it self , and the round head an epiphysis or appendix to the neck . this head is received by the large cavity or acetabulum of the coxendix , and is detained therein by two strong ligaments ; one that encompasses the brims of the acetabulum , and another that springs out of its bottom , and is inserted into the tip of this round head or appendix . at the lower end of the neck there spring two prominences ; which , because the muscles called rotatores are fastned to them , are called trochanteres . the hinder and lower is the lesser trochanter ; and the lateral or uppermost , the bigger . the lower end of the thigh-bone growing thicker by degrees hath two pretty large prominences or heads , leaving a cavity in the middle which receiveth the apophysis of the tibia : and again these prominences are received by the cavities of the tibia , by a ●oose ginglymus , both the prominences and cavi●ies being lined with cartilages . the forepart of this articulation is called the knee , the hindermost the ham. upon the knee appeareth a bone , not joined with any other bone , called the pan , or patella : it is roundish , about two inches broad , plain without , having many holes ; but within bunched , covered with a cartilage . it is set before the thigh-bone and the tibia , to strengthen the articulation ; for otherwise the thigh-bone would be in danger to slip out forward in going down a hill , or the like . it cleaveth to the knee by the thick tendons of the second , third , and fourth muscles that extend the tibia , which pass under the patella to it , and are implanted into its fore-knob . two ligaments fasten the articulation of the thigh-bone with the tibia : the one fastens the cartilage that environs the brims of the sinus of the tibia , the other rises out of the apophysis of the tibia , and is inserted into the sinus of the thigh-bone . behind there are two ossa sesamoidea , which adhere to the two beginnings of the first muscles which move the foot , to strengthen them . great wounds of the ham are mortal , by reason of the great vessels which pass that way . chap. xxii . of the bones of the shank . the shank ( or leg strictly so called ) is composed of two bones . the greater is called tibia , the lesser fibula . these are slightly articulated into one another near each end ; but in their middle they recede one from the other , yet so as they are tied together by a strong ligament that comes between them . the tibia ( commonly called focile majus ) is partly triangular , by its sharp edge before making what we call the shin . it has an appendix at each end . that above is bigger , and in its upper part hath one process , which is received by the sinus of the thigh-bone ; and two longish cavities for the receiving of the two prominences of the thigh-bone , ( so that the articulation is by ginglymus ) as was said in the foregoing chapter . about the brims of these sinus there is joined by ligaments a moveable cartilage , soft , slippery , and bedewed with an unctuous humour , called cartilago lunata , the moon-like cartilage . it has also a little head behind ( below the foresaid appendix ) which enters into the sinus of the upper appendix of the fibula . it s lower appendix is less than the upper , jetting out with a notable process toward the inside of the foot , making the malleolus internus or inner ankle . it has two cavities ; one less in its side , by which it receives the fibula ; another greater and lower , divided as it were into two by a small protuberance in the middle , and lined with a cartilage , receiving the convex head of the talus that lies under it ; as the said protuberance is received by the shallow sinus in the convex head of the talus : the one being articulated into the other by ginglymus , so that the foot moves upwards and downwards upon this joint . the lesser and outer bone of the leg is called fibula ( or focile minus ; ) it is as long as the former , but much slenderer . this has also an appendix at each end : the upper of which reaches not so high as the knee , nor is it jointed to the thigh-bone ; but in its inner side has a shallow cavity which receives the little hinder ( or lateral ) head of the tibia , that is seated under its upper appendix which is jointed with the thigh-bone . below , the fibula is received by the sinus of the tibia , and extends its appendix with its process to the side of the talus , making the malleolus externus or outer ankle , which is lower than the inner . chap. xxiii . of the bones of the tarsus . of the foot ( as of the hands ) there are three parts , tarsus , metatarsus , and the toes . the tarsus is the distance between the lower end of the two focils , and the beginning of the five bones which are articulated with the toes . it hath seven bones much differing from one another in bigness and shape . the first is called talus or astragalus ( in english the ankle or huckle-bone . ) this is of a various figure : above , it has something a convex head with a shallow sinus in it , articulating with the tibia , as is described in the foregoing chapter . by the process of the tibia that makes the inner ankle it is hedged in as it were on the inside , as it is by that of the fibula on the outer . before , it has a long neck , on which grows a round head that enters into the sinus of os naviculare ; upon which jointing the foot is moved sideways . it s hinder side is rough , and in its upper part has a transverse sinus for the receipt of the ligament of the tibia , and in its lower a little descending sinus , by which the tendons of the muscles pass . below , it has a sinus behind and a protuberance before , by which it is articulated with the heel-bone by ginglymus . betwixt the sinus and protuberance there is a long and pretty deep cavity , and over against it another such in the heel-bone . in these is contained a mucous substance which moistens the cartilaginous ligaments that join the talus to the heel-bone , keeping them from drying by continued motion . the second bone of the tarsus is called os calcis or calcaneus , the heel-bone , and is the biggest of the seven . it lies under the talus , with which in its upper side it is articulated in the manner just now described . behind , it receiveth the great tendon called nervus hectoreus , composed of the tendons of three muscles of the shank . it s fore end is received by the os cubiforme . on its inside it has a large sinus , by which the tendons and larger vessels descend to the lower parts of the foot ; and on its outside it is uneven with several knobs , for the firmer connexion of the ligaments and tendons . the third is called os naviculare or cymbiforme , from its figure . behind , it receiveth the talus in a large sinus ; but before , it is convex , with three flattish smooth heads that are admitted into the very shallow sinus of the three ossa cuneiformia or lesser bones of the tarsus . the remaining four are less than the three already described , and stand all in one rank ; the first of them articulates with the heel-bone , the other three with the os naviculare . there is no cartilage betwixt them , but they are knit one to another on the outside by a cartilaginous ligament ; and are cover'd both in their hinder and fore-part with a smooth cartilage where they are jointed with other bones . the first is called cubiforme or die-like , having six sides . this is bigger than the other three that follow , and is seated on the outside of the foot. in its foreside it is joined to the fourth and fifth bone of the metatarsus ; in the hinder with the heel bone ; and in the inside , to the third bone of the cuneiformia : but it s other three sides , viz. the outer , upper and lower are joined to none . the three ensuing are called cuneiformia , or wedge-like bones ; for above they are thick , and below thinner , so that being joined , they represent a vault , being convex on the upper side , but on the under hollow ; in which hollowness the tendons and muscles are lodged , so that one does not press upon and bruise them in going . the first of these bones is the greatest , seated in the inside of the foot ; the second is the least , placed in the middle ; the third is in the mean between both in bigness . these three behind are joined to the os naviculare , and before to the three first bones of the metatarsus . chap. xxiv . of the rest of the bones of the foot. the metatarsus , or instep , hath five bones : for one is appointed for the sustaining of the great toe , as well as others for each of the rest ; though in the hand it is not so , where the thumb has no bone in the metacarpus answering to it . they are solid without , but hollow within ; and are longer than the bones of the back of the hand . that which stayeth the great toe is thickest , but the longest is that which stayeth the next toe : the other three grow each shorter than other , but are almost of an equal thickness . their lower ends being round are inserted into the sinus of the first joints of the toes : but the upper in their own shallow sinus receive the bones of the tarsus . the bones of the toes are in number fourteen ; for the great toe hath only two , but the rest three . these bones are solid without , and hollow within like those of the instep . their articulation is altogether like that of the fingers , so that we shall not need here to describe it over again . each foot has twelve ossa sesamoidea , as well as the hands : but seeing they are seated wholly alike in both , the reader may please to turn back to their description in chap. . the explanation of the figure . it representeth the sceleton of an adult body on the foreside , that the mutual contexture of all the bones may appear . a the forehead-bone . bb the coronal suture . c the temple-bone . d the mammillary process . e the os jugale . f the upper jaw . gg the lower jaw . hhh the vertebrae of the neck . iiiii the ribs . kk the breast-bone . ll the channel-bones . mm the inner side of each shoulder-blade . nn the shoulder-bone . oo its head jointed with the shoulder-blade . pp it s lower end that is inarticulated with the ulna & radius , where q points at the inner tubercle , and r at the outer . ss the bone of the cubit called ulna . tt the other bone of the cubit called radius . yy the wrist consisting of eight little bones . zz the metacarpus having four bones . 〈◊〉 the fingers . 〈◊〉 the thumb . the following letters point at the lower bones of the sceleton . aaaaa the ●ive vertebrae of the loins . bb the inner side of os sacrum . cc the cavity of os ilium , making a great part of the pelvis . dd the coxendix . ee the ossa pubis . f the middle line that joins the two bones of the pubes together , by the mediation of a cartilage . gg the thigh-bone . hh its round head. ii its neck . kk the outer process of its neck , or the greater trochanter . ll the inner process , or lesser trochanter . mmmm the lower heads of the thigh-bone . nn the patella or knee-pan . oo the tibia . pppp it s upper processes . rr it s spine that makes the shin . ss it s lower process that makes the inner ankle . tt the fibula . uu it s lower process that makes the outer ankle . xx the tarsus consisting of seven bones . the astragalus . the heel bone . d the os cubiforme . yy the metatarsus consisting of five bones . zz the bones of the toes , in all fourteen , viz. two of the great toe , and three of each of the rest . chap. xxv . of a cartilage . as an appendix to the doctrine of bones we will add a word or two of the cartilages and ligaments of the body ; because the former come nearest to the nature of bones ; and the latter , as they tye several other parts one to another , so especially the bones . a cartilage is a similar part , cold , dry and void of sense , flexible and not so hard as a bone. but when by age its glutinous particles are dried up , it many times degenerates into a bone. as for the cartilages of the eye-brows , ears , nose , larynx , &c. we shall not need here particularly to describe them , having done it where we treated of the respective parts ; only we will note in general , that all the bones in their articulations one with another , are covered or lined with cartilages , whereby their motion becomes more easie and glib : and sometimes themselves are the medium by which bones are joined , which articulation is called synchondrosis , such as that of the ossa pubis : and lastly , by tipping as it were the brims of the cavities of the greater joints , they make the sinus deeper . chap. xxvi . of a ligament . a ligament is a similar part , cold and dry , of a middle substance betwixt a cartilage and a membrane , appointed for the tying of sundry pa●●s together . note , that as it is either harder or softer than is suitable to its proper nature , it acquires the epithets of cartilaginous or membranous respectively : so , that which proceeds out of the top of the thigh-bone and is inserted into the cavity of the coxendix is called a cartilaginous ligament , for its hardness ; and that which environeth the joint of the shoulder , is called membranous , from its softness . those which tye bones together are without sense , ( for otherwise upon every motion we should have been in pain : ) but those that knit other parts together , ( as those that tye the liver , womb , &c. to the neighbouring parts ) are sensible . ligaments are found in several parts of the body . as first , the head being moved upon the first and second vertebra of the neck , there are four ligaments to strengthen the articulation . secondly , a common membranous ligament begirts the whole articulation of the lower jaw with the temple-bone . thirdly , the bone at the root of the tongue has four , by which it is tyed to the neighbouring parts ; and the tongue it self has one strong one on its under-side , ( otherwise called its fraenum ) which being two short or running too near its tip , hindreth its motion . children being so troubled , are said to be tongue-tyed , and must have it cut . fourthly , both the bodies and processes of all the vertebrae of the back are knit together by ligaments , as also are the ribs with the vertebrae behind , and with the breast-bone before . fifthly , sundry are to be seen in the abdomen . the first tieth the os ilium to os sacrum . the second knitteth the os sacrum to the coxendix . the third and fourth knit the share-bones together , one of them compassing them circularly , and the other , which is membranous , possessing their very foramen . as for the ligaments of the liver , bladder , &c. those were discoursed of when we described those parts in book . sixthly , in the arm these appear . . five tie the os humeri to the shoulder-blade . . the bones of the cubit , vlna and radius , are tied first one to another ; secondly , to the shoulder-bone ; and thirdly , to the wrist by ( mostly ) membranous ligaments . . there are annular ligaments at the wrists , which being transverse , confirm and make steady the tendons which pass to the fingers . they are two ; one in the outside , for the tendons of the extending muscles ; the other in the inner side , for the tendons of the contracting muscles . . the bones of the wrist , back of the hand and fingers , have membranous ligaments . seventhly , in the leg are these . . the thigh-bone is tied to the coxendix by two ligaments . . the lower end of it is tied to tibia and fibula by six ligaments . . the tibia is joined to the fibula by three membranous ligaments , viz. two common and one proper . . tibia and fibula are joined to the talus by three ligaments , and there are three other for the strengthening of the tendons . . the talus is tied with the other bones of the foot by five ligaments . . the bones of the instep and toes are tied with such ligaments as those of the hand are . chap. xxvii . of the nails . in the last place we will say something of the nails , which though they are not truly parts of the body , yet for their usefulness ought not to be omitted . they are of an horny transparent substance , coming nearest to that of bones , fasten'd upon the ends of the fingers and toes for their defence . they are endued with no sense , nor is that colour which they appear to be of upon the fingers , owing to their proper substance , but to the colour of the parts that lie under them ; whence they sometimes look ruddy , sometimes pale , blue or yellow , and thereby give some intimation of the state of the body . they grow very firmly to the flesh that lies under them ; and to fasten them the better , they are tied about their root with a ligament , and on their sides the skin closes them in . the parts that lie under them are very sensible , for there are several twigs of nerves and tendons of muscles that run to the very fingers ends ; so that upon handling any hard or rugged thing we should have been continually in pain , if these so sensible parts had not been thus defended by the nails . they may in some sense be reputed parts of the body , so as that it would not be perfect and intire without them : but that is but an improper notion of a part . for if they were properly parts , they should live by the common life of the body ; but that they do not , seeing they as well as the hair continue to grow after a man is dead : and their growth seems meerly to be by apposition of new particles to their roots , which drive on successively those before them ; as we may see when there is a black or white speck on any of them , for it still goes forward together with the nail , till it arrive at the fingers end beyond the flesh . finis . the contents . book i. of the lowest cavity called abdomen . chap. i. of the division of the parts of the body of man in general . page ii. of the circumscription , regions and parts of the abdomen . iii. of the common containing parts of the belly . iv. of the proper containing parts . v. of the omentum . vi. of the gula. vii . of the ventriculus or stomach . viii . of the intestines or guts . ix . of the mesenterium . x. of the venae lacteae , receptaculum chyli , and ductus chyliferus thoracicus . xi . of the liver . xii . of the vena portae . xiii . of the 〈…〉 dispersed within the abdomen . ● xiv . of the gall blad●● and porus bilarius . xv. of the pancreas . xvi . of the spleen . xvii . of the kidneys and the glandulae renales . xviii . of the vreters . xix . of the bladder xx. of the vasa praeparantia in men. xxi . of the stones or testicles , and the epididymidae . xxii . of the vasa deferentia , vesiculae seminales , and prostatae . ● xxiii . of the yard . xxiv . of the vasa praeparantia in women . xxv . of womens testicles or ovaria . xxvi . of the vasa deferentia in women , or their oviducts . xxvii . of the uterus or womb , and its neck . xxviii . of the vagina and its contents , viz. the hymen , and carunculae myrtiformes . xxix . of the pudendum muliebre or woman's privity . xxx . of a conception . xxxi . of the placenta uterina or womb-liver , and acetabula . xxxii . of the membranes involving the foetus , and of the humours contained in them . xxxiii . of the vmbilical vessels , and of the nourishing of the foetus . xxxiv . what parts of a foetus in the womb differ from those of an adult person . xxxv . of the birth . book ii. of the breast . chap. i. of the common containing parts of it . page ii. of the proper containing parts ; and first , of the dugs . iii. of the proper internal containing parts . iv. of the pericardium , and the humour contained in it . v. of the heart , in general , and of its motion . vi. of the pulse , and the circulation of the bloud . vii . how bloud is made of chyle , of its colour , and whether the body be nourished by it . viii . of the parts of the heart , viz. the auriculae , the ventricles and the septum that divideth them . ix . of the ascending trunk of vena cava . x. of vena arteriosa , and arteria venosa . xi . of the great artery , or aorta . xii . of the aspera arteria and lungs . xiii . of respiration . xiv . of the neck and the parts contained in it , viz. the larynx , pharynx , tonsillae , &c. book iii. of the head. chap. i. of the head in general , and its common containing parts . page ii. of the hair. iii. of the proper containing parts . iv. of the brain in general . v. of the parts of the brain properly so called , viz. cortex , corpus callosum , septum lucidum , fornix , three sinus , infundibulum , glandula pituitaria , plexus choroides , rete mirabile , nates , testes , anus , and glandula pinealis . vi. of the cerebellum , and the fourth ventricle or sinus . vii . of the medulla oblongata and spinalis . viii . of the processus mammillares . ix . of the action of the brain , and the supposed succus nutritius of the nerves . x. of the nerves arising within the skull , and first of the first and second pair . xi . of the third and fourth pair . xii . of the fifth , sixth , and seventh pair . xiii . of the eighth and ninth pair . xiv . of the nerves of the spinalis medulla ; and first of the nerves of the neck . xv. of the nerves of the vertebrae of the breast . xvi . of the nerves of the vertebrae of the loins . xvii . of the nerves which come from the marrow of os sacrum . xviii . of the face and its parts . xix . of the eye in general , and its outward or containing parts . xx. of the tunicles of the eye . xxi . of the humours and vessels of the eyes . xxii . of the auricula . xxiii . of the inward part of the ear. xxiv . of the nose . xxv . of the lips. xxvi . of the inner parts of the mouth . book iv. containing a description of the veins , arteries and nerves of the limbs . chap. i. of the veins of the arm. page ii. of the arteries of the arm. iii. of the nerves of the arm. iv. of the veins of the thigh , leg and foot. v. of the arteries of the thigh , leg and foot. ibid. vi. of the nerves of the thigh , leg and foot. book v. containing a treatise of all the muscles of the body . chap. i. the description of a muscle . page ii. of the differences and actions of the muscles . iii. of the muscles of the eye-lids . iv. of the muscles of the eye . v. of the muscles of the nose . vi. of the muscles of the lips and cheeks . vii . of the muscles of the lower jaw . viii . of the muscles of the ear. ix . of the muscles of the tongue . x. of the muscles of the bone of the tongue , called os hyoides . xi . of the muscles of the larynx . xii . of the muscles of the uvula and throat . xiii . of the muscles of the head. xiv . of the muscles of the neck . xv. of the muscles of the breast . xvi . of the muscles of the back and loins . xvii . of the muscles of the abdomen . xviii . of the muscles of the genital● , both in men and women . xix . of the muscles of the bladder and anus . xx. of the muscles of the scapula or shoulder-blade . xxi . of the muscles of the arm. xxii . of the muscles of the ulna . xxiii . of the muscles of the radius . xxiv . of the muscles of the wrist . xxv . of the muscles of the palm of the hand . xxvi . of the muscles of the four fingers . xxvii . of the muscles of the thumb . xxviii . of the muscles of the thigh . xxix . of the muscles of the tibia or leg. xxx . of the muscles of the tarsus or instep . xxxi . of the muscles of the toes . book vi. of the bones . chap. i. of the nature of a bone. page ii. of the natural affections of bones . iii. of the differences of the joining of bones together . iv. of the sutures of the head. v. of the proper bones of the skull . vi. of the bones common to the skull and upper jaw . vii . of the jaws . viii . of the teeth . ix . of the bone of the tongue called os hyoides . x. of the bones of the neck . xi . of the vertebrae of the thorax . xii . of the ribs . xiii . of the breast-bone or sternum . xiv . of the vertebrae of the loins . xv. of the os sacrum , and os coccygis or rump-bone . xvi . of the hip-bone . xvii . of the scapula or shoulder-blade . xviii . of the os humeri or shoulder-bone . xix . of the bones of the cubit . xx. of the bones of the hand . xxi . of the thigh-bone , and patella . xxii . of the bones of the shank . xxiii . of the bones of the tarsus . xxiv . of the rest of the bones of the foot. xxv . of a cartilage . xxvi . of a ligament . xxvii . of the nails . the end of the contents . notes, typically marginal, from the original text notes for div a -e the description of anatomy . the regions of the whole . what the whole and a part signifie . things required in a part being strictly taken . the differences of the parts . what a similar part is . the number of simple parts . of a tendon . the differences of simple parts . what a dissimilar part is . things to be observed in an organical part . the degrees of an organical part . the differences of parts taken from their end . the circumscription of the abdomen . the regions of it . . cuticula , or skarf-skin . its uses . . the true skin . it s colour . it s action . its uses . . fat. its uses . membrana carnosa . its uses . of the parts contained in the lower belly . the caul . it s substance . it s connexion or origine . its vessels . . arteries . . veins . . nerves . . vasa adiposa . . venae lacteae . its glands . it s fat . its uses . an observation . another . it s origine & descent . the names of it . it s structure . vessels . glandules . the use of it . it s denomination . number . situation . connexion . substance . orifices . its veins . its arteries . its nerves . the causes of hunger . it s action . chylus . it s figure . their name . figure . connexion . substance . their length . coats . veins . arteries . the nerves . the division of the guts . the thin . . duodenum . . jejunum . ● . ileum . the thick guts . . cacum . . colon. it s valve . . rectum . it s denomination . substance . parts . veins . arteries . nerves . lympheducts . glandules . fat. division . diseases . their name . rise . receptaculum chyli . ductus chyliferu● thoracicus . the difference between the venae lacteae and the ordinary mesaraical veins . their valves . why the ancients did not find these out . it s situation . lobes . ligaments . it s membrane . substance . veins . arteries . nerves . lympheducts . the bilary vessels . whether the liver sanguifie . the action of the liver . it s name . origine . branchings in the liver . its branches without the liver . vena sple●ica . vena mesenterica . it s use . it s name . it s rise . it s desce●ding tru●k . it s use . it s name , and description . it s bigness . it s c●nnexion . its membranes . the fibres of the proper membrane . the parts of it . how the choler is brought into it . its valves . its vessels . of the stones in it . porus bilarius . their use . it s substance . situation . figure . bigness . vessels . office. it s substance . number . membrane . colour . bigness . figure . situation . connexion . vessels . . veins . . arteries . . nerves . . vasa lymphatica . vse . their denomination . number . places . figure . connexion . bigness . membranes . . common . . proper . substance . emulgents . . arteries . . veins . the pelvis . their action . glandulae renales . their situation . figure and substance . magnitude . membrane . cavity . vessels . vse . their origine . number . substance . coats and vessels . why the insertion is oblique . vse . it s name . seat. membranes . fibres . crust . perforation . parts . figure . cavity . vessels . vse . observations . the parts of the genitals in man. vasa praeparantia . arteries . veins . their name substance . number , situation , figure and magnitude . vessels . coats . muscles . epididymidae . vse . vasa deferentia . vesiculae seminales . ●rostatae . their use . perinaeum . why these parts in men are hairy . it s name . description . magnitude . parts . why it hath no fat . the nervous bodies . the urethra . muscles . glans . praeputium . fraenum . the vessels . veins and arteries . nerves . vse . spermatick arteries . veins . their use . their situation . figure . greatness . tunicle . substance . tubae fallopianae . their substance . width . length . vse . it s name ▪ situation ▪ connexion . ligaments . substance . membranes . bigness . figure . cavity . arteries . veins . nerves . lympheducts . vse . the neck of the womb. i●s nam● . description . hymen . carunculae myrtiformes . fissura . mons veneris . nymphae . their substance . vse . clitoris . it s substance . glans . muscles . vessels . it s substance . shape and situation . number . origine . vessels . acetabula . chorion . * de generat . animal . exercit . . de generat . ovi . it s liquor . amnios . it s liquor . allantoides . it s liquor . the navel-string . it s situation . vessels . vein . it s use . arteries . their use . how the vessels pass through the membranes . urachus . it s use . funiculus . its knots . how to tie the navel-string and cut it off . of the nutrition of the foetus . first , by apposition . . by the umbilical vein . * de generat . animal . exercit . . * exercit. . . by the mouth . * anat. corp . hum . p. . the posture of the foetus in the womb. at its birth . the term of going with child . the reason of the birth . notes for div a -e the breast . it s limitation . figure . parts . the common containing parts . . cuticula . . cutis . . pinguedo . . the membrana carnosa . the proper containing parts of the breast . the paps . . of men. . of women . their bigness . glands . papilla . it s bigness . vse . areola . their vessels . veins . arteries . nerves . lympheducts . 〈…〉 . venae lacteae . the use of the mammae . how milk is made . why it flows to the breasts at some times only . pleura . it s substance . parts . figure . holes . rise . veins . arteries . nerves . of the mediastinum . it s rise . substance . length . veins . arteries . nerves . lympheducts . use . thymus . its vessels . vse . the diaphragm . it s figure and situation . substance . holes . vessels . vse . it s denomination . origine . holes . connexion . vessels . it s liquor . their uses . it s situation . substance . fibres . figure . bigness . coat . vessels . arteries . veins . nerves . the motion of the heart . the pulse . systole and diastole . the circulation of the bloud . how chyle is turned into bloud . the colour of the bloud . whether the body be nourish'd by bloud . auriculae . their motion . vse . the ventricles . septum . vena cava . venae phrenicae . venae coronariae . vena sine pari . intercostales superiores . venae subclaviae . branches arising from them . . mammariae . . mediastina . . cervicalis . . muscula inferior . . muscula superior . . jugulares . vena arteriosa . its valves . branchings in the lungs . arteria venosa . it s valve● . its valves . the division of the aorta . the branches of the trunk ascending . . subclavia . . intercostalis superior . . mammaria . . cervicalis . . muscula . carotides . the branches of the trunk descending . . intercostalis inferior . . phrenica . . coeliaca . its branches . gastrica dextra . cysticae gemellae . epiplois dextra . intestinalis . gastroepiplois dextra . hepaticae splenica . gastrica major . coronaria stomachica . gastrica sinistra . epiplo's postica . epiplois sinistra . vas breve arteriosum . gastroepiplois sinistra . . mesenterica superior . . emulgentes . . spermaticae . . mesenterica inferior . lumbares . rami iliaci . their branches . . muscula inferior . . hypogastrica . . umbilicalis . . epigastrica . . pudenda . the wind-pipe . its parts . . larynx . . bronchus . its vessels . division . the lungs . their substance . investing membrane . division . connexion . vessels . . trachea . . arteries and veins . . lympheducts . . nerves . how respiration is performed . muscles ministring to respiration . what kind of motion respiration is . the use of it . it s name . parts containing . contained . . larynx . it s figure . bigness . vessels . substance . cartilages . muscles . . pharynx . . tonsillae . their duct . vse . notes for div a -e it s seat . figure . bigness . parts . it s name . definition . figure . life . matter . colour . why hair turns white . their use . the pericranium . it s connexion . periosteum . their vessels . the meninges . dura mater . its holes . vessels . falx . sinus . pia mater . the plexus of its vessels . it s substance . vessels . bigness . figure . it s difference from the cerebellum . the division of the brain . it s cortex . corpus callosum . septum lucidum . fornix . sinus . the two anteriour . plexus choroides . the one posterior . infundibulum . glandula pituitaria . rete mirabile . penis . testes . nates . anus . the use of the ventricles . it s seat . substance . parts . processus vermiformes . vse . the fourth ventricle . it s name . substance . parts . vessels . rise . membranes . it s division . their name rise . vse . the animal spirits what , and of what made . where elaborated . the succus nutritius of the nerves . nervi olfactorii , the first pair . nervi optici , the second pair . the hollowness of the optick nerves . their insertion . their membranes and marrowy substance . these make the tunicles of the eyes . the third pair . it s beginning . why both the eyes are directed to the same object . it s substance , and branches . the fourth pair . it s beginning , marching , and insertion . the fifth pair . it s rise . division and progress . the sixth pair . it s rise and insertion . the seventh pair . it s rise and insertion . the eighth pair . it s rise . progress . nerves springing from the spinalis medulla . seven of the neck . the first pair . the second . the third . the fourth . the fifth . the sixth . the seventh . nervus ad par vagum accessorius . twelve of the thorax . the first pair . the second . the rest of the pairs . five of the loins . the first pair . the second . the third . the fourth . the fifth . six of os sacrum . the first pair . of the other five pair . the parts of the face . their number . figure . colour . bigness . situation . the eye-lids . canthi . the tunicles of the eye , one common ▪ three proper . . sclerotica . . choroides . . retiformis . the ●●mours of the eye three . . aqueus . . crystallinus . . vitreus . the vessels of the eye . the names of its parts . it s constituent parts . vses . the tympanum . four little bones . . malleolus . . incus . . stapes . . os orbiculare . fenestra ovalis . rotunda . labyrinthus . cochlea . hearing what . it s external parts . it s inner parts . the denomination of its parts . its uses . the external parts of the mouth , viz. the lips. the uses of the lips. . gums . . teeth . . palate . . almonds . uvula . . tongue . its vessels . its actions and uses . ductus salivales . notes for div a -e the description of a muscle . the parts constitutive . arteries . veins . nerves . fibrous flesh . membrane . tendon . it s beginning . which muscles have tendons . of what a tendon is framed . the figure of tendons . the parts from the position . the use of a muscle . the differences of muscles . the causes of the unity and plurality of muscles . the proper action of a muscle . the cause of the diversity of the action . the difference of the motion of muscles . motus tonicus . the efficient cause of the motion . a description of a muscle from its action . rectus . semicirculares . frontales . the streight muscles . their rise and insertion . the oblique muscles . their rise and insertion . how these muscles are to be shewed . trochlea . the abducent muscles . the adducent muscles . the common muscles . . detrahens quadratus . . contrahens . the proper muscles . . attollens . . abducens . . jugale . . deprimens . . obliquè detrahens . constringens . the lower jaw hath five pair of muscles . . temporale . why the wounds of the temporal muscle are dangerous . . deprimens or biventre . . masseter or laterale . . aliforme externum , or maxillam abducens . . alitorme internum , or maxillam adducens . the auricula hath four muscles . the auris two . the tongue has five pair . os hyoides hath four pair . the common muscles are four . the proper muscles nine . the uvula said to have two muscles . the throat hath seven . the common . the proper are eight pair . the neck hath four pair . the dilaters . the contracters . the back and loins have four pair . the abdomen hath five pair . the penis hath two pair . the clitoris hath also two pair . the bladder hath one muscle . the anus three . the scapulae have four pair . each arm hath nine muscles . erectors . depressors . movers forward . pullers backward . benders of the ulna . extenders . the pronatores . supinatores . benders . extenders . the palm hath two muscles . benders of the four fingers . extenders . one common . two proper . movers laterally , eight . abducing muscles , two . ex●enders . benders . monticulus lunae . movers laterally . be●ders forward . benders backward . drawers to the inside . turners towards the outside . turners about obliquely . benders . extenders . mover obliquely . benders . extenders . movers sideways . extenders . benders . four lumbricales . movers obliquely . extender of the great toe . bender . movers side-ways . notes for div a -e it s name . definition . matter . vessels . efficient and formal causes . substance . common affections . proper . articulation . symphysis . sutures proper or common . proper sutures true or counterfeit . three true . two counterfeit . common sutures . the uses of the sutures . os frontis . it s cavity . the bones of the synciput . the temple-bones . their sinus . os styloides . processus mammillares . os occipitis . os cuneiforme . os cribriforme . the upper jaw consists of 〈◊〉 bones . the lower jaw . their substance . origine . change. number . sorts . vse . claviculae . vertebrae seven . vertebrae twelve . seven verae . five nothae . vse . os ilium . coxendix . os pubis . ●lna . radius . bones of the carpus eight . of the metacarpus four . of the finger●●ifteen . ossa sesamoidea . os femoris . patella . tibia . fibula . the tarsus hath seven bones . . talus . . os calcis . . os naviculare . . os cubiforme . . three cuneiformia . the bones of the instep five . of the toes fourteen . de succo pancreatico, or, a physical and anatomical treatise of the nature and office of the pancreatick juice shewing its generation in the body, what diseases arise by its vitiation : from whence in particular, by plain and familiar examples, is accurately demonstrated, the causes and cures of agues, or intermitting feavers, hitherto so difficult and uncertain, with sundry other things of worthy note / written by d. reg. de graaf ... ; and translated by christopher pack ... tractatus anatomico-medicus de succi pancreatici natura & usu. english graaf, reinier de, - . approx. kb of xml-encoded text transcribed from -bit group-iv tiff page images. text creation partnership, ann arbor, mi ; oxford (uk) : - (eebo-tcp phase ). a wing g estc r ocm this keyboarded and encoded edition of the work described above is co-owned by the institutions providing financial support to the early english books online text creation partnership. this phase i text is available for reuse, according to the terms of creative commons . universal . the text can be copied, modified, distributed and performed, even for commercial purposes, all without asking permission. early english books online. (eebo-tcp ; phase , no. a ) transcribed from: (early english books online ; image set ) images scanned from microfilm: (early english books, - ; : ) de succo pancreatico, or, a physical and anatomical treatise of the nature and office of the pancreatick juice shewing its generation in the body, what diseases arise by its vitiation : from whence in particular, by plain and familiar examples, is accurately demonstrated, the causes and cures of agues, or intermitting feavers, hitherto so difficult and uncertain, with sundry other things of worthy note / written by d. reg. de graaf ... ; and translated by christopher pack ... tractatus anatomico-medicus de succi pancreatici natura & usu. english graaf, reinier de, - . packe, christopher, fl. - . [ ], , [ ] p., [ ] leaves of plates ( folded) : ill. printed for n. brook ..., london : . translation of: tractatus anatomico-medicus de succi pancreatici natura & usu. includes index. errata: p. [ ]. reproduction of original in bodleian library. created by converting tcp files to tei p using tcp tei.xsl, tei @ oxford. re-processed by university of nebraska-lincoln and northwestern, with changes to facilitate morpho-syntactic tagging. gap elements of known extent have been transformed into placeholder characters or elements to simplify the filling in of gaps by user contributors. eebo-tcp is a partnership between the universities of michigan and oxford and the publisher proquest to create accurately transcribed and encoded texts based on the image sets published by proquest via their early english books online (eebo) database (http://eebo.chadwyck.com). the general aim of eebo-tcp is to encode one copy (usually the first edition) of every monographic english-language title published between and available in eebo. eebo-tcp aimed to produce large quantities of textual data within the usual project restraints of time and funding, and therefore chose to create diplomatic transcriptions (as opposed to critical editions) with light-touch, mainly structural encoding based on the text encoding initiative (http://www.tei-c.org). the eebo-tcp project was divided into two phases. the , texts created during phase of the project have been released into the public domain as of january . anyone can now take and use these texts for their own purposes, but we respectfully request that due credit and attribution is given to their original source. users should be aware of the process of creating the tcp texts, and therefore of any assumptions that can be made about the data. text selection was based on the new cambridge bibliography of english literature (ncbel). if an author (or for an anonymous work, the title) appears in ncbel, then their works are eligible for inclusion. selection was intended to range over a wide variety of subject areas, to reflect the true nature of the print record of the period. in general, first editions of a works in english were prioritized, although there are a number of works in other languages, notably latin and welsh, included and sometimes a second or later edition of a work was chosen if there was a compelling reason to do so. image sets were sent to external keying companies for transcription and basic encoding. quality assurance was then carried out by editorial teams in oxford and michigan. % (or pages, whichever is the greater) of each text was proofread for accuracy and those which did not meet qa standards were returned to the keyers to be redone. after proofreading, the encoding was enhanced and/or corrected and characters marked as illegible were corrected where possible up to a limit of instances per text. any remaining illegibles were encoded as <gap>s. understanding these processes should make clear that, while the overall quality of tcp data is very good, some errors will remain and some readable characters will be marked as illegible. users should bear in mind that in all likelihood such instances will never have been looked at by a tcp editor. the texts were encoded and linked to page images in accordance with level of the tei in libraries guidelines. copies of the texts have been issued variously as sgml (tcp schema; ascii text with mnemonic sdata character entities); displayable xml (tcp schema; characters represented either as utf- unicode or text strings within braces); or lossless xml (tei p , characters represented either as utf- unicode or tei g elements). keying and markup guidelines are available at the text creation partnership web site . eng human anatomy -- early works to . pancreas -- secretions -- early works to . - tcp assigned for keying and markup - aptara keyed and coded from proquest page images - judith siefring sampled and proofread - judith siefring text and markup reviewed and edited - pfs batch review (qc) and xml conversion de succo pancreatico : or , a physical and anatomical treatise of the nature and office of the pancreatick juice ; shewing its generation in the body , what diseases arise by its vitiation ; from whence in particular , by plain and familiar examples , is accurately demonstrated , the causes and cures of agues , or intermitting feavers , hitherto so difficult and uncertain : with sundry other things worthy of note . written by d. reg. de graaf , physician of delph , and translated by christopher pack , med. lond. london , printed for n. brook at the angel in cornhil near the royal exchange , . licensced , february d . . roger l'estrange . to the most illustrious d. john capellanus , councellour to the most christian king . sir , this treatise , which five years since , i willingly dedicated to you in the french idiome , is now again presented to your self , replenished with many observations in the latine tongue : seeing that by the great esteem of your name , our french edition was not only candidly accepted in france ; but also in other forreign nations among learned men : the exceeding happy success of which , had wrought in me an admiration , had not the fame of your transcendant learning made it immortal , by your most learned writings , known , and throughly considered by me . you being so well versed in all kind of studies , that the most illustrious ludovicus xiv , king of france and navarre , made you the mecaenas , or cherisher of most learned men . since it is so , i may remember the former edition , and so much the rather , seeing that the heer duyst van voorhout , a man of an excellent genious , made me as certain of your peculiar favours towards me , as your own frequent honouring me with your epistles : wherefore with all humility i crave , that even as you protected the former edition , under the shield of your authority , so you would vouchsafe also to protect this. sir , the doing of which , will oblige him in the highest nature , who is , and will be , during his life , the adorer of your resplendent name . reg. de graaf . the preface . in the year . in the vniversity of leyden , i hearing the most famous , and indefatigable man in studies , francis de le boe-sylvius , daily teaching concerning the pancreatick juyce , to be one of the chiefest foundations of physick , i endeavoured to find out that , hitherto undiscovered juyce ; the which when i had done , and indeed after that manner which he had first described to us ; he having understanding thereof , with all diligence did incite me to print those things , which i had observed worthy of notice , concerning this subject , through diverse dissections of various animals : and i , willing to gratifie his request , published a little treatise , concerning the nature , and office of the pancreatick juyce ; which , although in an unpolished manner , nevertheless , it so took with the curious indagators of nature , that in a short time , sufficient examples of that nature , were desired of me : for which cause , in the year , i published , at paris , this little treatise , in the french tongue ; which , three or four months together , i presented to the famous dr. bourdelot , to be publickly examined ; to whose house the most curious wits of the vniversity do frequently resort . and i , seeing that this second edition wonderfully took with the most learned physitians of all france , who have their colledge at paris , and returning to my own country , i found that there were remaining no coppies of my first edition , being instigated by the printer , and my friends , for their sakes who understood not the french tongue , have again turned the same little treatise into latine , and that not barely , but in several places have inserted new observations , and resolves to several objections , put to me against this treatise , both in france , and other countries , that my opinion might not seem , in any respect , to be faulty ; so that , the treatise , which i now publish , may bear the name of a new one ; which i hope , will not be unacceptable to the reader . but seeing no writing ( as plato saith ) can be so exact , that it may avoid the censures of criticks , without doubt , there will be carpers , who are better affected with brawlings , and drinkings , than the dissections of bodies , which will laugh at me , for the spending so much time in the discovery of this juyce : but hippocrates , in an epistle to damagetus , hath taught me in an history of democritus , that those gibeings ought not to be regarded , &c. so much of which history , as most nearly appertaines to us , i will briefly relate : democritus , inferiour to none of the abderitans , when , to find out the nature of the bile , had betaken himself , apart from the city , and there alone had dissected many animals ; he was generally reputed to be mad ; wherefore the senate , and people of the abderitans being sad , and troubled , did very much importune the prince of physitians , that he would vouchsafe to come , and cure the madness of democritus : hippocrates , by the merits of democritus , and the intreaties of the abderitans , taking ship went to abderis , where he found all the citizens , and inhabitants gathered together , waiting for him without the gates ; part of whom running before , and part following , led hippocrates to a high hill without the city , ( crying out save , help , heal , ) that he might see the madness of democritus : from whence they saw democritus sometimes dissecting animals , sometimes museing , and sometimes writing . hippocrates , going all alone to democritus , and making an exact tryal of him , although then he understood he was not mad , asked him what he wrote there ? democritus answered concerning madness ; and being further asked , what he wrote of madness ? said , what else , than what it is , and how generated , and how allayed in the bodies of men ? for , these animals , which you see here , that i open for this purpose , is not because i hate the works of god , but search out the nature and seat of the bile : for , you know , this is the cause of mens madness , &c. which being understood , saith hippocrates , democritus in truth , i call god to witness , you speak truly , and wisely : and he , returning to the abderitans , who waited for him at some distance , commended democritus , and accused themselves of madness . i wish hippocrates , the great prince of physitians , might rise from the dead , he would not blame those less , which deride me for my more diligent search of the pancreatick juyce , than them which judged democritus to be mad , for his exquisite enquiry into the bile : seeing that he thought them to be taught of god , which did not only study about heat , cold , dryness , and moisture , but about their causes : for , it is not heat ( saith he ) lib. de vet. med. text xxvi . xii . which hath great force , but sharpness , and fluidity , and other things by me related . and he saith before text xxiv . xx. because there is in man both bitter , salt , sweet , acid , sharp , and fluid , and infinite others , having all manner of faculties , both of plenty , and strength . from whence he commonly calls those faculties , and powers he affirms salt , bitterness , and acidity , with other things of the like acrimony , to be commonly the causes of all distempers , as appears lib. cap. text xxv . from which it is as evident , as the sun at noon-day , that hippocrates , if he were alive , would judge our dissections , and searchings , about salts , acids , and other faculties , sometimes abounding in the pancreatick juyce , to be highly necessary . in regard hippocrates , and other of the antients , who were famous in their time , were altogether ignorant of the pancreatick juyce ; neither did they understand the whole depth of nature ; it is not to be imputed to them as a fault : but on the contrary , those famous , and chiefest guides of wisdome , and inciters of wits , are to be commended ; because they broke the ice for us ; and ( as it is said ) those things which we read , were rightly invented , and observed by them , are to be candidly embraced ; and those things , which we really know to be false , and erronious , i judge they ought to be corrected with such modesty , as we desire those things , which we now write , should be corrected with . if we consider a thousand years yet to come , something may be found out , which will correct , and amend our writings , by the unwearyed searchers of nature ; for arts admit of a daily improvement , especially in this age of ours , in which the yoke of authority being shook off , we may bring to the test those things which our reason and sense doth afford us ; for , the enquirers into things natural ought not to distrust themselves , or so doubtfully to follow the steps of their ancestors , as at any time , when they shall discover novelties , be afraid to publish them . — non omnia grandior aetas nos aeque scimus habet , seris venit usus ab annis . antient times not all things knew : for , practiss sprang from years more new . and as much as pertains to this treatise , of ours , which hath been so illustrated with daily experience , new observations , and reasons , that they who first made a question of the truth of our hypothesis , would be on our side ; or at least confess , till now , never any systeme was found out , in which fewer , or lesser difficulties are , than this of ours , if they will but examine our dictates without prejudice , and envy . first of all , let the reader be perswaded in himself , that our pancreatick juyce is no fictions , but a real humour of our bodies ; and such a one indeed as after its own separation from the blood , and propulsion , to the intestines , is in a short time after , again permixed with the blood , seeing that all liquid things , being carryed by the passage of the guts , do easily ascend ( by the venae lacteae ) the first * treasury of the living , and the last of the dead . which being granted , he may further consider it was not ( by the almighty god ) ordained in vain , but for a common use to the body ; and so all men will be easily perswaded , that as often as the pancreatick juyce is rightly constituted , its use doth naturally happen : and likewise when it happens preternaturally , then it is vitious , and preternatural : seeing it is so , and my whole treatise consists in the preserving a good order of the pancreatick juyce , and amending it when vitiated , and helping distempers from thence arising , we hope it will be very acceptable , and profitable to practitioners : for , let this be its whole designe , to give a helping hand to all who profess physick , that they may sooner , safer , and more delightfully help the calamities , and miseries of the sick : and if i unhappily miss my aim , you may commend my designe , and modestly correct those things in which the weakness of my genious doth mistake : and if any one please to inform me better , i will allow him to convince me of my errour , and not to accuse me of obstinacy , seeing that i am not moved by ambition , but only desirous of finding out truth , offer up these my studies unto you . to the right worshipful s r. christopher pack , k t. the translator dedicates these his endeavours . honoured sir , cvjusque ingenium non statim emerget , nisi materiae , fautor , occasio commendatorque contingat , ( saith the learned pliny ) the work and ingenuity of every person doth not constantly prosper well , unless the matter or occasion be remarkable , or some worthy patron happen to favour it . as for the matter , it hath already commended it self to the world , and crowned the learned author thereof ( throughout the european division ) with an honourable acceptation , and estimation , both in respect of the invention , and doctrinal performances . but in regard that i have assayed to make it more universally intelligible , and beneficial to english men , by putting it into our own native idiome , i conceive i ought to present my undertaking to the patronage of some worthy person ; under the protection of whose name , it may have the freer passage through the world. to which end i have thought no person fitter than your worthy self , both in respect of your profound judgment , and favour to all things that may advance a publick good. neither could i do less , if the bonds of gratitude be any obligations to the minds of men , seeing ( that next to my parents ) i stand more highly engaged to your worship , than to any other person living ; which hath been a great motive and inducement to this presumption , which i hope your candour will pass by , and candidly accept this mite from him who at the present , is not capable of a better retaliation of your many favours , than the humble offer of this translation : the which , having been brought forth in your name , i knew not how it might better live than in your family ; the kind aspect of which , will not be only amicable to it , but also honourable to him that is , sir , an honourer of your self , and progeny . christopher pack . the translator to the reader . candid reader . i having often viewed this treatise of the most ingenious d. regnerus de graaf , and many times also heard it wished for in english , at length resolved to translate it for their sakes to whom the original was not communicable , in regard of their nescience of the language , though otherwise competently ingenious and intelligent . the which i am well satisfied will prove servicable ( and i hope also acceptable to them ) in three respects . first , that it will be of great vtillity , for the more compleat understanding the works of the learned franciscus sylvius de le boe that late renowned professor of physick in the vniversity of leyden , the first part of whose praxis is already in english ; for in regard that he urgeth the pancreatick juice to be an agent of fermentation and concoction of the chyle , and so consequently a constitutive part of the blood , and authour of many grievous diseases , and enormities of the body . it necessarily follows . that the certainty of this juyce ought to be known ; that is , that it be a real juyce , or humour in all mens bodies , and not a thing only immaginary or uncertain , which this author hath evidently demonstrated . . the way and manner of collecting it , by sensible experiment ( the surest of guides ) to convince those who oppugne , and resolve the doubting , which he hath largely shewn . . because the anatomical disquisition of the pancreas , and its juyce , is omitted by sylvius , in the first part of his praxis , as not pertinent to his present scope , which omission this book supplies , and to which the said sylvius , in a manner , refers his readers : so that he which deliberately reads this book , will be thereby highly inducted to the vnderstanding of the doctrines and notions of the most learned sylvius , concerning the pancreatick juyce , throughout his whole writings , as they relate to diverse diseases , and affections of the body of man. the second commodity i shall propound is , that this book doth most indubitably contain the certain causes of all agues , or intermitting feavers , with their true and effectual rules of curation . it is a wonder to see the many books which have been written concerning agues , and feavers , ( perhaps as many as there are old womens medicines for the cure thereof ) and the great diversity of opinions concerning their causes and differences ; so that , for a man exercised with a tedious ague , to call a councel of physitians to his assistance , usually received no more relief , than a criminal person doth by the verdict of a jury , which delivers him from prison , either to death , or banishment . which hath formerly enrolled this disease in the catalogue of those which were wont to be termed opprobrium medicorum , the reproach of physitians . neither , in my judgment , is it greatly to be wondered at , that physitians were wont to have no better success in the cure of this disease , seeing they were involved in so many vncertainties about the seat , and cause thereof ; some assigning the seat to be in the blood in general , others in some perticular parts of the vessels , where the blood happened to be stagnant ; others in the meseraick veines ; others in the guts , and perticularly in the colon , and several other conceits , as if they went about to gain the knowledge of the true seat , arithmetically , by the rule of false position . then again , as to the causes , and reasons of differences , whilst they ascribed them to the four humours , viz. blood , choler , phlegme , and melancholy , and their different degrees of mistion , and putre-faction , they ran upon such rocks as constantly ship-wracked the barks of their opinions : for , still , as they endeavoured to solve one difficulty that would arise , they caused the rise of another . but this author's hypothesis , being so free from all intricacies , and difficulties , renders it agreeable to truth . i have yet further to say in the behalf of its certainty , that is the consequence of curation ; which , although every single cure of a disease doth not indeed declare the administrator of the medicine , to have a certain intelligence of the cause of the disease ; yet , when a distemper shall be certainly cured , at divers times , in different persons , and with different medicaments ; alwayes from the notions , doctrines , and considerations of the same cause , that surely is a certain argument that the cause is known . and this i my self have oft-times done even to admiration , by removing ague-fits in a few dayes space , and never yet failing of the cure of any kind of ague , whether quotidian , tertian , or quartan , with their compounds ; and am yet ( by god's blessing ) ready , at any time , to undertake the cure of the worst ague-fits that are ; which aquisition , i acknowledge , i owe to this author : i am able also , to perform the same in those deplorable fits , commonly called , the fits of the mother . i have instanced this not out of boasting , but to shew the certainty , and excellency of the doctrine of the pancreatick juyce , and to excite the reader to a serious contemplation , and observation thereof . there is yet a third vtillity of this book , which is , that it refutes several errours in physick , and anatomy ; many of which , in times past , have been received for certain truths , and some of them perhaps yet remaining ; the principle whereof relate to the pancreas , or sweet-bread , and to the nervous juyce ; concerning which , i shall say no more , but commit you to the things themselves , as they shall occur by reading . i have nothing more to say , but to beg the readers kind acceptance ; and withall to mind him of the difficulty of things of this nature , ( especially when an author writes in such a style as de graaf hath done ) that if he meet with any errours committed by me , i hope he will the more easily pass them by , as not being intentional , and i presume not essentiall . if i find this be kindly accepted , it will encourage me to serve my country with some-what of my own , more at large . i do expect to be censured , and snarled at by some ( for as erasmus saith , nihil morosius hominum judiciis ) there is nothing more peevish than mens judgments , i shall easily dispense with it , being of a peacable spirit : and as i have professed to do this for a publick good , so i also declare , that i have been void of prejudice therein , to all mens persons , and interests ; being only desirous of the propogagation of all laudable science , whilest i am christ . pack . from my house , at the signe of the globe , and chymical-furnaces , in the postern , near moor-gate , feb. d . / . an index of the chapters . chap. i. an exact description of the pancreas , or sweet-bread ; before which , some things are put concerning the necessity of anatomy , and its increase . chap. ii. the opinions of divers authors concerning the use of the pancreas , examined . chap. iii. how , or in what manner the pancreatick juyce is found . chap. iv. the qualities of the pancreatick juyce are described , in a plain division of the glandules of the whole body , is shewed , that the pancreatick juyce is not excrementious ; in like manner , how it is generated . chap. v. the liquor of the glandules is demonstrated to be necessary , and that the pancreatick juyce doth ferment with the bile . chap. vi. what that fermentation is in the sound , and in the sick , and what benefit accrews to the body thereby . chap. vii . the diseases by which the substance of the pancreas , and its juyce may be molested . chap. viii . the functions which are vitiated by the pancreas , or its ill disposed juyce . chap. ix . the diseases arising from the vitiation of the pancreatick juyce . chap. x. how the vitiated pancreatick juyce may be corrected . chap. xi . a discourse of intermitting feavers . errata sic corrigenda . page line read months . p. l. r pancreas . l. ultim r. aliment . p. l. r. into the ductus . p. l. r. but not except the spirits were dissipated . p. l. r. faculties . p. l. r. imbibe . p. l. r. strictly . l. r. preternatural . p. l. r. in the temples . p. l. r. plethora . p. . l. r. intermitions . p. l. r ventricle . p l r abounds p. l for thirty r thirteen p l r phlegm . p l r though p l r attent p l r acrimony . a physical and anatomical treatise of the nature and office of the pancreatick juyce . regnerus de graaf , concerning the pancreatick juyce . chap. i. a description of the pancreas , before which some things are put concerning the necessity of anatomy , and its increase . it was never made a question , ( unless perhaps by such through whose ignorance true physick is disgraced ; or that cannot distinguish the true science of physick from the emperical curing of diseases ( that anatomy is very useful and necessary , as well for all physitians as chyrurgians ; and that real physick without it's knowledge cannot stand , or be in force ; which is wont to be called dogmatical and rational . seeing it is so , their ingenuity and study deserves praise , who endeavour to arrive to a greater degree of perfection in the knowledge of anatomy , by making a narrow search into the secrets of nature , and communicating those things which they have found out to others . and amongst those who have given themselves up to this work ; neither frighted with it's difficulties , have had laudible success therein : gaspar ase●ius the anatomist , comes not far behind , who , when he had met with the venae lacteae , in the year . in a dog which he undertook to open alive , he wholly gave himself to the further discovery thereof ; so that no week passed without one or other dissection ; not only of dogs , but other living creatures also , as cats , lambs , hogs , cows , and also horses , as you may see in that book of his published after his death . but dying young , he could not make a further progress in many other things , tending to this business exactly to explain them , and communicate them to the learned world : concerning their site and office , many controversies , and disputes have arisen amongst anatomists ; for they who immagined that all the chyle ascended by the meseraick veins ( in order to it's sanguification by the liver ) did stiffly affirm , that these milky vessels went to the liver ; but others described their course another way . and this matter remained in doubt until the year . that the ductus thoracicus was found out by that most ingenious anatomist , john pequet , a french-man , to which it is evident to all men , the vessels discovered by asellius do tend , and there lay down the humour , or matter by them contained . and that we may not only speak of trifles , we cannot pass by with silence the famous invention of the bloods circulation by the incomparable william harvey , chief physitian to the king of england , discovered in the year . which although at the first found many opposers , ( to whom it seemed strange , that they being old , should lay aside their old doctrines , and be taught anew what younger men did most certainly affirm ) nevertheless , this pillar of truth remained unshaken against the most furious assaults , and that so stedfastly , that not long after many learned men were found , who considering the solid sayings of the ancients , after this new invention was found out , that it might be explained after a far better , and easier manner ; plainly made it appear by the wrightings of hyppocrates , that he understood this circular motion of the blood , to whom they judge there were nothing in the art of physick lay hid . yea , the matter is come so far , that you shall scarcely find any physician of note , who doubts of the bloods circulation . so it requires some time to disperse the mists of mens contradicting any good , and new inventions . many famous men both in judgment and practise , were stired up by the examples of worthy and excellent anatomists , by whose diligence about the same time , viz. . and . in divers countries it was discovered by olaus rudbechius , a swede , and thomas bartholinus , a dane , both famous in anatomy ; that the lymphatick vessels were distributed through the whole body . also the ductus's were observed in , or about the year . ( by thomas wharton an english man ) tending from the lower maxillary glandule by a straight passage to the nipples ; which are found also at the fleshly ligature of the tongue , near the teeth : through which seeing the salival humidity continually floweth to the mouth for the moistning thereof , they are called salivales , and also inferiores : to distinguish them from the superiour salival ducts , which running from the upper maxillary glandules , by a direct passage about the cheek-muscle to the former part of the mouth by the region of the upper eye-teeth , lay down their spittle . which invention we owe to nicholas stenonis a dane , who discovered them in the year . in his little book for publick good . also by his industry were found out many other vessels passing into the nostrils and mouth . we following his example , some years since have observed , that the glaudulous part of the jaw being prest , a thick and viscous humour came forth by the general opening of the pores ; from which time we thought that that viscous matter which appears by spitting , or other compression of the jaws , did in an especial manner proceed from those duct : jo. george wirsungus of bavaria , is not silently to be passed by ( who can all to mind all inventions ) who was very excellent in the study of anatomy ; in the year . at padua , first found out the ductus pancreaticus , which for the general good of physicians , he caused to be engraven in copper , from whom we might have expected more , had he not been wickedly pistol'd by envious persons in his own house . seeing therefore this famous man could not so successively find out the use of this duct by his own study , others , that they might be serviceable to the physical republick , persisted in the fame labour , and with so much the more earnestness , in regard daily , there were more sharp disputes concerning it's true office , and that especially in the university of leyden in holland ; the most famous and indesatigable franciscus de le boe sylvius leading the way ; who when he had understood the various experiments which we had successfully made , by the dissecting of divers kinds of animals , very often , as well in private as in publick , advised us , that we would commit to writing these things which we had observed worthy of note concerning this matter . we distrusting our own industry , ( and considering that there are found some ( gluttons of books , as they may be termed ) who being stimulated with the desire of vain glory , spare not to assault all with their scribling pen , and scurrilous language ; ) were almost afraid to enter upon this work . yet consisidering that for the publick good , any thing was to be born with a couragious mind ; we at last put a helping hand to this labour , and withal , have polisht our endeavours , which so took with this worthy man , that he more urged their publication than before ; as certain that we should have the favour of all learned men , for doing a thing of so great moment to the publick good : and often said , that we should not fear to publish these things which are clearly demonstrated to our eyes . we being perswaded by the council of him , and other learned men , thought it worthy our labour , the description of the part being prefixt ; afterwards the judgments , and opinions of others being explained , concerning this juice , as we find it in every respect , to make it plain to all , and after to find out its true use . the lower part of the belly being opened , & the intestines , with the venticle removed , the pancreas or sweet-bread presently appears ; concerning which , as we shall find occasion to speak more , in the following pages , we will spend a little time in the exact delineation thereof the word pancreas is compounded of 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 and 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , as if they would say that this viscous part were all flesh , which apellation , notwithstanding is no way fit ; but may be used as mony to pass from one to another asellius and some others of his followers , particularly noting the middle-most glandule of the mesentery , gave the first occasion of understanding all its parts , by one and the same name . the substanee of the pancreas ( or sweet-bread , if you except its membranes and vessels ) , is wholly glandulous ; made up of many small glandules ; all which have so great a hardness , and strength , that being separated from each other do still retain their proper form ; and being put together , by reason of their loose joyning , make a soft body : so that , not without reason , they have called the pancreas a loose and soft glandule . moreover , each glandules , constituting the pancreas , have their propper membranes ; and all being joyned together , are encompassed about with a coat of sufficient strength arising from the peritonaeum ; by the benefit of which , they are strongly kept , with their little vessels , in their own place . it s scituation , in a man , is under the hindmost part , of the ventricle , about the uppermost vertebra of the loynes , where it is firmly connected to the peritonaeum . and it is extended from the cavity of the liver , viz. from the entrance of the venaporta , to the region of the spleen ; by which means it is transversly scituated , and not exactly in the middle of the body ; seing that the greatest part thereof , is placed in the left hypocondrium . if you consider its colour , it is pale , being altogether glandulous ; for the blood gives little or no colour to the pancreas . it s figure is oblong , and broader , and thicker , towards the intestinum duodenum , and towards the spleen narrower and thinner ; nevertheless it is differently constituted in diverse animals ; for in dogs ; cats , apes , ottars , and others of the like nature , it is bipartite : so that one part ascendeth towards the stomach , and the other descendeth by the membrane of the mesenterium , ( according to the passage of the intestine ) to the which , it is on every side firmly knit . in fishes and fowls , for the most part it is long and single . the magnitude of the pancreas in healthful bodies is small , and compared with the other bowels , comes short of most , yet in men of full growth , considered with the other glandules it exceeds them all . it 's longitude is usually eight or ten fingers breadth , which it seldom exceeds in men of perfect health . it 's latitude is ordinarily two fingers broad , or two and a half . it 's thickness , for as much as we could observe in dead bodies by us dissected , is a fingers breadth . finally , the weight is various , according to the diverse magnitude of the animal in which it exists : we have with the most curious vvharton , often observed it in men to be four or five ounces , and in horses about eleven . the vessels of the pancreas , by the most accurate searchers of nature , are referred only to four kinds , viz. arteries , veins , nerves , and it 's own proper ductus . the arteries borrow their original from the caeliaca , the veins from the ramus splenicus ; the nerves from the sixth pair of nerves , and the ductus pancreaticus seems to be derived from the parenchyma of the pancreas . for as much as each glandules constituting the pancreas , send forth small vessels , which meeting in the middle thereof , make up this large ductus . this vessel which hath been before exposed to curious eyes , in all appearance is membranous ; and although it be small , nevertheless it is sufficiently strong . it 's bigness near the intestinum duodenum , is about the quantity of a small sized quill , called a pinion ; but in it's progress towards the greater lateral branches , and also to the lesser , running to all the glandules of the pancreas , it is divided , and gradually lessened ; wherefore by how much the more it approacheth the spleen , by so much it is the less , and sends forth smaller branches this ductus , or passage for the most part , is wont in men to shew it's greatest branch in the lower part thereof , next to the intestinum duodenum , which hath more little branches than any other proceeding from the great ductus , as appears by the following table . the explication of the first table . aaa . the ductus , or trunck , of the new vessel stretched forth according to the longitude of the pancreas . bbb . the lateral ducts , or small branches , arising on each side from the great trunk , and dispersed into the substance of the pancreas . c. the conjunction of the new vessel with the ductus biliarius , or choler-passage . dd. the cholar-passage freed from the pancreas , by which it is hid . e. the common ductus of the pancreas and cholar-passage , ending in the intestinum duodenum , about four fingers breadth under the pylorus . fff . the inner part of the pancreas , admitting the lateral branches . g. part of the pancreas separated from the ductus biliarius , which it did cover . hh . the inferiour part of the ventricle drawn upwards . i. the pylorus . k. the first of the small gutts , which is called the duodenum . l. part of the duodenum lying under the mesenterium . mm. part of the same duodenum rising again in the left hypocondrium . nn. the mesenterium freed from the gutts . tab. i. o. the meseraick vein . p. the meseraick arterie . q. the ductus cysticus . r. the ductus hepaticus . s. the intestinum duodenum opened . we think it to be worth our while to examine that in many and different animals , which belongs to the insertion of the ductus pancreaticus ; seeing that nature oftentimes in one is more depressed and obscure , in another , more clearly manifested ; so that none can truly determine concerning the use , and office of any part , which hath not diligently examined the fabrick , and scituation , the vessels annexed , and other accidents in divers animals . for which cause , we will briefly insert below the differences , which we have observed in several kinds of living creatures ; as well that which belongs to the ductus , as that which pertains to it's insertion , that all may be able the better to judge of it's use . there are some animals which have only one single pancreatick duct . others there are which have it double , and lastly , some have three , when the ductus is single ; sometimes it enters with the ductus biliarius into the intestinum duodenum , and sometimes a part . when the ductus is duplicate , sometimes one , sometimes both meet together with the ductus biliarius in the intestine . but when the ductus is threefold , sometimes one only , sometimes two , and sometimes all three enter into the intestine by the same passage , and also therein lay down a contained humour . and if you consider the place of insertion , it very much differs in divers living creatures ; for some are found in which the ducts do disburden themselves into the intestines , and also others in which they are discharged into the ventricle . the single ductus for the most part is found in man , calves , hogs , hares , conies , cats , dogs , pikes , carps , eells , barbils , &c. as we have formerly asserted ; for in men and dogs we find it sometimes double , yet so as the second is less than the former , viz. then that which passeth into the duodenum with the ductus biliarius . as often as these two ducts happen in the animals but now cited , for the most part they are conjoyned in the pancreas ; so that the one being blown up , the other will swell ; yet we find them so constituted in man , that they are not joyned together , although both be extended to the extremity of the pancreas almost in the same longitude and magnitude . a twofold ductus is commonly found in pheasants , peacocks , geese , ducks , and other animals , especially of the number of fowls . the threefold ductus , for the most part is in cocks , hens , pigeons and magpyes , &c. when the ductus pancreaticus is single , it is commonly joyned with the ductus biliarius about it's insertion into the intestinum , duodenum , in men and fishes , as we have above declared ; as also in cats , in which once we found by the side of the gall-bladder , another little whitish vessel towards which the pancreas in an extraordinary manner extending it self , which being lightly compressed , there flowed a certain matter into the ductus pancreaticus , like to the juyce thereof , both in colour and substance : but the bile in the same cat retained both it's natural substance and colour , so that nothing seem'd to be changed which related to it's natural constitution . the ductus pancreaticus , and the ductus biliarius are not joyned together , but enter the intestine in divers places in hogs , calves , conies , and hares , &c. when the ductus pancreaticus is twofold , or threefold , sometimes only one of them is joyned with the ductus biliarius , as is evident in pyes , and some other birds , sometimes two , as appears in peacocks , geese , ducks , pheasants ; and pigeons , in which now and then only one is joyned to the ductus biliarius : sometimes all three being joyned therewith do pass into the intestine , as we have sometimes observed in hens ▪ seeing we have already sufficiently spoken of it's insertion into the intestine , it also remains for us to speak something concerning the place of insertion , as more nearly appertaining to our business . the pancreatick juyce doth immediately discharge it self into the stomach in barbils and carps ; but in other creatures ( for as much as we have observed ) it dischargeth it self into the intestines , and that in divers places ; for in men it is performed about four fingers breadth , under the pylorus , and in birds about eight fingers breadth , but in hares and conies , the breadth of fifteen or sixteen fingers below the pylorus . here we would diligently note , that as often as we name the ductus biliarius , we always thereby understand the cysticus and hepaticus ; because these two are always joyned together about the end , only in pigeons excepted , which want the gall-bladder , and furthermore , are said to have no gall ; nevertheless , they have usually a threefold ductus biliarius , one of which enters immediately under the pylorus , the other two make their entrance into the intestine at a lower distance . where those ducts enter the intestines or the ventricle , the inner tunicle of that part buncheth out , being wrinckled like a navel ; for which cause it more difficultly admits the stile then the ductus biliarius , which is broader and not so lax . there is no value found throughout the ductus pancreaticus , nor in it's insertion to the ductus biliarius , as is rashly and falsly affirmed by some . and these few observations may be sufficient as concerning the systeme of the pancreas ; and no man ought to think , who hath observed so great a variety in it , and so many notable sports of nature about it , that the pancreas is slightly made ; for the liver , the spleen , and several other entrails of animals , also highly necessary , being different in themselves are found out by such , who diligently apply themselves to the dissecting of sundry living creatures ; neither will they easily say it is unprofitable , who have observed it to be found in all kinds of animals . chap. ii. the opinions of sundry authors concerning the office and use of the pancreas examined . as concerning the use of the pancreas , it was not so much accounted of in former dayes as now it is ; for hyppocrates , the reverend light and deity of some physicians gave the pancreas no name , concerning which now a dayes , so many opinions are seen in authors : for some think it only to serve as a pillow placed underneath the ventricle , or stomach , and for the distribution of the vessels . others that it received the chyle from the intestines : others imagined that it purged the excrement of the chyle : others that it were as the bilarvesicle of the spleen : others , that the thicker and more unapt purgations of the blood , were purged into it by the ordinary course of nature : others , that this part was made for the reception of the excrement of the nerves . finally , others have publickly taught , that the humour in the pancreas was not only useful , but highly necessary to be understood . the first opinion may be ascribed to the ancients , that this part is as a pillow under the stomach , and serveth to distribute the veins and arteries ; as vesalius , the most ingenious anatomist of his time sufficiently affirmes , who broke forth into these words about the fabrick of mans body , lib. . cap. . de omento . this body in man ( speaking of the pancreas ) is more white than red , every where attended by the branches of the vena porta , arteries and nerves , that their complications may be the more firm , being only supported by the lower membrane of the omentum ; that it may be placed under the stomach like a prop , or pillow . but this opinion is no way probable ; seeing then the pancreas in birds , fishes , and many other living creatures , in which it is otherwise scituate then in men would be useless ; because in those it is in no wise found to be so placed under the ventricle , neither doth it admit a passage to the vessels , unless in a very few . but because the ancients never had a true knowledge of the glandules , we must not blame them for not delivering to us the true use of the pancreas . the second opinion is attributed to baccius and folius , both which sharply maintained , that the chylus passeth from the intestines to the liver and spleen , through the ductus pancreaticus : the contrary of which is as clear as the meridian sun : seeing that nothing is received from the gutts into this ductus , but only the juyce sent forth by it self to the intestines . the third opinion is ascribed to johan . veslingius ; because in his systeme of anatomy , chap. . he thus speaketh of the pancreas : the use of this ductus is not obscure , for seeing it hath acertain juyce not much unlike to the bile , it is manifest that such an excrement is separated from the chylus by a further concoction , and being conveyed into this vessel , is thence emitted into the duodenum . asellius , riolanus and others favour this opinion ; but experience contradicts it , and manifestly sheweth , that the humour contained in the pancreas is never really in it self bitter , and therefore in no wise to be compared with the bile . if at any time it happens that the probe being put into this ductus be yellow , every one will easily believe , that this is not occasioned by the humour contained in the pancreas , but from the bile , as well flowing from the ductus cysticus , as the hepaticus immediately into the intestine ; especially if he consider that the stylus is spotted by the bile , before it passeth from the intestine to the ductus pancreaticus ; and again , that it passeth through the bile whilst it is drawn out : for the ductus pancreaticus , and the ductus biliarius in men perforate the intestine in the same place . and although the most famous d. van. horne , in a bilious diarhaea saw that vessel full of choler , we say it was preternatural , in as much as the bile , which copiously adhered to the end of the ductus ( as is wont to happen in a diarhaea ) was thrown into the cavity thereof , by the agitation of that dead body : also that the excrement of the further elaboration or concoction of the chylus , is not sent into this passage , is manifest , in regard the same is witnessed by occular inspection . in some animals , that glandulous body doth not at all touch the milky vessels ; and in others it only passeth over , and in no wise enters their substance ; as also because they are easily separated from the pancreas , without the effusion of any chyle , as we have formerly demonstrated in dogs , cats , and other animals . therefore we do not see upon what ground they might maintain the further concoction of the chylus to be celebrated in it , unless they following the opinion of asellius , would take this glandulous body for the middle glandule of the mefentery , into which the venae lacteae are altogether immersed . the fourth opinion is of bartholinus , as is manifestly apparent from his anatomy chap. . de pancreate ; where he thinks the bile to be purged naturally by its ductus , and will have it to be the bilar-vesicle or gall-bladder of the spleen ; so that the same use which the other affords to the liver , he believes that this affords to the spleen : which opinion ( by the leave of so great a man ) anatomy in our judgment seems to confute : seeing the ductus pancreaticus passeth not to the spleen ; neither are there any other vessels , which do convey any thing from the spleen to it : for , there are found only two kinds of vessels , which carry any thing back from the spleen , viz. the veines and lymphatick vessels : but the veines carry back the blood to the liver , and the complication of the lymphaticks carrying from the spleen , do not in like manner go to the pancreas , but to the great receptacle of the chyle ; so that nothing can be discharged out of the spleen to the pancreas , as our tryal in france hath sufficiently manifested , for their sakes , who judging this to be the best opinion of most authors , rejected ours . we tyed a dog upon a table , as is demonstrated by the first figure of the third table ; and when we had made a little hole in the left hypocondrium , with our two fore-fingers we pull'd out the spleen , whose bloody vessels we tyed with two or three several ligatures , and afterwards we cut the same in sunder between the spleen and the bonds ; and when we had quite taken away the spleen , we drew together the lips of the wound with small threds in three or four several places , whereby this dog , in ashort time , being well cured , was returned to us , ( at which we did not at all wonder , because we once had a bitch , which brought forth three or four puppies after the extirpation of her spleen ) ; and two mouths after the loss of the spleen in the same dog , we collected a notable quantity of the pancreatick juice , which the professors of andegave , the doctors of vtrecht , d. haverloo , and d. de maets , judged to be acidly salt : which being true , none as we think free from prejudice , will maintain that the succus pancreaticus proceeds from the spleen . also , it is worthy to be noted , that those dogs did no less greedily desire , or better digest , their food after the extirpation of the spleen , than before ; from whence we , receding from the common opinion , judge that no fermentitious matter or humour is sent from the spleen to the stomach . the fifth opinion is attributed to the most famous lindanus , seeing that in his medic-physiol . c. . art. . pag. . he saith , when i consider what appertains to the vse , besides the structure of the pancreas ; how many diseases practise takes notiee of in it , i cannot doubt but that the thicker , and more useless purgations of the blood , are thrown out into it , by the ordinary law of nature ; so as they may be corrected by the spleen : and also by an extraordinary : all the melancholy which either an intemperate diet , or disease hath bred . the ductus it self gives us cause to believe , that they are both carryed to the intestines ; and curation teacheth the same by the medicines often required . and this opinion seems also to us to be contrary to the truth , seeing that the pancreatick juice , as often as it hath been truly collected by us , alwayes appeared limpid like wine . but what we shall say concerning the excrementitious humour , will sufficiently appear by the following article , and also by those things which shall be spoken of presently after . the sixth opinion is manifest enough from wharton's treatise of the glandules , chap. xiii . whilst he writes . therefore i think that this glandule ( as likewise all others ) do minister to the nerves , and that it receives some of the superfluities of the nerves , of the sixth paire , with the little branches of the spinal marrow , in the greater folding of the vnitings ; and by its own proper vessel carries it to the intestines . but seeing that the nerves are designed to carry animal spirits , we do not understand upon what ground the industrious anatomist will hold , that the excrementitious humour is carryed through them , and wherefore he will affirm that it is rather carryed into the pancreas than into the spleen , or other parts of the body , to which nerves of the same original do belong . truly the pancreas is too far from the brain to receive its excrement ; moreover , the nerves abhor all acrimony , so as to receive any sharper juice : for which cause , we judge this opinion to stand upon too slight a foundation to be admitted for truth ; and so much the less , seeing we could never perceive any cavity or liquour in the nerves , notwithstanding all the diligence we could use to this purpose , the most accurate microscopes have been of no use to us , for the discovery of the least pores in them : we do not here speak of the distances which are like pores , seen between the small conveyances of the nerves ; but of the cavity it self , of the little pipes , by which these excrements ought to pass . furthermore , it is proved by ligatures that no remarkable quantity of humour is carryed by the nerves , in which there is not the least swelling , of either side the ligature which we have obser-served , nor yet by any other that we read of . that which chyrurgions cry out of the dropping of the nerves , we rather ascribe to the hurt of the lymphatick vessels , being nigh to the nerves , than the hurt of the nerves themselves ; for which reason , that we might have a more certain information , we have sometimes in dogs , laid bare that notable nerve in the hinder-most part of the legs , and cut it cross through the middle , and have put it into a vial , being freed from the lymphatick vessels ( as we use to do in collecting of the pancreatick juice ) , the neck of which was so straightned for this purpose , as that the nerves being cut asunder , the orifice might be well closed by its thickness , that spirits , or whatsoever subtile matter passeth through the nerves , might not vanish into the aire . we fixed this vial to the skin with the nerve hanging down into its hollowness , hoping that if any liquor did pass through the nerves , we should by that means attain it , but in vain : for , in the space of four or five hours , we got not the least drop ; nor did we observe that the animal spirits did adhere by condensation to the sides of the glass . such birds are to be catcht with more subtile nets ; which after they are taken , we will prepare to break-fast withal . seeing therefore little or no visible matter is carried through the nerves , we pray the propugners of this opinion to tell us , why nature in the pancreas ( as they will have it ) hath only formed a ductus to receive the excrements of the nerves , which sometimes exceed in magnitude the recurrent nerves themselves , whose small branches often touch the pancreas . what appertains to the word excrement , whereby they point out our juice , we think it not convenient for it , if they understand whatsoever is separated from the blood , whether good or evil ; but it is in no respect agreeable to the pancreatick juice , if by the word excrement they understand whatsoever is carryed from the blood to be unprofitable , for reasons hereafter to be declared . the seventh opinion is assigned to the most famous franciscus de la boe-sylvius ; who thinks nothing is carryed from the intestines to the pancreas , by this ductus ; nor any secret unprofitable excrement by the same to the intestines ; but a commendable humour prepared therein of blood , and animal spirits ; and so conveyed to the intestine , and permixed with the alement . and in regard he knew that nothing was carryed to the intestines , but what was first swallowed into the stomach , and by that driven out again through the pilorus , or is sent through the bilar , or pancreatick ductus ; and he moreover considering , not only in intermitting feavours , that the sick were alwayes troubled with various pains in their loynes , by cold , heat , yawnings , reachings , and vomitings , as well of insipid phlegm , and sometimes acid , as of choler ; sometimes bitter , sometimes acid and bitter , &c. but also in other diseases proceeding from hence to the hypocondriack affection . as for example , in the scurvey , the disease called the suffocation of the womb , the chollerico passio , pains of the belly , and consequently from hence in the ulcerated mouths , or thrushes of children , &c. belchings , and acid humours do arise , he concluded ( although he never saw the pancreatick juice , as he ingenuously confesseth , thes . . of the use of the spleen and glandules ) that the pancreatick juice , in its own nature was subacid , in an especial manner tempered by the animal spirits . for , he judged that the bile which is bitter and contrary to acidity , could not be the cause of an acid humour ; and therefore he determines that spittle , alwayes insipid in sound men ; and oftentimes so acid , and remarkably sharp in the sick , came not from the pancreatick juice . and because we heard that most learned man often teaching these and the like things , and did see the same confirm'd by a happy practise in the hospital ; his opinion so pleased us , that we never frequented his meetings , whether publick or private , without great satisfaction of mind ; in which , being excited to find out the further truth of the matter , by the same worthy person and his disciples , we have undertook the work ; and although we could not once despair of a happy success ; in process of time , god favouring our enterprize and desires , in the year . found out the way of collecting the pancreatick juice ; which , by way of history , as it shall conveniently occur in the work , we will set down : in which our thoughts shipwrackt themselves from those scruples , by which they may be precautioned , who will follow our foot-steps to examine it . chap. iii. in what manner the pancreatick juice was found out . the first experiment by which we undertook to collect the pancreatick juice in a living dog , was a ligature with which we tied the upper-part of the pancreas , together with the thin gut ; for , by that means , we hoped that after some hours we should have found the pancreatick duct swell'd with juice , but in vain : which seemed to our judgment to happen by reason that the motion of the blood being hindered to the pancreas , the separation of the juice from it was prevented also . the second experiment was also by a ligature made about the insertion of the ductus into the intestinum duodenum , but also in vain . the reason perhaps was the glandules of the pancreas being hurt , by whose ductus all the pancreatick juice might the more easilier have flown out , by reason that neither in the great ductus nor in the lateral branches is there any values found . the third experiment was by two boards or planks , higher in the middle , than at the ends , applyed and straightly bound to the duodenum , at the ingress of the pancreatick ductus ; from whence , after some hours , the abdomen being opened again , which before had been lightly stitched up , we found the pancreatick ductus swelled with a clear and limpid juice ; nevertheless , we could not conveniently either take it out , or tast it . by which success we being animated the more , resolved a fourth tryal , by opening the intestinum duodenum , according to the longitude thereof ; and presently applying a little vessel to the orifice of the ductus pancreaticus , as the first figure of the following table a. demonstrates ; afterwards by straightly tying the said intestine about the neck of the vessel : so that its orifice was diametrically opposite to the end of the ductus pancreaticus , not doubting but by this means we should gather a rare quantity of the pancreatick juice ; but this also in vain : without doubt , because the air included within the vessel , denyed entrance to the pancreatick juice , lightly touching it . therefore we resolved to try a fifth experiment , with a little vessel smally perforated , as the first figure of the second table shews under the letter b. by which advantage , in the space of five hours , we collected so great a quantity of liquor , that the vessel was almost half full ; whose contained liquor was of a bitter relish , and of a yellowish colour ; which we judged to happen , because the bile , ( by reason the intestine was not first cleansed ) was intermixed with the succus pancreaticus . wherefore , after many and tiresome vexations of mind , we came to a sixth experiment ; which seeing it in all respects sufficiently answered our expectations ; here wee will add its exact description for the sake of the curious , that they may give credit to their proper senses , which in others words most easily lessen the credit . a little vessel , with a longer neck , was taken , as the ii. table under the letter a. represents ; in the upper part of whose belly a little hole was pierced b. ; by which the air included in it , gave way to the pancreatick juice . let the neck of the vessel be encompassed with a little cord c. ; and severall rings of iron , thereunto affixed , or any other convenient thing ; by the advantage of which , the intestine may the more easily be stretched up . furthermore , you must take a wild ducks quill d. because that kind of bird hath longer and thinner than all others , which must be so obvolved about the larger part thereof with paper , a little besmeared with boiled starch , that the orifice of the vessel h. whilst it is included in it , may be most exactly closed : lest either the bile or blood , penetrating by the sides of the quill , defile the juice collected , or to be collected in the vessel . this quill is affixed to the vessel , by reason of the straightness of the pancreatick duct , which will not admit the neck of the vessel . presently you must take a little tap or stopple made of soft wood , and of such thickness that it may fill up the narrower orifice g. which with the alligated thred k. by the help of the style may be so far protruded through the larger part of the quill f. that a little thereof may remain in the larger part of the quill g. and there may stick so fast , that it may not return of its own accord into the ductus pancreaticus : because then the pituitous or vermiculous crusted matter , of the intestines , continually adhering about the end of the ductus being moved , would easily cause it to be obstructed ; which need not be feared , if the stopple remain in the quill . but the tap is not so strongly to be forced into the quill , but that by the help of the thred it may easily be retracted . you have all these things set forth in the second figure of the second table . the explication of the second table . fig. i. sheweth all things necessary for the preparing of the vessel . a. the glass vessel . b. a small hole in the upper part of the vessel . c. a little string adorned with iron rings . d. a long and slender quill of a wild duck. e. the paper with which the quill is enenwrapped . f. the larger part of the quill . g. the more slender part of the quill . h. the mouth of the glass vessel . i. the wooden tap or stopple . k. the thred annexed to the tap. fig. ii. doth exhibit the vessel as it ought to be furnished with all its requisites . fig. iii. denotes the parts of the instrument , by which the lower end of the ductus pancreaticus may be closed . aa . two tables made of ivory . bbbb . four little holes made in the ends of the tables . cc. two cylinders . dd. two scrues turn'd about the cylinders . all the instruments aforesaid being prepared and fitted , a dog to is be taken ; to whom , for the space of some hours , no food hath been given : but , a young mastive is to be preferred ; because he , of all other dogs , of the same magnitude , hath larger bowels , and by reason of the humidity predominating in him , yeildeth more pancreatick juice , and also longer life , and moreover less trouble in diffecting . we say that a fasting dog is to be taken , lest that the intestines , with the ventricle waxing bigger by aliment , the closure of the abdomen , after the application of the glass , be impedited ; or also , the mouth of the quill , by the two much compression of the bowels , be shut up . tab. ii having got such a dog , after his mouth in strictly bound that he may not bite ; and having tyed his extended legs , upon a table , let the style be thrust under the larynx , the long muscles being first removed , bending his neck ; which done , let there be made a little hole in that part thereof , which is most prominent , by cutting the particles of the two cartilages ; that by the same hole , his troublesome cry , to the standers by , being removed , a respiration be procured . in such sort as is shewed , tab. iii. fig. i. these things premized , you must open the abdomen with one incission , according to the white line from the sword-like cartilage , unto the region of the pubes ; then presently draw the gut through the wound , and make a ligature about it three or four fingers breadth below the pylorus , as also under the end of the ductus pancreaticus , lest the aliments sliding from the ventricle , or those things contained in the guts , by their peristaltick motion , against things thrust forward , should disturb or hinder this our vvork . then between both ligatures , let the intestine be cut open in its anteriour part , being first freed from the mesentery ; by and by the bile , with the phleme , and other matter found therein , being cleansed away by a sponge , the ductus pancreaticus may be observed ; the which , with almost two fingers breadth beneath the end of the ductus biliarius , and well nigh the same space above the connexion of the intestine , with the descending part of the pancreas , into ductus of the narrower orifice is gently to be immitted , the end of the quill shut up with its spout or stopper , with the glass vessel on the other part fastned to it ; which , by the mediation of the little cord , containing the rings c. it is sewed to the intestine with a double thred ; so that , the extremity of the quill g. may remain in the ductus pancreaticus ; nor the vessel recede from the intestine . vvhich things rightly performed , the abdomen is to be sewed together with a thick thred , that the vessel may hang forth without the cavity thereof , as is to be seen fig. ii. tab. iii. to which , now part of an exsiccated bladder n. is to be so bound with a string about the neck of the vessel , that it may on every side cover the vessel ; lest the blood or bile flowing by the hole of the vessel b. might enter into it . these things so done , the tap or stopple i. by the help of the thred k. is to be drawn through the hole b. this instrument will alwayes be sufficient where the ductus pancreaticus hath only one passage into the intestine ; but if besides this ordinary ductus , there be yet another passage , as in like manner we have sometimes found ; there is another instrument required , by which that also may be closed . the which instrument in the end we thought upon , as being more agreeable to this matter , then that of which we have already discoursed in the third experiment , and it is noted , tab. ii. fig. iii. it hath two tables made of ivory aa in the extremity of which are four holes bbbb . these tables may be so applyed between the ventricle and the vessel , affixed to both sides of the intestine ; and the intermediate intestine may be somewhat compressed with the hand , till the acute style , and the clynders cc. be transmitted through the holes , and through the scrues dd. the intermediate intestine may be so straightned , that nothing from these secondary ducts ( which we have alwayes found to be present in the superiour place ) may flow out ; by which means all the juice flowing through that ductus , in which the quill is immitted may be received by the affixed vessell . the explication of the third table . fig. i. exhibiteth a dog , in which is shewed the manner how , and place where , the instruments noted tab. ii. are to be affixed . a. the glass viall . b. the needle . m. the pylorus . n. the intestinum duodenum . o. the pancreas . p. the presse . q. the little hole cut in the larynx . fig. ii. represents a dog , whose abdomen , after the application of the instruments is sewed together . aa . two glass vials to collect the succus pancreaticus , and the spittle . n. a part of the bladder , where-with the glass is covered , lest the blood entring through the hole thereof should defile the pancreatick juice . chap. iv. in which the qualities of the pancreatick juice are described : by a plain division of the glandules of the whole body , is shown that the succus pancreaticus is not excrementitious : also , how it is generated . having related the instruments with their manner of applying , there is none but may see that we may easily come to a more intimate knowledge of the pancreatick juice , by observing not only the qualities thereof , but also the quantity which at all hours do flow to the intestinum duodenum . the qualities of the pancreatick juice so collected , both visible and tactable , such as we have frequently observed them , we shall here set down for the sake of those who desire to be informed . as often as we have rightly collected the pancreatick juice , we have found it like clear fountain water , with some-thing of viscidity , but not without the associating of dissipated spirits . the qualities thereof are perceptible to the tast ; not alwayes in the same manner in themselves , which denote those functions depending upon it , not seldome to be vitiated , and the same is evinced by our experience ; for , we sometimes have found it most gratefully acid , sometimes almost insipid , sometimes austere , often times salt , but most often acidly salt . of this our experience , we cite an approved witness , the most excellent d. vander sprongh , with the most famous professor sylvius , as also many others who have sometimes been fellowes of our practical colledge , who in their presence judged with us , that in such a collection it were both of an austere , and acidly salt sapor . the notable effect of the austerity thereof , then also observed , we will hereafter declare . now having found out the pancreatick juice , that we may clearly and distinctly subject the generation thereof to your eyes , we will propose a description of all the glandules , by distinguishing them with the famous d. sylvius into conglobated and conglomerated . we call them conglobated , which are constituted , as it were , from one continued substance , having an equal superifices ; such as in the mesentery , neck , shares , and other parts of the body , many are found . but we call those conglomerated , which rise from many lesser glandules joyn'd together ; such are the pancreas , salival ducts , and many others in the fauces , nostrils ; yea they constitute the thyme it self , or glandule , under the channel bone , concerning which we are willing here to say somewhat of what we have some years since observed , whilst we were conversant about the dissecting of calves ( in which this glandule was found very great , and that which is most worthy of note , no less in calves , than in other animals , that it is sensibly diminished after the birth ) that this notable ductus was found repleat with a limpid humor , which we sometime prosecuted ; but because , upon the laying open thereof , the liquor did continually flow out , the intire ductus vanished away before we could enter its end : for which reason , we were constrained to defer its further enquiry till another occasion . that this distinction of the glandules is not fained but real , the following experiment doth prove . as well the conglomerated as the conglobated are cloathed with a coat or membrane ; which being taken away , and a certain liquor immitted , as well through the ductus pancreaticus , as through the salivales ; also by the arteries of all the glandules , by the help of a syringe with divers little pipes fastned to the same , contrived by us , and proposed in our treatise concerning the organs of men ; as subservient to many things in generation ; and there will be observed by a most elegant spectacle conglomerated glandules , receding or parting by course from themselves ; especially if from hence the little membranes , whereby they are connexed , be cut with a knife : which , in no wise , is to be expected from the conglobated glandules , notwithstanding the greatest diligence . besides the glandules differ among themselves , in relation to their substance : because in the ordinary course of nature , we have found a cavity in the middle of the conglobated glandules ; but not in the conglomerated ; which , by that great expounder of nature , and by an indissoluble bond of friendship endeared to us , nicholas stenon , we have seen noted ; and observed ; who in his anatomical observations concerning the conglobated glandules , saith : for , outwardly the conglobated glandules are hollow not inwardly like a bason , yet if you rightly enter the separation between the protuberating lips on every side , you shall find as it were a cleft or chap , by which go forth certain lymphatick roots returning with the membrane . their substances differ not only among themselves by way of connexion , as they are conglobated and conglomerated , but also in the peculiar vessels ; for , the conglobated are given to the lymphatick vessels , which towards , and at the common ductus thoracicus , or the superior folding thereof , especially conspicuous in dogs , drive out a liquor prepared in themselves , or received from another . but the conglomerated dispose their liquour into peculiar cavities , as the salivales into the mouth , the pancreas into the duodenum , and so of others . that the motion of the lympha is such , as we have even now asserted , and not from the centre to the circumference , is proved by the values in the lymphatick vessels , every-where existing , as may be seen in a little treatise , concerning the values of the lymphatick vessels , by the most famous , and our entire friend , dr. raysch , anatomyst of amsterdam , printed anno . by whose indefatigable dilligence , at the same time , was discovered that vessel which he calleth the bronchial artery , by reason that it accompanyeth the widenings of the branches of the sharp artery through the whole substance of the lungs ; as may be seen by the figure thereof , inserted into his little book , aforementioned , and worthily communicated to us . seeing that the duct's , and also the substances of the glandules are diverse , it is worthy our enquiry , whether the humour , observed in all the glandules , be of the same , or a different quality ? but we shall answer , that the same , or like humour is separated in all the glandules , of a diverse species ; for one liquor is deposed in the conglobated , and another in the conglomerated : for , that which is separated in the conglobated is all of the same nature : which is proved , not only by the substance of the same glandules , every where consimilar , but also by the wayes by which they are all distburdened ; for as much , as further appears to us , ending in the ductus thoracicus . moreover , it is further demonstrable , by the liquor of the conglobated glandules , ordinarily found more saltish , and less acid in them , than in the conglomerated glandules of the pancreas ; nevertheless more of acidity , and salsitude , than that of the conglomerated salivales . from whence it is manifest , that a liquor is separated from the conglomerated glandules of the salivales , and pancreas not alike in all its qualities , as we have asserted even now to be done in the conglobated ; in which matter , that we might be more certain , at the same time , and to the same animal , we applyed the instrument depicted tab. ii. fig. ii. both to the ductus pancreaticus , and to the upper salivary duct , as is exhibited tab. iii. fig. ii. but we found a notable diversity of the aforesaid liquors ; for , the salival is either temperate or insipid ; but the succus pancreaticus is acidly salt , or such like , for the most part , as we have described it in the former chapter . seeing there is a diverse juice of diverse glandules , it deserves our enquiry , what use every one may have , and whether it be prositable or unnecessary ? that is , whether it bringeth any commodity to the body ? or , whether it be such as is in no wise subservient to the oeconomy of the humane fabrick ? it will not be hard to satisfie this difficulty , especially if we make a more exact scrutiny into the motion of those liquors ; for seeing that all the liquor of the conglobated glandules , is inserted into the ductus thoracicus , and there permixed with the chyle , the chief part of aliments , and with the same may proceed , and be purged into the jugular veine , or left subclavian vessel ; from whence , being confused with the descending blood , necessarily passeth through the right ear of the heart , into its right ventricle . we do not see by what name it may be called excrementitious and unprofitable ; because the excrementitious humours are separated from the blood : so that , according to the order of nature , they may not any more be commixed therewith ; but are wholly separated from the body ; which is clearly seen in the urine ; the which , being separated from the masse of blood in the reines , and thence deduced through the ureters into the bladder : from whence , after some stay , according to the dictate of the will , by the urinary passage it is excluded from the body ; so that it can never again return . so , the juice of the conglomerated glandules , is effused through particular ducts , into divers cavities of the body , where it may be mingled with other humours necessary for nourishment , and is least of all to be esteemed for excrementitious , or unprofitable . which that it may likewise , be made known , in like manner , as we have prosecuted the liquor of the conglobated glandules ; so also , we shall follow that of the conglomerated flowing from the salivales , and the pancreas . the spittle is separated from the blood , in the maxillary glandules , as well the superiour as the inferiour , and is carryed by the said salival ducts , into the cavity of the mouth ; where it may be mixed with the assumed aliment , or out of the time of the aliments assumption , is continually swallowed ; the which we never better consider , than whilst we hold somthing in our mouth ; the which , because of the cleanness of the place , in which we are , we will not spit out , neither dare we swallow it down ; for the mouth is very quickly fill'd with spittle . therefore the spittle , although without our knowledge , is continually swallowed , and mingled , and confused in the stomack with the aliment , which truly would be very indecent , if the same were unprofitable and excrementitious . the pancreatick juice is e●●used in the glandules of the pancreas , after the same manner as the spittle in the salivales , being continually separated in a man about the breadth of four fingers under the pylorus into the intestinum duodenum , and there is mixed with the aliments already passed the fermentation of the stomack , and with the same is driven downwards by the peristaltick motion of the gutts ; in which propulsion the greatest part thereof , together with the more pure and liquid part of the aliment is carried to the venae lacteae , and thence to the cistern ; from thence it penetrates through the ductus thoracicus to the subclavian vein , and so forward to the right ventricle of the heart ; which indeed would happen against reason , if the said humours were excrementitious , and unprofitable to the oeconomy of the body of man. to this opinion , besides sylvius , agrees godofridus moebius , who in his physiological foundations of medicine , c. . concerning the use of the intestines , thus speaketh : but this juice ( namely the pancreatick ) seeing that it may be admixed with the chyle , together with the bile in the duodenum , without all doubt it further helps and promotes its fermentation : for , if the pure purged excrement should be of no use , nature would have derived that channel to the lower intestines , wherein hard and unprofitable excrements are lodged , not to the superiour , where the chyle begun in the stomach , ought to be perfected . seeing than that by reasons and experiments , already sufficiently inferd , it is manifest , that the humours , as well of the conglobated , as the conglomerated glandules , are not excrementitious . we think fit , before we proceed any further , to propose their way or mode of generation . it hath been , in times past , believed by the antients , ( to say nothing concerning faulties , and other their figments ) that the glandules did imbile superfluous humidities , like unto sponges . but to the neotericks , it seemed after a more attentive examination of their structure , that this simillitude was greatly wide of the truth ; by reason the glandules are not every where open to the pores , but are sufficiently cloathed on all sides with a strong membrane ; & therefore they think that nothing entreth into the glandules , unless it be thither propelled by the arteries and nerves . but the arteries carry the humours of every kind to the glandules , under the colour of blood ; every of which , by reason of a certain disposition of the pores , even as seives do admit such particles of the humours , which in respect of their magnitude , and figure , have the greatest analogy , with the little pores ; in the mean while excluding others , which have with them a lesser simillitude ; which therefore by the name of blood , are constrained to return to the heart ; from whence , being more exalted in their passage , they are presently driven indiscriminately , by the pulsifick force thereof , to the glandules , and other parts of the body ; but , notwithstanding the particles fitted to the generation of the pancreatick juice , are no where more easily separated than in the pancreas , no where more serous than in the reins , no where more commodiously bilious than in the liver ; & so of the rest : because there are some parts of the body which do more commodiously receive this or that humour into the pores than others . nature hath therefore invented a singular artifice , whereby it doth so happily absolve so diverse a work , in diverse parts of animals ; which they do less admire , who diligently consider with themselves , that the like thing doth necessarily happen in plants : for , we see various plants , posited in the same sand , each to admit a peculiar juice ; which , nevertheless , is so homo-geneous , that it may contain in it self diverse particles , as we see in trees , whereon , by the industry of gardeners , divers fruits do grow ; whereas also divers branches or twigs are grafted into the same stock ; which by reason of the different constitution of their pores , they admit this , and not that part of the liquor or sap , others being excluded , which have a lesser affinity with their pores . the which things being equally granted , we may inferre , that the matter fitted to the generation of the pancreatick juice , is separated from the blood by a certain disposition of the pancreas ; yet not so exactly , but that it may bring divers other particles with it ; as occular inspection doth ascertain us to happen in the reins ; in which indeed primarily the more serous particles of the blood , after the manner of transcolation , are separated from its intire masse ; yet , nevertheless , we note those many saline , bilious , and other humours ; which are , as it were , snatcht away therewith , by reason of them or those particles largely abounding in the body ; in like manner as chymistry doth demonstrate all these things to our eyes , as clear as the meridian light. the animal spirits joyne themselves to the succus pancreaticus by a continual circulation , continually separated from the blood , with which , being joyn'd together by an amicable connexion , they run into the intestinum duodenum . from whence it is conspicuous , that our pancreatick juice is not simple , but compounded of divers ; this especially , acid , aqueous , saline , and other particles therein found , adjoyned to the animal spirits ; by whose volatile sweetnesse the force of acids is restrained ; whence it happens , that the pancreatick juice is naturally acidly-temperate . some may say , after what manner may the pancreatick juice be acidly temperate , seeing that in the precedent chapter we have said , that it is very often acidly-salt , and naturally may be said to be such as alwayes , or for the most part , it happeneth to be ? but , we shall answer , that perhaps it so happeneth in dogs onely ; because they ought to digest bones , and other things of a harder concoction , but in men we judge there is no such salsitude existant or required ; because , in men , that which is vomited , is either insipid , or bitter , or acid , very rarely , and perhaps never acidly salt ; the which undoubtedly would happen if their pancreatick juice were naturally such . but being granted , that in men , likewise as in dogs , it may naturally be acidly salt , whether then will our hypothesis run ? nowhither : because a salsitude joyned to it , as hereafter shall be declared , doth no way impede its primary operation . chap. v. the liquor of the glandules in the body , it demonstrated to be necessary , and that the pancreatick juyce doth effervesse with the bile . all these things premised , deservedly , who can ask what the juyce of the glandules may perform in the bodies of animals ? to whom we shall answer , that the juyce of all the conglobated is subservient to sanguification , but the liquor of the conglomerated is ordained to other uses : for that which is generated in the maxillary glandules , and other of the conglomerated , placed about the cavity of the mouth , for the most part absolveth the fermentation of aliments in the stomach : and that liquor which is generated or separated in the conglomerated glandules of the pancreas , seems to us to perform far more : seeing that nature for the most part so wisely disposeth matters , that one and the same thing may be accommodated to many . but seeing the use thereof is not yet sufficiently known , we shall examine what is first effused from it into the thin intertine , and also happeneth in the same . there is a sufficiently large quantity of this pancreatick juice continually brought to the thin gut ( we remember there hath been collected from one dog , in the space of seven or eight hours , two drachms , half an ounce , and from a mastive an intire ounce ) that it may be continually lifted up , and fermented with the bile flowing from the ducts of the liver , to a double or tripple quantity ( for as much as we could observe by the benefit of an instrument applied to their passage into the intestine in doggs ) being therein carried with a certain strugling motion . that this effervescency is excited from the acidity of the pancreatick juice , and the concourse of the bile abounding with a fixed and volatile salt , we dare the more freely assert ; because hitherto we have seen no example of an acid spirit concurring with a lixiviate salt to happen without an effeverscency sufficiently manifest , so that all impediments were taken away . that both salts are found in the bile , chymistry that most excellent and famous medical instrument of truth doth prove ; by the benefit of which we can separate a volatile salt effervescing with an acid spirit , and lixivious salt more manifestly absolving the same work . but that the pancreatick juice containeth in it self an acidity is manifest by an experiment above-recited ; the which , for their sakes who are lovers of truth , and whose belief derogates not from their proper senses , as in the academies of diverse regions , we have performed both publickly and privately , we have declared , not again to be repeated : and it is notably confirmed by an experiment which the most accurate searcher of nature , floventius schuyl , in his written tractate for antient medicine pag. . described in these words : moreover , i have opened the abdomen of another living dog in the same method , and in the intestinal bilar ductus , which is common to the cystic and hepatic , by a compressed instrument in such manner as the figure represents ; that the pancreatick juice alone might issue forth , we collected in the space of nigh three hours the quantity of two ounces of acidly sour juice ; whose manifest sourness was not only proved by the tast , but also by the permixing it with warm milk ; which was so coagulated , that thereby was formed as it were a cheese , being a manifest experiment , that acidity was altogether prevalent in the same . also , pag. . writing concerning the pellicle or bilar pore of horses ; i , ( saith he ) by a double experience , have found that pellicle , first of all to be replenished with a humour sub-acid , then with a bilious humour , with a temperate acidity ; into which , in like manner , a humour , a little sourish , did flow from the pancreas , and from thence into the intestinum duodenum . it is likewise concluded , that the pancreatick juice , in men , hath an acidity in it , not onely from the like nature of all the bowels and contents in brutes and men , but deduced also from other experiments : to wit , by sowr belchings , without the assumption of sowr and acid things into the stomach ; and in the hypoconders forthwith stretched out , or after rumbling and noise , first observed in the belly , presently again breaking out through the mouth . hither also belong those wonderful , and almost inexplicable motions , and agitations perceived by the sick ; first of all about the region of the loynes , especially after any heavy affliction of the mind , as anger , terror , fears , occasioned by the acidity of the pancreatick juice , flowing into the thin gut. if any one object in the cases now mentioed , that the pancreatick juice is evilly disposed , but that naturally in it self it containeth no acidity , let him declare : dr. paisenius , a man joyn'd to us in peculiar friendship , saith , in his disputation concerning the vices of humours , how may that juice preternaturally wax foure , if in the same , the seeds of acidity , as we may so call them , were not prae-existent . if we stand by authorities , no doubt but the cause will fall : for , hippocrates de veteri med. § . xxiv . against those , openly teacheth , that there is not only in man an acidity , and that mixed with other things , and therewith so attempered , that it is neither conspicuous nor hurtful to a man ; but also subjoyneth § . xxv . but where the acidity shall be divided , then it is conspicuous and hurtful to man. hippocrates doth not say , that it is arisen , but separated : therefore it is present in the natural state , although inconspicuous . besides galen teacheth that melancholy is so made of the blood , as must is made of wine . but now with what probabillity may we say , that in wine , ale , milk , and the like liquors , which left to themselves , without the addition of any other matter , do grow soure ; that the acid parts were not before existent ? what hinders , but that the same thing may also happen in men ? besides the reasons and authorities already brought , we will add the following experiment , which after a wonderful manner doth confirm the natural acidity of the pancreatick juice in men. in the year . whilst we were resident in the academy of andegave , a shipman , about thirty years of age ; a man of a good habit of body , and for as much as we could understand by the standers by , very healthful ; in his little vessel , endeavouring to passe under an old bridge , standing upon the river moene , with his mast erected , was by the bridge , unhappily thrown down , which , falling upon the man , killed him ; whose dead body was immediately brought to the hospital , where the same being as yet warm , was opened by dr. crosnier , the chyrurgion of the same hospital , and our self ; in which we collected the succus pancreaticus , which we exhibited to diverse curious tasts , who judged it to be acid ; and for our own part we freely profess never to have found it more gratefully acid in dogs . who is he , these things being rightly considered , that doubteth of the effervescency happening between the pancreatick juice , and the bile rightly constituted ? yet , lest it should in any part seem deficient , we will set down , in few words , those primary objections and difficulties , both here and in other countries proposed to us against this effervescency ; the which being cast off , doubts of lesser moment will be ready to fall of their own accord . the first difficulty is , that the pancreatick juice , as often as it hath been found by us insipid , hath not in the least been able to raise an effervescency with the bile in the thin gut. to this objection we answer , that it doth not follow , that the pancreatick juice , sometimes found by us insipid , should , at that time , have in it no acidity . concerning which matter , let them consult galen de simp. med. fac. lib. . cap. , , . as also hippocrates , in that place before alledged , saying , that in many mixed things , there are substances of various qualities by act , in which , nevertheless , those substances are not sound . the same is confirmed by daily experience , whereby it is evident that diverse liquors are rendered insipid , whose effects we allow to consist , partly in acid , partly in lixivious parts ; for example , the spirit of salt , which is most sharp , may be so dulcified with spirit of wine , that no acidity may be perceived in it ; yet notwithstanding it failes not to effervesce , if it be permixed with a lixivious salt ; so also , in infinite other things , which appear not acid , by reason of the acid particles which are in them , do excite perceptible effervescencies both to the sight and touch. but we do not absolutely deny , but that the pancreatick juice may be sometimes generated so sluggish , as that it may scarcely , indeed not at all ferment with the bile ; but we then judge it to be distempered or sick. yea , that those animals in whom it so happens , do sometimes dye by reason of the non-contingent effervescency : but this doth not destroy the natural effervescency . the second difficulty which hath been proposed to me , is , that seeing our bile and pancreatick juice is diluted with the chyle , they cannot effervesce : but to this objection we shall answer ; that oyle of vitriol , being mingled with pure water , doth stir up a greater effervescency with the fileings of steele , than if it were mingled therwith alone without water ; and which is yet more , if after the said effervescency hath ceased , if fresh water be added to it , the oyle of vitriol , with the steele dust , will ferment again afresh . but that we might have an experiment which might come nearer to our business , we have taken cows milk , as having a very great affinity with the chyle , and have poured to it spirit of vitriol , mingled with the lixivious salt of tartar , and the effervescency was presently excited , which continued a great deal longer , than if the oyle of vitriol , and oyle of tartar per deliquium , had been mingled without the milk. we judge that the long continuance of the effervescency , ought to be ascribed to the viscidity of the milk , seeing that daily experience teacheth us , that milk , honey , and other things , may be more , and longer rarified , whilst boyling , than distilled waters , spirits , and other the like things , not having a viscidity . according to which , in the said experiment , it is worthy of note , that the effervescency ( perhaps by reason of the coagulation of the milk ) doth not so well happen , if the spirit of vitriol be put to the milk , before the oyle of tartar per deliquium : hence ( with the safe opinion of the more learned ) a reason seems to us to be sought into ; why commonly , in all animals , the ductus biliarius , either first , or with the ductus pancreaticus , do enter into the intestine . from hence may be answered their difficulty , who say , that in some animals the distance between the ductus pancreaticus , and the ductus biliatius is too great : it is not necessary , that this effervescency should alwayes happen immediately under the pylorus ; but the matter may be carryed some fingers breadths further , where at length it may ferment ; namely , when the pancreatick juice , with the diluted bile , is mixed with the chyle : because those animals , in whom so notable a distance is found , have alwayes ( for as much as we have happened to see ) very long intestines ; as may be seen in coines , hares , and very many other animals . moreover , neither need it be feared , that our determined effervescency , by which the profitable parts of the aliment , are separated from the unprofitable , should happen too slowly ; seeing that in those animals some one passage or channel of the intestines , may be over and above , sufficient to receive the profitable particles of the chyle . the third thing which we have observed is , that the natural heat of our hand would more increase that effervescency , than the artificial heat of fire . after the same manner we read in chymical books , that the heat of horse dung performs many things , which could not be expected from our artificial fires , but with the greatest difficulty . which seeing it is so , no man ought to admire , that we are not able to demonstrate the effervescency , between the bile and the pancreatick juice , without our body , whilst they remain in their temperate and natural estate ; because neither artificial fire , nor the natural heat of our hand , can stir up such a heat as we know to be excited in the small gut , by reason of the circumjacent bowels , which are most hot . but some perhaps , being little content with these reasons , will say , that to see that naturally effervescency , it behoveth to open a living dog , seeing that as yet in him the natural heat is in its vigour : the which seems to carry something of force with it , with those who consider not that in a preternatural disposition of the body , we cannot know its natural operation ; as also with those who have never moved their hand to the work ; because those things which happen in the intestines , cannot be seen , unless they be opened , and many vessels must necessarily be dissected when they are opened , out of which flow such an abundance of blood , that it is impossible ( as we have often experienced ) to see the desired effervescency . add , that the succus pancreaticus cannot after the manner of a rushing torrent hasten it self into the thin intestine , because this river flowing as it were from so many springs and rivolets , as the pancreas is environed with glandules and little branches , doth by a pleasing course continually slide into its own channel : so that the cleansed juyce being now effused with the blood , you cannot without a very tedious delay collect a sufficient quantity of the pancreatick juyce to be fermented , and which in the mean time will be so altered by the cold air , that it will be in vain to expect an effervescency perceptible to the sight . for it very much agrees with vulgar observation ( saith the most learned willis , exercitat . medico-physic . de sanguinis incalescentia , fol. . ) that fermentible liquors when closed more strickly in the vessel , do most ferment , and presently cease from their fermentation , if the air be admitted through an opened hole : more-over , boyles experiments , experiment . physico-mechanicor . . . . do most clearly shew effervescencies to be excited from the ebullition of dissimilar particles , or by corrosion ; also the ebullition of hot water in a glass sphere to be wonderfully augmented after the air is sucked out , and that there are some things which in a space of time , are intended in the air to a great vacuity , whose action after the air is drawn out , is presently extinguished : so that without reason they desire that the effervescency between the bile , and the pancreatick juyce should be manifested to the eye without the body : for it is plainly ridiculous to be willing to see the effervescency of those humours , and to impede the humours by which they are performed ; or not to admit of the preturnal constitution of the animal , and willing to see those things which are performed in the bowels of animals . if their pancreatick juyce who desire this thing , were endued with such an acrimony as nevertheless being destitute of natural helps , might ferment with the bile to the eye without the body ; with how great pains would not their bowels be tormented , if being helpt by those aids in the body , the effervescency should be performed ; doubtless they would not desire such an aciditie , before they would subscribe to our so often commemorated fermentation , but in short , would wish for themselves such a pancreatick juyce , as we have above deemed to raise up therein a natural effervescency . lastly , the third difficulty which hath been proposed to us against the effervescency between the bile and the pancreatick juyce , is , that the pancreatick juyce being acidly salt ( as it is ordinarily found in dogs ) ought not to ferment with the bile : seeing that the acidite thereof , by reason of the salt therein contained , helping the innervated liquor will be subdued . but we may easily answer this objection also , by distinguishing sea-salts , fossile-salts , and others compounded of a lixiviate-salt , and acid-spirit , from the pure lixiviate salts . no man will ever deny , but that the last of acids doth lose its force and energy , and consequently hinders its effervescency . but that which appertaineth to the first , of whose nature we esteem that to be which is in the succus pancreaticus ; ( forasmuch as we can perceive by the tast : ) all men will easily grant that that in no wise hindereth the effervescency , of those things , especially , which have an acid spirit ; as for example , that of vitriol , in which was dissolved sea-salt , mixed with the lixivious salt of tartar , or oyle of tartar per deliquium . yea it is so far from diminishing the effervescency , that it exciteth a greater than otherwise would happen ; as sal armoniack dissolved in oyle of vitriol , so highly accuates it , that it dissolveth gold , the which without it could not be done . hence perhaps it commeth to pass , that dogs , which devour bones , and other aliments , of difficult concoction ; which cannot be dissolved by an acid spirit alone ; for , the most part have their pancreatick juice acidly-salt . among those things which we have asserted , concerning the pancreatick juice insipid , acid , salt , &c. it is sufficiently manifest , that the diversity observed therein , excludes not the acidity thereof ; neither destroyes its effervescency , which we have taught to be made in the thin gut , without any interruption . but we have sometimes observed a pleasant effervescency of the bile , with an acid , in the bile of a dog , closed up in a glass viall , after having poured on about a third part of spirit of niter , and keeping it a while in the warme rayes of the sun. but that we may come nearer to the matter , we will declare the experiments brought by dr. schuylius , to demonstrate the effervescency betwen the bile , and the pancreatick juice , in the presence of many students ; in his treatise pro veteri med. pag. . therefore ( saith he ) the abdomen of a living dog being opened , i have bound the duodenum , not far from the pylorus with a ligament ; and also with another a little below the insertion of the ductus pancreaticus : then left the dog to himself , his abdomen being sowed up . three houres being clapsed , the dog , as it seemed , yet living ; for he had onely lost some few drops of blood : the abdomen being opened , we found the space intercepted between the ligatures , vehemently distended ; so that , it would altogether resist the compression of the fingers , and threatned a rupture . neither did we find the gall bladder less distended : also that that intercepted space of the duodenum was possessed , with an intense , and burning heat ; in which making a little wound with the lancet , the contained wind , with the humour , broke forth with a bouncing noise , also vapours and exhalations ; from whence a certain sharp stink did strike all our nostrils , the which was greater by the opening of the intestine ; so that , none of the students standing by were able to bear it ; which was a manifest argument not only of the large quantity of the bile , and pancreatick juice , which had flown thither : but also of the effervescency , which had been in them excited ; not only to a mediocrity or gentleness , such as happens in health , but vehement : for , that part of the intestine was not only full , but also by a certain force and fermentation much distended . neither could that part of the duodenum distended , have dissipated the wind , humours , and exhalations , with so great a force , unless by the effervescency or agitation of the particles of those contrary humours . qui cupit , capiet . a few dayes being past , i repeated the same experiment in the presence of many students : and after the space of two houres , that portion of the intestine , did swell in like manner as before , but less hot : but that swelling portion of the intestine , which before i had bound , being opened , frothing bubbles broke forth with a noise ; the which had so distended that part of the intestine , that no man may further doubt of the certainty of this effervescency . chap. vi. what this effervescency is both in the sick , and in the sound ; and what benefit accrews to the body thereby . seeing then that it is more than sufficiently evinced , and granted by reasons and experiments , that there is an effervescency between the bile and the pancreatick juice , in the thin gutt , and that continually , we will further enquire , what it is in the sick , what in the sound , and what utility it bringeth to humane bodies . in the sick , we often observe , that this effervescency , either by its fretting , and tormenting paines , or else by heat or cold , is very troublesome , as some years since , we knew in our dear kinsman ; who sometimes , for a whole week together , came himself to us , to perceive a cold ebullition in his right side , and that in the place where the intestinum duodenum is seated ; and the bile runs together with the pancreatick juice ; and that afterwards , by the meanes of medicaments , meanly hot , to be changed into most hot , continuing a fortnight , and longer . that both these effervescencies , viz. cold and hot , may be excited , is proved by the thermometry , most ingenuously contrived by the learned swammerdammius , and depicted in his treatise of respiration , page . in the depressed part of which supream sphear a. if you mingle together salt of tartar , and spirit of vitriol , an effervescency will presently be excited ; and such indeed as will so condense , or thicken the air contained in that spheare , that the water , contained in the lower part of this instrument b , may ascend upward : being a manifest experiment of cold , produced by that effervescency . but , on the contrary , if you mingle spirit of tartar with the spirit of vitriol , you shall observe , by the effervescency excited between them , that the water is depressed ; and the more if with those spirits , you conjyne the oyle of turpentine ; from whence no man , who is endowed with the lightest tincture of philosophy , but will judge , that to proceed from the hot effervescency , rarifying the air contained in that sphear . therefore we judge , that in the sound , that effervescency happens after a gentle manner , because then there is no sence thereof : the same thing is to be said concerning the motion of the heart , and beating of the arteries ; the which , although they are continual , are not perceived by those in health ; but when we are evilly disposed , they sometimes manifest themselves in diverse parts of the body , especially in temples , the pulsation of the arteries is so manifestly molested , as if they were contused by some hard body . by the same reason the motion of the heart , is sometime so vehement , that as it hath been observed by practitioners , it might in a manner be heard to their neighbour houses ; yea it hath sometimes broke the ribs ; as in like manner , we have seen at leyden , in a baker's son , dwelling in the fish-market ; whose ribs , by the vehement palpitation of the heart , or rather the convulsive motion thereof , were conspicuously driven outwards ; from which vehement palpipation , it was freed in a short time with medicaments , prescribed by dr. sylvius ; yet not so , but that the ribs still remained driven outwards . but now if any ask unto what end and use this effervescency between the bile and the pancreatick juyce , being naturally excited , doth happen ? we answer first of all , that it serves to cut , and attenuate the over viscous pituity adhering to the sides of the gutts , left they being stufft up , the pores of the venae lactea should be obstructed , or a passage be denied to the pancreatick juyce , and the bile continually sliding into the intestinum duodenum , or also , lest by the too great abundance of phlegme , the sence of the intestines might be obtunded , and their peristaltick motion either be diminished , or abolisht , by help whereof , not only the passages of the parts necessary for the nourishing of the body may be facillitated , but also the more grosser foecies and unprofitable excrements may the more commodiously be separated ; which use gallen hath ascribed to the bile alone , as not knowing the pancreatick juyce , first by us discovered , nor the effervescency excited between it and the bile : therefore he saith in lib. . de usu partium , cap. . a necessary excrement ( to wit phlegme ) of this sort , is to be found both in the stomach and in the intestines , as we have elsewhere demonstrated : but that it may be generated , both anatomy , and those diseases to which men are daily subject from the abundance of the superfluities hereof do declare : the cure whereof is simple , to wit , by the exhibition of those things which have power to divide , to cut and cleanse viscous matters . for that cause therefore nature hath from the beginning provided a defence for them , that this juyce being sharp , might be cleansed , and as it ought be altogether separated from the body , not into any intestine near the anus ; but into the first intestine taking its beginning from the pylorus , neither sometimes may it want the external help of some of the inferiour intestines . moreover , as long as the body is rightly governed , the pituitous excrement is daily cleansed . but when it is more copiously collected by some evil affection of the body , the most famous physicians doubt nothing , but that those most grievous diseases which happen to the belly , as the ileum , lienteria , and tenesmus , may be occasioned by it . neither therefore is that translation to be contemned which nature hath provided for health , by the opportune immission of the bilious passage in animals . the same office is no less to be ascribed to the pancreatick juyce , then to the bile hereafter to be made conspicuous by the description of its acid qualities . before we go any further in declaring the effects arising from this effervescency , we will premise some fermentations , that these things being with all possibility inspected , it may become the more obvious , what benefit the intestinal effervescency bringeth to the aliments after their propulsion to the gutts . as many as have mingled filings of steel with oyl of sulpher , prepared per campanum , or spirit of vitriol , having added a sufficient quantity of water , they might observe an effervescency to be excited after a certain manner by the concourse of those contraries ; by help whereof , the laudable parts of the steel are joyned to the acid spirits , whilst the rest counted as refuse , do partly go to the bottome , and partly like froth swim or flote upon the liquor . but i think that the more purer parts of the steel , and those most exactly mixed , are therefore joyned to the acid liquor , because they have therewith a more greater affinity , because of which they suffer themselves to be dissolved ; but not the other more impure and less mixed among them , whether they be more terrene , and therefore seek the bottome , or whether they they be more oleus , and therefore supernatant . the same , greater or lesser , affinity of acids , with the dissolved matter , doth further appear , if in the same liquor more mettals be successively immitted ; first , those which have a lesse ; afterwards , those which have a greater affinity with it : so , when silver is put into aqua-fortis , and so long detained therein , till it be all dissolved ; which effervescency , is absolved with its coagent : hence let copper be put to the afore-said solution , the aqua-fortis will leave the silver , and begin a new effervescency with the copper , whilst that the silver , being gradually neglected by the aqua-fortis , gets to the bottome ; which mutation , by the chymists , is called by the name of precipitation . but if afterwards , you cast iron to this solution of copper , the same thing will again come to pass , and by degrees the copper will be precipitated to the bottom . which if again , to the solution of the iron , you affuse some lixivium of calcind tartar , vine ashes , or the like , the acid spirit will joyne it self more strictly to the solution of that , than of the other mettalick bodies , and will scarcely suffer it self to be separated from the same . the reason of this more straight union is to be required from the more pure acid spirit , that is less mixed , and therefore more narrowly joynes it self with the said lixiviate fixed salt , hitherto also more pure and less mixed , than with the same salt ; but less pure , that is more mixed : so that , here the purity of the contrary parts ought to be understood by their affinity . by reason of this greater affinity , the oyle of tartar prepared per deliquium , ( which is nothing else but the salt of tartar , dissolved by the humidity of air ) when it is in like manner poured with the vitriol into water , it joyneth it self to the acid spirit , existing in the vitriol , whilst its sulphureous part , as having a lesser affinity with acidity , by little and little departs , and gets to the bottom . which being permised we will consider , what things may happen in the aliments in the stomach by its fermentation , and what also befalleth the same ; ( after the aforementioned fermentation ) in the thin gut especially , that we may conclude something more certain , and more probable than usual . first , the stomach , being opened , together with the guts , seeing that the aliments , by an absolute fermentation , are wont to be driven from the stomach to the intestines , we have observed a notable change between that which is contained in the stomach , and that in the guts : for , that in the stomach hath had a more grosser , and viscid consistence , and by the diversity of the aliments , and other things assumed , a diverse colour , and oftentimes less white . certainly , this mutation cannot be derived from any other thing than from the bile , and pancreatick juice : because those humours only flow in a large quantity to the superiour part of the small gut , and are admixed with the aliments . the examen of both the afore-said liquors , doth confirm this our opinion : for , the bile , abounding with a volatile salt and oyle , hath a force of inciding , attenuating , and making fluid most things where-with it is permixed , especially such as are pituitous ; as galen also teacheth , lib. v. de usu part. cap. iv. as by the place above quoted may be seen , to which platerus subscribes , cap. viii . concerning the defect of hearing by the repletion of the eares , whilst he breakth out into these words : first , he declares that aqua mulsa , or hydromel , or if to cleanse more powerfully , with the decoction , or bitter juice before-mentioned , of worm-wood , centaury , or lupines , that may be effected , adding honey or gall , which , above all other things , as hath been often said doth make those things , which are viscous , fluid , &c. but the succus pancreaticus , being pregnant with a subacid spirit , as appeareth by the precedent reasons , and experiments , doth in like manner augment the viscidity of the aliments by the solution of their fluidity ; the which being so as it is more than sufficiently known , we will not delay time , by further proofs concerning the manner , wherby acids in the thin gut , do return to a liquid , and fluxile motion , or other-wise to an ine●t and pituitous viscidity ; we shall only say that in our judgement it so happeneth ; for as much , as by the tenuity , and sharpness of the parts , stirred up by the effervescency , the phlegme is thereby as with swords , incided , and attenuated into very minute parts . that which attaineth a whitish colour , then observable in the more fluid part of the aliments , we think it deducible from the acidity of the pancreatick juice ; because we may note , that many other things , abounding with a lixivious salt and oyle , do wax white upon the affusion of acids : so , that vinegar or sharp wine , being poured upon common sulpher , dissolved with any lixivium , and grown red , that reddish colour is so changed , that it is made almost like to milk : wherefore also it is called by the chymists lac sulphuris . the same is apparent in the resinious extracts of vegitables , as also in spirit of hart's horne or soot , being replete with much volatile salt ; with which an acid spirit being mixed , acquires a milky colour . all those things being rightly considered , we judge , secondly , that the effervescency , in the thin gut is exceeding necessary for the right separation of the profitable parts from the unprofitable . but perhaps some , who are altogether wedded to antiquity , admitting nothing which to them is novel , because they have read or understood nothing , in the antients , concerning this our expected secretion , by fermentation , will not think that such a preparation is required to separate the profitable parts of the aliment from the unprofitable ; but that the alteration which is performed in the stomach , is sufficient to this purpose ; in which , if any thing be wanting , it may be consummated by the peristaltick motion of the guts ; by the help whereof it s more fluid parts are thrust forward into the milky veines , the foeces , with the remaining thicker and lesser profitable parts , passing away by the channel of the intestines . to the which we deny not , but that something is contributed to this matter both by the said fermentation and the peristaltick motion of the guts ; nevertheless we do not think that any physitian , unless a slave to the antients , amongst all those things which are daily observed in the dissecting of brute animals , and medical practiss ; or at least-wise may be observed , will reject this cause proposed by us ; if , first of all , he diligently consider , that in the coeliack flux the aliments , sometimes viscid like a pultiss , and every where alike , and sometimes mixed with a whitish liquor are purged out . but this diversity of colour happens , by a contingent , or non-contingent , secretion of profitable parts from the unprofitable , by the said effervescency ; which , who can but in vain , attribute to expression alone . yet we deny not , that by the fermentation of aliments alone , rightly performed in the ventricle , something fluid may , spontaneously , pass away from the rest of the aliments more pultatious ; nevertheless that is but little , if it be compared with the large quantity of noble chyle , which is continually strained through the venae-lacteae , or also from thence swimming up in the caeliack flux ; so that , then the more watery part of the chyle , freely going forth by the compression of the bowels alone , is more without effervescency , than the other which is more white , or , as we may say , more milky . in that spontaneous separation of the parts wont to happen through fermentation , the spirituous indeed first go forth with the watery , necessary for the reparation of the animal spirits : we have an example in the fermentation of plants , & other things , abounding with a volatile spirit , in which the spirituous particles , alwayes expanded , and endeavouring to flee through the pores of the stomach and guts , being loosed from their fetters , rush through the pores : from whence we are fully perswaded , that after the assumption of the most spirituous aliments , a suddain strength is found in men ; and although it be inconspicuous to our bodily eyes , that the spirits , by the same reason , are diffused through the pores of the body ; nevertheless , after a manner , we understand it with the eyes of our mind , whilst we see a stupendious vertue in some medicaments externally applyed : the same thing is often observed by anatomists , when after the incision of the peritonaeum , they receive the foetid flatulencies passing through the tunicles of the guts to the nostrils . but because the spirituous and volatile parts are not sufficient to sustain life ; but , moreover , acid , oleous , and salt parts , are also required ; therefore there is need of a new alteration of things assumed , that those parts , by a decent copiousness , might be separated from the superfluous and unprofitable : which alteration we call effervescency , and by help of which , we judge ( with our sometimes famous professor francis . de le boe-sylvius , from whose lectures , as well publick as private , we do not deny to have drawn many fundamentals of this doctrine ) that secretion to be accomplished . we do not only judge by that effervescency ▪ mediateing the more subtile and fluid parts of aliments , but also the pituity by the help thereof dissolved in the thin gut , part of which is carryed together , with the better portion of the bile , and succus pancreaticus , through the vermiculous crust of the intestines into the milky veines ; from hence to the cisterne or common receptacle of the chyle , and lympha , placed in the region of the loynes under the appendices of the diaphragma ; and from thence ascends through the chyliferus , or more rightly the lymphatick ductus , thoracicus , ( because it continually carryeth the lympha , and the chyle , only by intervals ) to the subclavian , or left jugular veine , that from thence it may descend , with the blood , through the superiour trunck of the vena cava , descending into the right eare of the heart , and the right ventricle thereof . and in the right ear , and right ventricle of the heart , it is confused both with the ascending and descending blood , and also impregnated with the pancreatick juice , the bile , phlegme , and lympha ; from whence it acquires a requisite consistency of blood. this confirms what we have said ; that any thing acid coagulates all fatness and oyle . but because , on the other side , the aforesaid humours have in themselves a force of attempering , we need not fear too great a consistency of the blood ; so long , as at least they remain in a laudable and natural estate . but seeing that the more fluid and more profitable parts , as well of the aliments assumed , as of the three nominated humours , do go to the heart ; the rest more gross , and less profitable , by the peristaltick motion of the guts , gradually without sense , are driven forwards to the thick guts , where they are distinguished by the name of alvinary foeces . whether also the exhalations , excited by this effervescency , or even the juice it self may not afford a natural fermentation in the stomach , we dare not as yet assert ; although some animals seem to perswade it to us , of both whose ducts , to wit , the pancreatick and bilar , nature hath determined a passage into the stomach . we judge this pancreatick juice is not onely subservient to the functions , already declared , but also by the sub-acid spirit with which it is impregnated by the most wise god , we think it to be ordained after a certain manner , to incrassate , and inspifate the more fluid bile , and also to temper its too much acrimony ; this thing is manifest in the bile by affusing any acid spirits thereto , which presently , either more or less , will be thickned , and its more gross part precipitated to the bottom , whilst its thinner part floats on the top like phlegme . hence peradventure hippocrates , lib. de victu accutorum , text . . . teacheth that bitter things are dissolved , and pass into phlegme , that is , they become sluggish whiles they are spread or mixed with an acid , which is not only confirmed by the authority of the divine old gentleman , but also by a daily effervescency ; whereby it is evident that acids , and salts , being put into a conflict amongst themselves , do so infringe their sharp particles , that they become almost temperate : wherefore not without reason hipp. aph. i. sect. vi. hath taught us in the daily levities of the intestines , that if an acid belching should supervene , which had not been before , we ought to hope well : for it is a signe that the pancreatick juice , by its acidy , will , in a short time , attemper the acrimony of the bile . we have said that the pancreatick juice is ordained by nature , after a sort to incrassate the more fluid bile ; but it may also so happen that the bile , by its acidity , may be rendered more fluid , viz. when the viscidity of the bile dependeth upon the viscidity of phlegme ; therefore in one respect acids may render the bile more gross , but in another more fluid ; for acids do incrassate fat 's , and lixivious salts . among those things which we have now recited , it is sufficiently evident , in the humours naturally constituted in the small gut , and the friendly effervescency of nature from thence occurring , that many functions in the body are rightly performed ; which by the said effervescency evilly happening , are wasted , and become vitious . the verity of which thing , that we may make it more clearly appear , we shall , first of all , declare some vices which happen in the substance of the pancreas . secondly , we shall adjoyne those things which may befall the juice thereof . chap. vii . with what diseases the substance of the pancreas , and its juice may be molested . certainly not a few , to whom the pancreatick juice hath been unknown , have nevertheless believed that the causes of many grievous diseases lay hid . for , schenkius in his exer●itatione , anat vi. lib. i. sect. ii. cap. xxi . saith , and there are the seats ( meaning the pancreas , and the mesentery ) of innumerable and wonderful diseases ; for the searching of which , the age of one man is not sufficient . which thing , being the scorne of physitians , also casteth those which are most exercised into a blushing hue . fernelius also lib. vi. pathol. cap. vii . speaking concerning the diseases of the pancreas and mesentery , doth affirm and profess , that he hath thought for the most part , these to be the seats of choler , melancholy , diarhaea , disenteria , cachexia , atrophia , of languishing , of light , and erratick feavers : lastly , the causes of hidden diseases ; by the driving away of which , health might be restored to the afflicted . and riolanus , that egregious ornament of the university of lovaine . v. f. plempius , with other famous men , also conversant in practise , do also think that the cause of intermitting feavers , of hypocondriack melancholy , and other chronick diseases , do lurk , or lye hid in the pancreas . but this business , without all doubt , had been more successfully treated of both by these , and other men of no small merit in medicine , had the pancreatick juice , with its generation and nature , been known to them : wherefore we shall endeavour , being excited by their commendable examples , to produce something to the learned world for the common good , by considering first , by what diseases the substance of the pancreas may be infested . secondly , by declaring the primary vices , which may happen to its juice . thirdly , by searching into the functions , which are hurt by its evil disposition . fourthly , by investigating the diseases which follow those functions hurt . fifthly , and lastly , by delivering the remedies wherewith all of them may be amended . the diseases wherewith the substance of the pancreas is wont to be molested , are obstructions , and those which follow them , tumours , schirous's , abscess's , stones , &c. obstructions may happen to the pancreas two wayes : first , in the ductus , when the pancreatick juice cannot freely pass through it , into the intestines , even as we shall more clearly demonstrate to happen when we shall discourse of intermitting feavers . secondly , in the substance of the pancreas it self , when by any cause , either internal or external , the circulation of the blood through it , is hindered ; from whence the parenchyma , by the continual appulse of blood , is puffed up , and swells , unless it be indurated , or by a previous inflamation goes into an abseessus . which , that it may be made known to all , we will bring upon the stage the observations of several phisitians , and anatomists . riolanus , anthropog . lib. . cap. . writeth , that he had observed in many people , who were of a melancholy nature , and habit of body , that the pancreas equalled the weight of the liver ; and also confirms the same , by the example of the most illustrious augustinus thuanus ; who , by the melancholy habit of body , did complain for four years together of a collick pain , about the region of the colon , with a sense of a burden , or weight , at his stomach , while he stood upright , or walked : but his hypoconders did not swell : at length being taken with an unlookt-for gangreen , from his right foot suddainly to the superiour parts with horrible and direful pains , in the space of six hours expired . his body being opened , and the liver taken out , was round like to a sphare , stuffe with fat , and trans-fixed with a certain pituitous hardned matter like to mortar : but the pancreas , by its amplitude and weight , did equalize the liver , wholly schirhous with many little knobs , which were filled with the species of a pigeons egg ; the spleen was so wasted that it scarce weighed an ounce . for which reason , some have called the pancreas , the vicar or supply of the spleen ; not considering that this diversity might happen to other parts also ; and likewise in doggs , after the extirpation of the spleen , the substance of the pancreas did in no wise grow into a greater weight ; which , according to them , ought to happen , if the pancreas supplyed the office of the spleen . aubertus relates a story of an abscessus progym . ad lib. abdit . fernelij exercit. . of a certain merchant of lyons , which could never sleep , and when he endeavoured to sleep , he fell into a lipothymie , and cold sweat of the whole body , till at length he dyed . his body being opened there was only found a putrid abscessus in the pancreas ; the stomach and other principal parts being safe . guilh. fabric . hildanus . cent. . observ . . also relates , that he , in a certain carpenter , who for the space of two years , by intervals , was grieved with divers diseases , laboured under obstructions , and cachexy : found in his dead body , among other things , a schirhous tumour , suppurated like unto a collection of fat , under the skin , about the bigness of two fists ; having its rise from the inferiour part of the pancreas , which inclosed the intestinum duodenum ; so that , being covered with the peritonaeum , it also resembled another ventricle . you may read of a cancerous ulcer of the pancreas , most worthy of note , in the curious miscellanies medico-phys , of the germans , ( which as in the year . by great dilligence , they began to bring to light : so we altogether desire that the great god , for common benefit , may prosper their endeavours : ) observ . . where dr. j. fera. hert. à tottenfeld adjoyns these following things , which they found in the cavity of the thorax in a certain chyrurgion after death . coming to the lower belly , we saw that flesh perforating the diaphragma to be the pancreas , which was the length of two spans , and breadth of two hands transverse , being putrid , and corrupted ; which , by its corosive acidity , did not only perforate the diaphragma , but did also so corrode the spina dorsi , that a cancer-like vlcer was produced , with a light stroke the whole spina dorsi might easily be broken . lastly , it corroded the very vena cava it self , which runs into the spine ; by which the blood , flowing through the diaphragma , brought death by impeding the motion of the lungs . this cancer of the pancreas , by creeping further , did also corrupt both the kidneys , and caused them to be most black and putrid . we add more-over , that which the most famous highmore , corp. hum. disq . anat. lib. i. part ii. writeth that he observed , in a noble woman , which being antient , laboured with convulsions , epilepsie , and the hysterick passion ; and at length , after exquisite paines and torments , changed life with death ; in whose dead body , being opened , we found the pancreas onely evilly affected and exulcerated . they which desire more examples of exulceration , let them read barthol . hist . johan . dan. horstij observ . anatom salmuth , tulpium , blasij comm. in synt. anat. vesting ▪ and others . that this pancreas had obtained a stony hardness , in an antient roman . woman , is witnessed by dr. panarol ; as is likewise to be seen in dr. blasius , in his commentaries , even now cited page . in like manner , in the year . the following history was communicated to us at paris , bona fide , by dr. gajen , a chyrurgion , and famous anatomist , by him before observed : a noble man , aged about thirty , being melancholy , was obnoxious to catthars , by the intemperate use of wine , and fruits ; continually assumed , fell into a vomiting , and diarhaea , whereby after some space , there followed a flux of blood ; from whence , more and more failing in strength , the tenth day he changed life with death . his body being opened , he found in the pancreas , about the end of the ductus pancreaticus going into the intestines , seven or eight stones , having the bigness of the largest pease ; some of which being given us by himself , we keep among our rarities . nevertheless , this observation to us , seemed not so wonderful , who believe that stones are generated in all the glandules of the body , especially in the pineal glandule : because in it we have more than twenty times observed stones in men , extinguished either by a gentle disease , or a violent death ; which thing happens more frequently in france , than in holland ; a more profitable account whereof , we do not see , than that the anima of the french , as by nature more volatile , may be bound to a more firm residence in their bodies . we have also found in a certain dog , in that part of the ductus pancreaticus , where the ascending concurs with the descending , and is only simple ; a cartilagineous excrescency , about the ductus and its end , which like a nipple , did hang out into the intestine , to the bigness of a finger , in the middle whereof a sufficient passage was afforded to the sliding pancreatick juice . riolanus l. c. found the whole pancreas hardned like a cartilage . we might be able to inferr many diseases of the pancreas , were it not already sufficiently evident by what hath been said , that the pancreas also may be afflicted with common diseases ; neither that its evil constitution followeth the affections of the liver or spleen : for , sometimes the other bowels being unhurt , the pancreas alone , hath been the cause of death , for reasons ( already ) sufficiently alleadged . for which reason , it is manifest that the pancreas is necessary to life , which is also confirmed by an experiment made by us at paris , in the year . when in the house of dr. bourdelot , where , every monday , the most curious of physitians and phylosophers did meet , we had for three months together exposed this little book , in the french tongue , to publick examination , some being led by speculation alone , asserted that ▪ animals might live no less without the pancreas , than the spleen : for which cause , before all that company , we extirpated the spleen , and also most exactly the pancreas , of a certain dog : the abdomen again being closed , dr. bourdelot commanded his servants to keep the dog most diligently , who , notwithstanding all their dilligence , in a short time dyed . those vices being declared , which sometimes befall the substance of the pancreas , we shall proceed to those things which may happen to its juice ; from whence , not a few natural functions depending upon its natural disposition , are wasted and hurt . first of all ; the pancreatick juice offendeth when it is more sparingly effused into the thin gut , which sometimes comes to pass by the more sparing generation , or separation thereof in the pancreas ; or when there is an obstruction in one or more of its lateral branches ; because , for a time the juice is therein stagnated , till at length the obstruction is opened . it is more sparingly generated , when the matter thereof is more or less deficient in the blood , and not being restored with convenient aliments ; or when the same is carryed off another way ; or when it is more strictly conjoyned with the blood , that it cannot be sufficiently separated from it . one or more of the ducts of the pancreas are obstructed by a pituitous , and viscid matter , together with the matter of the pancreatick juice , separated in the pancreas , and translated into , and detained in those ducts . secondly , the pancreatick juyce doth also offend , when it is carryed into the intestines in greater plenty , whether it be generated more copiously , or for a time being detained by stagnation , in one or more of the laterall ducts , is then more plentifully effused , when the obstruction is dissolved . it is generated more plentifully by reason of the liberal use of acid aliments , or at least of condited acids ; for example , soure wine , vinegar , pomecitrons , &c. as also , by reason of some vice of the glandules , by which the separation of that juice , from the blood is promoted ; as also , sometimes perhaps , because of more larger vessels tending into the pancreas , and as is usual , affording a larger matter to the juyce . thirdly , when it flows inequally into the thin gut , that is , at one time more abundantly , at another more sparingly : which , first of all , pens by an obstruction of one or more of the lateral ducts , which continuing , nothing floweth out from them ; and therefore a more sparing juyce is then effused into the whole : by the said obstruction , any way removed , presently that which was stagnant in the middle duct , together with the rest of the juice , is effused into the thin gut ; from whence , on the contrary , the excretion of the pancreatick juice is then more plentiful . that such an obstruction may sometimes happen in the lateral ducts of the pancreas , reason doth perswade , and experience it self confirmeth , even as we shall more clearly evince in the following discourse of intermitting feavours . fourthly , it offendeth when it is more fluid and liquid , than natural : which happeneth by reason of such blood , or animal spirits , more copiously mixed there-with . fifthly , it offendeth , when on the contrary it is more viscid ; by reason of the blood , likewise viscid , and abounding with much pituity . sixthly , the said pancreatick juyce offends ; when the natural relish thereof is changed : whence it is one while less acid , another while more acid ; one while salt , another while austere ; sometimes of a simple tast , or else compounded of those before-named . the nominated juice is less acid , either bebeause of the animal spirits , more plentifully carried to the pancreas , or for want of acidity in the blood ; whether it may come to pass , by reason of assuming things unfit to repair the acidity taken away , or by the use of such things as infringe , concentrate , obtund , or extinguish acidity . the acidity of the pancreatick juice augmented , for the most part , is to be ascribed to the redundancy of acid humours in the body ; sometimes to the impedited afflux of the animal spirits to the pancreas ; at least-wise , to that part of the juyce which is stagnant in the lateral ducts ; or other-wise , perhaps , by reason of the animal spirits , being exhausted . an acid humour is wont to abound in the body , for the most part , from assumed aliments , sauces , or medicaments , which are sharp , with sharp wines , such as for the most part is renish , mosellanous , &c. as also , because of a more cold air , and north wind , sorrow of mind though not over much , &c. the motion of the animal spirits , to the pancreas , is impedited , when the animal spirits are defective ; or being more dull or slow throughout the whole body ; also , when the nerves are obstructed , dissecated , or compressed . the succus pancreaticus is made salt by a marine , or fossile salsitude , in like manner , because of the serosity of the blood likewise salt ; perhaps by a like fault of the glandules concurring ; for which reason , the secretion of the saline parts from the acid , cannot be absolved : for , our common salt consisteth of two parts , to wit , a lixivious salt , and an acid spirit joyned together . the austerity of the pancreatick juice seemeth to us , to be deduced from the more gross , or terrene particles , with which its acid particles are involved ; which appeareth , not only in fruits , being first soure , afterwards , when by the gentle heat of the sun , they are ripened , they are made a little more acid ; and at length , when the more gross particles thereof , by the agitation of heat , are more exalted , they become sweet . but moreover it is manifest , that those things which are sower , it is by their syncrisis and diacrisis : so d. paisenus hath noted in thesi . xxi . c. that the juyce of ribes , being powred to coral of a grateful acid , becomes austere . vitriol and allum distilled , yield an acid spirit : likewise an acid spirit may be distilled from sealed earths , bole armeniack , and the like ; but how bole armen . may by the help of nitre and other things , be made more astringent , is to be seen in le febre , in his french edition . page . chap. viii . the functions which are vitiated by the pancreas , or it's juyce evilly disposed . having declared the more grievous vices wherewith the pancreas and its juyce are wont to be affected , every man may see , that from that fountain very many incommodities to mortals do proceed ; all which things , seeing we have proposed to handle them in order , we shall first judge of those which proceed from the pancreas it self , by subjoyning those things which are wont to flow from its juyce . if the pancreas acquire a schirrous substance resembling stones , and also weighty in the place where it should defend the sanguinous vessels , as some would have it , lest they should be hurt by the vertaebrae , or other parts , it will greatly afflict them by compression , and will hinder the circular motion of the blood , from whence divers distentions , inflammations , obstructions , and other things arise , and spring up , fit to impedite the common use of the bowels . besides also by its weight , it will not a little hinder the stomach from performing its office by compressing it ; but when it is inflamed , or aposthumated , for the most part it will cause the same incommodities with the other bowels , being afflicted with the same vice. but some may say , if such grievous effects happen to the pancreas , how can the use thereof be so necessary , and how do we hitherto live so long with them ? then may we also demand how those men may live , to whose brain , heart , liver , and other bowels necessary to life , the same , or the like things happen , and we shall further enquire of them , by what reason such may live well or ill ? the histories above do certainly testifie , that such live a miserable life , and when the evil shall be increased , those also for no other cause have changed life for death : so that from that part can nothing be infer'd against our hypothesis . having unfolded the incommodities arising from the parenchyma of the pancreas it self , it remaineth , that we also run through the functious hurt , which the evil qualities , or vices of the pancreatick juyce , or other humours existing in the thin gutt , do draw after them . therefore the pancreatick juyce being driven to the intestines in a lesser quantity , will not sufficiently free the gutts from the superfluous humidity in them , and so will occasion many obstructions , as the learned r. lower , who judgeth this juyce to be ordained by nature to cleanse the chyle ; he writeth in his treatise of the heart , chap. . page . that by the defect thereof , he hath observed obstructions of the venae lacteae , in these very words . it seems to me most true , that that great glandule ( namely the pancreas ) is seated in that place ; and that ductus to be opened into the intestines , that the lympha ( for so he calleth the pancreatick juyce ) being there separated , may be mixed with the descending chyle , whereby it may more readily enter , and more expeditely pass through the narrow channel of the lactean veins ; and indeed the chyle in the milkey vessels , either because of its crascitie , or for want of potulent liquor ( which ought to be for its vehicle ) may sometimes be apt to be stagnant , and so concrete , and by the same reason , to stop , and altogether fill up those vessels , as in a dog , whose pancreas was obdurated i once observed . neither also will it sufficiently promote the natural , and due separation of the chyle from the excrements , and that especially if the aliments be more dry , or of a more difficult fermentation : hence necessarily follows a diminished nutrition of the whole body , as also a universal languishing ; so that , such may rather be said to draw life , than to live . but the pancreatick juice , being separated in a larger quantity ; and brought to the intestines , will , as it were , pare off , not only their superfluous pituity , but also that necessary part which should defend them from injuries like a curry-comb ; and besides , it will separate more than it ought , from the assumed aliments , so that , sometimes the unprofitable , and excrementitious parts , together with the profitable , may be conveyed to the mass of blood ; sometimes only the profitable parts , but in a larger quantity than they should , may be carryed by the same wayes : from whence , if here we say a pethora will happen , and thence a cacochymy , who can overthrow our assertions ? more-over , we think that the lancionations , in the left hypocondria , first molested by courses , do proceed from too great a quantity of the bile and pancreatick juyce , separated from the blood , by a more vehement motion of the body , and the stirring up a greater effervescency . for , it is most certain , that running , or any other vehement exercise of the body , doth accelerate the motion of the blood , through the whole body ; which , seeing it is the cause of the separation of these or other humours , then it is also necessary , that those humours be deposited into the guts in a greater plenty ; which , being separated in a natural quantity , and quality , if , as we have already proved , they may excite a natural and friendly effervescency to nature , may not the contrary happen when they are otherwise disposed by exciting an effervescency , greater , and troublesome to nature ? after a wonderful manner doth that place confirm this our opinion , in which those paines are perceived by course , and very ordinarily , though unjustly , are ascribed to the spleen ; because the spleen is not in that place , where those pains do in us excite a molestation , but hath its seat more down-wards ; because in that place those paines do manifest themselves in the anteriour part of the hypocondria , where the thin gut m , emerging under the mesentery n , doth lye by the peritonaeum , as is to be seen in the first table , where we have delineated to the life the scituation of that intestine . the inequal separation of the succus pancreaticus , and propulsion thereof , to the intestines , produceth various mutations in the guts , and else-where , concerning the suddain happening of which , no man will ever assigne a fit reason , who will not give heed to those things . hence we think to be deduced the suddain deliquiums of the wind sometimes advening , erratick feavers , intermitious of pulses , &c. the pancreatick juice being more fluid , will more dilute the pituity of the guts , and perhaps sometimes occasion the flux of the belly ; especially if it be conjoyned with a salsitude , by whose acrimony the guts are provoked to their contraction ; and unless that flux of the belly follow the peristaltick motion of the guts , it will necessarily express a greater quantity of chyle into the venae lacteae , from whence the same incommodities will arise , which we have deduced from the pancreatick juyce , separated in too large a quantity . the more viscid pancreatick juice concreting by the least external cold , will occasion obstructions , as also intermitting feavers , and likewise astringe the belly . concerning the sensible qualities , and first of the rellish , there is sometimes produced a pancreatick juyce less acid ; from whence there is neither a due effervescency in the duodenum , and therefore not a necessary separation of the profitable parts from the unprofitable , nor a desired consistency bestowed on the blood : and therefore they , in whom such blood is , have been less able to resist pestilential venom , than those in whom , by the laudable acidity of their pancreatick juice , have also a more laudable and greater consistency of their blood. hence the reason is also clear , why melancholly men are less afflicted with the plague , than those who are endued with a bilious blood . for we think that no man may be infected with the plague , so long as the natural consistency of his blood is preserved : we assert this the more freely , because we see the blood in all persons infected with the plague to be altered , and obtain a far more fluid consistency : so that if sometimes by chance , negligence , ignorance , or any other urging cause ; as for example , too great a plethory , spitting of blood bringing a present danger to life , let a vein be opened , the blood flowing out although refrigerated ; nevertheless , is in no wise coagulated , neither can it acquire a due consistency , even as sometimes is wont to happen to the animal spirits , being loosed from their fetters , and dissipated from the acidity existing in the blood , wherefore also such a blood by divers practitioners is called putrid . we commonly say , because it may so happen , that the whole mass of blood , not as yet equally infected , the laudible part of the blood in the cutting of a vein , may only flow out , the blood remaining in the body being depraved ; the which thing practitioners daily observe to happen in venae-section ; we do not only think with other practitioners , that the blood remains fluid , without the bodies of those who are infected with the plague ; but do also affirm the like fluidity in the bodies of those extinguished by the pest , as we have learned by experience , which perhaps may seem strange to those who know not the nature of volatile salts , but not so to us , who have very often mingled it with the blood , and the blood always remained fluid , the which cannot be certainly expected from the commixture of any other thing , with the blood , then volatile salts . but on the contrary , if you mingle any acid spirit with the blood dictum factum , the blood will be more or less coagulated , according as that spirit shall be more or less acid ; as for example , if to try the experiment , we take oyle of vitriol , oyle of sulphur per campanum , aqua fortis , aqua regia , &c. besides , that the blood will presently be coagulated by them , it also acquires a ches-nut colour . but if we take the dulcid spirit of salt , juice of lammons , distilled vinegar or the like , whose acid spirit is more temperate , the blood will only acquire the consistency of a grosser syrup , with its red colour remaining unhurt . from whence it is evident , the use of acids may preserve men from the plague , not , as according to the opinion of many authors , that they cut and attenuate ; but as they preserve the natural consistency of the blood , and do hinder its being infected , with a more sharp volatile salt , which we , together with the air , suck into our bodies : for this cause , the most famous dr. sylvius , who likewise hath constituted the venom of the plague , in a more sharp volatile salt ; when , some years since , in the great plague at amsterdam , which he fore-saw , he took a crust of bread , imbrued with white-wine-vinegar , in which mary-golds had likewise been steeped ; by which alexipharmack he so well preserved himself , that he never was infected with the pestilential venome . but when , through too much hast , he omitted the said alexipharmack , as soon as he entred into an infected house , he was infected with a pain in the head ; from which , at other times , he was free . which things being rightly considered , every one may see that the pestilent venome is not indued with any force of coagulating , as the most learned willis hath stated it , in his treatise of feavers , c. . but seeing that dr. dela-font hath sufficiently cleared this to all opposers , in his discourse concerning the pestilent venome , chap. viii . we shall not spend any more time , either to the reader , or our selves , but wave the further disquisition of those things ; because it is ( besides ) our purpose in this treatise , accurately , to describe the pestilence : wherefore we will leave the rest to a further occasion , seeing it is time that we return to the incommodities flowing from the more acid pancreatick juyce . the pancreatick juyce , being more sharp , is the cause , first , of every internal cold , being first of all felt in the region of the loyns , and afterwards dispersed into the whole body ; as for the most part , we observe in the beginning of the fits of agues , or intermitting feavers . secondly , of all cutting paines , as well in the hypocondria's , and whole belly , as in other parts of the body . thirdly , of all manifest paines in the belly , from whence the sick is sometimes tormented after a wonderful manner . wherefore we deduce all the black and aeruginous bile from the same , more acid , pancreatick juyce : because sometimes being put into a pewter chamber pot , or brass bason , they corrode the same , and send forth a sharp savour ; and also excite a manifest effervescency ; which every man , who hath saluted but the threshold of chymistry , knows , cannot happen from any thing but acids : from whence , they may be compelled to confess their errour ; who affirm , that all black choler , proceeding from vomitting , or dejection of the belly , comes from the follicles of the gall , or the spleen . all these things are not a little confirmed , by the following experiment , sometimes made by us in a dog ; in the section of whom , being alive , having opened the duodenum , we found a greenish liquor among the black , such as the antients have depicted to us for atrabilis : that we might pursue a more intimate cognition thereof , we examined diligently all the wayes through which any thing might be transfer'd to that intestine ; and seeing that besides the bilar duct , the pancreatick , and the ventrile , there was no way perceptible to the sight , through which any notable quantity of humors might be afforded to the intestines ; we judge therefore , that in one of those , the matter thereof must be obscured : wherefore we examined all those wayes ; in the first whereof , we found the bile , naturally constituted , that waxing yellow from a green : in the second we found the pancreatick juyce most limpid , like to distilled water : in the third we found the aliments half crude , having the colour of white ashes . seeing therefore that neither the liver , nor the pancreas , nor also the stomach , carryed that atrabilis to the intestine , we began to suspect whether that atrabilis might not emerge by the union of two or three of those humours , being mingled together by course : concerning which thing , that we might attain to a greater certainty , we affused spirit of vitriol to the bile , drawn forth from its vesicle , and placed it in the heat of the sun ; from whence there was commonly excited from the black , a greenish liquor , such as we first found in the duodenum : hence we concluded the said humour , called atrabilis , not to flow from this , or that part , but to be generated in the duodenum . namely , as the natural colour of the bile hath been transmitted into black , and green , by the concourse of the more acid pancreatick juyce . seeing that the pancreatick juyce , by the ordinary law of nature , may continually be mingled with the bile , and the intestinal pituity , we will a little propose the same , as joyn'd with those humours . if it chanceth that the more sluggish pancreatick juyce , bounds with a sharper bile , and the intestinal pituity rightly constituted , the strength of the pancreatick juyce , in that concourse , will be altogether infringed ; and the exhalations , which are excited by the effervescency of those humours , will ascend , not so much with acid , as lixivious particles ; which , when they reach to the stomach , by infringing its fermentation , they will hinder the concoction of the aliment , and destroy the appetite : but if it happen that those exhalations ascend to the jaws , there , amongst other incommodities , they will induce a dryness of the mouth , especially if they infect the spittle with their salsitude : but if they proceed further , through the milky veines to the heart , from whence , with the blood , they may pass through the other parts of the body , they will also produce a heat in those , as at first in the intestines ; and there more troublesome , where those exhalations are most sharp . if a more sharp pancreatick juyce concurreth with a sharper bile , there will presently be a mighty effervescency excited in the duodenum , whereby the intestines are sometimes so distended , that they threaten a ruption ; which thing we have very often observed , whilst we applyed our selves to our study in leyden , whilst we mixed together divers liquors sit for fermentation in two little vessels , in part of the intestine intercepted by ligatures , ( even as d. schuyl hath expressed it , fig. b. in his treatise , de veteri medicina ) wherefore we judge , in the first instant emission of those sharp exhalations which way soever turn'd about , that , that effervescency will excite very many grievous incommodities ; many whereof will also presently cease by the dissipation of those exhalations , because either humour being enervated after that intestinal conflict layes down its force , and ceaseth from further contention ; for in such an effervescency the acid particles are so joyned with the saline , that without great difficulty they are never to be separated ; wherefore as unworthy they are expelled from the body for atra-bilis , if the acid over-grow the salt , and get dominion ; in the mean time , they most miserably afflict the body , no otherwise than as hostile souldiers , the place through which they pass , by eroding , and ulcerating , &c. from whence fluxes of the belly , vomitings , tenesmus , dysenteries , and six hundred other incommodities springing from the atra-bilis will proceed , and those the more grievous , or more gentle , as the acidity of the pancreatick juyce shall remain more or less , intemperate after the said conflict . if besides the bile , and the pancreatick juyce offending even now spoken of , much phlegme sticks in the gutts , and if the same phlegme be viscous , by reason of the incommodities already declared , there will happen flatulencies , the force and energy of which , whereby they are obnoxious to men , he that desireth to be informed , let him read j. fiennus , and others , who have professedly written of flatulencies . if a sharper pancreatick juyce concurs with a more sluggish bile , it will not excite so manifest an effervescency , but by its acrimony will stir up wringings of the gutts , erosions , &c. but if being more intemperate , passing through the little channels of the lactean veins , it toucheth the first and last residence of life , it will produce the auxiety of the heart , syncope , and many other incommodities hereafter recited , whose symptoms will be of larger continuance than those which we have deemed to arise from exhalations , and from thence a greater intemperance of the pancreatick juyce may be feared , when the bile , wherewith it is wont to be attempred , is sluggish and insipid , as the most learned glisson , amongst other things writeth , that he hath observed in his anatomy of the liver , at the end of the . chapter , where he saith : there was with us a woman cachectick , in whose biliar vesicle we found a serous humour a little pale , little bitter , or rather insipid , but next to a sweetness . the like to which we have also observed in the icterick , or those afflicted with the jaundies , in the year . being dissected by the famous sylvius , in the hospital of leyden , whose bile , whilst we more accurately examined , in the house of d. elsner , in the presence of d. kohnius , we found it plainly serous , and so little indued with a yellow colour , that a linnen rag being put into it , would scarcely be tinged with any yellowness , and to the tongue exhibited little or nothing of amaritude . chap. ix . the diseases proceeding from a vitiated pancreatick juyce . even as from the vitiation of the pancreatick juyce , we have shewed that divers functions are hurt ; so from the same fountain do we judge that various effects may be derived : amongst which we shall deservedly assigne the first and chiefest place to all agues , and intermitting feavours , because we judge the accesses thereof to be ascribed to the pancreatick juyce , being stagnant in one or more of the lateral ducts , by reason of an obstruction made by phlegme , and by reason of the force of the acrimony increased , one while sooner , another while later , prepareth a passage for it self through the obstructing pituity , then causing a vicious effervescency in the duodenum , and being translated to the heart , produceth a preternatural pulse . which opinion , seeing that hitherto it hath been known to few , to avoid confusion in the end of this little book , we have set a part an entire chapter , wherein we will treat of intermitting feavers , to which we send the reader , whilst in the mean time , we go forward to the other diseases , springing from this more intemperate juyce . it seems probable to us , that the cause of the arthritis ( or gout ) derives its original from the said acid pancreatick juyce ; namely , when its elevated acidity , either with phlegme , or the serum of the blood is carried to the joynts , and lyeth in them ; the symptoms also concurring , seems to perswade the same thing to us ; for those pains for the most part are wont both to invade , and be exasperated with a paroxysme of a feaver , but according to the diverse manner , wherewith the bile and the intestinal pituity are affected ; so those paines of the joynts do also manifest themselves after a diverse mode , with the rest of the concomitant symptoms . the same thing is testified by the urine , which once for curiosity sake , we tasted with doctor roosendael , in which we found a notable acidity . we have also observed ( which seems not a little to confirm this our opinion ) in these regions , that wine , especially renish , is exceedingly adverse to those who are obnoxious to this distemper ; the which we judge to happen from the same , because that wine contains in it a greater acidity than other wines . that this more acid pancreatick juyce doth increase hunger , and stir up and insatiable , and dog-like appetite ; few hereafter will doubt , who have considered diligently , that the pancreatick juyce , and the sharp exhalations thereof do ascend even into the stomach , as is manifest by the sower belchings , violently breaking forth , and sometimes by the vomiting forth of humours , more or less acid . if they say that that juyce which is effused into the intestine , the breadth of four fingers below the pylorus , cannot ascend through the pylorus into the stomach , it being naturally shut ; we may also ask how the bile ( which by all is granted ) may ascend to the stomach , which issueth into the intestine by the same passage : if they say it comes to pass by the in verted peristaltick motion of the intestines , we then say , that by the same motion , the pancreatick juyce may also ascend , to which we shall adde that exhalations do far more easily ascend into the stomach than the humours . more acid exhalations being excited , from the pancreatick juyce , through its effervescency , and altogether with flatulencies , carryed through the venae lactae to the heart , and from thence to the lungs , and there sticking , do not only cause a difficult respiration , but also a dry cough ; the confirmation of which , we have not only seen in the hospital of leyden , but else-where : for , in the diffecting of dead bodies , we have often found the parenchyma of the lungs , and its vessels , as yet distended with wind. if a viscid pituity accompanies those windy exhalations , and be detained in the lungs , what doth it then produce but the species of an asthma ? but if those exhalations , and flatulencies , do tend further to the head , the paines thereof will produce alienation of the mind , and sometimes infinite other discommodities ; every man may believe , that the epileptick invasions of children , which they call stuypiens , doth proceed from the said , more acid , pancreatick juyce , who hath accurately attended to those invasions , and the symptomes accompanying them , and the way of cure : for , besides that acidity , which doth very often breath through the mouth , they suffer the gripings of the belly ; the milk may likewise be perceived to be concreted , both upwards , and downwards ; the excrements of the belly are more green , and give forth a sharp odour : they are also cured by the tempering of acidity : as for example , with aqua feniculi , aqua lilliorū conuallium , spir. salis armoniaci , &c. the same , more acid , pancratick juyce , carryed to the blood , through the lactean veines , will give it a greater consistency ; whence the blood , less rarifying , will produce a lesser pulse : from which , vice highly exceeding , we judge a syncope , sometimes to be produced , which is not a little confirmed by that example which lazarus riverius relates in lib. viii . fol. . of his practice concerning that syncope , which p. salius , as he reports , lib. de afect . practic . cap. iv. observed in a girle of years of age : who , after a dayes suffering of heaviness of the head , vertigo , and grievous anxieties , the day following suddainly dyed : afterwards her body being diffected , the whole blood in the great artery and the vena cava appeared to be concreted , and so changed that it might intirely be drawn out from the vein , and artery , even as a sword out of its scabbard . concerning which thing , if any doubt , either by ours , or others examples , let him take an acid liquor , and pour it , by degrees , into the vein of any living dog , and he shall not only observe the blood , therein , to be so coagulated , and concreted , that the greater bloody vessels may be transversly cut , without the effusion of the blood ; but also when the acid liquor shall come , in a notable quantity , to the right ventricle of the heart , that it will presently extinguish , and kill the dog. also , no man will deny , that convulsions , for the most part , proceed from an internal cause , from the acrimony of humours , irritating the nerves , and causing , by a greater influx of the animal spirits , into the muscles , involuntary , and also violent motions : but when there is a two fold acrimony of humours , viz. acid , and salt , some perhaps may doubt , which of these do most frequently produce those convulsive motions : but , for as much as we can observe , they rather proceed from an acid acrimony , than a salt : because we see that aromatick medicaments , and those abounding with a volatile salt , do very much conduce to their cure ; which would never come to pass , if they drew their original from a saline acrimony . besides , they are accompanyed with such symptomes , which are wont to be the concomitants of diseases , arising from an acid acrimony : yea , the effects of acids are allowed to be far more powerful , as is to be seen in helmont de lithiasi . cap. . pag. . § . . where he relates , that he saw a chymist , which , after he had been much conversant about making of aqua regia , he fell into the palpitation of the heart , convulsions , and many other incredible dolours , by reason of the acid exhalations , which mingled themselves with his blood. from the same acidity we stedfastly believe , that the strangury is very often produced , seeing that , together with other students , we have sometimes found the urines of such as have laboured under the strangury , in the hospital of leyden , to be acid ; and also seen the same persons cured with such medicines , as temper acidity . the which if you are minded to try , saith helmont , de pleura furente § . . whether or no the strangury may not proceed from acidity , mix some drops at least of sharp wine , with the vrine , lately sent forth without pain , and inject it again by a syringe , and you shall find , to your pain , that what i say , is true . also , that from the more acid pancreatick juyce , ulcers do sometimes break forth in the skin , corroding the same , as also producing very great paines , they will not deny , who , following the opinions of the antients , determine them to arise from the atra-bilis ; seeing that the atra-bilis of the antients ( as we have above demonstrated ) hath its original from the more acid pancreatick juyce . we are like-wise plainly perswaded , that the more acid pancreatick juyce , especially if it hath any austerity conjoyned with it , produceth a greater astringency of the belly . for , if the bile , by its acrimony irritating the guts ( as is granted ) may excite the flux of the belly , why may not that , which is contrary to such a bile , produce a contrary effect ? notwithstanding , if the belly be bound by a viscid matter , then we think , likewise , that a flux may happen from the sharper pancreatick juyce , as it hath a power of inciding , and attenuating , the viscid pituity : from which it is manifest , that the pancreatick juyce , according to the diversity of humours , concurring with it , doth very often produce a diverse and contrary effect ; which thing we would have well noted , lest we should seem to contradict our self , in explicating the effects of this juyce . as yet we think , even as we seem to have already said , that the atra and eruginous bile is excited from the more acid pancreatick juyce , and a certain sharp bile concurring ; and consequently all diseases , which authors deduce from them ; and therefore they are not cured by other medicaments , than those which are fit to correct the more acid pancreatick juyce : which , as it is consonant with reason ; so it will not appear incredible to those , who will consider the things above spoken by us , with a more attentive mind . but perhaps some will say , after what manner doth the pancreatick juyce produce the atra-bilis , seeing that we have ascribed the whitishness of the chyle , after the effervescency , in the thin gut , to the acidity of the pancreatick juyce ? to which we answer , that acids , according to the diversity of the matter where-with they are mixed , do also produce a divers colour ; for example , pour an acid spirit to common sulphur , dissolved in a lixivium , and its red colour will be changed into white . antimony calcind , with nitre or chalk , being boyl'd in fountain-water , and any acid thing , being affused to its clear colature , will presently acquire a saffron colour . a clear infusion of galls , mixed with the solution of vitriol , maketh ink , to which , if you add the acid spirit of vitriol , that ink will lose all its blackness , and become clear , like to fountain-water . the blew tincture of violets , being mixed with oyle of vitriol , will wax into a purple . the wood acanthus brought from brasile , being infused in common water , doth freely yeild a red tincture , which put to distilled vinegar , acquires a colour like to white-wine . a knife , after it , hath cut a pomecitron , in the middle , unless it be wiped , and cleansed , from the soure juyce of the citron , in a short time will be reduced to a nigrous colour . and why from the same acidity too much exalted in ulcers , the cyrurgions probe may not be stained with a certain blackness , ( as we have very often observed ) and such ulcers be happily cured by temperating of the acidity , ( as helmont admonisheth de blase humano , § . . we leave to the judgment of others ? it may here suffice for us to have proved , that from one and the same acid , permixed with diverse things ; one while a white , another a black , another a yellow , another a purple , and so moreover other colours may arise . he which desireth to excite many colours in the solution of minerals and vegitables endued with no colour , let him go to that most curious treatise which d. willis hath written , concerning fermentation , where pag. . edit . ang. he may find very many mutations of colours not unprofitable ; and being about to assigne the reason thereof , he saith in the following page : if the reason of this phaeno-mena be enquired , it ought altogether to be deduced from those minute particles within the pores of every contained liquor ; which according to the scituation and position , being after a divers manner altered by the infusion of another liquor , do diversly transmit the beams of the light , and manifoldly break , or reflect it , and so cause the divers appearances of colours , &c. having now unfolded the diseases risen from the more acid pancreatick juyce , we seem in our selves to hear some in short to ask the question , from whence the acid humour in the body may proceed , if we do not use any acid things ? to which we answer , that we can in no wise want those things which abound with an acidity . for there is an acidity in the air , which appeareth , if the caput mortuum of vitriol be exposed to the air , which from the same eliciteth a new acidity . also , that the air is full of nitrous particles , gassendus , entius , digbaeus , and others , which professedly , or otherwise ingeniously treat of this matter , have proved : but no man is ignorant , that nitre containeth in it self an acidity . there is also an acidity inherent in aliments : for in kitchings , if flesh , or other aliments , begin to corrupt , their broth doth wax sower ; yea , we have collected an acid spirit in quantity sufficiently large , from the sweetest of condiments , to wit , sugar , by chymical art. there is also an acidity inherent in drink ; for beer , or ale , as also wine , being left to themselves , without the addition of any other thing , do wax soure : from whence , it is no wonder , as hippocrates witnesseth , lib. de vet. med. text. that there should be an acidity in men. but , it being granted , that there is an acid humour in our bodies , some one , more desirous of truth , may ask , how it comes to pass , that it doth not only corrode the parts of our bodies , but also copper , and tinn , as we have shewed above ? to this we shall also answer , that the fermentations , continually happening in our bodies , is sufficicient for this thing : for , we daily see that by their help , many things are very sharp , which before were sweet , or at least temperate : vvhether now this may happen by the dissipation of the animal spirits , or by reason of any other inward cause , we leave to the judgment of others . likewise , experience testifies , that men , feeding upon a cold diet , do sometimes , for the same reason , and cause , fall into burning feavers . we have also deservedly ascribed the uterine suffocation , or mother-fits , so called , to the pancreatick juyce divers ways vitiated , but especially the austere : the following observation seems to give us no small light into the truth of this matter , which our friend elsnerus , in the year . sent to us from paris to andegave : we opened ( saith he ) a maid , extinguished by the suffocation of the womb , in whose dead body we found nothing at all , to which death might be ascribed , but the blood coagulated in the ventricles of the heart , beyond the order of nature . which too much coagulation of the blood may not be deduced from any other cause , than from an acid juyce , as we have sufficiently proved . but the reason why we judge that this effect is not produced by the pancreatick juyce , being simply acid , is , that all women which have a sharp pancreatick juyce , are not affected with that disease : and therefore we do the more easily believe , that there is an austerity , or harsh sowerness present with it ; because we have known almost the like disease excited from the pancreatick juyce , being austere , in a certain bitch , as also in a famous man , the truth of which the following testimony freely exhibiteth to us ; done in the year . as it was communicated to me by the most expert dr. sylvius : i tested the pancreatick juyce , and found it ( first ) as it were saltish ; but afterward , the relish being some-what changed , it seemed then to be sub-acid , with a light austerity ; there was such a stink produced in my mouth , that two of my acquaintance , which were with us , admonished me concerning it : the stink was like to that which riseth from muddy , and strinking water . my mouth , and jaws , were not only exsiccated , or dried , but also so constringed , that i seemed to be suffoccated ; which like thing , i suffer by a disease familiar to me : and all these things vanished not suddainly , but remained , and endured for a while , till they left me by degrees , and of their own accord . the bitch's juyce was brought to the famous dr. sylvius , and exhibited to his tast , in our presence . from this , and the like observations , it seemeth not absurd to assert , that men may some-time be affected with a like hysterick suffocation ; especially , when its nearest cause happens , not from the vvomb , but from the small gut ; in which , by reason of the vitious effervescency of concurring humours excited , exhalations , and austere flatulencies are stirred up ; which , as often as they arise through the oesephagus , or gullet , and come to the arteria-asperia , or wind-pipe , they so constringe those parts , that the sick think themselves to be in the peril of strangulation , or choaking . that divers species of the hypocondriack affection may be produced by the said pancreatick juyce divers ways vitiated , the books of practical physitians do testifie , and the symptoms confirme . but that we stay no longer upon the more acid , and austere pancreatick juyce , and the effects from them arising ; we think fit to deduce at least one effect from the said juyce more salt , imagine a serous diarrhaea , which by its saline acrimony , produceth a more violent , and more frequent peristaltick motion of the gutts . these things being rightly considered , we doubt not but that by a diligent tract of time , by the observation of those who happen to be conversant about the sick , many effects will be made more manifest : and if there be more of art in knowing than in curing diseases , who sees not that this pancreatick juyce being altogether known , the cure of many diseases may be performed more easily , more speedily , and more profitably . first of all in this treatise , we have described the diseases taking their original from a more acid pancreatick juyce , because they more often occur , and produce greater trouble , than those which derive their original from this juyce by any other way vitiated , for the acid humour excelling the rest , witness hippoc. lib. de vet. med. text. . . of all others is the most incommodious . chap. x. how the vitiated pancreatick juyce may be corrected . seeing that it is not sufficient to have said in what manner the pancreatick juyce may offend , namely , by exercising too great an acidity , salsitude , and amaritude ; we have not restored it , saith hyppocrates , before that the same be purged , and overthrown by the admixing of other things , lib. de vet . med. text . but with what medicaments the vices of the pancreatick juyce , above declared , may more easily be tempered , or evacuated we shall now handle in brief . the more sparing separation , or excretion , of the pancreatick juyce , happening by reason of viscidity , will be cured by medicines , correcting any viscidity ; such are volatile acids , as also salts , as well volatile as fixt ; especially the volatile salt of amber seems to agree with our business ; which , besides the volatile salt , also containes certain acid particles : but , as often as the pancreatick juyce is thought to be less acid , then use pure acids , on the contrary , as often as the acidity thereof exceeds , then salts are most conducible . when the excretion of the pancreatick juyce is more sparing , by reason of an obstruction happening in one or more of the lateral ducts , the medicines , but now spoken of , are also profitable ; for , except they loosen , cleanse , and cast forth the obstructing pituity , or remedy the viscous crudity of the blood , they will certainly profit nothing , as we shall endeavour , more largely , to explain the same in the subsequent chapter , when we shall treat of intermitting feavers . the more copious increase of the pancreatick juyce , will be cured , as well by abstaining from much drink , especially such as is sharp ; also by using such medicaments as may expel it from the body by the belly ; as also sweats , and urines . but , among such medicaments , as educe it by the belly , such as purge-water , are convenient above others ; by help whereof , the serous humours are purged , more than the bilious : which , some years since , we have observed in not a few dogs , to whom we exhibited , as well hydragogues as cholagues ; and , seeing that they excellently deponed the belly , we suddenly opened the abdomen , at the very time of purgation ; the dog 's as yet living ; which done , we could observe , although difficulty , in those to whom we had given a cholagogue , viz. one dram of diagredium , that the bile did flow in a far greater quantity , from the intestinal biliar duct ; but in another , to whom we had exhibited a hydragogue , namely , of powder of jallap two drams , we observed that the pancreatick juyce did break forth in a large quantity , from its ductus into the intestines , although then the bile also did issue forth in a great quantity ; and in another , to whom we had given a cholagogue , the pancreatick juyce did also flow forth in a greater quantity , than usuall ; nevertheless we are able to collect , that the bile is far more copiously purged by cholagogues , and the pancreatick juyce by hydragogues . in these experiments , performed other things , did yet occur , worthy of note ; for first of all , at the very time of purgation , there was nothing deposited through the meseraick arteries into the cavity of the intestines ; but what so ever of a liquid matter remained in them , after expression , was sucked up by the venae lacteae , or meseraick veines . secondly , that those ducts , in whom the lactean veines appeared not : after . or . hours exhibition of aliment , we cut the abdomen in them ; neither the bile , nor the pancreatick juyce , was carryed to the intestine , in a more than usual quantity . concerning which , seeing that other things , as yet remain to be spoken to , we shall defer it to another occasion , untill by many experiments , more surely made , we shall more perfectly ( also ) understand the force of other medicaments . the pancreatick juyce , over fluid , will be corrected by the prudent assumption of viscid aliments ; such are pills of hound's tongue , and other things which incrassate . in reference to the qualities of the pancreatick juyce , perceptible to the tast , if it offends by too much acidity , austerity , or salsity , it will be cured , first , with altering medicines , as hippocrates hath rightly taught us , de vet. med. tex . . . where he saith : and i perceive all other fluxes , which happen by reason of the acrimony , and intemperances of humours , are restored by their tempering and cocting . but that will easily be absolved by the administration of the medicines , even now spoken of . the more acid pancreatick juyce will be cured , first , with a pure volatile salt , as an aromatick , by tempering the same . secondly , it will be cured with a lixivious salt , as well fixed as volatile , by infringing its power . thirdly , it will be cured by crabs eyes , coralls , chalk , shells , especially being calcined , fileings of steel , and the like , by concentrating it . fourthly , it will be cured , by oleous emulsions , as also , by diverse oyles , made as well by expression , as distillation , as it were wrapping about it , and blunting the edge thereof . [ i know not how to render obvoluo and obtundo better ] . fifthly . it will be cured with water , & watery things , washing and weakning it . but here no purges are to be exhibited ; because , hitherto , none are known ; which , without great difficulty , do educe the acid humours , not tempered ; so that , aphorisme of hippoc. . sect. . which saith , things cocted not crude , being brought forth by a purging medicine , are not crude in their beginning , unless they swell : but many do not swell ; doth rightly here take place . the austere pancreatick juyce will be cured by volatile salts , as first , by the distilled spirit of salt ammoniac , after the addition of salt of tartar , and water ; to which also , may be referred castor , and its tincture . the salt pancreatick juyce , and a diarhaea , from thence arising , may be cured by the diascordium of fracastorius , pills of hound's tongue , coralls , burnt hart's-horn , bezoar-stone , and other things incrassating , and also concentrating salsitude . chap. xi . the history of agues , or intermitting feavers . because we have before promised , in the nineth chapter , that we would , in this place , demonstrate , that intermitting feavers have their original from the preternatural disposition of the said pancreatick juyce , we cannot but annex their history ; not because , the difficulty of explicating these feavers , is obscure to us , nor shunneth none of the most expert physitians ; so as , hither-to , they have not satisfied the curious in their explications : so that , being by most passed over with a dry foot , they have left behind them a series of innumerable difficulties ; but , because we judge it to be a thing of so great moment , that as many as hither-to have given themselves to the search of intermitting feavers , have still desired to this labour , the further industry of other learned men : for , very many diseases do every day occur in our practice , wherein that feaver either proceedeth , is concomitant , or doth follow ; so that , sometimes it requireth an intire method of curation , for it self . which , seeing it is so , we think our cogitations , and experiments , not to be ingrateful to the curious searchers of nature , especially if we hold their minds not long in suspence , by rehearsing the sentenses and opinions of many authors , as they ordinarily have done , who have gone before us , in the same kind of study : or retain those things , by shewing an intire series of questions , relating more to curiosity , than to the necessity of the thing to be known ; but we shall presently expound , in a few words , as much as is possible , those things which we judge concerning this matter . seeing that aristotle hath rightly said , lib. . physic . cap. . that there can be a sure knowledge of nothing , the cause , or original whereof , is not known : we , contrary to the common order , shall endeavour to pursue the nature of intermitting feavers , by searching out their signes and causes . seeing that all physitians , which have hither-to written of intermitting feavers , cry out that their pathognomick signe is a more frequent , and preternatural pulse ; to know the nature , altogether of intermitting feavers , by searching into the causes of the pulse , we judge with the never sufficiently praised fran. de le boe-sylvius , that the cause of a more preternatural pulse , is either ( first ) the too much , and permanent rare-faction of the blood , arising from a more potent fire , breaking forth from the effervescency of both bloods . or , secondly , because of any sharpness , being at one time acid , at another lixivious , another while brinishly salt , driven through the veines , with the blood , to the heart , and internally gnawing the parenchyma of the heart . or , thirdly , something halituously flatulent , and like-wise carried with the blood to the heart , or excited , by the effervescency , in the heart ; and increasing the explication of the ventricles of the heart . or , fourthly , something sharp , or hard , either in the peri-cardium , or else-where existing , and externally gnawing , or pricking the heart . these few things being premised , there is none but may see , that the cause of continuall feavers , is continually carryed to the heart , but the cause of intermittents by intervals . it is not our purpose here to speak of continual feavers , those that are desirous of searching out , and knowing of the nature of those , we recommend them to the practice of dr. sylvius , where , amongst other things , accurately delivered , they may find the exact description of those feavers , chap. . pag. . and we , in the mean-time , being about to deliver the description of intermitting feavers , shall say , that such a focus , or minera , of intermitting feavers , is required , which is apt to transmit the cause of a more frequent , and preternatural pulse , by intervals , to the heart . sundry men have sought this minera , in diverse parts of the body ; some have immagined they have found it in the mass of blood , which , to some others seemed less true , to whom the continual motion of the blood , was known ; because the circulation of the blood is performed once , twice , or four times a day : for , the most accurate dr. lower , in his treatife of the heart , fol. . proveth , that the blood of a man , well disposed , circulateth through the heart , in the space of one hour , thirty times : but being granted , ( which in no wise , may be denyed ) that the mass of blood , of the whole body at least , sometimes in a day , doth flow back to the heart ; part of which , if evilly affected , as often as it transiteth the heart , would produce a fit of a feaver ; and so , from the blood naturally following , neither a tertian , or a quartan feaver may be deduced , unless they say that the blood doth absolve this tragedy , being preternaturally detained in any part of the body ; which like-wise , doth not alike appear to those , to whom it is known , how easily the volatile spirits exhale , by the detention of the blood , and the remaining particles of the blood being made more sharp , do suddenly excite , mutually , among themselves , a heat and inflamation of the part ; to which , if an aposteme be subjoyned that will affect the blood , passing through its circuits continually , and not by intervals : whence if a feaver follows , it ought not to be called an intermitting , but a continuall feaver . if they say that the obstruction is not expected to the generation of intermitting feavers , but to furnish the phlegme which is of that nature that daily , the yellow bile w ch . every third day , and the atra-bile which every fourth day may produce a certain ebullition : many of a higher ingenuity , may ask first whether or no those humours such as they are described in the schools can be demonstrated to be in the mass of blood , seeing it is evident by what is already said the atrabilis derives its original from the yellow bile , and more acid pancreatick juyce . secondly , how doth that seem probable that a humour more cold , tenatious , and unapt for motion , as phlegme , daily , and a hot humour being more fluid and being fit for motion as yellow choler , should every other day onely excite a feaverish ebullition in the blood ; thirdly , how intermitting feavers may be changed from quotidians into tertrans , quartans , and the contrary . fourthly , to what humours they can ascribe quintans , sextans , or those which have more seldome periods ( of which fernelius lib. . cap. . ) if they determine that each feavour draws its original from a certain peculiar humour . but they which have held the minera of intermitting feavers to be latent in some part of the body , have most of them sought it in the abdomen ; for nauceousness , loathing of food , torments , colds , horrors , rigors , and other preludiums of the fits conspicuous to none but such as are more attentively disposed , do shew the abdomen to be evilly habited . a vomiting excited either by nature or art , and very often , presently asswageing the fierceness of the fits , sheweth the principal ways or passages thereof to be evilly habited . the cure it self of the abdomen also in the beginning of the access declareth the same according to fernelius de sede intermittentium lib. . cap. . for fomentations applied to the hypocondriaes procure a remission of horror , rigor , and other symptomes . but what part of the abdomen in these feavers is evilly affected , hath wearied the brains of many ; for so confusedly have they sought their minera , that nothing of certainty can be concluded from their writings or opinions ; for some have sought it in the meseraick veines , some in the branches of the vena porta between the liver and the spleen , some in other vessels , yea also in the great colon , the duplicature of the omentum which is under the ventricle , and in innumerable other things have they determined the focus of intermitting feavours , whose clouds of falsity in these our more happy times the sun of truth hath so discussed and dissipated , that they want not our improvement . therefore least we consume our own , and the readers time , by writing more things obvious as well in the books of the ancients as in the moderns , we shall willingly pass them by : seeing that the cause of all intermitting feavours seemes to us to be contained in the pancreas alone . the reason of this opinion is this , that having considered the parts of the whole body of man , which by intervals only may transmit the cause of these feavers to the heart , none can be found in the whole body to which not only the focus of intermitting feavers , but also the causes of all their symptomes may be imputed besides the pancreas . but some perhaps may say , that heat , thirst , ulcers , breaking forth in the lips of the feaverish , bitter vomitings , cholerick excrements , and other symtomes wont to accompany tertain feavers do declare the bile to be primarily offended , wherefore the cause of all intermitting feavers ought not to be ascribed to the pancreas alone . but truly this objection will fall of its own accord , those things being known which we shall speak of in the following discourse concerning the reasons of divers symptomes ; for we know that in tertians the bile is very often predominant , but it is to be noted that its abundance doth not cause an intermitting feaver ; because that is perceived after it hath excited a vitious effervesency by intervals with the pancreatick juice , in which if the bile gets dominion , the signs thereof even now declared do somtimes manifest themselves ; but because this effervescency proceeds from the pancreatick juice preternaturally disposed , that feaver is not ascribed to the bile , but to the pancreatick juyce , as , by the sequel , shall more plainly appear . we judge the cause of intermitting feavers to be an obstruction , made in one or more of the lateral ducts ; because of pituity , carryed thither in too large a quantity , and there detained : vvhich thing seems to us to happen for the following reason ; to wit , for as much , as the pituity , of the thin guts , especially that sticking to the sides , lest they should be hurt by the abounding humours , being in too great a quantity , by reason of the immoderate exercises of the body , and perhaps by an over-much use of hot aliments , or by some error , committed in the six non-naturals , is dissolved , and with other humours , carryed to the heart , by the milky veines : from whence , by the order of circulation , this phlegmatick matter , together with the rest of the blood , is driven to the pancreas ; and being separated in its glandules , with the pancreatick juyce , it enters the lateral ducts of the pancreas ; in which , either by the external cold , or of that bowel it concreteth , and is coagulated ; by which reason , it obstructeth either one or more of the laterall ducts . vve think the accesses of intermitting feavers , ought to be ascribed to the pancreatick juyce , stagnant in one or more of the lateral ducts , by reason of an obstruction ; and one while sooner , another while later , preparing a way for it self , through the obstructing phlegme , by its acrimony increased ; and not only causing a vitious effervescency in the small gut ; but being every way carryed , especially to the heart , produceth a more frequent , and preternatural pulse . which , that it may more clearly appear , we shall spend a little time in the unfolding thereof . that coagulation , which we have mentioned to happen in the pancreatick juyce , we have some-time observed in a dog , whose juyce we endeavoured to collect in the winter time ; which , by the cold of the ambient air , was so thickned , that only a little would flow forth , and of a gross consistency , untill the dog , being placed before the fire , between two pillows began to grow hot ; from whence the pancreatick juyce did flow more fluid , and more copiously . we have observed , that the coagulation of the pancreatick juyce hath excited obstructions , in the lateral ducts , of the pancreas , as in the year , with the famous dr. sylvius , in a certain woman , labouring under an intermitting feaver , into whose ductus pancreaticus , after death , we injected , by a syringe , a very volatile blewish liquor ; which , out of the great duct , into which it was cast , did penetrate into most of the lateral ducts , whilst in a few , although more near to the intestinal great duct , by reason of an obstruction , it was stopped : from whence , by the said colour , the substance of the pancreas it self , was tinged in one place , and not in another . the pancreatick juyce , being stagnant in one or more of the lateral ducts , by reason of an obstruction , by its delay becometh more sharp , and at length , perforating the obstructing phlegme , prepareth it self a passage , through the obstruction , into the common or middle duct , until all the detained juyce , being effused , the phlegme as yet adhereing to the sides of the duct , grows together again , and by its mutual reunion , renews the obstruction : whence at length , the pancreatick juyce is collected for the following fit ; which again , by its delay , being made more sharp , doth again perforate the obstructing pituity , and produceth a new paroxysme ; which fits , return alwayes at the same time , as often as the pituity , causing the obstruction , doth occur , in the same quantity , and viscidity , with the pancreatick juyce , of the same acidity , and acrimony . the pancreatick juyce is made more sharp by stagnation , in as much , as the animal spirits do not so straightly embrace it , but leave it obstructing : hence therefore , by the dissipated spirits , wont to attemper it , there redounds a greater acidity of the pancreatick juyce . would you have a simillitude ? we will grant it : new ale , included in hogsheads , whether or no , by a certain delay , it doth not lose its sweetness ? consider , that all wine turns to vinegar , the spirits being dissipated ; also that vinegar it self , by delay , is made more sharp . for , every heat , dissipating the animal spirits , causeth every sharp thing to be more sharp : so that , it ought to seem strange to none , if we say , that the pancreatick juyce , by stagnation , deserteth its genuine disposition , and passeth into a more acid acrimony . but the pancreatick juyce , being made more sharp by stagnation , and effused into the thin gut , with the flegmme and bile , stirs up a vitious effervescency ; and indeed , by reason of such a pancreatick juyce , stretchings , yawnings , and horrors are produced , and every-where a sence of cold , especially in the region of the loynes , in which the fit begins . neither is that first called a feaver , which either the pancreatick juyce , it self , vitiously effervescing in the small gut ; or at least , exhalations from thence arising , and at length , carryed to the right ventricle of the heart ; and , after a certain manner , irritating it to a more frequent contraction of it self . but we judge that the pancreatick juyce , by its acid acrimony , performs this thing ; although nothing hinders , but that something of a saline acrimony , arising from the bile may concur : because we daily observe , that exhalations do ascend in the effervescency , between acids and salts ; which , being moved to the nose , by its acrimony , causeth offence . intermitting feavers by the reason already given , proceeding from the pancreatick juyce , are divided into simple , and compound ; the simple , by reason of their fits , returning at divers times , are distinguished into quotidians which daily , tertians which every other day , & quartans which on the fourth day , quintans which on the fifth , &c. do return . those are called compound which excite divers fits in one and the same sick person , and they are either of the same species : as double quotidians , double or treble tertians , double or treble quartans , &c. or they are of a divers species , as a quotidian with a tertian , a tertian with a quartan , &c. we shall say nothing in this place concerning those feavers which are compounded of intermittents and continual , tho we know they are daily to be observed by practitioners ; for he which hath known & inspected the nature of intermitting and continual feavers , may consider that this complication carryes nothing of difficulty to our opinion , which is clearer than the meridian light. they are also distinguished by reason of an urgent cold , and heat into cold , and burning feavers ; although for the most part the cold is wont to go before , and the heat to follow , vanhelmont in his treatise of feavers chap. . § . . writes that the sick are sometimes troubled with cold alone , and experience also witnesseth the same . hence unless we be egregiously deceived , we may infer with the surest foundation , that the essence of feavers consists not in heat ( as many lead by speculation , more than by the verity of the matter , do boldly maintain ) because then heat would be allways present with the feaver : neither could the feaver be existent without heat , which nevertheless , they do , or may observe daily , who least of all attend to the practise of physick , do but visit the sick : i say they may observe in the beginning of most intermitting feavers , when the bodies of the sick are terrified and shaken with cold , that cold alone is troublesome . nevertheless , lest it should seem a new and unheard of thing , which we speak , that the essence of feavers doth not consist in heat , besides experience , we shall bring the authority of hypocrates which seems to teach the same thing lib. de vet. med. text. . . where he saith : i think this to be the greatest sign that men do fall into feavers not simply because of heat , neither is this simply the cause of the affliction ; but it is bitter and hot , and hot and acid , and salt and hot , and infinite other things ; and again cold conjoyn'd with other faculties . these therefore are the things which hurt , &c. but if any one notwithstanding be so captivated to his prejudices , that he denies a trembling and a horrour to be the beginning of intermitting feavers , let him also perswade himself , as he must , that those who at the time of that cold do die ( as others have often seen , and our self also within this eight days ) expire without a feaver ; which nevertheless to men conversant in physick , will seem no less false than ridiculous . perhaps no man will deny that in some feavers , tertains especially , no cold being perceived , and by reason of heat alone continually urging at the time of the fits , they may be called burning feavers , and although any through a desire of contradiction should deny that burning , such feavers will not therefore cease to be observed . forasmuch as no feaver makes its progress alone , but for the most part is accompanied with divers symptomes , some of which do torment the sick no less than the feaver it self , they are distinguished , or at leastwise may be according to the diversity of symptomes manifesting themselves with each fit into syncopals , hystericks , colical , raving , greedy , astmatical , arthritical , catharral , emeticks , catharticks , salivals , &c. if any demand a reason , why the fits return one while daily , another every third day , another every fourth or fifth day , and that so certain as the hand of a dial goes not more exactly ? we shall say that all the diversity depends , partly upon the diversity of obstructing phlegm , partly that of the stagnant pancreatick juice , for as there is found in the lateral duct obstructed more or less pituity , and as it is more or less viscid , and the pancreatick juice more or less sharp , so the pituity causing the obstruction , will sooner or later be perforated by the pancratick juice being made sharp by stagnation . and although the beginnings of fits mutually following one another , are not always distant . . or . houres ; but sometimes , sometimes , sometimes , sometimes , and houres , &c. nevertheless phisitians are wont to distinguish the fits according to daies ; so that by quotidians they intend not only those which return every . houres , but these also which make their accesses in . yea , houres ; the former of which they call antiponents or going before , the later post-ponents . [ which word is generally understood ] so those fits which return every . houres are truly esteemed for tertians , but not those only ; for they also which are returned every . or . houres are called tertians , but anteponents , as also those which are repeated every . . or . houres are called tertians , and likewise post-ponents . the cause of this inequallity of the fits , seems to us to proceed from the obstructing phlegme being more or less viscid , or the whole pancreatick juice more or less sharp , and that by reason of the diverse use of the six non-naturals . by this reason it is not difficult to us to unfold how quotidian feavers are changed into tertians , and tertians into quartans , quartans into quintans , and the contrary ; which thing they find very difficult , who determine that quotidians arise from phlegme , tertians from yellow choler , and quartans from melancholy . the fits return so long , as the obstructing pituity is not totally removed from the duct , but remaining therein is again compelled to renew the obstruction ; but when the viscid phlegme , either of its own accord , or by art , is so evacuated , that nothing thereof remains , which may be joyned together , whereby the obstruction may be renewed ; then also the feavers are cured . but as often as only one of the lateral ducts is obstructed , so often is one , and indeed a simple feaver , produced . but as often , as many of the lateral ducts are obstructed together , so often are many and manifold compound feavers produced ; which are either of the same , or of a diverse species : obstructions are of the same species , when they are of the same nature , and pertinancy , in diverse ducts of the same magnitude . obstructions are of a diverse species , when they are of a diverse nature , and pertinancy , in diverse ducts , in like manner differing from one another in magnitude . we say in diverse ducts of the same , or a diverse magnitude , seeing that as often as the obstruction ariseth from a like pituity , in diverse ducts , of the same magnitude , and amplitude : so often the pancreatick juyce , being made sharp by stagnation , will , in an equal space of time , perforate the obstructing pituity ; and also , in an equal space of time , will produce the fit : but as often as ducts , of a different magnitude , and amplitude , are equally obstructed by a viscid phlegme , so often shall we see a diversity in the fits ; in as much , as it may sooner , and more amply , wax sharp , in one duct , and thence the fit may sooner return , and more grievously afflict than in another ; or as often as obstructions do happen in ducts , of the same magnitude , from a pituity , not alike viscid ; so often , like-wise , may the fits invade the sick at divers times ; for as much as the pancreatick juyce , equally waxing sharp , will sooner perforate the less viscid pituity , than that which hath a greater viscidity . from those things , which we have now propounded , it will not be difficult to explain , how in a double tertian , or other compound feavers , one fit may , unexpectedly , come in an hour or two , after another : for , the obstructions may happen in ducts of the same magnitude , from a pituity alike viscid ; so that , one obstruction may be excited the first hour , and another the fourth hour ; the which , if in tertians , ( unless some fault , as we have said , be committed in the six non naturals ) the first will again return on the third day , the first hour , and the second at the fourth hour , &c. which , in our judgement , affords no small difficulty to those who hold , that intermitting feavers , are brought to a turgescency , by congestion , from an evil habit of the blood , or of the alimentary juyce , depraved : as for example , seeing that the alimentary juyce , depraved , doth excite , by its turgescency , a feaverish effervescency in the blood , in the first hour , why may not that quantity of the ( depraved ) alimentary juyce , serving to produce another fit , which like-wise begins to swell , in the same blood , being in the same effervescency , be enkindled , and consumed ? truly , we favour not that opinion ; neither also , can wee conceive how , in those which are fasting , the feaverish fits so often , beyond measure , could be returned at the same time . from what hath been said , the reason is also manifest , wherefore in a double tertian , or quartane , &c. the fit doth precisely anticipate , or succeed , an hour ; no other-wise , than as they arise from one , and the same , lateral duct : for , as the whole pancreatick juyce , and the obstructing pituity of both , grows more or less sharp ; also , the pituity of both , more or less viscid : the fits of both do equally return sooner or later . there are feavers , whose species by some , are difficultly distinguished ; as for example , a quotidian , from a double tertian , or triple quartan ; for , of those three feavers , each daily excite one fit ; which distinction , nevertheless creates no trouble to such as are attentive to the matter : for , a quotidian doth ordinarily invade the sick , either at one hour , or equally sooner , or later . the double tertian , for the most part , so hath its fits , that the first access answers to the third , and the second to the fourth , &c. but in a triple quartan , the first fit answereth to the fourth , and the second to the fifth , &c. which things being rightly considered , every one may easily distinguish these feavers , mutually from one another , unless some external fault disturb the order or frame of the body , either in whole or in part . the diversity of those symptomes so variously occurring , doth not overthrow those things which we have propounded concerning intermitting feavers , especially of heat and cold seeing that diversity dependeth upon a diverse constitution , of the rest of the humours existent in the body . for otherwise a fit of a tertian feaver , happening to a body replenished with much bile , and that sufficiently sharp , would last far longer than a fit happening to that body where but little bile , and that as yet temperate is remaining . also a greater or lesser quantity of phlegme , as likewise plenty of other humours abounding in the body , may not a little augment this diversity . but because it may not suffice to have said , that the primary symptomes of intermitting feavers are heat and cold , it behoveth that we here also , annex our opinion concerning their cause and original we judge that the cold of intermitting feavers , draws its original from the more acid pancreatick juice , and heat especially from a more acrimonions bile ; the former is evinced by the assumption of acid things , as galen proveth in a thousand places from things helping and hurting , that acids are cold , and do produce cold , and that not only in the sick , but also in the sound ; in which sometimes we see alike cold to have been excited , as those which are feaverish are wont to suffer , and any one may observe , if acids be taken by those which are feaverish in the time of the cold fit , that the feaverish cold will be encreased after a wonderful manner . he that refuseth to believe these our observations , let him read galen de simp. med. facult , where he saith : every acid , as it is only acid , is plainly cold ; whether it be a pear or an apple , the juice of grapes or rasberies , or mulberies , punick apples , or any other fruit , or juice , or plants , as sharp pointed dock or sorrel ; for that it appears to the tast that there is a vehement acidity inherent in it , neither may any thing be prefer'd before it ; for its acrimony , you shall find this juice altogether cooling , &c. as also in the same book cap. . and in infinite other places he teacheth , that acids are cold , and produce cold in our bodies . that the qualities of humours are to be known by their effects , hyppocrates lib. de vet. med. text. . . doth diligently inculcate : know that the chief forces of humours is in their acid faculty ; which likewise in the . of the same , from manifest things which behoveth to be learned without the body , he manifestly teacheth . moreover , lib. de locis in homine text . . he saith , that acids are also pituitous , which in lib. de natura humana text. . . he manifestly declares to be most cold of all things existing in the bodie : the which , unless it were true , untowardly would galen in his whole book concerning food in acute diseases , and those who are his diligent followers , prescribe an acid medicamentous diet , in acute feavers . although no man perhaps can easily deny , heat to proceed from the bile , in regard we see that our natural heat is much augmented by the assumption of bitter , and aromatick aliments and sauces , augmenting choler and making it more sharp . besides , both is proved by the remedies exhibited , diminishing or taking away those symptomes ; for we see clearly , that by medicines infringing the acidity , the cold is attempered and taken away ; and we likewise observe that by medicines tempering the bile , especially acids , the heat is lessened , as we shall presently in many things further demonstrate . from whence every one may easily imagine the reason , why for the most part the fits of intermitting feavers , are begun with a sence of cold , and terminated with heat : for the pancreatick juice being made more sharp by stagnation in one or more of the lateral ducts ; after which flowing into the thin gut , there exciteth such an effervescency with the bile , wherein the succus pancreaticus by its predominant acidity every way emits or sends forth acid exhalations , affected with a sense of cold ; which when they touch the gall-bladder by their acrimony provoke it to its contraction , from whence the bile breaking forth into the intestine , in a more than usual quantity overwhelmes the pancreatick juice , and raiseth therewith such an effervescency , in which the bile predominating excites heat , by sending every way its exhalations or emissaries . this our opinion , is in a wonderful manner confirmed by the vomitings , which very often happen to the sick , at one time so cold and acid , that bringeth a stupor to the teeth ; and again on the contrary , another while so hot and bitter , that they believe they vomit nothing but pure choler . but some perhaps may ask , why we deduce vomitings and acid belchings , rather from the pancreas , than from the stomach ? we answer , because it is agreeable to experience , that the pancreatick juice is acid , and seeing that the searchers of nature , do as yet dispute concerning the ferment of the stomach and its generation , we judged that it ought to be determined , rather from a certain than an uncertain cause : and if it shall be evinced by further search in the stomach of men ( we speak not of birds who require a stronger fermentation to digest stones and other things of a hard consistency for the generation of shells ) that any other ferment is generated , besides the spittle continually swallowed , and that to be acid , then shall we be so much the better able to prove an effervescency to be excited in the thin gut , between the bile , and the pancreatick juice : seeing that the temperate , or natural acidity of the pancreatick juyce , would be helped by the acid ferment of the stomach ; and from thence , the effervescency would be the more powerfully performed . it is further proved , that the acidity , cast forth by vomitting , doth not proceed from the stomach , but from the intestines , by vomitories , exhibited out of the time of the fit ; by the help whereof , first an insipid matter , afterwards , by further straining , an acid , and bilious matter , is vomitted up ; the contrary of which would happen , if the soure , and cholerick matter , did proceed from the stomach . concerning the manner by which acids may get to the stomach , no man , of a sound mind , will doubt , who determines the bile , ejected by vomiting , to proceed from the intestines : seeing that the pancreatick juyce may , and ought to be driven through the same wayes , as the bile , flowing to the intestines , by their inverted peristaltick motion , with the same ease to the ventricle , as we have above demonstrated . neither doth the place a little confirm this our opinion , in which , a feaverish fit beginning , is for the most part perceived cold , then hot ; as also , a most fierce pain : we understand the region of the loynes , in which the first part of the thin gut lies , under the mesentery , as is to be seen tab. i , wherein the confsux and effervescency of the bile , and the pancreatick juyce , is celebrated ; from which , the particles of those humours , being agitated upon the ligaments of the mesentery , and other nervous , and membranous parts , they dash against them , with an impetuous force : so that , that effervescency may sometimes be perceived by the touch in the sick , as we have above demonstrated . nor does the pancreatick juyce , being made sharp by stagnation , only exercise a tyranny , in the region of the loynes ; but also sends forth its acid exhalations , both upwards and downwards ; who doubteth that from the one the torments of the belly , and from the other acid belchings , do proceed ? but if those exhalations penetrate through the venae lacteae , to the heart , by incrassating the blood , gives an occasion of a lesser pulse ; which , nevertheless , by its corroding acrimony , produceth one more frequent . the acid exhalations , being subdued in manner afore-said , salt and bilious exhalations do follow ; which again , by attenuating the blood , do no less excite a great , and sometimes also , a more frequent pulse , by irritating the heart ; and that so long till their acrimony being spent , they can no longer irritate , or provoke the heart : which done , the vigour and natural pulse of the heart is returned : so that , very often the most skilful can hardly judge , whether they have a feaver or no. we will not here speak ( lest this chapter should swell too much , with that which we purposed to finish in few words ) concerning six hundred other symptomes , which are wont to accompany intermitting feavers ; seeing we are perswaded there are none , at least , of those who with an attent mind , have considered , that the juyce , or its emissaries , after a diverse manner disposed , doth perambulate the whole body , and may produce diverse symptomes ; but may , from these things , deduce them by their own proper industry . which seeing it is so , we leaving those small circumstances , shall rightly pass on to the cure of intermitting feavers , which as it primarily consisteth in taking away obstructions , and correcting the pancreatick juice , and other humours if they be vitious ; so it may be most succesfully performed , first by medicines inciding and attenuating tough phlegme , and sometimes expelling it from the body . secondly , by adhibiting remedies , which are indued with a force of correcting and temperating the pancreatick juice , offending by its acrimony . thirdly , by correcting other humours in the body , this or that way so peccant that they may cherish the vicious effervescency excited in the thin gut between the bile and the pancreatick juice . for the taking away the obstruction , temperating the more acid pancreatick juyce , and the diminishing the cold , from thence proceeding , these following medicines do much conduce , viz. water of parsly , fennel , baume , simple treacle-water , salt of worm-wood , of centary , the lesser , syrup of carduus benedicttus , or the five opening roots , and the like , being mixed according to art , especially if taken halfe an hour before the feaverish cold invades the sick , who ought to be kept in his bed , or other warm place , that sweat may be a little promoted , or at leastwise that the operation of the medicine may not be hindered . we say half an hour before the feaverish cold invade the sick , because reason teacheth , and experience proveth , that cutting and attenuating , as unobstructing medicaments do then with a far more happy success absolve that for which they are administred , than if they were exhibited at any other time ; the reason of which seemes to us , because those medicines begin to operate at that time , wherein the pancreatick juice by its acrimony doth molifie the obstruction , and so by a united force , may more strongly and more happily dissolve the obstruction , than if either of those only were opperating : moreover , it very much diminisheth the feaverish cold , which as yet would be performed with greater success , if to the mixture even now described , you shall add a drop or two of oyl of cloves , because as yet we see no medicament that doth more powerfully take away cold than that oyle . if a great heat follow the feaverish cold , to attemper that medicines called refrigeraters , among which aqueous things diluting the bile seems to us most agreeable , but especially acids with which the acrimony and volatillity of the saline bile exceeding , producing heat and burning is best infringed . for as doctor minrotus saith pag. . in his treatise of malignant feavers , acids do repress the inflamabillity of a sulphurous matter without the body , so also within the body they bridle the inflaming bile . so hippocrates , de victu acutor . text. . . manifestly teacheth that acids do infringe and mitigate the bile . and this is the reason , why the most skilfullest physitians do daily prescribe acid julips for the temperating of that feverish heat ; as for example , by the decoction of barley , or coolling distilled waters with syrup of limmons , mulberies , or barberies , &c. by adding spirit of vitriol , oyl of sulpher per capanum , or other acid spirits in a sufficient quantity to give it a grateful acidity . for the same end they also sometimes prescribe apozems of the opening roots , the herb sorrel , lettice , the greater housleek , tamarinds , &c. by adding after the boyling , some acid syrrups , and an acid spirit sufficient for a grateful acidity , that the sick may now and then take a small draught thereof to temperate the heat . if a great thirst afflict the feaverish at the time of heat , half a dram of lap. prunella may be conveniently dissolved in the aforesaid apozeme , or in small ale , or in a convenient julip , for it excellently extinguisheth thirst ; and therefore those to whom drink is hurtful , may dissolve the same medicament in water , but in a greater quantity , to wash the mouth . here it is well to be noted , that at the time of the heat , it is not necessary that the sick should abstain from moderate drinking , which at the time of cold is altogether required ; because we daily see , that if drink be assumed at the time of the cold fit , that it is augmented , and the sick more troubled . if the medicaments , even now mentioned for example , do not take away the feaver , in the intervals wherein they are not vexed with the feaver , this following mixture will much avail . r. fennel water three ounces , simple treacle water six drams , distilled vinegar three drams , crabs eyes prepared half a dram , syrup of the five opening roots , half an ounce mixt . of which most simple mixture , let one spoonful be taken every two houres ; for altering medicines do operate far better if they be taken by intervals , then if they be taken abundantly together and at once . if vehement paines and watchings do accompany the feaver , mixtures are to be used in the intervals , to which is added , one grain of laudanum opiatum , which medicament we do believe hath also a force of temperating the accimony of the humours , because we see that paines arising from the acrimony of humours , remain not after sleep procured by the prudent assumption of laudanum opiat ; which in our opinion could not happen , if that laudanum had not a force of temperating sharp humours . if a pain of the head accompany the feaver , in stead of fennel water , that of bettony , or burrage , may be substituted ; and in place of the syrup of the five roots , syrup of diacodium , or white poppies . but if the stomach be evilly affected , water of mint or of carduus benedictus will be used with better success . if the menses flow not , water of peniroyal , syrup of mugwort , &c. may be exhibited . if a suffocation of the womb be present , in stead of those , may be added spirit of sal ammoniack , tinct of castor , &c. if the sick be tormented with flatulencies , spirit of nitre may be added ; which remedy doth greatly help those which are troubled with a collick passion , or any other flatulent diseases ; especially if some drops thereof be prudently mixed with some arromatick waters , and the aforesaid carminatives . if the appetite be prostrate by reason of too great a quantity of bile carried to the stomach , which will be known by the appetite suddenly destroyed , by bitter belchings and cholerick vomitings , two scruples of elixir proprietatis paracelsi may be added to the last mixture . but if the said evil proceedeth from a vicid pituity detained in the stomach , which will be known by an aggravated pain in the stomach , half a dram of the dulcid spirit of salt instead of elixir proprietatis will be more conducent if it be mixed with the foresaid mixture . to the same intent may be directed also divers apozemes , and other medicate wines , powders , pills , and medicaments against the said obstructions : nevertheless you must diligently diligently note , that apozemes and other medicaments especially refrigerating which promiscuously they daily compel the sick to swallow down in a great dose , sometimes so debillitate their stomacks that the appetite is thereby not only destroyed , but sometimes fall into a disdain or loathing of aliments , from whence a new affliction is added to the sick , and the latter errour is allso very often worse than the first . but if notwithstanding before the physician hath attained his desired end , he thinketh some other humour doth offend by too much plenty , that may be diminished with convenient medicines . the diet according to the diversity of intermitting feavers , must sometimes be changed , because tertian feavers accompanied with the greatest heat , do require a diet more cooling than quartans which very often afflict the sick with intollerable cold and trembling : for we see the moderate use of french wine , which we are wont to forbid in all tertians , somtimes to be granted in quartans . but such a diet as may be agreeable to all intermitting feavers , every one may gather from what we have already spoken . we would have further propounded some other remedies as well accomodated to intermitting feavers as to their symptomes , had not the most famous doctor sylvius in the first part of his praxis already printed , proposed many , and the most excellent of them . from my study , feb. d . / . at the signe of the globe , and chymical furnaces , in the postern , near moor-gate , london . finis . post-script . i have taken notice of many people ( especially of the poorer sort ) who are afflicted with tedious agues , and many more , who labour under those deplorable fits , commonly called the fits of the mother , and spleen ; as also , the falling sickness , grievous convulsions , &c. and being well satisfied , ( as well by the means of curation , as the undenyable experiments , and valid reasons in this book , confirming the same ) that those diseases , with many more , derive their original from the vitious alteration of this juyce , of the sweet-bread : i , for the sake of poor people , that they might have help at an easie rate , hereby let them know , that ( amongst many other ) i have two medicines , which are certain in the cure of the fore-mentioned diseases . the one will dissolve the conjunct matter of all ague-fits , with great celerity ; it being of such subtile parts , that it quickly penetrateth , and openeth those obstructions in the lateral branches of the pancreas , or sweet-bread , from whence those agues proceed . the which medicine alone ( with the help of a proper purge , to carry off the matter after it is dissolved , and attenuated ) will , in a short time , cure the fits of any ague whatsoever . it is put up in glasses , and sold at the price of half a crown each glasse , with directions for the use thereof ; one glasse being sufficient for the cure of an ague that is but of a short continuance . the other medicine is a specifick remedy , against the fits of the mother , hypocondriack paines , and melancholy , vapours arising ( as is generally said ) from the spleen , and womb : as also , against convulsion fits , falling sickness , and vertigoe , or giddiness of the head : in which cases , those who have made frequent use thereof , have found it to answer their intention . this is also sold at half a crown a glass , with directions for its vse . these medicines are sold at my own house , and at no other place ; where also may be had all chymical medicines in use , truly prepared ; such as are safe , and effectual in operation , and able to abide the test of the most curious examiners : this being added for the information of physitians , chyrurgions , and apothecaries , who may have occasion to make vse thereof . from my house at the signe of the globe , and chymical-furnaces , in the postern-street , near moor-gate , feb. th . / . the index . the necessity of anatomy . page . the commendations of those who have enriched anatomy with new inventions . . the invention of the venae lacteae ibid. the invention of the ductus thoracicus . . the discovery of the circulation of the blood. ib. the invention of the lymphatick vessels . . the invention of the superiour salival ducts . ib. the invention of the inferiour . ibid. the invention of the pancreatick duct . . what moved the author to write . ibid. the institution of this book . . the etymology of the pancreas ibid. asellius , what he understood for the pancreas . . the substance of the pancreas . ibid. scituation . ibid. colour . ibid. the figure , as it is found in men , and beasts . page . quantity . ibid. longitude . ibid. latitude . ibid. thickness . ibid. weight . ibid. the number and rise of its vessels . . the description of the pancreatick duct . ib. the first table , exhibiting the figure of the pancreas , delineated by the author to the life . . the insertion of the pancreatick duct , and how the number varies in divers kinds of animals . . animals which have a single , double , and treble pancreatick duct . . a rare observation found in the gall , about the folicles thereof . . in what animals the pancreatick juyce is disburdened into the stomach . ibid. the passage of the pancreatick duct in man. . how difficultly it admits the style . ibid. the various sport of nature , observed about the pancreatick duct doth not destroy the natural vse thereof . ibid. the opinions of divers authors , concerning the use of the pancreas , examined . what vesalius , with the antients , judged concerning the use of the pancreas . . the opinion of the antients refuted . ibid. the opinions of bartholine , riolan , and vesling . refuted . . the experiment of the lord van horne , about the use of the pancreas , why suspected . p. . the opinion of bartholinus , concerning the use of the pancreas , why it pleaseth not the author . ibid. that the spleen affordeth nothing to the pancreas , is proved by the collection of the pancreatick juyce , after the extirpation of the spleen . . the opinion of lindanus , concerning the use of the pancreas , refuted . . the opinion of wharton , concerning the use thereof , why not pleasing to the author . . various experiments , instituted in vain , for the collecting the juyce of the nerves . ibid. the dropping of the nerves , from whence it comes . . the word excrement , with what signification it may agree with the pancreatick juyce . . the reasoning of sylvius concerning the use of the pancreas . ibid. why it pleased the author . . the pancreatick juyce , what time at first discovered by the author . ibid. in what manner the pancreatick juyce is found . . the true way of collecting the pancreatick juyce . . a description of the instruments whereby the pancreatick juyce is collected . ibid. a second table , representing the instruments whereby the pancreatick juyce is collected . . the manner of applying the instruments described . page . how to avoid the noise of a dog in living dissections . ibid. the third table , demonstrating the manner and place where the instruments are to be applyed . . the qualities of the pancreatick juyce are described . . the division of the glandules into conglobated , and conglomerated . . the description of the conglobated glandules . ibid. the description of the conglomerated glandules . . the difference of the nominated glandules is demonstrated to the eye . ibid. the motion of the lympha is from the circumference to the center . . the invention of the bronchial artery . ib. the difference of the humours separated in the glandules . ibid. the humour of the glandules , whether it may be said to be profitable or unprofitable . . a reason proving the humour of the glandules not be excrementitious . . the humour of the glandules how generated . . wherefore the acid particles are separated in the the pancreas , rather than in the reins or liver . . in how many parts the pancreatick juyce consists . . an objection against the natural acidity of the pancreatick juyce , answered . pag . that a salsitude , found in the pancreatick juyce , doth not exclude its natural acidity . . that the liquor of the glandules is necessary in the body . ibid. that the juyce of the conglobated glandules serves for sanquification . ibid. that the liquor of the conglomerated glandules , of the mouth , is subservient to the fermentation of the aliments . ibid. that the pancreatick juyce doth ferment with the bile . . the quantity of the pancreatick juyce cast into the intestines . ibid. the cause why the pancreatick juyce , and the bile , ferment together . ibid. it is demonstrated , that salt is inherent in the bile . ibid. that acidity is inherent in the pancreatick juyce , is evinced by reason , experience , and authorities . . the pancreatick juyce in man collected by the author . . difficulties proposed against this effervescency , answered . . that acid particles are sometimes inherent in insipid liquor , is shewed . . that acids diluted do sometimes the more powerfully effervesce with salts . . wherefore the bile is first mixed with the aliments propelled to the intestines , then the pancreatick juyce . ibid. that the effervescency is more powerfully promoted by natural , than artificial heat . pa. . the effervescency , between the bile and the pancreatick juyce , why not visible without the body . . the salsitude , found in the pancreatick juyce , why it hinders not the intestinal effervescency . . that diverse tasts , found in the pancreatick juyce , doth not exclude its acidity . . the effervescency , between the bile and the pancreatick juyce , is demonstrated by experiments . ibid. what effervescency may sometimes happen in the sick. . that there is a hot and cold effervescency , is evinced by observations , and experiments . ib. what effervescency happeneth in the sound . . wherefore the effervescency is not perceived in the time of health . ibid. the palpitation of the heart , . the first vtility of the intestinal effervescency . ibid. the effects of diverse effervescencies are propounded . . the greater or lesser affinity of acids , with things dissolved . . the reason is examined , why acids do more powerfully joyn themselves to these , than other liquors . . how the aliments in the stomach differ from those in the guts . ibid. that the cause of that mutation is to be ascribed to the pancreatick juyce or bile . p. . the white colour of the chyle , from whence it proceeds . . the second vtility of the intestinal effervescency . ibid. an objection against the alleadged vtility from the effervescency . . the solution of that objection . ibid. the separation of what particles may happen by the sole fermentation of the aliments . . what particles of aliments are necessary to life . ibid. the vtility of the intestinal effervescency is farther described . . the way whereby the more subtile parts of the humours penetrate to the heart from the intestines . ibid. the natural consistency of the blood , from whence it proceeds . . whether or no the pancreatick juyce may afford a ferment to the stomach . . for what reason the pancreatick juyce doth incrassate the bile . ibid. for what reason it attenuates the bile . . what the pancreatick juyce effects being well , and what being ill disposed . ibid. that the pancreas is the cause of many diseases , is witnessed by famous physitians . . the order of their calling . ibid. the diseases where-with the substance of the pancreas is wont to be infested . . the history of the pancreas of thuanus , grown into an admirable magnitude . . that the pancreas is not the vicar or helper of the spleen . . various abscesses of the pancreas found in dead bodies . ibid. cancer . . the history of it concreted into a stony hardness . . stones . ibid. that all the glandules are obnoxious to stones . . that the pineal glandule is more frequently afflicted with stones in france , than in holland . ibid. that the pancreaas doth not alwayes follow the evil affections of the liver or spleen . ib. the vices of the pancreatick juyce . . the pancreatick juyce , wherefore more sparingly driven to the intestines . ibid. why more copiously propelled to the intestines . . why inequally divided into the guts . ibid. why it may be more fluid . . why more viscid . ibid. the vices of the pancreatick juyce , perceptible to the tast . ibid. the lesser acidity of the pancreatick juyce , from whence . . it s acidity increased from whence . ibid. it s salsity from whence . ibid. the cause of austerity is searched into . . the faults of the pancreas , what functions they hurt . . the faults of the pancreatick juyce , what functions they hurt . . if it be sent to the guts in a lesser quantity . ib. if it be carryed to the guts in a greater quantity . . if it be inequally moved to the guts . . if more fluid . ibid. if more viscid . . if it be less acid. ibid. running-pain in the left-side , from whence it ariseth . ibid. wherefore melancholy men are less subject to the plague than cholerick . ibid. why the blood of those who are infected with the plague , will not coagulate . ibid. that volatile salts do make the blood more fluid . . that acidity is the cause of the blood coagulating . ibid. that an acid is the best preservative in the time of a plague . . that a more acid pancreatick juyce is the cause of cold in the region of the loynes . . of pain and torment of the belly . ib. of black and eruginous bile . ibid. that the spleen doth not generate atra-bilis . . a rare observation , demonstrating to the eye the generating of atra-bilis . ibid. the pancreatick juyce together with other humours , is joyntly examined . ibid. what effervescency is excited between a dull pancreatick juyce , and a more sharp bile . . a more sharp pancreatick juyce , meeting with a sharper bile , what it effecteth . . what effervescency is excited between a sharper pancreatick juyce , and a more dull bile . . the diseases arising from the pancreatick juyce . . the cause of intermitting feavers to be ascribed to the pancreas . ibid. a more acid pancreatick juyce the cause of the gout . . the cause of a great appetite and hunger . ibid. the cause of difficult breathing , and a dry cough . . the cause of those outragious epileptick fits , which the dutch call stuypiens . . the cause of contraction of the pulse and swounding . ibid. the cause of convulsions . . the cause of the strangury . . the cause of malignant vlcers . ibid. the cause of the adstriction of the belly . . the cause of melancholy , and diseases from thence proceeding . ibid. an answer to an objection , that it cannot excite the atra-bilis . . it is demonstrated by examples , that acids may stir up divers colours . ibid. the reason thereof searched into . . how acidity may abound in their bodies , who are not conversant in the vse of acids . . it is demonstrated , that the austere pancreatick juyce may be the cause of the suffocation of the womb. . a wonderful effect of the pancreatick juyce , being tasted . . that men do sometimes labour under the like hysterick suffocations . ibid. the cause and manner of the generation of mother fits. . the cause of the hypocondriack affection . ib. a salt pancreatick juyce is the cause of a diarhaea . ibid. how the pancreatick juyce is to be corrected . . if it be effused more sparingly by reason of viscidity or obstruction . ibid. if it flows more largely . . purgers electively given . ibid. nothing of excrement driven by the purges through the meseraick arteries , into the instines . . that purging medicaments may operate , as happily , by the venae lacteae . ibid. the correction of the over-fluid pancreatick juyce . ibid. it s too much acidity corrected . . the correction of its austerity . . it s salsitude rectified . ibid. the history of agues , or intermitting feavers . the pathognomick signe of a feaver . . the cause of a feaver determined to be four-fold . ibid. that there is a different cause of continual , and intermitting feavers . . vvhat the minera of intermitting feavers is , . that it is not to be found in the blood. ibid. the swiftness of the bloods circulation . ib. that the stagnation of the blood cannot produce the cause of intermitting feavers . ib. the cause and manner of the generating of inflamations . ibid. that all the humours described in the schools , are not to be found , neither do they ever raise a manifest effervescency . . that the focus of intermitting feavers hath been by many rightly sought in the abdomen , but ill ascribed to the miseraick veins ; the duplicature of the omentum , the intestine colon , &c. ibid. the focus of intermitting feavers to be ascribed to the pancreas alone . . the reason thereof examined . ibid. an objection against it answered . ibid. that an obstruction of the ductus pancreaticus is the cause of intermitting feavers . . the generation of an obstruction in the pancreatick duct . . the cause of the fits access is the dissolution of that obstruction . . the pancreatick juyce accompanyed with viscidity . ibid. an obstruction of the pancreatick duct found after death , in one who dyed of a feaver . . for what reason the pancreatick juyce groweth more sharp . . in what manner it is made sharp , and carryed to the intestines , and there effervesceth with the humours . . when that effervescency may be called feaverish . ibid. the cause of a more frequent preternatural pulse . ibid. the division of intermitting feavers into simple and compound . ibid. a sub-division of the simple , into quotidians , tertians , quartans , &c. . a sub-division of the compound , according to the feavors , of which they are compounded . ib. a division of intermitting feavers into cold , and burning . ibid. the essence of intermitting feavers , consists not in heat . ibid. a division of intermitting feavers according to their symptomes . . the reason of the return of the fits , sometimes daily , other-while every third , or fourth day . ibid. the inequal intermediate space of intermitting feavers . ibid. the cause of that inequality . . how long the feaverish fits may return , and when wholly cease . ibid. the cause of intermitting feavers , both simple and compound . . the reason of the same , and of a diverse species of intermitting feavers . ibid. why in compound intermitting feavers the fit of one doth precede , supervene , or follow the fit of another . . that intermitting feavers cannot proceed from an evil diathesis of the blood. ibid. the reason why the fits of compound feavers sometimes come sooner or later than their usual hour . . how quotidians , double tertians , and trible quartans may be known . ibid. the diversity of heat , and cold of the fits , from whence . . the cause of the feaverish heat and cold , inquired into . ib. that acids are cold , and do produce cold. ib. that the bile exciteth heat in the body . . why the fits of intermitting feavers do usually began with cold , and terminate with heat . ibid. why acid vomitings and belchings are rather to be deduced frrm the pancreas , than the stomach . . the symptomes perceived in the region of the loynes , in the time of the cold fit , signifie the male affection of the pancreas . . in what manner the cure of intermitting feavers is to be performed . . medicaments tempering the feverish cold. ibid. wherefore medicines , against the feaver are to be exhibited in the very instant of the fit. . medicaments tempering the feaverish heat . . to asswage the thirst . ibid. when drink is to be allowed the feaverish , and when not . . what medicaments are to be given out of the time of the fit , and how to be accommodated to the symptomes . ibid. what diet is to be prescribed for those afflicted with a feaver . . finis . notes, typically marginal, from the original text notes for div a -e * the origin . is thalamus . notes for div a -e plin : epist . lib. . notes for div a -e surely this is an hyperbole . notes for div a -e i. e. the dutch. bartholinus anatomy made from the precepts of his father, and from the observations of all modern anatomists, together with his own ... / published by nich. culpeper and abdiah cole. bartholin, thomas, - . approx. kb of xml-encoded text transcribed from -bit group-iv tiff page images. text 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(eebo-tcp ; phase , no. a ) transcribed from: (early english books online ; image set ) images scanned from microfilm: (early english books, - ; : ) bartholinus anatomy made from the precepts of his father, and from the observations of all modern anatomists, together with his own ... / published by nich. culpeper and abdiah cole. bartholin, thomas, - . bartholin, caspar, - . walaeus, johannes, - . [ ], , - p., [ ] leaves of plates : ill. printed by john streater, london : . "two epistles of johannes walaeus concerning the motion of the chyle and the blood," p. - . reproduction of original in the british library. created by converting tcp files to tei p using tcp tei.xsl, tei @ oxford. re-processed by university of nebraska-lincoln and northwestern, with changes to facilitate morpho-syntactic tagging. gap elements of known extent have been transformed into placeholder characters or elements to simplify the filling in of gaps by user contributors. eebo-tcp is a partnership between the universities of michigan and oxford and the publisher proquest to create accurately transcribed and encoded texts based on the image sets published by proquest via their early english books online (eebo) database (http://eebo.chadwyck.com). the general aim of eebo-tcp is to encode one copy (usually the first edition) of every monographic english-language title published between and available in eebo. eebo-tcp aimed to produce large quantities of textual data within the usual project restraints of time and funding, and therefore chose to create diplomatic transcriptions (as opposed to critical editions) with light-touch, mainly structural encoding based on the text encoding initiative (http://www.tei-c.org). the eebo-tcp project was divided into two phases. the , texts created during phase of the project have been released into the public domain as of january . anyone can now take and use these texts for their own purposes, but we respectfully request that due credit and attribution is given to their original source. users should be aware of the process of creating the tcp texts, and therefore of any assumptions that can be made about the data. text selection was based on the new cambridge bibliography of english literature (ncbel). if an author (or for an anonymous work, the title) appears in ncbel, then their works are eligible for inclusion. selection was intended to range over a wide variety of subject areas, to reflect the true nature of the print record of the period. in general, first editions of a works in english were prioritized, although there are a number of works in other languages, notably latin and welsh, included and sometimes a second or later edition of a work was chosen if there was a compelling reason to do so. image sets were sent to external keying companies for transcription and basic encoding. quality assurance was then carried out by editorial teams in oxford and michigan. % (or pages, whichever is the greater) of each text was proofread for accuracy and those which did not meet qa standards were returned to the keyers to be redone. after proofreading, the encoding was enhanced and/or corrected and characters marked as illegible were corrected where possible up to a limit of instances per text. any remaining illegibles were encoded as <gap>s. understanding these processes should make clear that, while the overall quality of tcp data is very good, some errors will remain and some readable characters will be marked as illegible. users should bear in mind that in all likelihood such instances will never have been looked at by a tcp editor. the texts were encoded and linked to page images in accordance with level of the tei in libraries guidelines. copies of the texts have been issued variously as sgml (tcp schema; ascii text with mnemonic sdata character entities); displayable xml (tcp schema; characters represented either as utf- unicode or text strings within braces); or lossless xml (tei p , characters represented either as utf- unicode or tei g elements). keying and markup guidelines are available at the text creation partnership web site . eng human anatomy -- early works to . - tcp assigned for keying and markup - apex covantage keyed and coded from proquest page images - judith siefring sampled and proofread - judith siefring text and markup reviewed and edited - pfs batch review (qc) and xml conversion bartholinus anatomy ; made from the precepts of his father , and from the observations of all modern anatomists , together with his own . with one hundred fifty and three figures cut in brass , much larger and better than any have been heretofore printed in english . in four books and four manuals , answering to the said books . book i. of the lower belly . book ii. of the middle venter or cavity . book iii. of the uppermost cavities , viz. the head. book iv. of the limbs . the four manuals answering to the four foregoing books . manual i. of the veins , answering to the first book of the lower belly . manual ii. of the arteries , answering to the second book of the middle cavity or chest . manual iii. of the nerves , answering to the third book of the head. manual iv. of the bones , answering to the fourth book of the limbs . al 's two epistles of the circulation of the blood. published by nich. culpeper gent. and , abdiah cole doctor of physick . london , printed by john streater living in clerken-well-close . books newly imprinted , or imprniting . . riverius practice of physick and observations . . bartholinus an atomy with large brass figures . . vestingus anato my of the body of man. . riolanus anatomy . . the london dispensatory in english . . a directory for midwifes , or a guide for women , the first and second part , newly inlarged and illustrated with pl●tes . . a treatise of the rickets . . medicam ents for the poor , or physick for the common people . . health for the rich and poor , by dyet without physick . . the english physitian enlarged . . oriatrike or physick refined . the common errors therein refuted , and the whole art reformed , written by the acute philosopher baptista van helmont . . the hidden treasures of the art of physick fully discovered in books . the second edition with additions , by john tanner student in physick and astrology . . mathematical collections and translations from the original copyes of galilaeus and other famous modern authors . by tho. salisbury esquire . to be sold by geo. sawbridge at his house on clerkenwell-green . the introduction . anthropologia or the doctrine of mans nature , is , though commonly , yet rightly divided into two parts : anatomia which treats of the body and its parts ; and psychologia , which treats of the soul. anatomia therefore [ more rightly called anatomy , that is section , which sr. ignatius reckons as a kind of martyrdom , caelius terms apertio an opening , and tertulianus prosectio a cutting up , whence the term prosector , a cutter up ] that i may come to that which is my business ; in as much as it is a part of natural philosophy [ for medicinal anatomy how ever useful and of which galen treats in his anatomical administration , we must leave to physitians ] hath for its subject the body of any animal or live-wight whatsoever , whether frequenting the land or or waters , flying in the air , &c. and not only the body of man. but we are wont most of all to search into the structure of mans body . . because of the great perfection thereof , which is the rule of imperfection . . because the sundry sorts of animals are almost infinite , so that to dissect and search into all of them , the life of man in this age of the world is not sufficient . . because of the incredible profit which thereby redounds to every man , who desires perfectly to know himself , and this house of his earthy tabernacle , both the better to preserve health and to cure diseases : nor can any man be a natural philosopher or deserve so to be called , unless he have the doctrine of anatomy at his fingers end , above all other parts of natural philosophy . yet is not the dissection of other creatures therefore unprofitable , or to be neglected by an anatomist , partly by reason of the analogie and correspondence they hold with the body of man , partly to attain to the knowledg of the motions of living creatures , and partly , to conclude , for the exercise of an anatomist and surgeon . democritus sought the seat and nature of choler in living creatures . after him galen dissected apes and other living creatures , as also severinus , aldrovandus , castellus , br●nzerus , panarolus and myself have cut up divers living creatures . by the cutting up of creatures alive asellius found out the ven● lacteae ●● milkie veins , and harvey and walaeus found the motion of the blood. moreover , because in regard of the vari●● of its actions , the body of man does not consist of one part all alike , but of sundry ; therefore we must know that the whole body is divided into parts containing , parts contained , and parts moving , according to the ancient doctrine of hippocrates : that is to say , into solid parts , humors and spirits . and in this large acceptation , all things are called parts which make up and compleat the body , even the nails , hairs , fat and marrow . but stricctly and properly that is called a pa●● which partakes of the form , and life of the whole , and such the anatomists accounts 〈…〉 so●i●t parts , and therefore ●…lius hath well defined a part to be a body 〈◊〉 to the whole , partaking of the common life 〈…〉 ●…ted for the performance of some functions or use . but galen accounts that a part , which is a b●…●● some sort joyned to the whole , and hath in part its own proper circumsc●●● 〈…〉 part is properly ; . tha● 〈…〉 is 〈…〉 but does not nourish any other part. and so they exclude the s●… h●… . 〈…〉 also t●● fa● , which somtimes nourishes the parts , and the marrow of the bone ▪ 〈…〉 . . that which is solid . . which hath a proper circumscription of its own . the contrary whereof is in fat , which is terminated by the figure of the parts adjacent . . which is continued with the whole , mathematically and physically , both in respect of the matter and form joyntly considered . . which is fitted for some function or use . and so warts and swellings , with other things which grow upon the living body praeternaturally , are excluded . and that we may understand what is ment by function and use , i shall briefly open the same . an action or function may be either private or publick . the private action is that whereby the parts provide for themselves ; the publick is that whereby they provide for the whole live creature . a publick action as it is opposed to use , is the action of the principal part of an organ which performes the whole action . for every action in the body of a livewight , hath according to galen , a peculiar particle , by which it is performed . for examples sake ; the skin hath of it self a private action , such as the attraction and retention of nourishment &c. it hath also a publick action for the behoof of the whole animal , viz. the discerning of the tangible qualities , such as are perceived by the sense of feeling . so the action of the liver●●…od-making , of the stones , seed-making ; of the dugs milk-making . but the ●●●e , is that help which the less principal parts afford the more principal , in the performance ●● their actions , which according to galen is in all parts , yea even in those which have no action at all . it springs chiefly from three fountaines , and they are , . the proper temper of the part , that is to say the symmetry or even proportion of the fir●t qualities . for examples sake , the skin is in respect of the first qualities temperate ; and if you ask wherefore , i answer , that it may be able to discern and judg of all tangible qualities . . such things as follows the temper , and they are the second qualities : hardness , softness , thickness thinness , compactness , rarity , &c. . necessary adjuncts , as magnitude , number , passages or cavities , figure , conformation , connexion , situation , surfase . but i , in these institutions , for the conveniency of learners , shall , with other anatomists , seldom observe this accurate difference between action and use ▪ especially , that i may avoid the tedious repetition of sundry things . but before i proceed to the division and differences of parts , i shal briefly resolve this question , which part of the body is first generated . we must therefore know , that according to hippocrates , all the parts are formed and differenced at one and the same time , as in a circle , there is neither beginning nor end , but altogether are both beginning and end . but all the parts are not perfected and adorned at one and the same time ; but in the first place the navil-vein . . the liver . . afterwards the heart ( which aristotle would have to be first made , as galen would have the liver to be ) and lastly the brain . the navil-vein therefore , is first finished and perfected , in regard of the enlargement thereof by the blood , but not in respect of its first constitution of the seed . but others said that the groundwork or underwarpe of the parts is seed , and the woof or superstructure blood , supposing that there are two material principles of the body : seed and blood . which opinion i have refuted and sufficiently explained in my anatomical controversies , quaest . . touching the parts and their faculties and functions . and therefore the vessels are said in respect of perfection to be generated before the bowels , and that justly . for otherwise the bowels could not be nourished without a proportionable instrument to that end , namely a vein , by which the blood is conveighed for their nutriment . for as out of a kernel or seed put into the earth , first a long root descends into the earth , after that other roots spread themselves round about the surface of the earth , out of which afterwards , the trunk and branches spring up ; so out of the seed committed to the womb , there arises first the navil-vein , receiving blood out of the womb-cake ; out of which navil-vein arises the vena portae , with its roots . let us now come to the division or differences of the parts , which may be divers . taking the word in a large sense , some divide them into parts of necessity , as the heart , liver , lungs , stomach ; and parts of commodity , and that either great as the eyes and stones , or less as the nails ; and parts of ornament , as the hairs of the head and beard . but i shall divide the parts , chiefly in respect of their end , or in respect of their matter . in respect of the worthiness of the end , some are principal , others less principal and 〈…〉 . the principal are the liver , heart , brain , which are the principles of other parts . as , out of the brain arise the nerves , according to the common opinion , out of the heart , the arteries , out of the liver , the veins . others add the testicles , but without any need , because they make nothing to the conservation of the individual , ●and generation is caused without them , as i shall shew by examples in the . book chap. . now we do not mean the beginning of radication or original ; for so , the seed is the beginning of all the parts , but of dispensation and distribution ; that is such a beginning as sends out of it self some instrument , force or common matter . so from the heart , as the beginning or original of dispensation , the arteries arise , because they receive their virtue from the heart . and seem there to have their original . the same may be said of the veins and nerves in respect of their originals . so the gristles have their original from the bones , and also the ligaments . the subservient parts are necessary or not necessary . the necessary are those without which the animal cann●● 〈…〉 cannot live well . so the lungs serve the heart , the guts the stomach ; the stoma●…●aver and spleen ; the gall-bladder , choler-passage and piss-bladder , serve the liver ; and all the instruments of the senses serve the brain . the not-necessary , as simple flesh , &c. in respect of other parts : for in consumptive persons ●is wasted away , and in fleshie persons t is a burthen , and in sects according to aristotle have no flesh . in respect of their immediate matter , some are simple , homogeneal or similary ; others compound heterogeneal , or dissimilary . a similar part , is that which is divided into parts like it self , so that all the particles are of the same substance with the whole , as every part of flesh is flesh , &c. of such similar parts , some reckons more , others fewer . aristotle in sundry places , thus reckons them : blood , flegm , choler , sanies or blood-water , milk , seed , gall , fat , marrow , flesh , veins , arteries , nerves , fibres , membranes , skin , bones , gristles , hairs , nails , horns , feathers . averroes omits some of these , and adds melancholy , spirits , muscles , cords , ligaments , suet. galen in sundry places , thus reckons them : a bone , a gristle , a vein , an artery , a nerve , a membrane , a fibre , a tendon , a ligament , a nail , skin , fat , marrow , the glassie and chrystalline humors , the flesh of the muscles and bowels , with the proper substance of the brain , stomach , guts and womb. archangelus retaines all the aforesaid , and adds three sorts of spirits , four alimentary humors , and the excrementitious humors , as urin in the bladder , choler in the gall-bladder , excrementitious flegm , and all the excrements of all digestions , the scarf-skin , and the internal skin of ●● 〈…〉 cavities . moreover ●e adds to these , seventeen similar parts , not commonly reckoned , viz. the proper substance ( setting aside the other similar parts , veins , arteries , &c. ) of the brain , tongue , lungs , heart , liver , gall-bladder , spleen , stomach , guts , kidneys , ureters , piss-bladder , womb , yard , stones , muscles , kernels . but it is in vain for him to reckon these parts as new : for all in a manner are comprehended under flesh . for according to hippocrates and galen , there is a flesh of the muscles , and a flesh of the bowels , and a flesh of the glandules or kernels . but in another place galen propounds a threefold flesh . . in a muscle , which the ancients did only cal flesh . . the parenchyma , or proper substance of the liver , heart , kidneys , &c. . in the stomach , bladder , veins . . in the bones , though improperly . whence we may gather four sorts of flesh . . musculous flesh , which galen frequently terms fibrous flesh , and it is soft and red and properly termed flesh . and in hippocrates his language , by flesh many times is ment the muscles . . viscerous flesh or the flesh of the bowels . erasistratus cals it parenchyma or an affusion of blood ; galen cals it similar and simple flesh , which supports the vessels of the bowels , fills up the empty spaces , and performs the action . . membranous flesh , or the fleshy substance of every membranous part , as in the gullet , stomach , guts , womb , bladder . . glandulous flesh , or the flesh of kernels , which serves . . for to support the divisions of vessels . . to drink up superfluous humors , especially wheyish humors , because the kernels are of an hollow spungy substance ; and therefore they are vulgarly termed emunctories or clensers . those in the neck being counted clensers of the head ; those in the arm-pits , of the heart ; those in the groyns of the liver . . to moisten the parts for their more easie motion , or otherwise to prohibit dryness . such are those which are situate by the tongue , larynx , eye-corners , &c. but the similar parts are reckoned to be ten : a bone , a gristle , a ligament , a membrane , a fibre , a nerve , an artery , a vein , flesh and skin . of these some are similar only in the judgment of sense , as veins , arteries ( some add muscles ) others are simply and absolutely similar . that veins , arteries , nerves , muscles are not truly simple and similar , hath been rightly taught by aristotle : for a muscle consists of flesh , fibres , and a tendon : nerves are made up of the dura and pia mater , with marrow : arteries , of two different coats ; the veins of a coat ( and of fibres as some will have it ) and valves . simply and truly similar parts are bones , gristles , ligaments , membranes , fibres , flesh and skin . to these some add the ureters , the air implanted in the ear , &c. but in vain . for , . they are not parts common ●● the whole body , but proper to some parts . . the implanted air of the ears , is nothing but an implanted spirit , which cannot be reckoned among solid parts . here we are to observe that all these parts are commonly divided , into spermatical , sanguine , or mixt . the spermatical are made of seed , and such are the eight first reckoned ; which if they are cut asunder , they breed not again , nor can they be truly united , but they are joyned together by a callus in the middle , by reason of defect of matter and formative faculty , which acts not after the conformation of the parts . the sanguine or fleshy parts , contrarywise are bred again , because they are supposed to be made of blood , as the flesh . a mixt part is the skin , of which we shall treat hereafter , in book . chap. . for feed and blood are commonly accounted the two general principles of which we are made : so that in the seed there is very little of the material principle , but much of the active , but in the blood much of the material principle , and but a little and weak portion of the active or effective principle . the first rudiments and underwrap as it were of the parts , are said to be made of seed ; and the woofe or superstructure of blood flowing in . but what the truth is in contradiction to this vulgar opinion , we have taught in our anatomical controversies . for we are rather to hold , that the parts are at first made only of seed , as of their matter ; and that the mothers blood doth nourish , and encrease and amplifie the parts . the skin in comparison to other parts , hath an indifferent proportion of seed , not so much as the spermatical , nor so little as the sanguinary parts . the compound or dissimilar parts are , those which may be divided into divers unlike parts , as an hand cannot be cut into other hands , but into bones , muscles , veins , &c. the dissimilar parts are by the phylosopher called members : but they are vulgarly termed organical or instrumental parts . now in every organ , there are for the most part , four kinds of parts . for example sake , in the eye there is , . that part by which the action , viz. seeing is performed , namely the chrystalline humor . . that without which it cannot be performed , as the optick nerve . . that by which it is the better performed , as the coats and muscles of the eyes . . that by which the action is preserved , as the eye-lids , &c. and because the dissimilar parts are more or less compounded , they are divided into four degrees or ranks . the . is such as are similar to the sense , as a muscle , vein , artery . the . is made of the sormer and the rest of the similars , as a finger . the . is compounded of the second , as an hand , foot , &c. the . is compounded of the third , as an arm or leg. finally the body is divided into its greatest members , as by some into the head , chest , belly and bladder ; by others as aristotle , ruffus a 〈…〉 oribasius into the head , neck , chest ( under they comprehend the lower belly ) and therefore hippocrates placed the liver in the chest ] the arms and the legs . but others have better divided them into the bellies and limbs . the bellies are certain remarkeable cavities of the body , wherein some noble bowel is placed : and as there are three principal members , so are there three bellies : the lowest belly , commonly called abdomen or the paunch , contains the liver and natural parts . the middle or chest , containes the heart and vital parts . the uppermost or head contains the brain and animal parts . the limbs which were given us for more conveniency of living , are the arms and the legs . and therefore we shall make four books : . of the lower belly . . of the middle belly . , of the supream belly or cavity , the head. . of the limbs . and to these shall answer four petty books : the first of the veins which arise from the liver in the lower cavity . the second of the arteries which arise from the heart , in the middle cavity . the third of the nerves , which are commonly thought to spring from the brain . the fourth of the bones , which are most what in the limbs : and as the bones joyned together make a compleat frame and bodies as it were ; so also do the veins , arteries , and nerves . we may find another division of the body in fernelius , which nevertheless is of no use save in physick . he divides the body into pulplike regions and private . private regions he calls the brain , lungs , kidneys , womb , &c. publick or common he makes three extended through the whol body . . hath the vena porta , and all the parts whereinto its branches are spred . . begins at the roots of vena cava , and is terminated in the smal veins , before they become capillary . . hath the muscles , bones , and bulk of the body and ends in the skin . we purge the first region cheifly by the guts ; the second by the urinary passages ; the third by the pores of the skin . the i. table . the explication of the figure . this table holds forth the pourtraicture of a living man , wherein both the external parts of the abdomen , as all the conspicuous veins which are wont to be opened by chirurgeons , and the places where issues are wont to be made , are represented . a. the hypochondrium . b. the epigastrium . cc. the hypogastrium . d. the flanks . ee . the groins . f. the region of the share . g. the navil . h. the heart-pit . i. the jugulum or hollow of the throat . k. the forehead vein . l. the temple veins . m. the jugular vein . n. the cephalica vena . o. the basilica vena . p. the mediana or common vein . q. the head vein of the left arm. r. the salvatella . ssss . the saph●na vein descending . t. the saphaena vein in the foot it self . v. the 〈…〉 sciatica . xx 〈…〉 of issues in 〈…〉 in the thigh . before page . the first book ; of the lower belly . according to the method of anatomy , this belly or cavity comes in the first place , and is first of all dissected that the guts and excrements may be the sooner removed , and the body preserved from putrifaction . it is all that , which is distinguished , within , from the chest by the midrif ; it is circumscribed by the sword-like gristle , the share bones , hip-bones , os sacrum , the vertebra's of the loynes , and the bastard ribs on either side . the former part thereof is called epigastrium , which compasses the stomach and guts next unto it . the arabians call it mirath , which generally is used for the belly , but in a particular sence it is taken for those wrinkles of the belly , which remain after child-bearing , and for the skin gathered together upon the belly , as giggejus informs us . and the upper part hereof is termed hypochondrium , neighbouring upon the lower gristles of the ribs , and it is right or left : some term them phrenes and praecordia . the middle region is termed regio umbilicalis , whose lateral parts aristotle calls lagonas by reason of their laxity , and galen , cenen●nas from their emptyness . the lower part which reaches from the navil to the share , is termed hypogastrium , by hypocrates , galen , ruffus , pollux ; the latins term it imus venter and aqualiculus . the lateral parts thereof , are termed ilia , and in the bending of the thigh by the share inguina the groyns ; and that part next over the privities , which is covered with down or hair , is called p●bes the share . the hinder part of the lower belly , is either the upper , which makes the loynes ; or the lower , which makes the buttocks . moreover this belly consists of parts covering and covered , that is to say external and internal . the covering or containing parts ( which they properly call abdomen ) are either common , as the scarf-skin , the skin , the fat with its membrane , the fleshy pannicle , and the coat proper to every muscle ; or proper , and they are the muscles of the abdomen , 〈…〉 the peritonaeum . the inner or contained parts , do serve either for nutrition or procreation . for nutrition or making of chyle , are subservient more or less , the stomach , the caul , the sweet-bread , the guts with the mesentery : to the making of blood , are subservient more or less , the meseraick veins , the venae portae with their roots , the cava with its roots , the liver , the gall-bladder , the gall-passage , the spleen with the vas breve , and the haemorrhoides , the arteria caeliaca the kidneys , the capsulae atrabiliariae or black choler boxes , the ureters and the piss bladder . those which serve for generation , are either masculine or female : the masculine are , the spermatick vessels , the corpora varicosa or parastatae , the stones , the carrying vessels , the prostratae , the seminary bladders , the yard , &c. the female are , the spermatick vessels , the corpus varicosum , the testicles , the ejaculatory vessels , the womb with its parts , &c. but when a man is in the womb , there are yet other things considerable , as the navil-vessels , the coats which infold the child , &c. of which in their place . chap. i. of the scarf-skin . the cuticula or scarf-skin , in greek epidormis , is by some called the highest or last skin , also the cream of the skin , the cover of the skin , &c. it is a thin skin void of life and sense , close-compacted , bloodless ; bred of oyly , sleek and clammy vapors thickned by the external cold , that it might be a cover to the skin . the matter of which the scarf-skin is made , is not seed . for . it is no part of the body . . it is not nourished . a spermatical part taken away breeds not again ; but the scarf-skin is easily lost by rubbing and wearing , or being raised into blisters , by burning with fire or scalding water , &c. nor is the matter thereof blood , for . all veins do end at or within the skin . . it hath no spermatical fibres , whi●●●asis of all sanguine parts . . in long ●a●tin and consumptions , it many times grows thick . . being cut or torne , it sends forth no blood. . it is not of a red color , &c. nor are the excrements of any digestion , the matter thereof . not the excrements of the first or second digestion ; for how should it be made of dung , urin or gall ? nor the excrements of the third , for the third digestion or concoction hath a threefold excrement . . vaporous and thin which expires . . thin , but more solid then the former , of a waterish substance , such as are ichors and wheyish humors , which by their sharpness and acrimony , would sooner hinder the generation of the scarf-skin , or corrode the same after it is generated . . thick , clammy , and sticking fast , which archangelus and laurentius , do suppose to be dried and turned into the scarf-skin , and they demonstrate the same from the filth which is , in bathing , scraped from the foles of the feet . and if their opinion were true , the scarf-skin would come off in baths . and therefore the matter thereof is another excrement , viz. an oyly , thick , clammy , and moist vapor ( for of dry exhalations the hair is made ) proceeding from the skin and members under the same . so we see in a skillet of water-gruel , a skin grows over the top of the gruel , being mad , of the vapors thereout ascending , condensed by cold . now the scarf-skin is bred , partly in the womb with the skin , and partly without the womb. within , for . so there are the rudiments and beginnings of hair , teeth , nails in the child in the womb , . without the scarf-skin , the skin would be moist , and the humor would sweat out with pain , as in gallings and where phoenigmi are applied . . experience shews , that the scarf-skin is somewhat apparent in an abortion , and may be separated by some fretting humidity . but whiles the child is in the womb , it is exceeding tender , soft , and but as yet begun to be made : because there is not in the womb so much cold , only a small degree springing from the serous humor which surrounds the child . but it receives its complement and perfection without the womb , from the coldness of the air , which doth more condense and dry , which is the cause that the skin of all new-born infants looks red . wherefore the remote and internal efficient thereof is in the inward heat of the body , thrusting forth a vapor into the surface thereof , as exhalations are made by the suns heat . the next and external , is the coldness of somebody , as the air , &c. compacting , and thickning . so gruel , hot milk , and other hot dishes of meat , have a skin growing over them : sometimes also the dryness of the ambient air , consuming the external humor , and compacting the remainders of the matter . now by how much the said vapor is more earthy and clammy , by so much more solid is that which is bred thereof . the vse thereof is to defend the skin . and therefore 't is somwhat hard , howbeit exceeding thin and yet transparent , like the transparent skins of onions ; least if it were thicker , the skin should not feel 〈…〉 it is somtimes bard and brauny , in the hands 〈…〉 by reason 〈…〉 of labor and travel . 〈…〉 ●●d more compact than 〈…〉 and therefore it is that watery pustules pass through the skin but not the scarf-skin . yet not over close and compact , least it should hinder the bodies transpiration and it is close wrought , not only to defend the parts under it but that also too great an efflux of vapor , blood , spirit and heat might not happen . for it is the cover of the mouths and extremities of the vessels . and therefore those cannot live in good health that are born without a scarf-skin ; as was seen in lewes the king of bohemia and hungaria , who became gray hair'd while he was but a boy . it is of a white color , and therefore of a cold and dry temper and quite void of blood , for being torn or cut , it sends forth no blood. nor is it nourished by blood , as lauremberg and sperlinger would have it ; for it is not intrinfically nourished by attraction of its proper aliment ; but by addition of parts ▪ the vapor growing into the like nature of the scarf-skin , as casserus rightly disputes , the scarf-skin is black in blackmores , but not the skin beneath it . as for number : there is but one scarf-skin ; only there was once two found by aquapendent : the one being strongly fastned in the pores of the skin , and inseperable : the other seperable without offence to the skin . which happens in some only , not in all parts of the body . also laurembergius , in applying vesicatories , found the scarf-skin double ; but that is a rare case , for that vesicatories do peitce unto the skin is apparent from the humor dropping out , and the pain . in brawny callosities , indeed there are many little skins , as it were the skins of onyons ; but they are besides nature , whose generation and cure is delivered by fallopius . in point of connexion , it sticks so close to the skin of a man , while he is alive , as if it were one continued body therewith . yet many times it is cast off as snakes and serpents cast their skins , which felix platerus tells us did happen to himself ; and which happens in burning feavers and the small pox. salmuth observed as much in some gouty persons , in an ague , and some other cases . in dead persons 't is separated by a candle , or scalding water : in living bodies with phoenigmi . in the nut of the yard , it sticks not to the skin , but to the flesh . chap. ii. of the skin . cvtis , the skin , is in greek cal'd derma , as it were desma a band ; it is the common covering of the body ; or a temperate membrane bred of the seed by a proper faculty , to be the instrument of feeling , and to defend the parts beneath it . it is called a membrane , which must not be understood simply , but so as to be a membrane of a peculiar nature and proper temperament . and therefore piccolhomineus was mistaken when he would have the skin to be simply a membrane ; for the skin is thicker , hath a substance proper to it self , and is temperate . but the opinion of others is , that the matter hereof is seed and blood well mixed together , so that the skin hath a middle nature between flesh 〈…〉 nerves . and therefore galen 〈…〉 that it is as it 〈…〉 a nerve endued with blood : he sayes not simply , but as it were . for he also likens it to a membrane , because in some parts it may be extended , feels exquisitely , and is white . aristotle would have the skin to consist of flesh dried and grown old as it were . but the skin is easily flaid from the parts under it , and between the flesh and skin there is fat , a membrane , &c. to which opinion fernelius inclined , when he said that the skin of the face was a certain more dry portion of the flesh beneath it . wherein he also is to be blamed , because . it may be separated from the flesh . . it will admit of scars as the skin in other places . others say it is made of the extremities of the vessels widened , because it every where lives and feels , and the extremities of the vessels end thereinto : but this may be said of all the parts of the body . others , of the softer nerves spread out in the surface of the body , an addition of blood concurring : but this opinion is of no more force then the formet . the skin therefore is made of seed taken in a moderate quantity : and for its enlargement , it had a moderate quantity of blood ; but seed seems to hold the greater proportion . for the skin is naturally whi●ish ; though it varies according to the plenty of humors and bodies beneath it . for such as the humor is , such will be the color of the skin . so sanguine persons have it ruddy ; those that are jaundized , have it yellow or black . examples whereof see in marcellus donatus and others . if flesh lie beneath it , the redder it is , if fat the whiter . it is in respect to the seed , that authors say , the skin grows not together again after it is wounded . in respect of the blood , there is somewhat like the skin produced , viz. a scar : which consists as it were of burnt and dried flesh . howbeit in children , by reason of the moisture of their skin , as also the aboundance of glutinous humors , a wound hath been observed to be closed up with true skin ; witness spigelius . wherefore the skin being made as it were of a membranous , cold and dry , and of a fleshy , hot and moist substance ; becomes temperate in all the first and second qualities , that it may rightly judg of all . the efficient cause of the skin , is the skin-generating faculty ; as in a bone the bone-generating faculty , in a nerve the nerve-forming power or faculty , &c. which faculty frames a part differing from all other similar parts . but how doth the faculty make of the same seminal matter nerves , bones , &c. by an hidden and divine power as it were . the publick action of the skin , and which is necessary for the whole living-creature is , to be the primary instrument of the sense of feeling , for every membrane is the adaequate organ , as may be seen in the bones , nerves , stomach , &c. for though all the organs of the senses are dissimilar parts , yet one similar part is the primary cause of the action , which is to be performed by the whole organ . for examples sake , the hand is indeed the organ of feeling , and especially that part of the skin , which covers the hollow of the hands and feet , as being of all other most temperate . and because the skin is temperate in the first qualities ; it is therefore also temperate in the second , as 〈…〉 hardness , thickness , thinness , & 〈…〉 . the first use of the skin is , to be a covering for the body , and therefore it hath received a figure so round , long , &c. as the subject parts required ; and therefore also it is seared without the body , and because it was to be as it were the emunctory of the body . the professors of physiognomy commend unto us another use of the skin , as it is streaked with lines ; who are wont to tell mens fortunes from the lines and hillocks in their hands , and from the planetary and adventitious lines in their foreheads . a third use is medicinal , being good for anodin● emplasters . being dried , it helps women in labor ; epileptick convulsions , according to the experience of hildanus and beckerus ; wounds of the scul , according to poppius . the fourth is more illustrious , that it might give way to excrements , and exclude insensible sooty fumes by way of insensible transpiration , by which we are more disburthened then by all our sensible evacuations put together . by this , sanctorius through the statick art , in the experience of thirty years , did learn that many persons in the space of one natural day , do void more by transpiration , then in fifteen dayes together by stool . the fift is to attract . . air in transpiration , in apople●tick and hysterical fits , and in such as dive deep and bide long under the water . . juyce , in long fasting , from plasters applied , if we credit the observations of zacutus lufitanus ; and the force of purgative and other external medicaments . and for this cause . 't is bored through in divers places , for the ingress and egress of things necessary . now its holes are some of them visible , as the mouth , the ears , the nostrils , &c. others invisible and insensible , as the pores . those pores of the body , being otherwise not conspicuous , are seen in the winter , when the body is suddenly bared ; for then the scarf-skin looks like a gooses skin when the feathers are pul'd of . by reason ( it seems ) of these pores it was , that a certain persian king made use of the skins of men for windowes , if we may credit orabasi●s . the skin is thick , six fold thicker then the scarf-skin , but thinner then it is in other animals , nor must any one judg of the thickness of the skin after it is made into leather , for by tanning it is much contracted and thickned , and it seems to be made lighter , for a mans skin tanned according to the observation of loselius , weighs four pounds and an half . it is soft and exquisitely sensible , but softer and thinner in the face , yard , and cods ; harder in the neck , thighs , soles of the feet , back ; of a midling constitution between hardness and softness , in the tops of the fingers . so , some part of the skin is extream thick as in the head , according to aristotle , falsly cited by columbus . some is thick , as in the neck ; some thin as in the sides , whence proceeds tickling ; some yet thinner as in the palms of the hands , some thinnest of all , as in the lips. in children 't is more thin and porous then in grown persons , in women then in men ; in an hot countrey , then in a cold . also the skin is more rare and open in the summer then in the winter ; and therefore it is that the skins of animals flaid off in the summer do more hardly retain their hair , then such as are flaid off in the winter . also it varies very much according to the diversity of the suoject ; so that in some it hath been of an admirable density and thickness , if we beleive petrus ser●… who tels of two negro women , that could without hurt take up ▪ carry , hold , and almost extinguish burning oles with their bare hands . fallopius saw the skin of 〈…〉 so 〈…〉 that he lost his feeling 〈…〉 ●easo●… of the nerves as to its connexion : some skin is easily separated from the parts under it ; as in the lower and middle belly , in the arms and thighs . from others with more difficulty by reason of the thick membrane to which it is fastned by the fibres , and by means of the vessels . in the soles of the feet and palms of the hands , it is hardly separated , to which parts it grows that they might lay the faster hold . also hardly from the flesh of the forehead and of the whole face , especially of the ears and lips , by reason of tendons and muscles mixed therewith , especially the muscle latus so called , mingled therewith . so , in the forehead it is moveable , and in the hinder part of the head of some people by reason of peculiar muscles ; but it is not so in the rest of the body . the skin hath received common vessels , for nourishment , life and sense . it hath received two cutany veins , through the head and neck , from the jugulars ; two through the arms , breast and back , from the axillaries ; two through the lower belly , loyns and legs , from the groyns , which are conspicuous in women after hard labor , and in such as have the varices in many branches . it hath few art ●●ng . and those very small , in the temples and forehead , fingers , cod and yard . it hath no nerves creeping in it , but it hath many ending in it , as galen conceived : though iohannes veslingus the prime anatomist of padua sayes there are very small branches of nerves running through the skin ; and that rightly , for their presence was necessary to cause the sense of feeling . chap. iii. of fat . fat is a similary body void of life , growing together out of oyly blood , by reason of the coldness of the membranes , for the safegard of the whole body . that it is void of life , appears in that it is cut without pain , and consumptions thereof shew as much . therefore pliny writes that living sowes are gnawn by mice ; and aelian reports that the tyrant dionysius was so fat , that when he was a sleep , the pricking of needles could not awake him . also in greenland they cut fat out of living whales which they never feel nor perceive . pinguedo fat , which the greeks term pimele , is by gaza ill translated adeps : for pinguedo is an aiery hot and moist substance of the moister sorts of animals , and is more easily melted with heat , and will scarce ever become hard again , nor can it be broken , and it is soft , laxe and rare : but understand the contrary in suet , which easily grows hard and stiff , but is hardly dissolved , &c. now fat to speak properly , is not a part , but rather an humor , unless haply it be considered together with the membrane , as many times it is by galen . the 〈…〉 of our order is this ; because fat in a man is between the skin and the fleshy membrane , in ●…s under the membrane which moves the those parts are void of fat , which could receive no profit thereby but hindrance by resisting convenient complication and distension , as the brain , eyelids , yard , cod , and membranes of the testicles . now it is chiefly in those parts which are more strongly moved then the rest , hard like suet , and interwoven between the fibres and little veins , as in the palm of the hand , the inner sides of the fingers ( for there are many tendons , nerves and vessels , which ought to be moistened ) in the sole of the foot , especially the heel . it is softer in sundry parts , of which in their place . caecilius folius hath larely written that the matter whereof fat is made , is the milky juyce , or fatter portion of the chylus , and that therewith the bones are nourished . to which opinion i oppose . . that such as eat fat meats , do not presently grow fat . . that the chylus is too crude to nourish the parts . . that children should presently become fat as we see it happen in children new born , who have been nourished only with their mothers blood. . that the chylus is necessarily changed before it come unto the parts . . there is no passage from the mesentery to the extream parts of the body ; for it is neither suckt through the membranes , as some learned men suppose , nor is it carried through the glandules . not the former . . because they are thicker , then to suck and draw as threads . . they would appear swoln , and would in anatomy discover some oyly moisture in them . nor the latter , . because the kernels are not continued with the fat parts . . nor do they receive any profitable humor , but excrements , yea they abound with a white , flegmatick , but not a fat humor . . we observe that many creatures grow fat which have no kernels . now the fatter part of the chyle is the material cause of fatness , but it is only the remote cause , and therefore in deed and truth , the matter thereof is unanimously concluded to be blood , whence aristotle sayes , that such creatures as have no blood , have neither fat nor suet : but it must be blood purified and absolutely concocted , nor yet all such blood , but that which is thin , aiery and oyly . it resembles the buttery substance of milk , and the oyly substance of seed ; and therefore aristotle did well deny fat to be moist ; with a watery moisture , his meaning was , not with an aiery . against whom fernelius and columbus have written . and when fat is made of oyly blood , much of the heat is lost . whence aristotle sayes ; such things as are condensed by cold , out of them much heat is forced and squeezed . and in another place : natural matters are such , as the place is wherein they are . therefore the nature of fat is colder then that of blood , yet is it moderately hot ; for . outwardly applyed , it digests , resolves , discusses . . it is the thinner and more oyly part of the blood . . it easily takes fire . . it encreases the heat within , as the caul assists the stomachs concoction , &c. some will have it to be cold , because aristotle sayes , whatever things grow together by cold , and are melted by heat , are cold . but fat is congealed by cold . i answer : fat is cold in respect of the heat which before it had , while it was blood . but we must learn 〈…〉 the same aristotle , that such things as having been 〈…〉 cold , are melted with an easie heat , have in this table are expressed the common coverings of the belly separated , and on one side the fat besprinkled with its vessels , and on the other side certain muscles detected ▪ the ii. table . the explication of the figure . aa . the scarf-skin . bbbb . the skin . cc. the fat out of its place , separated from the pannicle or coat . dd. the fleshy pannicle . eeeee . the fat left in its proper place half the belly over . ffff . the distribution of certain vessels through the fat. g. store of kernels in the groyn . hh . the white line . i. the navil . k. part of the pectoral muscle detected . lll . the productions of the greater foreside-saw-muscle . mm. the oblique descendent muscle of the breast in its situation . nnn . the right muscle of the belly appearing through the tendon of the oblique descendent . ooo . the nervous inscriptions of the right muscle . p. the right-side pyramidal muscle in its proper place . page . the efficient , or generating cause of fatness , is moist and temperate heat , the author of all digestion . the cause efficient of its growing together , is the coldness of the membranes ( from whence it gains its white color ) not simple but respective ; yet sufficient to coagulate the oylie part of the blood sweating forth , even as melted lead grows congealed , when it is poured out into a place hot enough , yet colder then the fire . and fat grows together by cold , in a certain degree as it were ( for every thing is not made of every thing ) and therefore fat is not bred in any part . now that fatness proceeds from coldness galen and other learned men have determined , so that the fat , light , and thin part of the blood , while in hotter bodies it turns to nutriment , in colder it is reserved ( and therefore hot and dry animals are hardly eyer fat ) and when the veins send it out of themselves , it lights upon the membranes , and grows together . for . even the blood , when it is out of the vessels , does after this manner grow together , by meeting with the cold air , though its internal coldness do also , help forward the mutation . . aristotle saies , among such things as melt , those that are melted by heat , are congealed by cold , as oyl . . the colder creatures are the fatter , as gueldings , foemales ; also such as lie long hid in the earth without exercise : so in the winter , all creatures are fatter . . fat is only bred in cold places , as in the membranes : so we see the call is fat , by reason of its membranous substance , also in respect of its place , being far from the hot bowels , for it 〈…〉 upon the guts , under the peritonaeum , and beca●… stored with abundance of veins and arteries , i●…uch fat ; so about the heart fat is collected , for there is the pericardium , a cold and thick membrane ; also the wheyish humor contained therein : below it there is the midriff as a fan , on either fide the lungs like bellows , the mediastinum &c. so about the the kidneys fat is gathered , because they abound with a wheyish excrement , lie near the back-bone , and are covered by the guts . . a cover hanging over boyling water , coagulates the vapors which arise unto it , and turns them into water by its coldness . for make the air round about exceeding hot , and then the vapors striking against the cover , will not be condensed . another opinion is , that fat is made by an hot cause , because the matter thereof is hot , and because fat easily flames ; also because all things are made in the body , by coction , and heat . but the answer is clear from what hath been said before . and we do not mean meer coldness , the cause of crudity , but a weak heat . some say that fat attains its consistency from the compactness of the membranes , for that which is itself compact makes other things so . i answer . that cold things condense , and condensation proceeds from cold , nor can that which is condensed condense , unless it were a first quality , or should take the assistance of cold , for otherwise the thinness of the membrane would make the fat thin . and why does not the density or compactness of the vessels make the matter contained to be condensed and compact ? . in like manner they object : by a thick cover though very hot , the vapor arising from boyling water , when it meets therewith , is turned into water , or in a distillation by an alembick , the exhalations arising from the subject matter , meeting with the thick glass are stopped , and by reflection turned into a thickned substance . but the answer , is clear from what hath been said ; moreover , the vapors which are raised up by boyling , if they are by the vessel so shut in , that there is no place to breath out , new vapors continually arising , that there may not be a penetration of bodies , it is necessary , that they reassume their former consistency : but if they find egress , they turn to water , by reason of the cold air surrounding the glassie cover . and therefore it is that , to make the liquor issue more aboundantly , distillers ever and anon cool the same with cold water . so when the air abroad is cold , hot vapors within do turn to water upon the glass windows ; which does not happen when the air is hot abroad . . they say , that there are many cold parts , as the brain and its coats , &c. which have no fat about them . i answer , those parts also are dense . nor would nature have fat in those parts , for it would be both unprofitable and hurtful : and a moderate heat is there provided for , by the thickness of the skin , the hair and the skull . fabius pacius makes the cause to be also dryness , by reason of the fibers of fat. to which is repugnant that fat is not dry , but moist . ●…le fibers , as the blood hath . touch-●…e anatomical contradictions of my fa 〈◊〉 other late writers are pleased with a new conceit , that fat is made , by a peculiar fat-making form , as a bone is made by a bone-making form . who doubtless are mistakens because fat doth not live . it hath no certain dimension . and the blood turns into the marrow of the bones , without the help of such a form . the form of fat as long as it is in the vessels , is not congealed , but liquid and melted , by reason of the heat which as yet remains in the vessels . it hath been voided liquid by urin , as helmo●t hath observed , and in an healthy woman by stool , in the observation of hildanus . folius conceives it is liquid in the vessels , by reason of likeness of nature , but that it is congealed without , because of the different nature of the fibres . but no man can easily observe the dissimilitude of the fibres , either within the body , or without . the fat of the belly hath three veins , the external mammillary descending from above the vena epigastrica , arising from beneath out of the crural vein , through the groins , and very many veins coming out of the loins , accompanied with arteries . and through these , and the vessels of the skin , cupping-glasses and scarifications draw humors out of the inner parts , as far as i can conceive . it hath a very great aboundance of kernels , which receive excrements out of the body into themselves . in sickly persons , and such as abound with excrementitious moisture , they are more plentiful . the use of fat is to keep warm like a garment , to cherish natural heat , by its clammyness , hindring the going forth thereof , and by its thickness , stopping the passages , least cold should enter ; and in summer , they keep out the heat . . in a special manner to help the concoction of the stomach . and therefore the cutting out of the call breeds winds and belchings , and to cause good digestion , it is necessary to provide some other covering for the stomach . . to daub and moisten hot and dry parts , such as is the heart . . to facilitate motion , provided it be moderate , for abundance of fat hinders motion and all other actions , and to keep the parts from being over dried , distended , or broken . hence it defends the ends of gristles , the joyntings of the greater bones ; and it is placed on the outside of certain ligaments , also about the vessels carried to the skin . for this very cause , there is store of fat in the socket of the eye , least by reason of continual motion , it should become dry and withered as it were . and the vena coronalis of the heart , is fenced with much fat , to accommodate the great motion and heat of the heart . . it serves as a pillow and bulwark against blows , bruises , and compressions . and therefore it is that nature hath furnisht the buttocks , and the hollow of the hands and feet with plenty of fat. . in times of famine , it is turned into nourishment , for we are nourished with that which is sweet and fat , as being familiar to us and our nature , if we will beleive galen and other authors . whose intention rondeletius interprets to be , that the fat doth only releive famished persons , and hold the parts ●● the body in play , till they attain their proper nou●shment . . it fills up the empty spaces between the muscles , vessels , and skin , and consequently renders the body smooth , white , soft , fair , and beautiful . and therefore persons in a consumption and decrepit old women are deformed , for want of fat. chap. iv. of membranes in general , of the fleshy membrane , and the membrane which is proper to the muscles . under the fat in a man , the membrana carnosa , or fleshy membrane lies , which in apes , dogs , and sheep lies next the skin . before we treat thereof , some things are to be known concerning the nature of a membrane in general . the ancients called the membranes hymenas , and sometimes chitona's coats , also meningas ; and otherwhiles operimenta , and tegumenta coverings ; and with galen and other anatomists , speaking in a large sense , a coat and a membrane , are one and the same thing . but when they speak in a strickt and proper sense . that is a membrane which compasses some bulkie part , as the peritonaeum , the pleura , the periostium , the pericardium , and the peculiar membranes of the muscles . but the term tunica or coat in a strickt sense , is attributed properly to the vessels , as veins , arteries , ureters , the womb , the gall-bladder , and the piss-bladder , the gullet , the stomach , the guts , the stones . the term meninx is properly given and peculiarly to the membranes of the brain . now a membrane is a similar part broad , plane , white , and which may be stretched , made by a proper membrane-making faculty , of clammy and watery seed , to the end that it might by cloathing defend the parts . the form thereof is the equality of its surface , thinness , and lightness ( least it should burden ) compactness and strength that it might be widened and stretched . it s use is . to cloath and defend the parts by reason of its hardness and compactness ; and to be the instrument of feeling : for the parts feel by help of the membranes . and so great is the necessity of membranes , that nature hath covered every part with a membrane . . to strengthen the parts . . to defend the parts from the injury of the cold , and to keep the natural heat from exhaling . . to joyn parts with parts . so the mesentery knits the guts to the back . . to shut the mouths of the vessels , least the humors should flow out , or flow back : as in the bladder , where the ureters are implanted , in the ventricles of the heart , by the valves . now a membrane is thicker or thinner . the thin membrane differs in thinness . for the periostium of the ribs is thinner then the pleura , the periostium of the head , is thinner then the pericraneum ; the pia mater is thinner then the dura mater . the thick membrane is the membrana carnosa , which is not every where alike thick ; for it is thicker in the neck then other places . and now let us speak of the membrana carnosa , or fleshy membrane . the panniculus carnosus or membrana carnosa is by some termed a membranous muscle , by others a nervie coat , a fattie coat , &c. it is termed fleshy , because in some places , as about the forehead , the compass of the neck , and the ears , it turns to a musculous flesh , and in such creatures as by the help hereof can move their whole skin , it seems to be a muscle : it is endued with such fleshy fibers , especially in their necks , by the motion whereof they drive away flies . but in man , save in his forehead , it is immoveable ; only vesalius and valverda report that there were some men who could move the skin on their chest and back , and in other parts , just as oxen do . in whom doubtless this membrane was made of the same constitution , which it hath in brutes . moreover in new-born children , it resembles flesh , by reason of plenty of blood ; in grown persons it is like a membrane , by reason of continually being dried . in a mans body , if exact separation be made , it will appear to consist of four distinct membranes . spigelius and others do take those membranous fibers , which are every where interwoven among the fat , to be panniculus carnosus , or membrana carnosa . it s use is . to defend the neighboring parts , yea , and to cover and defend the whole body , and therefore it is situate all over the body . . to keep in the fat , that it flow not out , or melt by reason of the continual motion of the muscles . . to support those vessels which are carried into the skin ( which go between the skin and this membrane ) for it is knit unto the skin by very many veins , some fewer arteries , branches of nerves , and membranous fibers ; and to the membranes under the muscles , by the smaller fibers . it is therefore false , that when the fat is consumed by fasting , the skin sticks to the muscles no otherwise , then a ball to a peice of cloth wherewith it is covered . it sticks most firmly to the back , in fashion of a membrane , and therefore it is said to arise from thence . in the former part of a mans neck and his forehead , it can hardly be separated from the skin and the musculus latus ; it sticks so close , and is thought to constitute the musculus latus . the surface thereof is slippery , there where it touches the muscles , by reason of that clammy humor , which is wont to be daubed upon the membranes , least the motion of the muscles should be hindred . it is of exquisite sense ; and therefore if it be twitched by a sharp humor , it causes shivering and shaking , as by choler in agues . the proper membrane of the muscles , which some will have to spring from the pericranium or periostium , others from the nervous fibers of the muscles , is thin , and is knit unto the muscle , by most thin filaments . it s use is . to cloath the muscle and separate them one from anothe● . to impart unto them the sense of 〈…〉 chap. v. of the muscles in general . a muscle is termed in greek mus a mouse , because it resembles a flaid mouse ; and the latins cal it lacertus a lizard , from its similitude with that creature : howbeit we cannot allot one certain figure to the muscles , by reason of their variety . a muscle is an organical part , the instrument of voluntary motion . for only this part can receive the iuflux of the motive faculty . helmont allowes the muscles a life peculiar to themselves , which continues for a while , even after death , as the convulsive motion in the falling-sickness which continues involuntarily . which nevertheless does more truly arise , from the retraction and driness of the nerves , and defect of spirits . also the same man is in an error in conceiving that new fibres do arise in the muscles , and cause the palsie . no man ever saw them , nor can they be bred anew , because they are spermatick parts . the palsie ought rather to be referred to a defect of some fibres . a muscle is an organical part , because it consists . of flesh . . of a tendinous part ( and these are the two parts of a muscle , which perform the action ) . of veins to carry back the nutriment . . of arteries preserving the inbred heat , and bringing the nourishment to the part . . of nerves , which contribute sense and especially motion . for the brain sends the motive faculty through the nerves into the muscles . . of membranes which encompass and keep the muscles together . . of fat which moistens them , and hinders them from being dried by over much motion . the muscles of the whole body are most straitly conjoyned one with another : yet sometimes they gape , and are at some distance , when wind , wheyish humor , or some other matter gets between them ; as in the bastard pleurisie , and concerning a soldier whipt by the turks . veslingus told me that his muscles were so widened and separated , that if he bent his body but a little , every muscle would bear it self out from its natural situation , bunching out as it were , and swelling . we divide the muscles into two parts , a fleshy part , and a tendinous part . again , we make the tendinous part to be either united , or disgregated , and severed . united , where the whole tendinous part appears , white and hard , either in the beginning , end , or middle ; or in all these parts . contrariwise it is disgregated or severed , where it is divided into many small fibres , scarce discernable to the sight , being compassed about with flesh ▪ which tendinous fibers may notwithstanding be discerned among the fleshy ones , in boyled hogs-flesh , and in the flesh of a turkey-cock , &c. so in some muscles , especially 〈…〉 of the thighs of a turkey-cock , the tendinous 〈…〉 appear whole and united from the beginning to 〈…〉 . so in a man , somtimes the tendon descends 〈…〉 after it s original , mixe● with flesh . somtimes the tendinous part appears , united in the end , and severed in the beginning , as in the muscle deltoides ; somtimes it is tendinous in the middle , and somtimes not at all . with aquapendent we define a tendon to be a body continued from the beginning to the end of a muscle , and that it is a body of a peculiar nature , cold and dry , made of seed , as the principle of its generation : but the beginning of its dispensation is a bone , for it springs from a bone , and is inserted or implanted into a bone . yet some muscles arise from gristles , and some from tendons , and are implanted into them . and it is rightly termed tendo , from stretching , because it is bent and stretched like the string of a bow . a muscle is otherwise divided into the head , middle , and end. the reginning and head of a muscle , when it is tendinous , is by galen and other anatomists , called ligamentum , which they say is void of sense , and that it is less then a tendon , or the end of a muscle . now the beginning in a great part of muscles , is tendinous , seldom fleshy . and to speak the very truth , the beginning may as well be termed a tendon , as the end ; seeing for the most part , such as is the beginning , such is the end , in substance , in thinness , lightsomness , whiteness , &c. now every muscle is said to move towards its beginning , and every muscle hath a nerve , which is inserted either into the head , or about the middle ( and in some through the surface of the muscle , in others through the substance ) so that where the nerve is implanted , there is the head of the muscle : which galen laies down as a sure rule , and saith ; that if the nerve be implanted into the tayl , there is the head of the muscle . but johannes walaeus an excellent learned physitian , likes not this rule , and conceives that it is all one , whether the nerve be inserted into the beginning , the middle , or the end . . because that rule renders the motions of many muscles obscure . . because it holds not true in the pectoral muscle , nor somtimes in other muscles of the chest and belly . . because that rule is not founded upon any reason , for whether the nerve be inserted into the beginning of the muscle , or into any other part thereof , the spirits flowing in by the nerve , may equally move the muscle : as we see in wind-instruments , the air is let in somtimes above , somtimes beneath , one way as conveniently as another . . and whereas that rule is oftentimes found true , it happens by accident , because mostmuscles are moved upward , & because the nerves descend from above , and therefore could not be more safely implanted any where , then in the upper part of the muscles . and that which riolanus objects against walaeus , touching the contorsion or wreathing of the recurrent nerve , is nothing . for the nerves run back , to avoid confusion , otherwise , if nature chiefly intended the insertion into the heads of muscles , she might have carried them right out into the larynx , as she doth other nerves of the sixt pair . some muscles receive two branches of nerves , as the midrif ; some five , as the temporal muscle . the middle of the muscle , which they call the belly or body , doth for the most part swell , and is fleshy ; some few have a tendon in the middle , as the musculus digastricus which opens the nether jaw , and the second pair belonging to the os hyoïdes . the end or taile of a muscle , is by some called tendo ▪ by others chorda , and aponeurosis . and the end is somtimes round , somtimes broad , somtimes long , other whiles short ; somtimes one , otherwhiles more then one . now this end , or tendon , is commonly conceived to be made up of a concourse of fibres , ligaments , and very smal nerves , which by little and little grow into one body . for they will have a nerve , when it comes to the place of a muscle to be divided into divers slips , which are met by a ligament , cleft after the same manner . consequently they determine . . that the tendon hath the sense of feeling , but not the head , which they account void of sense and motion . but this is false ; because the tendinous head of a muscle , when it is prickt , breeds convulsions and cruel symptomes , just as if the head of the muscle were prickt . moreover , the beginning of a muscle hath motion , and therefore sense . it hath motion , because a muscle , even in its head , is contracted and expanded , especially when it is fleshy . . they say also that the end is thicker then the head : which notwithstanding is somtimes true and somtimes false , as in the musculous biceps , and others . . they will have the tendon to be softer then the ligament ( as they call it ) or the beginning of the muscle , namely so much softer , as it is harder then a nerve , but the contrary is true , viz. that the tendon is harder then the beginning , because it many times changes into a boney and gristley substance , as in the feet of feathered fowle ; but the beginning doth not so . moreover , i deny that nerves enter into the tendon . for aquapendent and riolanus have observed , by frequent dissections , that when they are entred into the flesh of the muscle , they are spread out into many little branches , which go into a certain membranous flexure , and so vanish or end , before they come to the tendon . moreover , a nerve is soft , how therefore can it be mingled with an hard body ? neither is the end less destitute of sense , then the head , seeing there come no more nerves to it then the other : for the nerve being implanted , tends downwards , and not upwards . the action of a muscle is voluntary motion . the motion of a muscle , is threefold , . a muscle is contracted within it self , towards the head ; and when this is done the opposite muscle is relaxed and loosned . . being contracted , it continues so . and these two motions are primary , per se and not accidental . . after contraction it is relaxed ▪ which motion is accidental , and proceeds from another . and therefore muscles are alwaies set one against another , as antagonists . now the work of this motion or action , which is seen in the parts ▪ whereinto the muscles are planted , doth vary according to the variety of parts . for in the throat it is swallowing ; in the arme bending and stretching forth , &c. yea and somtimes one follows upon another . for the muscles of the chest , when they act , do diversly widen or contract the same , they draw in air , or expel fuliginous sooty vapors , and cause respiration . this motion of the muscles , is somtimes called voluntary , somtimes animal , to distinguish it from the natural , in brutes spontaneous . for we can hasten , or slacken , or stop this motion as we please . and in this motion , the will of a man or the appetite of brutes , is like an horseman guiding and putting his horse forward ; the nerves resemble the reins of the bridle , and the muscles are like the horse . there are some singular muscles , as of the inside of the eare , the midrif , the muscles of the chest , and eye-lids , whose motion is partly voluntary and partly natural , because they many times perform their actions , when we have no thought nor will thereto . the use of all the parts of the muscle , is after the same manner , as in every perfect organ . for . there is that by which the action is primarily and of it self performed , and it is the fibrous flesh ; [ but especially according to the fibres , for the flesh being wounded according to the length of the fibres , the motion remains unhurt , but it is not so ▪ when the fibres are wounded ] for the most part the belly of the muscle ▪ which is most of all contracted . hence it is that if you cut a muscle of in the beginning end or middle , in a living person , or in one that is dead it purses it self round and draws it self into it self like a ball : as also it doth , being cast into the water . riolanus counts the principal part to be the tendon , upon which the action depends , because it hath a peculiar substance of its own , such as is no where to be seen out of a muscle . but this is rather true of fibrous flesh , which is in all muscles , where as in some there is no tendon . . that without which it cannot be performed as the nerve : for if the nerves be hurt the muscle looses its motion . . that by which it is more strongly and better performed , as the tendons and tendinous fibres . wherefore those muscles only , which perform continual and strong motions , have received united and conspicuous tendons . for the muscles do either move themselves only , as those of the fundament and bladder ; or they move also the skin , as in the lips , forehead and face : and in these there is no tendon to be seen ▪ or they move a bone , and these for the most part evidently end in tendons , because the strong motion of an heavy member did require as much : or they move some other light thing , as the muscles of the tongue and larynx ( some of which have tendons and some not ) of the eyes , stones and yard . . such parts as conserve and guard the action , as the veins and arteries , the membranes and fat . chap. vi. of the muscles of the belly , or abdomen . those which are called musculi abdominis , the belly-muscles , do cover the lower belly , and galen reckons as many , as there are positions of fibres ; right , transverse , oblique , and these either upwards or downwards . so that according to galen there are eight , four on each side ; two oblique descendents , or external oblique ones , two oblique ascendents or internal ones , two right and two transverse : but massa found out two others , and after him fallopius , which they term pyramidal muscles , others fallopian muscles , and sylvius calls them succenturiatos . and so hither anatomists have made these muscles ten in number . casserius accounts the right muscles to be many , and that rightly ; seeing there are for the most part four of them on each side ; and so for the most part . this table represents the oblique descendent muscle of the belly out of its place , and the rest of the muscles in their proper places . the iii. table . the explication of the figure . a. part of the obliquely descendent muscle on the left side . a. the beginning of the obliquely descendent muscle removed out of its situation , in the right side , as also the insertion of many nerves , and the oblique carriage of many fibres . b. the right muscles , of which two are found above the navil n. and one beneath it . c. the fleshy part , or belly of the obliquely descendent muscle ends here ; and here begins the tendon or membranous end thereof . d. the hole in the tendon of this muscle , through which the spermatick vessels , are sent into the stones towards the cod. e. the obliquely ascendent muscle , in its situation , with the fibres which run to the upward parts . f. the fleshy beginning of the obliquely ascendent muscles , growing out of the sharpe point of os ilij , or the appendix gg . g. the spina , or that same appendix of the os ilium . h. the line about which the tendons of the oblique muscles of the belly begin , which spigelius calls semilunaris , the half-moon-shap'd line . i. the streight muscles transparent under the tendons of the oblique ascendent muscle . k. productions of the peritonaeum , involving the spermatick vessels , and descending into the cod. l. holes in the end of the ascendent and right muscles , to let the spermatsck vessels through . m. the kernels of the groyn laid open . n. the navil . o. the white line of the belly . p. the thighs near the privities . q. the 〈…〉 or yard . . . . ●…erves , which proceed from under each rib , to be distributed into the oblique descendent muscle . . . 〈…〉 ●e four lower ribs . a a a. the 〈…〉 of the oblique ascendent muscle . page : in this table are shown the right muscles of the belly , with their inscriptions , as also the epigastric and mammary vessels , which are conspicuous from their inner side . also the transverse muscle of the belly , separated about its beginning , and the pyramidal muscles in their situation . the iv. table . the explication of the figure . a. the transversal or overthwart muscle , made loose about its beginning . b b b. it s beginning . c c. a portion of the tendon . d. the right muscle . e. its beginning . f f f. nervous inscriptions . g. the end. h. the back-side of the other right muscle , wherein . i. shews the dug vein and artery descending . k k. the epigastry vein and artery descending . l l. the concourse or anastomosis of the veins . mm. the peritonaeum freed from the muscles . nnn . the pyramidal muscles . oo . the productions of the peritonaeum descending into the cod. page . : there are sixteen muscles of the belly for the most part , at least and seldomer fourteen , when there are only three right muscles on either side ; somtimes eighteen , when there are five right ones found , on each side . fontanus found them all , folded and wrapped up in an embryo or imperfect birth . the first pair obliquely descendent , [ or the external ] so called by reason of the fibres , which descend obliquely from the upper to the lower part ; covers all the abdomen , on its own side , seeing it is very great and broad . it s original is in the breast , from the lower part of the sixt , seventh and eight ribs , before they end in gristles ; and it arises from sundry triangular beginnings , or spires , [ near the great sawshap'd muscle of the brest ] which afterward grow into one . and to every triangular spire , from the spaces between its ribs , and nerve is carryed . moreover , it arises also [ a smal space being interposed ] from the point of the transverse processes of the vertebra's of the loyns . so largly is the beginning thereof spread out , namely from the sixt rib to the lowest vertebra of the loyns . it ends in the middle of the abdomen , where a white line appears , and it ends into a large tendon , an infinite company of oblique fibres running together in that place . now the white line , which is somtimes fringed with fat , is the meeting together of the tendons of the muscles of the belly , saving those of the right muscles . for the tendons of the oblique muscles are united . and do so meet form both parts , that they form as it were a coat which covers the belly , or as if it were but one tendon . it is white , because void of flesh , proceeding from the mucronata cartilago or pointed gristle which is seated at the sharebone : and it is narrower below the navil then above . the two muscles obliquely descendent are bored through . . at the navil . . at the groyn in men , that the seed vessels may pass through ; in women , to give passage to the two round and nervy ligaments of the womb , which are terminated in the privity near the nymphes . now as touching the original of the obliquely-descending muscle , aquapendant did long since hatch a contrary opinion , which laurentius did afterwards propound as new , and of his own invention , reprehending all other anatomists , who were the said miserably deceived . now this contrary opinion will have these muscles to be rather termed external ascendents , so that their original should be from the upper part of the os pubis , os ilij , and from the transverse processes of the loins : and the end . in the ribs . they prove it thus : . because a muscle ought to arise from some quiet and immoveable part , such as is the share-bone compared to the ribs . i answer , the ribs are quiet and still , being compared to the white line . . they say a muscle draws towards its beginning , and because the obliquedescendent serves for respiration , it draws the ribs towards the share . i answer , this muscle doth not primarily serve for respiration , as i shall shew hereafter . now our opinion , which is galens , is proved . . by the ingress of nerves , which is about the beginning . . by the carriage of fibres , which go here from the beginning to the white line . . all confess that there is a concourse of tendons , yea of those which obliquely descend , into the white line . therefore the end is there . . it this table presents the obliquely-ascendent muscle of the belly , loosned from its originals ; the transverse muscle , and the she one straight muscle in its situation , and the other with its pyramidals removed from its place . the v. table . the explication of the figure . a the muscle of the abdomen obliquely ascending , separated about the beginning ; wherein . bbb . is the beginning . cc. a portion of that tendon wch covers the right muscle . dddd . the right muscle in its situation . e. the inner side of the right muscles drawn out of its place . f. the lower end of the right muscle , cleaving to the share-bone . gh . the epigastrick vessels , which spring from the ramus iliacus , of which g denotes the vein h the artery . ● . the end of these vessels which are joyned with the mammaria descending from above . kk . the pyramidal muscles removed from their place . l. the tendon of those muscles which reaches to the navil . mm. the transverse muscle . nn . its first original which is nervous & membranous . ooo . its second fleshy beginning . ppp . it s tendon which grows to the peritonaeum . qqq . the nerves which come from the marrow of the back to this muscle . rrrrr . the boughs of the vein and artery of the right muscles , which are sent unto the transverse muscle cut off . ssss . the ribs . ttt the intercostal muscles . v. the os sternum or breast-bone . xx. t skin separated and hanging down . y. the spine , or sharp point of os ilij . z. certain muscles which grow to the os ilij . page . is proved by the common action , of which beneath . the use [ according to riolanus , who saith that the os pubis or share-bone being moveable , doth move this boney structure forwards , the chest resting , or being lightly moved , in the conjugal embracement , and in the going of such as want leggs and thighs . but we daily observe the belly to be moved , in single persons that are chast , nor doth nature frame parts to supply unexpected defects of muscles , but for natural and ordinary actions . spigelius suspects , that from the same moveable beginning , that same bone is drawn obliquely upward , and enclined toward the chest , by the help of the muscles . the second pare is the obliquely ascendent [ or internal ] having fibres contrarily situated : it is situated next the former , and hath a triangular figure . it s original is fleshy , from the rib of os ilij : but membranous , both from the transverse processes of the vertebra's of the loins , from which it receives nerves , and from the sharp points of os sacrum . it grows a little by a fleshy end , to each of the bastard ribs , and to some of the true ribs , but the rest its end turns by little and little into a tendon , which is double : the one part goes upon the right muscles , the other beneath , so that the right doth rest as it were in a sheath , but near the white line it is reunited , and inserted thereinto . which riolanus hath observed to happen only above the navil , and not beneath . the third pare of the right muscles , by reason of the right fibres . this pare is commonly reckoned to be but one . galen doth rightly make the beginning to be fleshy , arising from the breast-bone , on each side of the sword-fashion'd gristle , and from the gristles of the four bastard ribs . it ends in a tendon at the os pubis . others contrariwise , will have the beginning to be here in the share-bone , and the end above . but i answer . . that the right muscles receive their nerves in the upper part , viz. one branch of those nerves , which were inserted into the oblique descending muscle , and others also from the last of the back , and from the first pare of the loins . . a muscle uses not to have a tendinous beginning , and a fleshy end. other late anatomists will have the right muscles to have two beginnings and two ends ; one beginning and one end in the breast , and another in the share-bones . who are for this conceit of theirs , beholden to that new opinion touching the moveableness of the share-bone , of which i shall speak hereafter . the musculus rectus or straight muscle , hath for the most part three . inscriptions in persons of a middle stature , and somtimes four in tall people , whose belly is long . but according to carpus and casserius , we say that suitable to the multitude of inscriptions , there are more muscles , because . to every joynting there comes a nerve . . if it were but one , being contracted into itself , it could not equally compress all parts . . there should be no such muscle in the whole body , wherein nevertheless there are many long ones , without such a number of inscriptions . in the internal surface of the right muscles , there are two veins conjoyned , with as many arteries . the upper called mammaria , arise from the vena cava , lying beneath the claves , the more remarkeable branch whereof reaches unto the duggs , and runs out under the right muscle , as far as to the region of the navil , where it is terminated . this is met by the other termed epigastrica , which in women springs from the womb , in men the vena cava goes upwards towards the upper vein , which before it touches , it is for the most part obliterated . yet these two veins are somtimes joyned together by manifest anastomosis , touching one another , at their ends . hence the consent is supposed to arise between the duggs and the womb , the belly and the nostrils . for when the nose bleeds , we fix cupping-glasses to the belly , and the duggs of women being handled , it in cites them to venery . the musculi recti receive arteries from the epigastrica artery , and nerves which proceed from the last vertebra's of the chest . the proper use of these muscles according to riolanus , is to move the share-bone forward in generation , which hath been already confuted . spigelius will have them to draw the breast to the ossa pubis or share-bones , and the share-bones to the breast , in a straight motion , and so to bend the chest ; whence it is , that in dogs and apes , they reach as far as to the jugulum , because their chest did require very much bowing . but these contrary motions , unless they be holpen , with those incisions of the right muscles , do involve a difficulty . helmont suspects that they are stretched in going up hill , and that from thence shortness of breath proceeds . flud saith , that by a general use , they make the belly round , and compress it centrally , or towards the middle point thereof . the fourth pare called the pyramidal muscles , do rest upon the lower tendons of the musculi recti . nor are they parts of the right muscles , as vesalius and columbus think ; but distinct muscles , as fallopius proves with reasons , which are partly convincing , partly vain . but that they are peculiar muscles is hence apparent . because they are cloathed with a peculiar membrane . . their fibres are different from those of the musculi recti . they rise with a fleshy beginning , not very broad , from the external share-bone , where also the nerves do enter ; and the farther they go upwards , the narrower they grow , till they terminate with a sharp point , into the tendon of the transverse muscle . and from this place i have observed more then once , a small and round tendon produced , as far as to the navil . riolanus hath observed the left pyramidal muscle to be lesser then the right , and when there is but one , it is oftner left then right . the use of the pyramidal muscles , is to assist the right muscles , in compressing the parts beneath . hereupon according as the tendons of the right muscles are more or less strong . so , sometimes the pyramidal muscles are wanting ( though rarely ) somtimes they are strong , otherwhiles weak , and somtimes there is but one . bauhine saith ▪ if they are absent , then either the flesh joyned to the heads of the right ones [ which i have often observed ] or the fat performs their office. and others will have them to be as it were certain coverings of the right muscles . fallopius will have the pyramidal 〈…〉 to compress and squeez the bladder , when ●…e water , that the urin may be forced out . con●…wise aquapendent will have it , that they raise and lift themselves up , and together with them the abdomen and peritonaeum , that the parts beneath them , may not be too much burthened . now columbus charges fallopius , that he would have these muscles serve to erect the yard , whereas that is massa his opinion [ whose opinion is followed by flud , because of the situation of these muscles ] but they cannot serve for that intent , because they reach not the foresaid part , and because they are found likewise in women . the fifth pare called the transverse muscles , being lowest in situation , do arise from a certain ligament which springs out of the os sacrum , and covers the musculus sacrolumbus , also from the lowest rib , and the os ilij . they end by a membranous tendon , into the white line , and do stick extream fast to the peritonaeum , every where save about the share . the proper use of these muscles , is to compress the gut colon. the action of all the muscles of the belly , is as it were twofold . 〈◊〉 an equable retension and compression of the parts in the belly : for ●…y all act together , the midriff assisti●…em , and this is the reason why the fibres of all th●…s , do meet together in one and the same c●…ing as they are thus described by robert e●… . . the second action 〈…〉 vs upon the former , viz. the ●…dance of excrements . and because the number of parts to be compressed is great , as the guts , womb , bladder ; one muscle could not suffice , but there was need of divers , acting in divers places , according to divers angels : right , transverse , oblique . every part indeed hath an expulsive power ; but those parts which are hollow , and often , and much burthened , do need the help of these muscles ; as in the expulsion of excrements , of worms , of urin , of a child , of a mole , &c. these are their true actions , which are apparent from their fabrick . but nature somtimes abuses the muscles , to move the chest , when there is need of a great and violent expiration , as in outcries , coughs , and the like . for then they do not a little compress the chest . their use . they are of an hot and moist temperament . because flesh is prevalent in them : and therefore they cherish heat and concoction : they are moderately thick ; and therefore they defend the parts , and are a safeguard to them , even when they rest : also they conduce to the comlyness of the body : and therefore extream fat , dropsied persons , such as are very lean , &c. are deformed . chap. vii . touching the peritonaeum . all the muscles of the abdomen being removed , the peritonaeum comes in sight , being spread over the guts , and having its name a circumtendendo , from stretchin●…ading about , because it is drawn over all 〈…〉 , which are between the midriff and the thighs . now the peritonaeum is a membrane which doth cloath the bowels of the lower belly . it is a membrane , and that sufficiently thin and soft , that it may not be burthensom ; but strong and compact , that it may be loosned and distended . it is thicker in women , from the navil to the share , that it may stretch the more , when they are with child ; in men that are great feeders especially , it is thicker from the mucronata cartilago , to the navil , laurentius conceives for the stomachs sake , which notwithstanding is hardly probable : for it was fit the lower part should be thicker , least while we stand , it should become slackned and loosned by the weight of the bowels . some will have the peritonaeum to be made of a ligamentous and nervous substance ; others of nerves only ; others only of ligaments ; others of the coats of the brain . the shape of the peritonaeum is oval : for it is like a bladder , or a long-fashioned egg. for it compasses all the lo●●● belly , and therefore it is answerable ●…unto in longitude and latitude . it s surface is inwardly smooth , and 〈…〉 were daubed with moisture , by reason of the guts which it toucheth ; without it is fibrous , and a little rough , that it may be fastned with the mus●… . it s original is at the back-bone , at the first and third vertebraes of the loins , where the peritonaeum is thicker ; so that it cannot in that place be separated without breaking . it is knit also above most closely to the diaphragma ( and therefore when it is inflamed , the hypochondria are drawn upwards ) beneath to the share-bone and the os ilij ; before , to the white line and the tendons of the transverse muscles . now it is in al places double ( and laurentius with cabrolius make al membranes double , even the pia mater it self ) which notwithstanding is most apparent upon the back-bone , above the navil it sticks so close , that its doubleness cannot be ●●seerned : but from the navil to the share , it is manifestly divided into two coats , so distant , that in their capacious doubleing the bladder is contained , which hath been observed by few : and that was so ordered . . that the membrane might be stronger there , where it is burthened . . that the umbelical vessels , which run out there , may be carried more safely : for they pass through the doublings of the peritonaeum . therefore also . the peritonaeum is boared through before in a child which is in the womb : also above it hath holes , where it grows to the diaphragma , for the passage of the vessels . fernelius hath therefore done ill to contradict galen , in denying that the peritonaeum hath holes . they are three ; the first where vena cava passes through ; the second where the stomach passes ; the third where the great artery and the sixt pare of the nerves do pass through the midriff . beneath about the fundament , the neck of the bladder and womb , and the vessels which pass through the peritonaeum to the thighs , the muscles of the abdomen and the skin . it hath two oblong processes or productions , like pipes and wide channels , descending in men , into the cod , by the holes of the tendo●s of the oblique and transverse muscles , in which productions ( call'd by the ancients didymi ) the seminary vessels descend and run back , and near the stone ▪ these productions are more widened and become the coats of the testicles . whereof , if the outer coat be widened , and the inner ( which sticks most exactly , save by the share-bone , where it is separated ) broken , a rupture is made , according as the gut or call , or both , slip down . it receives vessels from the neighboring diaphragmatick , mammary , and epigastrick vessels , and somtimes from the seminary . it receives small nerves , from those which are carried to the muscles of the abdomen . and therefore the peritonaeum hath the sense of feeling , contrary to what others have thought before vesalius , against whom experience also bears witness . the use of the peritonaeum , is the same with that of membranes in general . . to contain the parts , and to send connexions here and there . this the peritonaenm doth most of all : for it covers all the bowels of the lower belly , and makes them more firm ; lengthens out , and bestows a coat upon all of them , to some a thinner , as need requires , and to others a thicker , as to the stomach , guts , bladder , and the peritonaeum is here expressed , with its processes , under which the most of the bowels of the lower belly discover themselves . the vi. table . the explication of the figure . aaaa . the four common coverings of the body dissected cross-wise . bbbb . the muscles of the belly dissected after the same manner . cc. the breast-bone or sternum . d. the sword-fashion'd gristle . eeee . the peritonaeum covering the whole cavity of the lower belly and going about the same , under which the bowels seem to shew themselves . ff . the liver appearing through the peritonaeum . a. a clift into which the navil vein l. is inserted . gg . an obscure appearance of the stomach . h. the figure of the spleen appearing situate in the left hypochondrium . iiii. the manyfold turnings and windings of the guts , which appear obscurely in this place . k. the navil . l. the navil vein freed from the covering of the peritonaeum . mm. the two navil arteries . n. the urachus or piss-pipe . oo . vessels distributed , partly to the bottom of the stomach , partly to the call. pp . productions of the peritonaeum , wherein the preparatory vessels are contained . qq . the muscles of the stones called cremasteres or suspensores , of which the right is seen in its own place well near , but the left hangs separated . rr. the stones freed from the cod. s. the share bone. t. the prick or yard . v. the rise of the epigastrick vein . x. the epigastrick artery , being a companion to the v●ir ▪ y. a certain branch of the epigastrick vein ▪ z. 〈…〉 the 〈…〉 page . womb. also from it proceed two doubled members , the call and the mesentery . this also , is an office of the peritonaeum , that vessels which are to be carried a great way , do run along between the two coats thereof . . to shut the orifices of the veins . hence the liver , if it were not covered with a membrane , the mouths of its veins would come into veiw . hence also those parts in which there are more arteries , have received a thicker membrane , as the spleen . . to further the actions of the muscles of the belly ; out of galen . chap. viii . of the call. under the peritonaeum is the call as it were a covering , others name it zirbus , rete or reticulum , by reason of the stragling course of the vessels ; the greeks term it epiploon the top-swimmer , because it floates and swims as it were upon the guts . for in all living-creatures it is . it is situate at the liver , spleen , and bottom of the stomach , and from thence spred upon the guts , whose turnings it involves and enters into . in some it ceases at the navil , in others it reaches below the navil , and somtimes to the os pubis where it is inferted : [ somtimes it is joyned to the womb with a strait connexion , as the rarely learned marcus aurelius severinus found at naples in a shee-fool ; and in another it was knit to the bottom of the womb ▪ in venice when i was there ] and when it comes between the bottome of the bladder and of the womb , the mouth of the womb is thought to be compressed , and women thereby made barren . in men an epiplocele is caused , when it descends into the cod. and because it is extended rather unto the left then the right side , therefore an epiplocele of the left side is more frequent . epiplocele is a rupture in which the call falls into the god. many times the guts being left naked , the call lies lurking under the liver , which happens not from strangulation , this table expresses to the life the situation of the guts and call and the navil vessels . the vii . table . the explication of the figure . aa . the coverings of the belly dissected , and turned up every way , that the inner parts may come into view . b. the cartilago mucronata , or sword-like gristle . cc. the bunching side of the liver . dd. the stomach . ee . part of the gut colon seated under the liver . ffff . the upper membrane of the call , fastned to the bottom of the stomach . g. the navil . hh . the navil-vein . ii. the two navil-arteries . k. the urachus or piss-pipe . l. the bladder . aaa . the gastrepiploick or belly-call vessels , sprinkled through the call and stomach . mm. the guts . page seeing in strangled persons , t is found in its right place , and in persons not strangled , we find it drawn back ; but if we may credit spigelius , it comes from the guts being puffed up with wind . in hydropical persons i have found it quite putrified . c. stephanus unjustly denies it to hunters . infants , if we believe riolanus are distitute of a call over their guts , which as they grow is spread out downwards , and in declining 〈…〉 it is again diminished . ●…t hath two distinct originals from the peritonaeum and is as it were a doubled peritonaeum . . it arises at the stomach , viz. the bottome thereof . . at the back and gut colon ; and no beginning cleaves to another . hence it hath two walls or two membranes , thin and light ( that they may not be troublesome with their weight ) which lie one upon another : the external or former , which is tied to the outer membrane of the stomach at the bottom , and to the bunching part of the spleen . the inner and latter , which is tied to the gut colon , and arises from the peritonaeum , under the midriff , just at the back . and between these walls , it hath a remarkeable cavity : in which some very foolishly conceive the natural spirit is contained . riolanus will have it propagated from a production of the mesentery , because if you separate the membranes of the mesentery , you may proceed as far as the gut colon ; which he proves in another place , out of hippocrates . but in vain , seeing the mesentery it self , springs from the peritonaeum , and he confesses the fourth part only of the call to be mesenterical . the figure thereof resembles that of a falconders pouch , for the upper orifice thereof is orbicular , and the lower part of the call is round after a sort , and somtimes unequal . the magnitude thereof varies : for it passes in some men to the navil , in others it goes further , as was said before . naturally it hardly exceeds the weight of half a pound , riolanus observes . howbeit vesalius saw a call of five pounds weight . the call hath this property above oother membranes , that through the substance thereof , very many veins and arteries are sprinkled , from the caeliacal and mesenterical branches ; and smal nerves from a double branch of the sixt pair . and by reason of the many veins , there is much fat in the call : and between the same innumerable kernels are interposed , which suck in and feed upon the dreggy humors . which fat i have often observed to have been molten in such as have been sick of consumptive feavers . this demonstrates the lower membrane of the call. also the mesentery with the guts and kernels adjoyned thereto . the viii . table . the explication of the figure . aaa . the lower membrane of the call , on which the colon is suspended . aaa . the vessels of the call. cc. the ligament of the gut colon. dddd . the mesentery . eee . the smaller kernels of the mesentery . f. the greatest kernel of the mesentery , situate in the middest thereof , called , by asellius , pancreas . ggg . the vessels of the mesentery . hh . the thin and thick guts . i. the bottom of the piss-bladder . kk . the umbilical navil-arteries . l. the piss-pipe , or urachus . m. the navil cut off . page . ● t is a most rare case to find the call perfectly fleshy such as i saw cut out of a body in the hospital at zeyden . the use , . by reason of the plenty of its fat it helps and cherishes the heat of the stomach , namely of the bottom thereof ; for the upper part of the stomach is cherished by the liver , resting upon it ; also it cherishes the heat of the guts , as being membranous and blood-less parts . and therefore , that same fencer whose call was taken away by galen , was easily hurt by cold , and therefore he alwaies covered his belly with wool. the call therefore is as it were a pillow to the stomach , and furthers digestion . for that is a rare case which forestus relates of a young man , and riolanus of others who lived well enough , after their calls were taken away : peradventure their stomachs were some other way strengthened , or might be naturally more strong then ordinary . otherwise ordinarily , by defect of the call , catarrhs , loosnesses , lienteries , consumptions do arise . . the membranes afford this use , that they prop up the branches of a vein and an artery , which go unto the stomach , duodenum , and colon guts so called , and to the spleen ; also the fat grows by benefit of the membranes . . walaeus supposes that branches of arteries and veins are attributed in greater quantity unto the call , then is requisite to breed fat , and nourish the call , and that they are there placed , being branches of venaporta , that the greater quantity of blood might return to the heart . chap. ix . of the stomach . the stomach called ventriculus , that is a little belly , is an organical part seated in the lower belly , just under the midriff , being the instrument that makes chyle . paraeus observes that it hath through a wound in the midriff ascended into the chest , and gone downwards by reason of the encrease of the call. but naturally ; it is seated in the epigastrium , a place encompassed with no bones , that it might stretch more easily , just under the midriff , as it were in the middle of the body , and it rests upon the back-bone : now its left side which is the greater and rounder in the bottom , lies in the left hypochondrium , to give way to the liver which lies on the right side , and that so the body may be equally as it were poised , and ballanced ▪ or trimmed , as the watermen speak of their boats : towards the right hand it grows small by little and little , that the meat may be gradually thrust thither . whence we gather that it is better for such as lie down to sleep , to lie first upon their left side till the digestion be finished , and afterwards upon their right , otherwise then is commonly imagined . but in the left side there is the bottom , where the meat ought to tarry , for being rowled to the right side , it is nearer passing out . howbeit in this case , much must be allowed to custom . 't is only one in number in man , and such live creatures as have teeth in both their jaws . riolanus bath twice observed a double stomach in a man , continued , but distinguished by a narrow passage out of one into another . sperlingerus saw the same in a woman of wittemberg ▪ and helmontius saw a bag full of stones which grew to the stomach . yea , and that it hath been double in one that chewed the cud , as salmuth relates and others , is not to be doubted . in some fowls there are two stomachs , the one membranous , which the latins term ingluvies the crap , which only receives the meat , that from thence being lightly digested , they may cast it into the mouths of their young ones , whereas otherwise young birds could not be nourished . the other is very fleshy and hotter , having within a hard membrane , wherein hard meat is received . petrus castellus a rare man , adds a third , which is in like manner fleshy . in beasts that chew the cud , and have hornes , and teeth only in one jaw there are four ; the first venter , the reticulum , the omasus , and the abomasus ; of which aristotle speaks . the venter and the reticulum which is a part thereof , are ordained to hold the crude meat ; the omasus receives the food immediately from the mouth , if it be thin , if thick , it is first chewed , and from hence after a short stay , it slips into the abomasus . now chewing the cud , is a second chewing of the meat in the mouth , for the more perfect digestion thereof , whence the aliment proves excellent , and for that cause among the jews , such as chewed the cud were counted clean beasts . chewing the cud is caused , not as some think , because the meat in the first stomach gains such a quality , that it provokes the stomach to cast it up ; for so in every sharp biting of the stomach , and in all animals chewing the cud , would happen against their wills : but it depends upon the voluntary action of the stomach , which by a singular membrane , expels what it pleases , and when it pleases ; as that some tosspot of malta , whom i have seen , would as he pleased cast up what ever he had drunk ; and others will swallow down the smoak of tobacco , and turn it out again . in great sea-fishes i have observed a threefold stomach , as in a porpice and others ; but it grew so together , that there was rather three distinct cavities with passages from one to another , three perfect stomachs . it hath two orifices , and both of them in the upper region of the stomach . the left is commonly called the upper orifice , and somtimes singly the mouth of the stomach , and somtimes t is termed the stomach , because of its largeness ; the ancients did cal it cor the heart , because the diseases thereof caused fainting fits ▪ and other symptoms like those which happen to such as are troubled with passions of the heart ; also because of its most exquisite sense , and because the heart doth sympathize therewith , both in regard of its nearness , and they have nerves proceeding from the same branch . this orifice is greater , thicker , and larger , so that it may admit hard or half chewed meat . t is situate at the eleventh vertebra of the chest : it hath circular fleshy fibres , that it may by natural instinct shut up the mouth of the stomach , after the meat is received in , least fumes should arise , and go into the brain , and breed diseases ; and that so digestion may be more perfectly accomplished . so we cover it as we do our seething-pots with a potlid , to keep in the fumes , and to hinder the meat from falling back into our mouths , when we lie in bed , and tumble this way and that way . through this orifice , meats and drinks are received in . and it is but in the epigastrick region , and it is more near the back-bone , then the sword-fashion'd gristle or cartilago ensiformis : and therefore when it is diseased , we apply epithems rather behind then before . helmont places the seat of the soul , and the principle of life in the stomach , as it were in its central point , so that it governes and rules over the head and principal faculties . if you aske him more particularly where it is placed , he will answer you that it is there after an exorbitant manner , centrally in a point , and as it were in the middle of an atome of the thickness of one membrane . but the stomach cannot be the seat of the soul , because . . it is alwaies full of impure meats . . no faculties flow to us from thence . . great feeders and persons of large appetite , should have more soul then other people . . the soul is not fixed to any centre . . when the stomach is hurt , death doth not presently follow , as appears in him that swallowed the knife . and any dammage happen , it is by reason of the nearness of the heart , and community of nerves , and consequently by accident . for the soul sticks not in the nerves primarily ; but there rather from whence the nerves have their original ▪ and it is a common membrane . yet in a large sense , it may be called the principle of life , because there is the seat of appetite , and the first reception and digestion of aliments , whose fault in the following concoctions , is never amended . now it rules over the head , by reason of the consent of the membranes , and the most undoubted arising of vapors . the right orifice , commonly called the lower , is as far from the bottom , well near , as the left : it is narrower , and abides shut until the digestion of the meat be finished , that is to say until the meat be turned into a liquid cream , or posset as irwere . howbeit walaeus hath observed , that it may and doth let out the more liquid meats , and such as are of easie digestion , by peicemeal before the rest , which may easily be done by opening it self a little way , so that the thicker and undigested meats cannot pass through , as riolanus objects , seeing they cannot pass through a narrow chink : this walaeus i say observed in his dissertion of living creatures . helmont affirms that in vomiting , it is shut upwards towards the pylorus , because it is inconvenient to health , that the faculent matter of vomits should pass downwards . yet he grants that it is sometimes opened between the first and other vomits , when somwhat ascends out of the guts . and the truth is , that it is also open to noxious humors , lienteries doth witness , and other fluxes of the belly , miserere mei , and other diseases , which pass and repass through the pylorus . the same person beleives that it remains shut after death , which doth , i conceive no otherwise happen , then as other parts are then stiff with cold. it is a little the stomach-nerves so called are expressed . the ix . table . the explication of the figure . a. the stomach . b. the gullet or oesophagus . c. the left and larger side of the stomach . d. the upper orifice of the stomach called peculiarly stomachus , and cardia the heart . e. the right external nerve of the sixt pare , compassing the orifice thereof . f. the external left nerve of the sixt pare . g. the gastrick vessels creeping along the bottom . h. the lower orifice or mouth of the stomach called pylorus , the porter . page ●● . bowed back , and hath transverse fibres , and a thicker circle cast about it ( others call them glandulous pustles ) like an orbicular or sphincter muscse [ some call it by the name of a valve , though it be seldom so closely shut , but that both dung and choler , and other things do ever and anon ascend . but the chylus by a natural propension , affects to go downwards , nor doth it go the other way , unless compelled ] it is called the pylorus or porter , because it lets out the chyle : it may be exceedingly dilated , even as also the left . hence it is that many examples testifie , how that very great things have been swallowed down , and voided out by vomit , and by stool ; as gold-rings , nut-shels , small knives , pebble-stones , peices of iron , frogs , lizards , serpents , whole eels , pipes , coins , &c. the pylorus rules over all the inferior parts , according to the opinion of helmont , being moderator of digestion : from the indignation whereof , he fetches the cause of the palsie , and swimming dizziness of the head ; and saith that a flint having stopped the same , want of appetite , and death it self followed . salmuth saw death caused by the gnawing and scirrhous tumor thereof , which evils depend upon viriated concoction , or digestion hindered . the stomach hath three sorts of fibres : straight , oblique , & transverse ; which are conceived to serve for attraction , retention , and expulsion . but some do peradventure more rightly determine , that the fibres conduce to firmness and strength , as when we would have a peice of cloath strong , we cause more threeds to be woven into it : especially seeing many other parts , without these kind of fibres do attract , retain , and expel ; as the liver , spleen , brain , stones , lungs , duggs . and other parts , as bones and gristles , though they have fibres , yet do they not attract or expel any thing . the number of fibres in the membranes is uncertain , through the variance of authors . that the first or outmost coat hath more right fibres , and the second more transverse , is generally agreed upon by most anatomists . the doubt is touching the third or inner coat . galen , abensina , mundinus , sylvus , and aquapendens , do allow it only right or straight fibres . vesalius saies it hath right fibres towards the cavity , and oblique in the outward part . costaeus allows it only oblique . i with fallopius and laurentius , being led by experience and reason , do admit al kinds of fibres in this membrane . the surface is smooth without , plain and whiteish within , when the stomach doth purse it self , it appears wrinkled and somwhat reddish . it hath a triple membrane : the first common and external , springing from the peritonaeum , and the thickest of all that have their original from the peritonaeum , though otherwise thin enough ; which petrus castellus conceives doth chiefly concurre in vomiting . the second more fleshy , which is the middlemost , and hath fleshy fibres to further concoction . the third is lowest and nervous , into which the vessels are terminated , and it is continued with the coat of the oesophagus , mouth , and lipps , that nothing may be received in , which ● ungrateful to the stomach , and because the meat is prepared in the mouth . hence it is , that when choler is in the stomach , the tongue is bitter and yellow : and contrariwise the diseases of the mouth and tongue are communicated to the oesophagus and sromach . this coat is wrinkled , that it may be the better dilated . and it hath its wrinkles from a fleshy crustiness sticking thereunto , the better to defend it from hard meats . this crust is thought to arise from the excrements of the third concoction of the stomach : and it is spungy , and hath passages like short fibres , from the inner surface to the outward ; that the thinner chylus may be the better detained till the end of digestion . the substance therefore of the stomach being membranous and cold , is holpen by the heat of the neighboring parts . for the liver lies over the right side , and middle part thereof ; for it lies under the heart-pit : at the left side lies the spleen ; it is covered by the fat call : under it lies the pancreas or sweet-bread ; also near it lie the midriff , colon-gut , the trunk of vena cava , and of the aorta . the stomach is knit in the left part to the midriff ( not to the back-bone ) by its orifice ; therefore when it is over full , by hindring the motion of the midriff , it causes shortness of breath : on the right side it is joyned to the gut duodenum , by its other orifice or the pylorus . at the stomach , in the left side , under the midriff , is formed a remarkeable cavity enclosod with membranes , partly from the stomach , partly from the midriff , and partly from the call. tonching this cavity , that place of hippocrates is to be understood in the aphorism of the . section . those who have flegm shut up between the septum transversum and the stomach , which causes pain , and can find no passage into either of the bellies , when the flegm passes through the veins into the bladder , their disease is cured . the shape of the stomach is round and oblong , like ā bag-pipe , especially if you consider it together with the duodenum and oesophagus . in the fore-part is is equally gibbous or bunching forth ; in the hinder-part , while it lies enclosed in the body , it hath two ▪ bunchings , that on the right hand being the less , and that on the left hand the greater , between which lie the vertebra's of the back , and the descending trunk of the vena cava and the artery . it s magnitude varies ; commonly t is less in women then in men , that place may be made for the womb when it swells . for women are for the most part lesser then men , and yet not more gluttonous then men , as aristotle beleives , viz. being of the same size and equally healthy ; yea , and they are inferior to men in heat to digest and concoct . also in gluttonous persons and great drinkers , it is greater then ordinary , so that when it swells , it may be felt as it were naked . for it is exceedingly dilated , and therefore it is thinner in drinkers , in whom it is somtimes so attenuated , that it can no more wrinkle it self , whence follows long weakness . which walaeus in diffection hath observed to happen chiefly to those old men , whose stomachs in time of concoction do breed wind ; which oftentimes also in gluttonous persons , takes up more room then their meat . columbus will have it , when it is stretched , to reach as low as the navil , and archangelus will have it to reach further , when it is over stretched ; but being contracted and wrinkled in such as live soberly , it is thick , and lies hid under the liver . now the largeness of the stomach is known . . by the greatness of the mouth , for those that have large mouths , are great eaters , but withal bold and magnanimous . . if from the cartilago ensiformis to the navil , the space is greater , then that of the face or breast . the weight of the stomach being dryed with the oesophagus , according to the observation of loselius is two ounces and two drams ; wherein notwithstanding i have found a variety , according to the diversity of subjects . it receives very many vessels . veins , as from the spleen vas breve , which is inferted , not into the mouth but into the bottom thereof , and there insinuating it self into the tunicles , it creeps upwards between them , towards the orifice : but before it reaches the same , it is obliterated ; in some it is not visible , because of its smalness , in some it is quite absent [ and therefore peradventure those persons have no good concoction , or nature recompences that defect with other arteries ] in others i have seen it flourishing , with manyfold branches . and because it is implanted into the bottom of the stomach , and blood emptied there , cannot provoke appetite , as many imagine . others will have it that a melancholick excrement which could not be changed in the spleen , is by this vessel brought into the stomach , that by its harsh and acid faculty , it might further the stomachs concoction , and make the meats abide therein , a convenient season . but concoction should rather be hindred , by the casting in of a strange excrementitious humor . if we shall interpret it touching an acid fermenting juyce , the opinion will be truer , which kind of juyce , can come from no other place but the spleen . for according to the observation of walaeus , the spleen , especially of a sow , being boyled and eaten , as coming nearest that of a man , doth wont to help the heavyness and dullness of the stomach . hence sharp things are pleasing to the spleen , and hippocrates gives vinegar to spleenetick persons , and celsus makes a cataplasm for the spleen tempered with the sharpest vinegar . moreover riolanus hath found the left side of the inner part of the stomach blacker then the right . others suppose that nothing is carried into the stomach by the vas breve , but that somwhat is carried out of the stomach into the spleen ; whether it be the thinner part of the chyle , as conringius , horstius , and regius prove , or blood as hogeland conceives ; they being informed by ligature in dissections of live creatures : of which hereafter . moreover the stomach receives veins from vena portae , viz. the pyloric , gastric , and gastroepiploic branches left and right . there is one notable vein called gastrica , which creeps a long the bottom of the stomach , but doth not quite touch it least the stomach being very much stretched , it should be in danger to be broken ; but it spreds many branches to the stomach : which picolhomineus and aquapendent will have to suck out the more thin and subtile part of the chyle , before it passes out of the stomach to the liver . and this opinion seems probable . . because otherwise no reason can be given ▪ of so sudden a passage , seeing they who have drunk much , do presently piss it out plentifully . . otherwise the stomach would be ready to burst , when it is overcharged . . thence it comes , that strength is so soon repaired by fragrant wine , broaths , and other comfortable things . in some men a part of the choler passage , is inserted into the bottom of the stomach , by which our country-men petrus severinus , would have choler to be carried into the stomach . but this is an error of nature , and therefore such persons are apt to vomit choler , for they are exceeding cholerick , such as galen , vesalius , fernelius , and casserius have observed . such persons are said to be picrocholoi ano , vomiters of choler . the stomach receives arteries from me caeliaca arteria , which accompany the veins , not only for lifes sake , but that blood may be supplied from the heart , for nourishment , for that the stomach should be nourished with chyle , is a false opinion and now out of date . seeing it is nourished with blood , after the manner of other parts ( it is only delighted with the chyle ) whichis brought out of the arteries ; which blood flows back again to the heart , according to the doctrine of circulation proved and asserted by the renowned walaeus in his epistles . by the splenic arteries an acid sharp juyce is conveighed into the stomach from the spleen , as the said waloeus and hogeland conceive , which i grant when there is no vas breve , or in absence of the spleen , wherein i easily consent with riolanus . also it hath nerves from the sixt pair , viz. a couple in its orifice , from the stomach branches , being produced after it hath run back in the chest and furnished the lungs and pericardium ; which because they are soft and go a great way , they are covered with strong membranes . and they do so cross one another , that they are carried obliquely and consequently with greater safety . the right branch compasses the fore and left part of the mouth of the stomach ; the left the hinder and right part thereof . and therefore because the orifice is so compassed with nerves , as if it were altogether composed of nerves● thence it is that this orifice of the stomach is exceeding sensible ; for there was to be the seat of appetite and hunger : even as those that are very hungry , do feel that part to be as it were contracted and wrinkled together . also branches of nerves are sent from these downwards to the very bottom . a branch goes from the left nerve , a long the upper part of the stomach to the pylorus , which it infolds with certain branches , and goes to the hollow of the liver . other two nerves also go unto the bottom of the stomach , from the branches which run along by the roots of the ribs . and therefore it is no wonder , that when the brain is smitten and hurt , the stomach is disturbed , and falls a vomiting , especially in the pain called hemicranea : as also that when the stomach is misaffected , the animal faculty languishes . in the stomach fermentation of the meats goes before concoction , which hippocrates inculcates in his book de prisca medicina . because hard things ought to be broken to peices ; and thick things as bones and shells , &c. in the stomachs of beasts , seem impossible to be melted by the natural heat alone , unless somwhat else do cut them in peices . this labor petrus severinus attributes to choler , which nevertheless according to the ordinary course of nature is not found in the stomach , nor does it dissolve any hard meat , though painters use to temper their colours . de la chambre attributes it to spirits , without which it can hardly be performed , riolanus supposes that it proceeds from the reliques of the chyle , which have attained a fermenting faculty ; it concurs indeed , for a fermentative quality may be communicated to any thing : but we must come to some first , thing , by which the chylus is fermented , and from whence the ferment of the first meat was derived , before the reliques of the chyle could arise . the greater part of doctors do attribute this whol work to melancholy , which is carried by the vas breve into the stomach , and of which melancholick persons , who are otherwise no good digesters , do often complain by reason of its sharp tast . which melancholy ▪ if it be understood of the acid juyce , it may be allowed . for any acid or sharp things taken in , as vinegar , and meats steeped therein , juyce of citrons , oyl of sulphure or vitriol , cream of tartar , and the like , do ●ase and amend the weakness of the stomach . also without the body vinegar ferments the earth and milk , even as blackcholer doth , and the acidity of vitriol ferments treacle , and sour leven makes the bread arise , &c. now johannes walaeus requires three things to concoction , first some moisture to temper the meat and make it liquid , viz. drink and spittle ; in the next place , somwhat to cut and mince it as it were , as the thin sharp humor , and lastly somwhat to melt and make liquid that which is cut , such as is heat , wherewith in ravenous beasts and some men , the chyle is made fluid , though they do not alwaies drink , i should not doubt , but that the excrements of the third concoction , sticking to the crust , as being still impraegnated with the virtue of the parts nourished , do give some assistance to the concoction , which when they are fretted of , is impared , and so in long fasting men are not so able to digest : and that the spittle besides moistening and tempering the meats , doth perform some other more noble work in concoction , viz. prepares the meat in the mouth , whereupon it comes to change its smels ; and heals tetters , and either kills or chases away scorpions and spiders . but what becomes of that acid juyce , when it hath performed its office of fermentation ? h. regius beleives that it remaines after the expulsion of the chylus , to prick the stomach and provoke appetite . but hunger is raised in the sensible mouth of the stomach , and not in the bottom thereof , where this acid juyce is ; also there would be hunger after the stomach is full . i should think that it is expelled with the chyle , and that then it is either therewith turned into blood , or that in obstructions of the mesentery , it goes downwards , and raises disturbance . the action of the stomach is coction which is termed chylification . for the stomach is the organ of the first concoction , the beginning and preparation of which concoction is performed in the mouth , the middle in the bottom of the stomach , and the conclusion in the smal guts . now this concoction is performed by heat , not of the stomach only , but also of the neighbouring parts ; as also by a faculty which is naturally bred in the stomach of every animal . now it turnes the meats into a white chylus or juyce , of a like substance , whiles both its orisices being shut very well , it contracts it self , and closely embraces the food . but touching the whole manner of concoction see the forecited epistles of walaeus . it s use is to receive the meat and drink , which it doth by reason of its notable and large cavity . and whereas it somtimes contains and breeds little stones , as gentilis and zacutus have observed , as also a toad , worms , and other things by me often observed ; this is beside the intention of nature . and the like we may say of an infant conceived and formed there and voided out at the mouth , the history whereof is described by salmuth . chap. x. of the guts in general . the guts are oblong , round , hollow bodies variously wreathed about , joyning with the pylorus and reaching to the fundament ; serving to receive the chylus and the excrements of the first concoction . they have their name of intestina inwards , because they are in the inmost seat of the body [ whence tirtullian cal'd the crosses , the intestina trophaeorum , the inwards of the trophies ] and so the greeks term them entera ; some have termed them chordaj , and thence the barbarians had their term chordae ; for which cause also the strings of musical instruments because they are made of dried guts are termed chordae , chords . their magnitude in respect of the contents of their cavities , and the thickness of their substance , is different , as shall be shewn hereafter . the weight of all of them dried , is according to the observation of loselius , a pound . their length , for the most part doth exceed the length of the person whose they are six times , little more or less . picolhomineus saies they are a foot and half shorter ; they are reckoned to be seven times as long by laurentius , paraeus and riolanus , and before them by celsus , who nevertheless began to measure from the oesophagus . hippocrates saith they are near upon thirteen cubits , or not less then twelve : but the ful stature of a man , hardly exceeds three cubits and an half . flud in a certain body an ell and half long , found the guts to be but nine ells in length , so that no certain measure can be determined . it varies according to the multitude of the windings , and the greediness of the person in point of eating . they have turnings and windings all over save at the beginning and end , that the ingress and egress might not be hindred . now the reason why they have these windings and turnings is . . that the nutriment may not slip away , before concoction be perfectly finished . also least if it should presently slip away , before the chylus be distributed , we should be compelled presently to eate more meat , and so should be hindred from our business through greedyness of eating . hence it is that living creatures by how much the way is streighter from their stomach to their vent , by so much the more greedy they are of eating ; and the more their guts are coiled , the more abstinent they are : which cabrolius observed in a very great eater , who had one only gut , bowed after the manner of a greek sigma . . that we might not be continually going to stool , as it is with greedy animals , seeing the excrements may lie long in those windings . they are situate in the lowest belly , the greater cavity whereof they fill up , somtimes they are forced to the right side , as i have seen in an hydropick woman dissected . they are knit together by the mesentery , by which , and the call coming between , they are tyed unto the back , and are propped up in the cavities of the os ilij . they have a membranous substance , like that of the stomach ; so that they may be distended by chyle , dung , and wind. but their substance is thicker in the thicker guts : and the nearer they grow to an end , the thicker they are , as the end of the colon , and the intestinum rectum . this substance of the guts may be divided into three coats : the first is proper and internal , and is in the smal guts wrinkled , in the colon stretched out into little cells , being otherwise sufficiently nervous . a certain membranous crust as it were compasses about , bred of the excrements of the third the stomach is seen open , and the bowels beneath the same and joyned thereto , much in their natural situation . the x. table . the explication of the figure . a. the oesophagus or gullet . b. the upper orifice of the stomach . bb . the stomach nerves embracing this orifice , rudely expressed . c. pylorus or the porter . dd. the common ventricle of the stomach separated . e. the first proper coat of the stomach , being the middlemost . f. the second proper coat of the stomach , which is inmost and wrinkled . g. a portion of duodenum . h. the passage for gall. iiii. the guts jejunum and ileum , with vessels creeping through the same . k. the blind gut , or the worm-fashion'd appendix . lllll. the gut colon. m. the valve in the beginning of the gut colon , opened . mmm . the ligament containing the cells of the colon. nn. the streight gut is here seen , the thin guts lying thereon being removed . o. the sphincter muscle of the fundament . pp . the muscles which lift up the fundament . page . concoction of the guts . . that the mouths of the mesaraick veins may not be stopped . . that neither they nor the inner coat might be made hard and callous , by the continual thorough-fare of the chylus . also the second is proper , and the middle most , being strong and furnished with fleshy fibres . the third is common and external , being bred immediately of the membranes of the mesenterium [ save that where the duodenum and colon cleave to the stomach , it arises from the lower membrane of the call ] but mediately from the peritonaeum . of these two proper membranes , the inner is often hurt in a dysentery or bloody flux , that other remaining unhurt . they have fibres . not only transverse , as is commonly conceived , but of all kinds : the innermost hath oblique ones . the middlemost hath transverse ones . the right fibres which are allotted for the safeguard of the transverse ones , are fewer in the thin or small guts , more in the large , especially the right or the last gut , which was to be strong , because it did collect hard excrements . the guts are covered on the outside with fat , on the inside with a slimy snotty substance , that the dung may thereby pass more freely , and that the guts may be duller in point of feeling . for vessels they have the venae lacteae or milkie veins , which are chiefly distributed between the common and proper membranes , which carry the chyle to the liver ; and others from the vena portae , which are conceived to bring blood for nourishment , but they rather carry back to the liver the blood which remains after the guts have received their nourishment . they have also arteries from the caeliaca for life , which by their motion preserve from purrefaction , but especially to bring nourishment from the spleen to the guts , which wanted such kind of sustenance . they have nerves from the sixt pare of nerves . but walaeus conceives that the guts have such great plenty of arteries and veins . . that excrements might be conveighed to the common shore , which are contained in the vessels , whence the child in the womb , though it take no meat in at the mouth , yet hath it excrements in the guts . . that greater plenty of blood might be carried through the vena portae and the liver , and might come to be perfected by the liver . all the guts are commonly divided , into the thin , or small , and the thick , or large guts . for though they make one continued channel from the pylorus to the fundament : yet because this passage doth vary , in magnitude , number of turnings , substance , situation , figure , and office , therefore is it distinguished into divers guts . the thin or small guts , so called by reason of the thinness of their membranes , are situate partly above , partly beneath the navil ; and therefore they possess both the umbilical region and hypogastrium , which is not so in dogs . whereupon the ancients taking example from dogs , called the upper guts thin , the lower thick : which is false in mankind . for a man hath more of the thick guts above his navil , and more of the thin guts beneath ; seeing that which is the longest , is beneath ; and the jejunum which is short is above . and therefore all the small guts are in the middle region about the navil . . because they are the more noble . . that they may be the more near to the centre of the mesenterie , and consequently receive veins and arteries immediately from the mesenterie , and quickly conveigh the blood to the liver . now the small guts are three : duodenum , jejunum , and ileon . and these perfect and distribute the chyle : in as much as by reason of their narrowness , every part of the chylus may be touched , by their coat and vessels . this distribution is holpen by the inbred peristaltick motion , whereby the guts are contracted from the upper part downwards . the crassa intestina or thick guts , are so called , because they have thicker coats ; they contain the thick part of the chyle : and are made to collect , and for a season retain the dung. and they are three ; caecum , colon , and rectum . and they are situate by the sides of the small guts , which they wall about as it were , that they might give way to the thin guts , and that the thin guts might not be oppressed by the thick . the use of all the guts is , to be like the earth , out of which the mesaraick veins suck blood , and the venae lacteae or milkie veins suck chyle . and the use of the thin guts is , to concoct the chylus yet more in the passage , and to distribute the same . of the thick guts to contain the excrementitious reliques of the chyle . viz. the dung ; also winds and choler proceeding from the liver . a secundary use of the guts being dried , is to cure pains of the cholick , and other diseases of the guts ; and being preternaturally depraved , to contain several sorts of worms , and duggs , and stones ; also variously to be affected , of which physitians are wont to treat . chap. xi . of the guts in particular . the first thin gut , under which the sweet-bread lies , especially in dogs , is called duodenum . galen terms it ecphisis , herophilus , dodecadactylon , as if it were just twelve fingers long ; though in the daies and bodies of ours , it is not found so long ; nay it is hardly four fingers long , unless men are grown less of stature then they were anciently , which is not credible . nor can we understand the fingers breath , of which this gut hardly attains to eight , unless peradventure the ancients did also comprehend the pylorus in ther mesuring . it proceeds in the right side , from the pylorus towards the back-bone , or under the stomach , where being joyned to the vertebra's of the loins , by membranous ligaments , it defends right along , without any circumvolution , and is terminated , where the windings and wreathings begin . it is thicker then the rest of the thin guts ; but hath a more narrow cavity , least the chylus should slip in too fast . i saw a large one at padua , and aquapendent describes such another being puffed with wind , such as that was , mentioned by trafelman , which had in it many stones as big as nutmegs , of an ash-color . it hath two holes beneath , towards the gut jejunum ; the one being the outlet of the exoler or gall-carrying passage , which is the reason we find it yellow in our dissections , the other is the new passage of the pancreas or sweet-bread , invented by wirsungus ; which i have notwithstanding sometimes seen grow together , and joyned with one only mouth . it s peculiar use assigned by helmont , is to change the acid cream brought out of the stomach , forthwith into a brackish salt. it hath a proper vein called vena duodena . it hath an artery from the right branch of the caeliaca . the second is called jejunum , because for the most part it is more empty then the rest , especially in dissections . . by reason of the plenty and greatness of the mesaraicks [ the milkie veins ] which in that place are as it were infinite , and do presently suck out of the greatest part of the chyle . . by reason of the moistness of the chyle passing through . . by reason of the nearness of the liver . . by reason of the acrimony of choler . for the cholerick or gall-passage , enters in at the beginning of this gut , or at the end of the duodenum , bringing choler from the liver to provoke expulsion . it s inner membrane is longer then the outer , and therefore it is wrinkled into foles , the better to stop the chyle , slipping by . riolanus falsly saies that women have no jejunum intestinum , being deceived by those , who either were dull-sighted , or finding this gut filled , thought it could not be the jejunum . laurentius observes , that it appears somwhat reddish , by reason of the neighborhood of the liver . it hath veins from the mesenterica dextra , which are common to the rest of the guts , excepting the last , or rectum intestinum , the straight gut. it hath arteries from the upper mesenterick artery . nerves from a branch of the sixt pare , which is spred out unto the roots of the ribs . the third is called ileon , because it is rouled so and twined , it is also for that cause termed volvulus , by reason of many circumvolutions , which make for the tarriance of the meat , and for that cause it hath fewer pleites or foldings . it arises presently after the jejunum , where few mesaraick the coats and vessels of the guts are explained in this table . the xi . table . the figures explained . fig . i. a portion of the gut together with the mesaraick vessels . aa . a portion of the gut , as yet whole . bb. the external coat of the gut separated , that the carriage of the vessels under it may be discerned . cc. the middle coat of the guts , or the first proper coat . def . the mesenterick vessels , of which d points out the vein , e the artery , f the nerve . fig . ii. expresses the coats by themselves . gg . the common coat of the guts separated . h. the middle coat of the guts . fig . iii. i. the inmost coat of the guts with its plaites elegantly expressed . fig . iiii. presents the muscles of the intestinum rectum , or straight gut. k. a portion of intestinum rectum , or straight gut , or arse-gut . ll. the two muscles called levatores ani , or lifters up of the fundament . m. the sphincter muscle of the arse . page . veins are inserted . it ends at the caecum . it is situate under the navil , at the flanks and hips on each side . it is the longest gut , being near upon twenty one hands breadths in length ; it is one finger broad . but the jejunum is not so long , viz. about twelve or thirteen hands-breadth long , and the little fingers in breadth , unless it be puffed up with wind. and as the ileon is under the navil , so the jejunum possesses well near all the space about the navil , with its very many turnings and windings . this ileon may frequently slip into the cod , whence proceeds the hernia intestinalis , or rupture of the guts . and in this gut happens the volvulus or iliaca passio , in which the patient commonly vomits dung. riolanus hath observed somtimes three appendices in this gut , resembling the intestinum caecum the first thick gut is called caecum . . because of the obscure use it hath in persons grown up , howbeit in the infant in the womb , it is said to receive the excrements . knobleth indeed saith that it hath a double orifice , severed with a membranous partition , that by one it may receive from the ileon , and by the other deliver into the colon ; but we have not yet found this in any man , in whom one and the same orifice takes in and gives out . . because it hath only one hole , whence it is also called monocolon . for it is a little appendix like a long worm , which arising from the beginning of colon , and the end of ilium , of a substance sufficiently thick , spreds it self upon the colon like a twined worm , and is annexed to the membrane of the peritonaeum ; but by its end , it is joyned to the right kidneys , the peritonaeum coming between , and is quite free and loose from the mesenterie . it is four fingers long , and as broad as ones thumb , but the cavity thereof is very strait . riolanus did find it exceeding wide , and equal to the stoma it self , as i also have seen it . sylvius did in many find it solid , without any followness , and in such persons , the dung does go immediately from the ileon into the colon. and massa suspects that this appendix is only bred when the child being from its birth troubled with a loosness , the liquid dung passing speedily by the caecum , and not abiding therein , being frustrated of its office , it grows lean . howbeit , i have seen it of the same thinness in a child new born . the ancients by the caecum understood that globous and capacious part , at the beginning of the colon , which celsus and rufus ephesius intimate . for that it was known to the ancients , contrary to what laurembergius imagins , i do hence prove , because . they dissected beasts . . pollux and aristotle have set it down distinctly . . galen hath distinguished it from the colon , both by use and situation , placing the caecum on the right hand , and the colon on the left . the use of the caecum is , not to be only for a marke or sign , as hofman imagines , but first to receive excrements , least they slip down violently into the colon , and breed pains , and force us to be contiually going to stool . and there some imagine the dreggs or excrements proceeding from cherries and cherry-stones , which have been voided sorty daies after they were eaten , did lie lurking . the conciliator contends , that the dung is here separated from all chylous matter . helmont places the fermentum stercoreum or turdie leaven , which turns the excrements of the chyle into plain turds , in this place . . it may help somewhat towards the elaboration of the chyle , either by sucking out of the white mesaraick veins some neglected parcels of chyle , as galen said , or by digesting the inobedient chylus , which could not be tamed , in the stomach and small guts , by reason of the multitude of food taken in , as zerbus supposes . . it may be instead of a ligament to sustain the peritonaeum , least it fall down . but riolanus observed this very gut caecum in a certain apothecary rouled to the groin , and in little boys into their cod , in whom it rested upon the os sacrum . severinus suspects that the reason why dogs void their dung with more then ordinary straining , is , because the caecum is in dogs very narrow at the beginning , and a little oblique . the second thick gut is called colon , from the torment which is somtimes therein caused , by colick pains . some think t is so called from its hollowness , and because it shapes the belly . others derive it from a word signifying to delay , because it gives a stop to the excrements that are in passage . the author of a treatise falsly ascribed to galen , derives it a colando , from straining , because it is narrow like a strainner , and involved , that there may be a gradation of the excrement , and that it may not descend all at once . it s situation is various , for its beginning which is capacious and round , is in the right flank , arising from the caecum at the right kidney to which it sticks ; then it is turned back upwards under the liver ; where it is somtimes knit to the gall-bladder , and is thereby dyed with a clay-color yellowishness : it passes further , athwart , under the bottom of the stomach , and on the left hand is joyned to the spleen , with thin membranes , and then it is tyed to the left kidney , where it hath very crooked turnings , which are apt to detain both dung and wind ; and from thence it ends st●…ong , upon the rectum . wherefore it doth a●… compass the whole belly , and somtimes ascends , and otherwhile descends ( hence such as do their business , have commonly one harvest after another distinct ) that the excrements may be the longer detained , and not flow out all on a sudden , and that we may not every foot be sollicited to go to stool . to which intent also serve its magnitude and cells . for ; it is commonly eight or nine hands-breath in length , and the thickest and widest of all the guts . it hath received cells , that any hard matter , not before sufficiently digested , might be perfectly concocted , and at last through the milkie mesaraicks , which are carried to the colon , that said matter being concocted , might be sent unto the liver . and that these cells might not be dissolved , and that being collected into themselves , they might make the cavities at times , somtimes greater , and somtimes less . a ligament described by few , or a certain band , as broad as an half finger , is implanted through the middle thereof , on the upper part long-wise , and arising from the caecum , is termined in the rectum . moreover by reason of its largeness ; it hath two strong ligaments , one upwards , another downwards , that it may be tyed to the upper and lower parts . riolanus nevertheless accounts these two ligaments to be but one , opposite to the upper ligament . according to the longitude of the colon , there are extrinsecally observed certain fat appendices , from the spleen to the beginning of the rectum intestinum , as riolanus and spigelius have observed . whose use is to moisten the gut , that the excrements may slide down the more easily . at the beginning of the colon , a valve is placed sufficiently thick and membranous , invented by baubinus , looking upwards , not downwards , as laurentius writes : for the excrements do ascend and not descend , when they pass out of the ileon into the colon , by reason of upper situation of the guts . but if the natural setling of the excrements be considered , they descend making hast out of the body : and thus bartholinus and sperlingerus are reconciled . the first invention of this valve , seems to be long unto salomon alberts an anatomist of witteberg , as appears in an appendix to three orations set forth by him , about the end , and from the observations of schenkius , lib. . title de ilio . howbeit , besides bauhinus varolus did also attribute the invention thereof unto himself , who was a well known anatomist in the university of padua , in the year . and therefore riolanus conceives the first invention thereof , ought to be attributed rather to him then bauhinus ; but truly , it is in vain that he seeks to bereave him of this commendation , seeing divers persons may observe one and the same thing , at one or sundry times , without stealing the invention one from another . for nature lies open to all diligent enquires . it is found after this manner : water poured or wind blown into the gut ileon , cannot pass through unless violently : but water doth a little mar the gut. touching its figure or shape and number , authors do not consent . for omitting such as wholly deny the same ; bauhinus determines that it is only one , having the figure of a nail . archangelus saith , that there are three valves at the caecum , as in the heart , looking downwards . i have sought it at padua in many bodies , and at other places , and alwaies found it , but never more then one , and that of an orbicular or circular shape . pavius to hildanus and afterwards falcoburgius , did not find out a membranous valve , but rather a ring or circle with an hanging brim . but the said circle is nothing but a valve , for some valves are found of a circular figure , both in the heart , and in other veins . the whole constitution of this valve is elegantly described by that great practitioner nicholas tulpius , that it is a circle on which hangs a membrane , two fingers broad , and so shaped that it is fit to shut the egress of intestinum ileum . before which there hangs a cortin or slack veile as it were ; now the latitude of this pendulous membrane is very unequal ; for where it looks towards the ileum , it diffuses it self loosely , to the quantity of near two fingers breadth , but the farther from the place it is , the closelyer it is strait'ned , so that about the middle of the gut ( for so far it runs ) it is either quite obliterated , and ends in to that membranous compass , which inwardly severs the intestinum colon a caeco . from which unequal latitude , there follows necessarily that same circular form , which the value expresses being artificially extended : as the smaller picture faithfully expresses . now this membrane is fastned above to that same fibrous circle which ends the colon , but it is fastned below or rather strongly held , by two very little membranes , proceeding on both sides from the side of that orifice , through which the thinner guts disburthen themselves into the wider : the use of which bones , is to hinder that the value do not easily totter , for they bind it to the ileum : but the lower part of the value doth wave up and down loosely . the use thereof is , that nothing may pass back out of the thick guts into the thin , be it wind or excrement , especially in a strong excretion or straining at stool , or in costiveness of the belly . hence it is , that the matter of clysters cannot naturally reach unto the smal guts . the colon hath veins and arteries under the stomach from the epiplois postica . but in the left side it hath the haemorrhoidal vein , and from the lower mesenterick , the haemorrhoidal artery . the last thick gut is termed rectum , because it goes straight out , without any turning , and ends at the fundament ; for it goes streight downwards , from the top of the os sacrum to the extremity of the crupper-bone , to which it is knit firmly , by the peritonaeum , least it fal of : also it grows in men to the pispipe in the yard ; to the neck of the womb in women , by mediation of a musculous substance . whence springs the consent of these parts in men and women , especially of the womb and this gut in women , for the gut being exulcerated , oft-times the excrement is cast out the female privity . it is long , as it were an hand-breath and an half , and three fingers broad ; and corpulent and thick , having fat appurtenances , growing thereto on the outside . it hath veins from the hypogastrick branch of the vena cava , and haemorrhoidal veins . four nerves are inserted into the end thereof , which make this gut very sensible , as is apparent in the tenesmus . it s end is termed podex or anus , the arse or fundament , having three muscles , of which peradventure five may be made . the , this table sets forth that valve which is found in the guts . the xii . table . the explication of the figure . a. the gut ileum . b. caecum or the blind gut. ccc . colon. dddd . the valve hanging . e. the entrance of the gut ileum . ffffff . the gut colon slit open . gg . the inner coat of the gut colon. hhh . the valve lifted up . i. the beginning of the gut ileum . kkk . the circle . l. its connexion with the ileum . a. the gut ileum . b. caecum or the blind gut. ccc . colon. dddd . the valve hanging . e. the entrance of the gut ileum . ffffff . the gut colon slit open . gg . the inner coat of the gut colon. hhh . the valve lifted up . i. the beginning of the gut ileum . kkk . the circle . l. its connexion with the ileum . page i. is termed sphincter or ani constricter , the shutter or contractor of the fundament , so that though some part thereof may be cut of in fistula's or other diseases , yet is not therefore the whole use thereof , quite taken away . galen and fallopius and others do make two of this muscle , because its upper part is thicker ; the inferior part is inseparably annexed to the skin , as is seen in the fore-head and eye-lids , and therefore galen called this part the skinny muscle , or the fleshy skin . it arises from the lower vertebra's of os sacrum and is compassed with transverse fibres all a long the fundament . it is fastned on the forepart . . to the passage of the bladder , by fibrous couplings . . to the yard , to the muscles whereof it gives beginning . . to the neck of the womb. behind to the crupper-bone which lies under it . at the sides , by ligaments produced from the os sacrum , into the os corae . it s use is , to purse up the fundament , that we may do our business when we please . and therefore being palsied or otherwise hurt , it makes the dung to come from a man whether he will or no : even as the sphincter of the bladder being hurt , the piss flows out involuntarily . ii. and iii. two other muscles have insertions into the upper part of the sphincter , very much commixed therewith . they are called ani levatores arse-lifters . because , their use is to draw the fundament upwards into its own place again , after the excrements are voided . especially when we have been forced to strain hard at stool . and therefore when they have been weakned or slacked , somtimes the fundament is drawn up with difficulty , and somtimes it continues hanging forth . these muscles are under the bladder broad and thin , arising from the ligaments of the share , the os sacrum and hip : from whence they are carried downwards , to the right and left sides of the fundament , which they compass about . but they have a certain peculiar and distinct portion , growing to the root and neck of the yard , which may be counted a third and distinct muscle . the use of these muscles ceases in those who have their fundament shut up . such a case fernelius saw , and i saw the like at padua in one named anna , whose fundament was so shut up , that he voided his excements by his mouth when concoction was finished , having an horn to put into his mouth for that end . chap. xii . of the mesentery . the mesenterium is so called , because it is in the middle of the guts , not because it is the middle gut as cicero will have it [ and macrobius who follows him ; for it doth not partake of the nature of a gut , save in that it is membranous , nor is there any defence for laurembergius , because we are rightly said to dwell in the middle of the world , supposing the earth to be a part of the world. spigelius doth more rightly interpret here are described four kinds of vessels disseminated through the mesenterium , as also the pancreas is discovered , in its natural situation . the xiii . table . the explication of the figure . aa . the convexe part of the liver . b. the concave part of the liver . c. the gall-bladder . d. the passage for the gall. e. part of the gut duodenum . f. the pancreas or sweet-bread whole in its proper place . gg . the spleenic vessels detected by opening the pancreas . h. the spleen . ii. the mesenterick branch of the vena portae . k. the mesenterick artery . l. a nerve of the sixt part spred up and down in the mesentery . mmmm . the guts cleaving to the mesentery . n. the beginning of the intestinum jejunum . oooo . the mesentery . pppppp . the vessels of the mesentery , of which the black ones the veins , those by the black ones the arteries ; and the white ones signifie the nerves and 〈◊〉 veins . qqqqq . 〈…〉 through 〈…〉 page this table expresses the mesentery taken out of the body . the xiv . table . the explication of the figure . a. the centre of the mesentery , and that part of the back , where it arises from the membranes of the peritonaeum , which knit the great artery and the vena cava in this place , to the vertebra's . bb. the great kernel of the mesentery , which asellius terms pancreas , into which all the milkie veins are knit together . cc. glandules or kernels placed between the vessels , which reach as far as to the guts . dd. eee . part of the mesentery which ties the thin guts to the back . f. g. part of the mesentery which is fastned to the colon , from the right kidney to the liver . g. h. the membrane of the lower call , which in this place supplies the office of the mesentery , fastening that part of the colon , which is stretched out under the bottom of the stomach , unto the back . h. i. part of the mesentery , knitting together the colon , drawn out from the spleen to the streight gut. i. k. part of the mesentery , fastning the streight gut unto the back . l. the two membranes of the mesenterium , drawn asunder by the nailes , between which vessels are carryed , and the fat and kernels are contained . m. the first membrane of the mesentery . n. the other membrane of the mesentery . page the word iutestinum in cicero , for some midling bowel ] but because like a circle it embraces the guts round , and gathers them together into the form of a globe , and cloaths them . t is called also mesaraeon : gaza in aristotle translates it lactes [ in a large sense ] thereby understanding that which involves and wraps up the lactes that is the guts , and what ever is contained in them . it is one ; but others divide it into the mesaraeon or mesenterium , and the meso-colon . the former being in the middle of the belly and knitting together the smal guts : the latter which knits up the colon , in the right and left side and in the lower part thereof , cleaves to the right gut. it figure is very near circular , and after it hath been narrow in its rise , in its progress , at the circumference it degenerates into very many foldings , that it might gather in the length of the guts : for one hands breadth of the mesentry , doth embrace more then fourteen handsbreadths of the guts in a narrow space . in the sides it becomes oblong , especially on the left side , where it descends to the intestinum rectum . whereupon galen made a threefold mesentery : a right , left and middle . it s magnitude from the centre to the circumference is a span : but its longitude and circumference is three ells . it arises at the first and third vertebra of of the loyns , [ which is thought to be the cause of that great consent which is between the loyns and the guts ] where membranous fibres are produced from the peritonaeum , which turn into strong membranes , through which the mesaraick veins [ both the blood and the chyle-bearers ] being exceeding smal and numerous , and by little and little running together into fewer and greater , are disseminated . [ but of these more largely in the first manual chap. . ] and after the same manner the arteries : [ from the caliaca , that they may carry arterial blood with heat to the mesentery and guts for the nutrition and fermentation of each of them and in no wise to draw chyle in a sound state of body , or other things as varolius and spigelius conceit . and that the blood is circulated even in the mesentery , by means of these arteries , i shall demonstrate hereafter against riolanus . ] it receives also nerves from those which are carried from the sixth pair , to the roots of the ribs , as also from the nerves proceeding from the vertebra's of the loyns , that they may give the sense of feeling to the mesentery , as is manifest in the bastard colick and other pains ; and an obscure motion in distribution of the chyle . it hath kernels interposed to fil up the spaces , and to cherish the heat : but one greater then the rest it hath at its original which asellius following fallopius , terms pancreas : different from the other pancreas situate under the stomach and duodenum . out of this he fetches the original of the milky veins , with probability enough , because there they grow all into one , and from hence are carryed both downwards and upwards to the liver ▪ add hereunto , that it is in color like those veins ; and the veins themselves have in this place somwhat proper , viz. that they are interwoven in the whole body of this pancreas , with wonderful turnings , twistings , and twinings . it is surrounded with fat as in the call , which proceeds from fat blood slipt out of the vessels , and retained by the density of the membranes , and so congeled ; that it may cherish the heat of those parts , and further the preparation of chyle . the use of these kernels is , . to prop up and support sundry distributions of the branches of vena porta and arteria magna . hence it is , that about the centre of the mesenterie are the greatest kernels , because there is the distribution of the greater and more collected vessels . moreover , these glandules or kernels , when they are at any time troubled with a scirrhous hard tumor ; there follows a leanness of the whol body , because they bear hard , and lie upon the branches of the vena portae , and of the milkie vein , so that the nourishment cannot be freely carried through the said veins . . to moisten the guts , with the humors which they suck out of the parts , and promote digestion by way of boyling as it were . which use spigelius denies , because there are animals that have not these glandules , and nevertheless are fat ; and others though they have these , are lean . which may happen without any prejudice to my assertion , because these former animals have such good juyce , as needs no purification ; the latter have so little nutritive juyce , that it cannot sufficiently be depurated by these glandules . and therefore , . they serve to suck superfluous humors out of the guts , which was hippocrates his opinion . i add . a peculiar use , viz. to receive that plenty of milkie veins which passes that way , and to keep some portion of the chyle , because . it is of like use with that greater middle kernel , and its substance is the same with that which exceeds this only in magnitude , because greater milkie veins pass that way . . i observed that in fishes , especially in a lump-fish male and female , besides the great white one , the others did also send forth a white juyce . . this being granted , both atrophia and other diseases are better understood , to which opinion also asellius seems to have enclined . and whereas riolanus makes the seat and root of al kings-evil swellings to be in these kernels , and saith they never shew themselves on the outside of the body , except the mesenterie be first diseased with the same kind of swellings , is not likely , for . though they may be remote and accidental causes . . there is no communion between these kind of swellings in the head , and the kernels of the mesenterie . . many have the kings-evil swellings , in whom these kernels are perfectly sound . . all would be subject to such swellings , because all have these kernels . . those people dwelling under the alpes , that are so subject to these swellings , should have their mesenterie differing from those that are not so troubled . . the said swellings are filled by any kind of humor proceeding from any region of the body . the use of the mesenterie is to be the common band of the guts , whereby they are knit to the vertebra's of the loins . and the use of its two membranes , is that through them the vessels may pass safer unto the guts . chap. xiii . of the pancreas , or sweet-bread . the word pancreas signifies all-flesh , whereas this part should rather be call'd all-kernel , its substance being wholly glandulous , loose it is and shapeless , three or four fingers long , somtimes six or seven , and more , cloathed with a thin membrane from the peritonaeum ▪ and in fat bodies , it seems all made of fat , which others term dirty fat and moisture ; some calicreas the sweet-bread or white-bread , and lactes ; because of its milkie whiteness and softness . it s situation is under the lower part of the stomach , and the bottom thereof , the duodenum and vena portae , as far as the regions of the liver and spleen . now its original is at the first vertebra of the loins . in the middle its parenchyma is white . and it hath for veins the splenick branch ; for arteries the left branch of arteria coeliaca ; for nerves those of the sixt-pares branches , which go to the stomach and duodenum , and it hath also little kernels . in this table both the body of the pancreas together with the new wirsungian passage , as also the vessels drawn there through to the spleen , are expressed . the xv. table . the explication of the figures . fig . i. aaa . the pancreas dissected . bb. the new passage found in the pancrras . cccc . little branches of the said passage . d. the orifice thereof . e. the orifice of the choler-passage . ff . the choler-passage . ggg . part of the gut duodenum . hh . the ramus splenicus . ii. the spleenick artery . k. a portion of the arteria caeliaca . lll . anastomoses or conjunctions of the mouths of the spleenick vein and artery . m. the hemorrhoidal branch of the spleenick vein . nn. the body of the spleen . oo . the ingress of the vessels in the spleen . fig . ii. a. the convex part of the spleen . bb. the spleens membrane separated . c. the flesh of the spleen , which is blackish . fig . iii. aaa . the concave part of the spleen which receives the vessels . b. the spleenick vein . c. the spleenick artery . page use , is not to carry chylus ut of the duodenum into the spleen , bo use . it doth not reach to the spleen . . a valve hinders the ingress . nor doth it serve to carry melancholy out of the spleen , to which use serve the capsulae atrabilariae , the black choler boxes . nor to carry fermentative juyce unto the stomach , as horstius junior ingeniously feignes , because . such juyce is not bred in the pancreas , which is a glandulous body . . the way is more ready to that purpose , from the spleen ; this being a more troublesom and encombred passage , for it would be troubled by meeting the chylus in the duodenum , and would be infected by the nearness of the gall-passage . . never any such juyce seen in this passage . . who will be bound that it shall be able to pass beyond the pylorus ? nor is it to prepare chylus , which baccius affirmes to be found in living creatures . nor to nourish the pancreas , seeing that humor is therefore unfit , and the coeliack arteries do that work , but for the common good . but how , or which way shall it return to the liver ? for he rightly denies it to the spleen . shall it return to the duodenum , and from thence to the mesentery ? there would be an infinite circulation . he shall not easily find it in living anatomies ; also he confounds the pancreas with the large kernel of the mesentery . nor finally does it send the excrements of the chyle to the duodenum , as licetus , riolanus , and vestingus conceive ; for in this passage no chyle is seen , but yellow walls . moreover the refuse of the chyle is already voided by stool , nor does the chyle part with any new excrement , till it undergo a new change in the veins of the liver . now sure it is , that out of the pancreas it self , whose proper passage it is , and in which it begins , and is ended , somwhat is thereby voided into the guts , and it doth as i conjecture . . purge forth choler , whether bred in the digestion of the pancreas , or in the spleen , for each of these are taken to be auxiliary-livers . and it is as it were the bladder-gall of the spleen , which is conveniently joyned by its mouth , to the other passage of the livers-gall-bladder , by the duodenum , so that look what use the one affords to the liver , the same the other may be supposed to afford to the spleen . and to prevent our doubting , the humor of choler daubs the inside of this passage . to which opinion of mine , very many learned men have asserted , though in some things they dissent . . to receive into it self the excrements of arterial blood from the heart and spleen , though the neighboring branches of arteria coeliaca . . riolanus counts it a profitable use , that by this passage , in vomiting , divers humors are purged out , and the redundancies of the first region ; and consequently the fomenting humors which maintain long-lasting and malignant feavers and chronical diseases , and which lurks in the pancreas , is this way voided forth . and i may well ad somwhat to this most learned invention . that not only by vomit , but also by stool , through the assistance of choler-purgers , hot cholerick distempers may be by this passage discharged , which burn the mesentery , spleen , arteries , and heart it self . and hence proceed cholerick stools in burning feavers , and blood in a dysentery or bloody-flux , by reason of the large inundation of choler , continually flowing from hence into the guts ; which is so much the more hard to cure , by how much the pancreas doth lie out of the reach of medicaments , being deeply whelmed among the bowels . the use of the pancreas it self is , . to prop and support vessels passing through the same , as the branches of vena porta , of the coeliack artery , and of the nerves : especially the ramus splenicus . . to assist the concoction of the stomach , which is performed in heat and moisture . . to serve as a cushion under the stomach . and therefore that old woman of rome in whom it was become stoney , fell first into a continual vomiting , afterwards into an atrophy or consuming of flesh , and at last died thereof , as panarolus hath it in his observations . . to suck out the wheyish blood which slides along that way , and through help of the kernels to purge it . . in sickly and melancholick bodies , to perform the office of the spleen , which riolanus shews from the example of the most renowned thuanus : whos 's pancreas or sweet-bread , did equal the liver in amplitude and weight , yet was it wholly scirrhous ; but his liver hard and round as a ball , and full of flegm like potters-clay , and his spleen was found so small , that it hardly weighed an ounce . chap. xiv . touching the liver . and so much may suffice to have said touching the organs destined to primary digestion or chylification , we come now to those which are any waies assisting the second concoction or sanguification . and the principal of these is the liver . the liver is an organick part seated in the lower belly , just under the diaphragma or midriff , on the right side , being the organ of blood-making , and the beginning of the veins . it hath its name in greek , from a word that signifies want or indigency , because it supplies the want of the parts of the body , the latins cal it jecur , as if you would say juxta cor , near the heart . 't is called the principle or beginning of the veins , because therein the roots of two of the greatest veins appear dispersed , viz. of the cava and portae , as roots implanted in the earth . the milkie veins are supposed to arise from the pancreas : yet trunks and branches of them are also to be seen in the liver . now the roots of trees dispersed in the earth , do grow together into a trunk without the earth . the vena arteriosa of the heart , is in truth an artery : and the arteria venosa , is a vein , and may owe its original to the liver , because in a child in the womb , it is joyned with the cava , and opens it self thereinto by an anastomosis : and besides , it carries blood to the heart , but brings none from it , if there be any force in this argument . the liver is commonly but one in number , seldom two : and more seldom is the liver quite wanting , as in matthias ortelius . it is situate in the lowest belly , under the septum transversum ( which also hippocrates and aristotie acknowledged ) by the ribs , and for the greater part in the right hypochondrium , a fingers breadth distant there from , that the motion thereof might not be hindered : therefore a swelling in the liver causes shortness of breath . in birds it lies equally on both sides : as also for the most part in dogs which have a thin and long spleen . in man it seldom changes its place , so as the liver should be in the left , the spleen in the right side , which gemma and spererius have observed . it rests lightly upon the former and upper part of the stomach , especially on the right side , for otherwise some part thereof reaches to the left side also , and somtimes the greatest part , the spleen being very small . but some conceive that aristotle was ignorant of the situation of the liver , because the said huper de to diazoma , &c. which they interpret , above the septum is the liver seated . but the philosoper is thus to be translated : it is placed on the other side , or beyond the septum transversum ; for huper with an accusative signifies beyond , but with a genetive , it signifies above . and by reason of the midriff , to which it was to give way , it hath its upper and outward figure sufficiently round , convex or gibbous , even and smooth , where also there is an oblong cavity , behind at the passage of vena cava . and because of the stomach it hath received a figure which is hollow on the inner and lower side , which is termed its simous or saddle side , and it is more uneven then the other having in it two hollownesses : one on the right hand for the gall-bladder ; another on the left , for the stomach to pass by . so that the liver is on the right side of an ample roundness , but on the left it is narrow and sharp . the xvi . table . the explication of the figures . fig . i. expresses the liver taken out of the body , and especially the hollow side thereof . aaa . the liver in its hollow side , cloathed with its coat and ragged nap. b. the vena portae , and its egress out of the hollow side of the liver . cc. two trunks of vena cava , by the tuberant or bossie part of the liver . d. the going forth of the navil-vein from out the liver . ee . the gall-bladder seated in the hollow part of the liver . f. the gall-passage , called cysticus felleus . g. the other gall-passage called hepaticus . h. an artery which comes from the ramus caeliacus to the hollow part of the liver . i. a branch of this artery , which enters the liver . kk . another branch of the same artery which goes unto the gall-bladder . l. a nerve of the sixt pair which goes unto the liver . m. a smal lap or scollup stretched out unto the call , by which the liver being full of water , is somtimes emptied . nn. certain eminencies of the liver , anciently termed portae the gates . a. the bottom of the gall-bladder , hanging without the liver . d. the common channel , made up by the passages of ramus hepaticus . fig . ii. shews the vessels of the liver freed from the parenchyma or fleshy substance thereof , with the gall-bladder . aa . a portion of vena cava . bb. a portion of the trunk of vena porta , passing forth of the liver . cc. the gall-bladder . dd. the navil-vein ending into a branch of vena porta . eeeeeee . the branches of vena ▪ porta , dispersed through the whole parenchyma of the liver . ffff . the branches of vena cava , especially those which are distributed through the upper parts of the liver , and joyned in sundry places with the branches of porta . gggg . the most remarkable anastomoses or joyning together of the mouths of vena cava and porta . hhhh . the extremities of the said veins , called capiliary veins , because of their smalness . a. the meatus cysticus or passage into the gall-bladder . page ▪ the greatness and thickness thereof , is remarkable and exceeding great in a man ( as is his brain ) not only for nutrition as in brutes , but for the breeding of animal spirits , which are often dissipated ( and they are bred of the vital spirit , as it is bred of blood. yet it is greater then ordinary in bodies that are of a cold complexion , and in fearful persons and great eaters , to augment the heat of the heart . in persons dead of a comsumption , i have somtimes seen an exceeding great liver , four or five times bigger then ordinary , and somtimes again very exceeding little . and others have found a very small liver , and somtimes no liver , or the liver consumed away ; and a great and strong spleen performing its office. rhasis and abensina gather the greatness of the liver from the length of a bodies singers . it is compassed with a thin membrane , springing from one of the membranes of the veins , which hath its original from the peritonaeum . in this there arise little bladders of water , from whence the dropsie come , witness platerus . i have seen of these bladders in a she goat , many in number , whiteish , which being cut open , were found to contain within a single coat or skin , wheyish humor , with snotty flegm , and another yellow substance , whether through a fault in nature , or because the goat was camed . i have more then once found intertwisted ropes of worms , in other membranes of the liver . it is fastned by three strong ligaments . . to the belly , by the umbelicalis vena , or navil-vein , which after the birth , is in grown persons dried up , and turns to a ligament , least the midriff should dangle too much , and should hang too low down . . above to the midriff , on the right side , by a broad membranous and thin ligament , but yet a strong one arising from the peritonaeum , which the midriff undercircles ; and this is called the ligamentum suspensorium or hanging ligament . . also above to the diaphragma , but on the left hand , by another ligament sprung from the peritonaeum , round , and exceeding strong : also in its after-part where the vena cava passes , i● cleavs by its bunchy side to the peritonaeum . riolanus reckons these three ligaments for one , because he contends that the umbelical vein is dried up , which being carried through a duplicature or folding of the peritonaeum , hath for its companion the membrane it self , which being rouled back over the liver , runs out upwards & downwards to the diaphragma it self , which it invests and fastens . but it is al one case . for ligaments are termed sundry , because they fasten and suspend divers parts of the liver , although the two latter arise from the peritonaeum . now therefore according to his reckoning , there will be two ligaments , ●●● one only ; the former from the umbelical , and the other from the peritonaeum . the fourth ligament annexed to the mucronata cartilago , at the cleft of the liver , is no pecular one , but must be reckoned as part of our second ligament . it hath a substance red and soft [ so that with a little stick it may be beaten off , and separated from the vessels interwoven , either when it is boyled or being raw ] spred about the vessels , like congealed blood , for which cause it is termed parenchyma , that is to say an effusion or shedding forth of blood , because it is poured about the vessels , and fills the spaces between them [ in some kind of fishes it seems to be a congealed fat , out of which an oyl is boyled to burn in lamps . yet is it hardly corrupted ; for riolanus hath observed that a liver having been accidentally kept a year together , hath remained uncorrupt . in substance it is most like an oxes liver , and being boyled ; differs not there-from , neither in consistence , color , nor tast , and therefore our flesh is more like that of oxen then of swine . the color of a sound liver is ruddie [ but if it be quite void of blood , or boyled , we may rightly say with gordonius , that it is whiteish , as in an embryo , before affusion of blood be made . but we shall find it very large and red , in children new born , of a good constitution . i have demonstrated it to be yellow , in the fish called a lump . in a lamprey it is green ( which makes bronzerus dispute touching the principallity of the liver ) though the blood be red , whether it have contracted its color here , or in the heart , or from it self ] in some sick persons , as those which have the dropsie , it is very pale , as also the spleen and kidneys . now those vessels in the liver , are the roots of vena portae and cava , ( with a few [ to a mans first thinking , but upon serious examination according to the observation of walaeus , an innumerable company of ] small arteries interposed , of a whiter color , dispersed from the coeliaca , through the saddle part thereof ) [ partly that they might nourish the liver , and warm it throughly with the heat of the heart the branches of vena portae assisting likewise to the same intent ; partly that by the motion of the pulse , and the necessity of running back , it may assist and provoke the passage of the blood out of the liver according to the conjecture of slegelius . for whereas galen tells us that the liver is cooled by the arteries , that is not consonant to truth : for they are hot , and by their motion further the blood , and draw it to those parts wherein they are implanted ; ] which appear distinct , the flesh or parenchyma of the live ▪ being taken away , how they are carried this way and that way , without order , among which also small branches are disseminated , which afterwards unite into one common passage , and so carry choler into the gall-bladder . now it is conjoyned with the roots of porta , that there the blood may be separated from the choler . but more roots of the porta are spred up and down here and there through the lower part of the liver , very few through the upper part : contrariwise , more of the roots of the cava are carried through the upper and tuberous , or bossie part thereof , and fewer through the hollow or saddle part . to these must be added the roots of the milkie veins . asellius did somtimes observe their trunk to be in the liver . but he did not precisely add the place , which i have determined to be in the third lobe . the anastomoses or conjunctions of the roots of vena porta and vena cava , are peculiarly to be observed . for rejecting those who altogether deny the union of these veins , or who conceive that they are obscurely and hardly known : [ among whom harvey and riolanus are lately come upon the stage , the former of whom could no where find any anastomosis , either in the liver , spleen , or any other bowel , though they had been boyled , till the whole parenchyma would crumble in peices , and was separated like dust from all the strings of the vessels , with a needle . only he observed this one thing , in a fresh liver , viz. that all the branches of vena cava creeping along the bossie part of the liver , have coats like selves full of infinite little holes , as being made for the draught of the body , to receive such blood as settles there : but that the branches of the vena portae are not so but are divided into boughes , and that every where the branches of both , do run out to the highest eminency of the bossie side of the bowel , without anastomoses . but the porta hath likewise very many holes great and little , as the cava hath , some of which will admit the probe , others not , only they make certain cavities covered with a thin membrane . whence it is apparent , that the blood is staied by those closed holes and not strained out , some of them being ▪ covered with a coat , riolanus inspired by the same spirit , doth strongly oppose the anastomoses of the vena cava and portae least he should be forced to admit the circulation of the blood in that place . he was afraid that the concocted liquor should be confounded and mixt with the unconcocted . and what if they be confounded and jumbled together ? the chymus being changed into imperfect blood is confounded coming out of the milky veins , with that which is contained in the cava , for both of them are to be perfected in the heart . and the other which flows out of porta , prepares both with its acid juyce . but be it how it will be , the authority of all anatomists doth assert those anastomoses from the times of erasistratus and galen to our daies , because it is manifest to such as search diligently , that these roots are joyned together , somtimes athwart , so that one lies over the middle of another as it were , somtimes the extremities of one vein touch the extremities or ends of another , otherwhiles the ends of one touch the middle of the other ; and somtimes they touch not one another at all ; peradventure where the branches of the liver serve only for nutrition . bauhinus wishes us chiefly to observe a remarkable anastomosis , which resembles a channel , and is as it were a common and continued passage , out of the roots of porta into the roots of cava , admitting a pretty big probe . but because we cannot rely upon naked authorities , experience must be called by us to counsel , which doth necessarily perswade us that there are such anastomoses or unions of the mouths of the vesseis , by reason of the passage of the blood out of the milky veins and the venae porrae , unto the cava , and out of the manifest arteries , seeing the passage only through the flesh cannot suffice , in a quick and plentiful flux . i confess all the kinds of anastomoses are not appearent to the eye as to be seen open , in dead bodies , though no man can therefore deny that there are such things ; but some of them are insensible , which admit neither probe not wind , and some admit wind and nothing else . the renowned walaeus observed and found by experience , that the veins of the porta are in the liver no where opened into the greater branch of vena cava , but that the very smallest branches of vena porta , do open into the smallest branches of the vena cava , as he observed in a liver blown up with wind , after the flesh was taken away , and floating upon water . i have in an oxes liver curiously sought for apparent anastomoses , because there they must needs be visible because of the greatness , following the example of the most learned slegelius . but the very truth is they are not visible to the eye : the vessels indeed are divers waies interwoven and twisted one among another ; trunk with trunk , branches of the trunkes , either with the trunk of another vein , or with little branches ; and that either in the middle of those little branches , or in the extremities , even as we see both the vessels cleave together in the womb-cake : but a probe finds no entrance , by any open hole of an anastomosis . nevertheless , it is not to be denied , but that in living ▪ bodies there is a passage known to nature though unknown to us by reason of the necessity of a through passage . which i the rather believe , because that in the conjunction of the vessels , yea even of the greater , where the anastomoses seems shut , the coat is extraordinary thin and for the most part single , as appears by its transparency , which in living bodies being ratified by heat and motion , doth easily suffer the blood to pass through . by these unions therefore of the roots of the vena cava and the vena portae , the blood may pass through : and by them likewise the peccant matter passes , when we evacuate the habit of the body by purgations . not that it should be carried out of the porta to the mesentery , as hath been hitherto beleived , but so as thence to pass through the heart , and be emptied out through the caeliacal arteries , and thence through the stomach or the gall-conduits into the guts , forced along by virtue of the purging medicament . those anastomoses are likewise to be observed , by which the smal veins of the gall-bladder , are joyned to the branches of vena portae and vena cava . the roots of vena portae , do by little and little towards the lower part become smaller and greater , until they make one trunk , which is called vena porta , the gate-vein : so also the roots of the cava , above and in the fore-part do altogether make up one trunk ; before the going out whereof , certain circles are placed , here and there in the greater branches , being of a membranous substance and very like to valves , somtimes thicker , other whiles thinner and like cobwebs , which were first discovered by stephanus ▪ and after by conringius in an oxes liver ; and i likewise found them , looking towards the larger trunk , which hinder the return of blood , not so much of that which is impure and dreggy , as of the pair being once gone out to the heart : afterwards , as soon as it comes to the liver , it is divided into two great branches , the ascendent and descendent ; and hence it is that they say , the cava arises from the upper or bossie part of the liver , and the vena portae from the lower and hollow part . the liver hath two nerves from the sixt pair , one from the stomach , another from the costal , dispersed only through its coat , and not through its substance ( as vesalius will have it ) that in its inmost body , it may be void of sense , in regard of so many motions of humors . and therefore the pains in this part are , dul and rather a kind of heavyness then pain . yet riolanus hath observed , that two remarkable little nerves do accompany the vena portae , and go into the very substance of the liver . this table shews both sides of the liver and the gall-bladder , distinct one from another . the xvii . table ▪ the explication of the figure . fig . i. aa . the convexe or bossie side of the liver . b. the livers membrane separated . cc. the ligament of the liver called sep●ale . dd. the coming forth of vena cava , out of the upper part of the liver . fig . ii. aa . the concave part of the liver turned up . b. a lobe or scollup of the liver to which the call joynes . c. a cleft of the liver , out of which the navil-vein d. descends . e. the gall-bladder . f. the gall-bladder channel . gg . the choler-passage , ending into the duodenum h. i. the trunk of vena portae descending from the liver . k. the right-hand coeliacal artery . l. a nerve brought unto the liver . fig . iii. a. the bottom of the gall-bladder . b. a cavity at the rise of the neck of the gall-bladder . c. the neck of the gall-bladder . dd. the passage of the gall-bladder between the roots of the vena portae f. and of the cavae g. dispersed through the substance of the liver . e. the concourse of the passages of the gall-bladder . h. the porus biliarius or choler-pipe , broader then the neck of the gall-bladder . i. the common passage of the choler-pipe and neck of the gall-bladder . k. the orifice of the choler-passage , in the gut duodenum . l. m. the gut duodenum opened . n. an artery dispersed into the liver . o. a smal nerve of the liver and of the heart of the gall-bladder : which the graver hath represented too large . page sanguification therefore or blood-making , is thus performed : the more unprofitable and thicker part of the chyle ( which is made first in the stomach and finally perfected in the thin guts ) is thrown out into the thick guts , and voided at the fundament ; but the more laudable and thin part ▪ is drawn in by the milky veins , spred up and down in the guts ; and ●…le altered , and from them by means of a power proceeding from the liver , it receives the first rudi●… of blood , and is then called chymus . the greatest question is whether the liver draws it , or it is forced thither . it seems to be drawn by the heat of the liver , as chaf or straw is drawn by heated amber , and as blood is drawn into the outward parts by hot fomentations . which is here visible by ligatures and live dissections , in which the attraction of the liver is so great , that the milky veins are speedily emptied . there is not the same necessity , that it should be forced thither , as other have thought , because the beginning of the motion or moving principle should either be without the chylus , or within it . it cannot be in it . . because nothing thrusts or drives , but that which is alive . . the chyle newly drawn out of the vessels , doth not move it self . . it is void of appetite . . it should alwaies be driven downwards ▪ not up ▪ to the liver . nor can it be in any thing without it . . because the meseraick arteries have enough to do to drive out their own blood , and the veins have work enough to receive it . . and the milky veins are exceeding small . . the proper fibres of the veins , do serve more for strength , then for driving . . the stomach indeed , and the guts are contracted , but they are not able to expel the chyle ; for their motion is obscure , and though it were evident , yet it would not presently follow , that it must drive into the liver . . those bowels being contracted on all sides , and shut up , as much chyle is retained , as is expelled . . the abdomen doth oft-times rest , according to our desire and pleasure , being apt to be moved by the muscles ; but the motion of the chylus is performed continually and swiftly , viz. the due time of distribution being come . . the dreggy chyle should be sent unto the liver , without difference , as well as the pure . it is therefore principally drawn by the liver , howbeit some construction of the guts , is secondarily assistant thereunto . this chymus being attracted in the roots of the milky veins , as in the place where , is by the parenchyma or substance of the liver , as the efficient cause , with the assistance of the internal heat of the chyle , changed into a new substance of blood . now it gains a redness like the substance of the liver , not so much from the flesh of the liver alone , which it self ows its color to blood shed about it , which it layes away when it is washed or boyled , and in some other creatures we find it of a green color , as from its own proper and adventitious heat ( as grapes are red ) which vanishing away , the redness ceases , as it happens in blood-letting . nor is that a sufficient cause , seeing in healthy bodies it continues afterwards red , and therefore we must take in light as another cause , of which there is a great quantity in red colors , subsisting even without heat , unless the subject happening to be dissolved , it come to be extinguished and exhale . hence it is , that boyled blood becomes black , and putrid blood is duskie . hence also , by how much the more natural inbred light any man hath , the more he shines with bright blood ; contrariwise , in melancholick persons , the same being darkned , the blood grows black and dark . that light and fire are the cause hereof appears in oyl of sulphur , by the mixture whereof liquors become red . now this heat and light , is partly planted in the liver , and the chyle it self , springing thereout , by reason of its previous preparation , and partly kindled therein , either by reason of the nearness of the heart , and bordering parts , or by reason of the arterial blood , derived from the heart and spleen . the more crude blood being thus made , is not distributed to nourish the liver or the body , which office is performed by the hepatick arteries , but by insensible anastomoses of the flesh and vessels , it is expelled into the roots of vena cava , where by longer tarriance , it is more elaborated , and soon after with the returning blood of the vena porta and the arteries , it is poured out into the trunk of cava , going all straight along , through the upper part of the trunk to the heart , that it may there attain its last accomplishment whereby it becomes fit to nourish all the parts . not any thing returns this way to the liver , the valves hindering , which in the liver look outwards , in the heart inwards , as the whole fabrick and ligatures do testifie . by these it is , that the cava alwayes swells towards the liver , and is empty towards the heart . afterwards the nourishment of all the parts of the body being accomplished by the capillary arteries , because all the blood is not consumed , which by continual pulsations is sent forth , nor can that which is superfluous return the same way , by reason of the valves of the heart seated by the aorta , which lets any thing pass from the heart , but admits nothing back again ; and because any artery being tied , is full , and swels towards the heart , but is empty , and lank towards the veins : therefore it must needs return as it were by a circular motion , out of the smallest vessels back again into the greatest veins , and the trunk it self of the cava , and thence into the heart . as it passes through the liver , other blood there newly bred , is joyned with that of the vena porta , and that which is redundant from the arteries , for the restoring of that which is spent , and so the circulation is again repeated . mean while , as hath been said , choler is drawn out of the blood , by branches of vessels , terminating into the gal-bladder and choler-passage . but the wheyish part , is because of its thinness retained a while , that the blood may more easily pass every where , and afterwards it is sent away , partly to the kidneys ( with the wheyish blood , which according to galen is not concocted in the kidneys , but because the serum is an excrement of the liver , the kidneys do only separate the blood from the whey ) and from thence by the ureters into the bladder ; whence the urin does afterward partly go into the skin , and passes out by sweat and insensible transpiration . chap. xv. of the receptacles of choler , viz. the gall-bladder , and choler-passage . on the right hand and hollow part of the liver , for the reception of two sorts of choler , thick and thin , two conduits or passages are engraven : the vesica biliaria or choler-bladder , and the canalis biliarius or cholerchannel . galen himself knew as much , when he said that from the liver a twofold cholerick excrement was purged ; the one unmixt and simple , the other mixed and thick , which i collect contrary to what hofman asserts , out of the fourth book of the use of the parts , . and . and from the fifth book chap. the . for the channel poures out thick and dreggy choler , but the bladder such as is more thin and yellow . for the larter bordering upon the vena porta , sucks more plentifully out of the spirituous and arterial blood ; the former being placed at the roots of the cava , draws a less quantity of choler , and such as is more thick , because that blood is thicker . the vesica biliaria or gall-bladder called also folliculus fellis , is a vessel long and round , fashioned like a pear , hollow , furnished with a double membrane , the one , whereby it is fastned to the liver , from the peritonaeum [ which is also the same , wherewith the liver is covered ] without fibres , and wherewith that part only is covered , which hangs without the liver : the other proper and more thick , but strong , having all manner of fibres ; which a certain crust encompasses , bred of the excrements of its third digestion , to keep off the sharpness of the gall. this gall-bladder is small , compared ▪ its greatness ▪ to the spleen and kidneys . being two ▪ fingers breadths in deepness : but the more cholerick any person is , the greater is this gall-bladder observed to be . 't is divided into the bottom and the neck . the bottom is round , and seated lowermost , viz. when the liver is in its natural situation , it is died with a yellow color , and sometimes black , viz. when the choler being over long kept , is burned . the neck , being harder then the bottom , looks upward , grows long and narrow , until it end into a very small and narrow passage . at the neck is observed , first a certain peculiar hollowness , and also certain little valves or membranes , somtimes two , otherwhiles three , which hinder the regress of choler . regius proves , that they are sometimes opened by spirits , through a nerve inserted into the liver , and so let choler return into the liver ; which appears by anger , and the sudden boyling of the blood in angry persons , by admixtion of burnt choler . howbeit by pressing , or squeezin● , and blowing , we cannot force any choler back . and if the force of the spirits were so great , they might as easily open and shut the valves of the heart , when they are in the arteries more plentiful then ordinary . they pierce indeed by their fineness the valves , when they are shut , but they carry not the blood with them . choler , truly , may by some other means be inflamed , which is every where among hot blood . finally , the valve would be broken by the violence of spirits , and greater danger might follow thereby , then if the gall-bladder were broken , an example whereof salmuth relates . the gall-bladder hath received very many small passages , furnished with sundry little twigs , sowed up and down in the liver , between the roots of cava and porta ; which afterwards being joyned into one passage , do carry pure choler into the gall-bladder : and the gall-bladder having disgorged it self into the gut , is daily filled again , and so it continues that course . contrary to the opinion of arnisoeus ; that the bladder is filled with choler , which being hindred by the chylus , from descending by the porus biliarius , into the guts , does drive back again into the bladder , for i have often seen waloeus demonstrate , how that the bladder being never so little squeezed with a mans hand , even when the guts are full of chyle , choler is easily squirted into the guts . it hath two very small veins to nourish it . also it hath very small arteries from the coeliaca , to nourish and preserve heat . it is not therefote nourished with choler , as joubertus conceives . it hath a little diminutive nerve , scarce visible , from a little branch of the sixt pare , which crawls up and down the coat of the liver . it s use is to receive yellow excrementitious choler , pure and thin ( not the excrement mingled with the blood , as the kidneys do ) and to retain it some while , and then to expel it . now touching the use of this choler , learned men are of sundry minds . some with aristotle will allow it no use , only it was a thing could not be avoided , and is drawn away , that the blood may not be defiled ; which opinion conringius maintains . others attribute more to choler , and make it useful to the whole body . . in that it 〈…〉 ●iver , according to italy-abbas and ●…sina , and by that means comforts ●…e second digestion , and helps the natural heat of the liver , like fire under a kettle . yea , it heats the whole body , if we will credit nemesius , especially the stomach , to further its digestion . if that be true , we must understand it of a moderate quantity thereof ; otherwise an over great heat of choler would burn the stomach . . ofkin to these , is the opinion of helmont ; that it is the balsom of the liver , and the whole blood , brought from the liver to the mesentery , and that therefore the gall precedes in the work of sanguification , and the liver follows ; also he sayes it hath the constitution of a necessary bowel . but how should it come into the liver , since anatomy doth teach , that this humor is brought out of the liver , but not carried back thither . for , the way is too long , through the mesentery , where by reason of its acrimony , it makes hast out , or the edge thereof is blunted . and of what ●hall it be bred , if it go before the concoction of blood ? there are few veins and arteries dispersed there abouts , but store of choler is collected . that the action of the liver goes before that of the gall , children in the womb do shew , in whom the liver is full of blood , before the bladder swell with gall , or be so much as lightly colored therewith . . their opinion is not much unlike , who conceive that choler preserves the neighbouring parts , and the liver it self from corruption , which zerbus would therefore prove , because when the gall-bladder is removed from the liver , the substance thereof where the gall-bladder lay , does presently dissolve and melt . . a greater number of authors will have it to serve to expel the excrements of the belly , by strengthening the guts with its heat , or provoking them to expulsion by its acrimony . for although the choler-passage , be implanted into the beginning of the gut jejunum , or into the duodenum ; yet it hath an easie passage to the colon and ileum . that it passes through the jejunum , is manifest from its yellow color , and the quick passage of the chyle there through . howbeit , it ought to be moderate in quantity , otherwise the belly is dried and made costive , or too much loosned . . i add that it makes the dung liquid , and apt to pass , to which intent painters use it to temper their colors . the other receptacle of choler , is the canalis or porus biliarius , the choler-passage , which is found even in those animals which have no gall-bladder , as the hart , the deer , the camel , the roe , the dolphin , the sea-calf , &c. it is a vessel round and long , and the passage thereof is twice as large as the neck of the gall-bladder , and it goes right out from the liver [ being sometimes forked , yet so that its two branches do soon become one , according to the observation of riolanus ] through the common passage into the gut ( not into the gall-bladder , as fallopius conceived ) receiving a thick cholerick excrement , which may plainly be perceived , if the said passage be opened and blown up , for then the gut swells , and not the gall-bladder . and riolanus observed that some have died of a dysentery proceeding from choler , in whom the neck of the gall-bladder was obstructed , but the porus biliarius or choler-passage , very much enlarged . which also was known to galen , who will have choler to be forced right forwards , even from the liver into the gut duodenum : and next to galen we are beholden to fallopius for the true description of this choler-passage . the ductus communis or common passage , which goes into the beginning o● the gut jejunum , or about the end of duodenum , is made up of the necks of the choler-passage , and of the gall-bladder , and is obliquely inserted between the two coats of the gut , the length of a finger , and somtimes it is parted into two , having loose membranes , from the inmost and middle coat of the guts , before its orifice . where there is plenty of choler , as in cholerick natures , it often flows back into the stomach , so that such persons fasting , are often griped in their bellies . sometimes though seldom , this passage goes into the bottom of the stomach , and there empties choler . whence proceeds vomiting of choler , and such persons are termed picrocholoi ano , choler-vomitets . which is seldom found in ravenous beasts , according to the observation of argenterius ; as also in dogs by the observation of walaeus , contrary to the opinion of akakia . but in case this passage be inserted into the end of the gut jejunum , such persons are ever troubled with cholerick loosnesses , and are termed picrocholoi ●ato , choler-purgers by stool . such as he must needs have been , in whom the choler-passage was inserted into the gut colon , as severinus observed , when he dissected the said party at naples . chap. xvi . of the spleen . lien or splen the spleen , is seated under the short ribs on the left side , just over against the liver , as if it were a second liver , under the midriff , between the ribs and the stomach , being in some higher or lower then in others . yet in all it is nearer to the hinder or back-part , seeing it rests upon the vertebraes and the bastard ribs , so that a man cannot feel it with his hand , unless it swell , and so become nearer to the belly-rim ; and this scituation of the spleen is seldom so changed , as to find the liver in the left side , and the spleen on the right . it is for the most part only one , seldom two ( as aristotle observes in the . de generatione animalium , chap. . and posthius at montpelier and panarolus at rome ) and more rarely three one upon another , though not all of like bigness ( as fallopius observed ) but a most rare case it is for the spleen to be wanting ( as aristotle hath observed in the place forecited , and also laurentius and schenkius concerning one matthias ortelius , and hollerius in a certain girle ) nor can it naturally be wanting , because nature abounds not in things superfluous , nor is wanting in things necessary . that vulgar opinion is therefore fabulous , which holds that it may be taken out of the body without danger of death , and that in such as used to run races , it was usually taken out , which never any man yet saw or recorded , excepting pliny , flud , fiorovanta , roussetus , who if they speak truth , doubtless those persons made a very bad shift to live , or died soon after , for want of that most noble bowel , or only the outward part of their spleen was cut off . for deep wounds in the spleen are to be accounted mortal , because of the plenty of arteries , and the consent it hath with the principal parts of the body . this conceit sprung questionless from that old opinion of erasistratus , who conceived that nature had made the spleen in vain , which opinion plautus also follows in his comedy called the merchant . and others follow them , who are so far to be born with , if they shall say it is not necessary in reference to all kinds of live wights , but only in respect of some sorts . for such live creatures as have no bladder do want a spleen without detriment , as the chamaeleon , and many others . insects have no spleen , and therefore that proverbial speech is false : habet & musca splenem , even a flie hath a spleen . it is not so great as the liver , yet in mankind the spleen is sufficiently thick and big , not so much because of the stubborn humor which it is to master , and is hard to overcome , as because of the arterial , fermentative , or leavening , and yeasty blood , which it was to contain . for it is six fingers long very near , three fingers broad , one finger thick , of which greatness it is not found in any other living creature . yet is its bigness various , according to the variety of subjects , and the several constitutions of men. 't is thought to be larger in such persons , as have naturally a greater quantity of melancholy or acid juyce then others have , which flowing thereunto , it is soon augmented by reason of its loose and spungie substance . those persons whose spleen is over grown , are lean , and bad colored . whence it was that the emperor trajan termed the exchequer a spleen , because as the princes excheque is inriched , the people are impoverished ; so as the spleen increases , the body pines . they who conceive it elaborates the chylus , do bring this for a reason , viz. that it draws too much ch●le by the ramus splenicus , and defrauds the liver . but because that action of the spleen is questioned , another reason must be sought after . the most renowned conringius allows the premises for true in a praeternatural greatness of the spleen , otherwise , if it be natural and legitimate , the body flourishes when the spleen does flourish . be the state of the spleen what it will , i conceive the body is diminished , when the spleen is augmented , because it bereaves the rest of the body of the fermentative acid juyce , and either consumes it to nourish it self , if it be naturally great ; or is unable to prepare and expel it , when its greatness is praeternatural and sickly . it s shape is for the most part like on oxes tongue , whence some have called it linguosum visous , the tongue-bowel . on the outside towards the ribs and the midriff , it is a little bunching and bossie ; somtimes it hath marks made in it by the ribs , being hollow on that side , which is towards the right hand , by reason of the stomach which lies close by it : where all along the middle part , there is a certain white line , with prominencies in it , which admits veins and arteries with the caul . howbeit , praeternaturally it receives sundry figures , viz. exactly round , triangular , sharp-pointed , made rough with eminencies , divided into two parts ; as archangelus hath rightly observed . it s color in a child in the womb is red , like that of the liver , because it is nourished with pure mothers blood : but in persons come to age , it is blackish , because of the thick blood wherewith it is nourished , and in such as are yet older , it becomes black and blew . i have observed it red in grown persons , and vesalius before me , as also spigelius who therefore beleives , that such as have it blackish are unhealthy . conringius thinks that black color is caused by intemperance in eating , and in drinking especially . i do attribute much to the temper of particular persons in this case , and to the variety of heat . now the spleen does praeternaturally put on many colors , according to the humor praedominant , as black and blew , ash-color , &c. in beasts of hot constitution , it is blacker then in mankind , and in swine it is whiter . it is knit by thin membranes arising from the peritonaeum , to the peritonaeum it self , the call , and the left kidney , somtimes also to the septum , which fernelius denies , nor can he be excused , unless we shall say he intended the centre of the midriff , for thereto it is not fastned . but in its hollow part , it is knit to the upper membrane of the caul , from which also ( according to others from the peritonaeum , or as some will have it , proper to it self ) it receives , a coat thin and single , yet thicker then the membrane of the liver , which in aged persons is oftentimes hardned , so as to become bony and gristly . it ought to be thicker , that it might be stronger to endure the force of the arterial blood. it s substance or parenchyma , is like thick , black , and congealed blood . it hath vessels of all kinds . it hath from the vena porta a remarkable trunk , which is called ramus splenicus , scituate far beneath the liver , and sent at h wart unto the spleen . the numerous branches of this bough , being for the most part small as fibres , are spent in the spleen , saving two which sometimes pass out of the spleen : the one is called vas breve entring into the stomach , sometimes by one , otherwhiles by more branches [ which more frequently , as walaeus informs us , is a little branch of vena splenica , which when it is come to the middle space betwixt the stomach and the spleen , it is divided forkwise into two twigs , one of which goes to the spleen , the other to the stomach ] which vessel some will have to belch out acid blood to provoke appetite , or to strengthen the stomach , which is afterwards voided by the guts . another branch goes unto the fundament , and makes the internal haemorrhoid veins . it hath many and great arteries from a branch of the coeliaca , which the liver hath not . . to cherish life and inbred heat . . that the blood might be more strongly altered . . that for its own nourishment , it might receive blood , and withal prepare acid juyce brought thereunto , with arterial blood , for to ferment the chyle and all the blood. now we are to take special notice of the frequent anastomoses of the arteries of the spleen , with the veins thereof , especially one remarkable one , before the entrance of the vessels into the spleen : the rest are in the spleen . also we must observe its little nerves , arising from the left costal branch of the sixt pare , dispersed rather through the coat , then the substance thereof . the action of the spleen is by such doctors as follow the old opinion said to be chiesly threefold . . to draw melancholick , excrementitious , and slimy humors out of the liver . . to separate the melancholick excrement there from , that it may be nourished by the good blood . . to void it being separated , into the stomach and guts . also they say that the nutriment of the spleen is elaborated and broken by the arteries , because spongy and loose flesh ought to be nourished with vaporous and subtile blood . the passages by which the melancholy juyce is said to be belched forth , are first the vas breve , and then the haemorrhoidal vein . they will have the spleen therefore to be the receptacle of the melancholick excrement , or of thick dreggie blood separated in the liver ( even as the gall-bladder receives the yellow choler ) and that therefore the spleen is set just over against the liver . howbeit i deny that the spleen is ordained only to receive an exerement ; for . in the spleen there is no large cavity receiving , as in the gall-bladder , and in the membranous hollowness of the kidneys , and in the bladder . . if it were a receptacle for excrements , why was it not seated in an inferior place , that it might more conveniently receive the weighty exerement as other receptacles ? . rondeletius denving that the spleen is the receptacle of melancholy , gives this reason : because that humor while it is naturally disposed , is all consumed upon the bony , and other hard and dry parts ; and seeing it is in us the least in quantity of all humors therefore there is no part ordained to receive it , no more then there is for bloody excrements , which pass away by sweat and insensible transpiration . yet i conceive this argument is not very strong . . why are there no branches of this receptacle spred through the substance of the liver , or at least of the ramus splenicus , even as the gall-bladder receives branches spred up and down the liver ? . why are there not some passages , which carry this juyce from the liver . . no part is nourished with an excrement , notwithstanding the saying of columbus , that no part is nourished with an excrement saving the spleen . . it is absurd that an excrement should flow back into the vena porta , and afterwards into the ramus splenicus . . it should receive in , and purge forth excrements , by the same passages . . the strongest reason , that the spleen is no receptacle of melancholy is , in as much as it is another organ of sanguification , as shall be proved by and by . later anatomists have conceived , that the spleen doth elaborate blood , as the liver doth , but they are not agreed , touching the way , nor the nature of the chyle . casparus bartholinus my father was of opinion , that the spleen did make a thick , but good sort of blood , of the thicker part of the chymus , which by an inbred faculty it hath , it draws to it self , through the ramus splenicus . this he proved , . by the likeness of the structure of the spleen , with that of the liver . for as the liver is a fleshy bowel , covered with a coat , furnished with very many vessels , the flesh whereof resembles blood , shed round about : even so , the spleen is a bowel , furnished with a coat , and with very many vessels variously interwoven , whose proper flesh is as it were congealed blood , shed round about the vessels . . in the spleen , there are very many textures of the vessels and infinite anastomoses . now there are no where such textures , and plications , or foldings of the vessels , save for a new elaboration , as may be seen in the brain , liver , stones , duggs , &c. . it appears from the scituation of the ramus splenicus , which is far beneath the liver , out of the trunk of vena porta , where part of the chymus is attracted , or of the chyle , which hath some disposition towards blood ▪ if therefore it receives matter there , of which blood is made , why therefore shall not the spleen make blood ? . nature is wont either to double the parts of the body , and set one on each side , as appears in the kidneys , stones , lungs , duggs , organs of the senses , &c. or if she makes only one , she is wont to place it in the middle . as the heart , stomach , womb , bladder , nose , tongue , mouth , &c. therefore the spleen must needs be another liver . . diseases of the spleen , as well as of the liver , do hurt blood-making or sanguification . . somtimes the situation of the liver is changed , so that it is in the left side , and the spleen on the right . . the liver failing and growing less , the spleen is augmented , and assists the liver , as is known by many examples , whence the spleen hath been often seen in dissections , to be greater and redder then the liver . . t is unlikely that so many arteries enter into the spleen , for the sake of excrements , but rather to digest & concoct thick blood , that so by contrary thinness , the stubborn thinness of the said blood may be overcome . . in a child in the womb , the spleen is red as is the liver , by reason of the cause aforesaid . . such as the diseases of the liver are , such in a manner are those of the spleen . . and the diseases of the spleen and liver , are cured well near with the self same remedies . . if authorities are of force , enter aristotle in the . book of the parts of living creatures , chap. . where he saith , that the liver and spleen are of a like nature ; also , that the spleen is as it were an adulterate liver , and where the spleen is very little , there the liver is bipartite , or of two parts , and that all parts in the body almost are double . plato calls the spleen an express image of the liver . others call it the livers vicar , the left liver , &c. the author of the book touching the use of respiration , hath confirmed this , as also apbrodisaeus , araeteus , and others . archangelus makes another use of the spleen to be , to make more plenty of blood. if any shall demand , to what ●nd serves the blood which the spleen makes ? some conceive it serves to the same end , with that of the liver , viz. to nourish the whole body , and to assist the liver . but he was of opinion , that this was not done save when necessity requires , in some defect or disease of the liver . but he conceives that ordinarily the spleen is an organ to make blood , to nourish the bowels of the lower belly , as the stomach , guts , call , mesentery , sweet-bread , &c. and that the spleen it self is nourished with some portion of the said blood , and sends the rest to the parts of the body . and he conceives that the liver makes blood for the rest of the parts , especially the musculous parts . and he proves it , . because the bowels of the lower belly receive their nourishment from the vena splenica , or from the branches yssueing therefrom , namely from the branches of vena port● only , and not from the vena cava . . because those bowels are thick , more earthy and base : and such as the like parts are not found in the body besides , and therefore these parts stood in need to receive such blood from the spleen . . and therefore the liver is greater , because it makes blood for the whole body besides : the spleen less , because it makes blood only for the lower belly , save when in cases of necessity it is forced to help the liver . . in dogs the spleen is long and thin , because the parts or bowels of the lower belly are smaller in a dog , and less wreathed and folded , then in a man. . there is an evident difference between the fat bred in the musculous parts , or those which are nourished by the vena cava , and that dirty , and soon pu●rifiing fat , which is bred in the lower belly , as in the cal , guts , mesentery , &c. hence arise so many putrefactions in the mesenterick parts . and by how much an humor is thicker ( as is the muddie fat we speak of ) so much the sooner it putrifies : as the dreggie fat doth sooner , then the fat in musculous parts . so the blood of the spleen is more disposed to putrefaction , then that of the liver , and this then the blood of the right ventricle of the heart . moreover , the blood of the arteries is less subject to putrefaction , then any of the former ; and the spirit least of all . he believes this to be a most strong argument , that where a part is found having the substance of the bowels , there also there are veins from the vena portae , or the branches of the spleen : but where a part is consisting of musculous flesh , there are veins which have their original from vena cava , as appears in the intestinum rectum , in which by reason of its twofold substance , nature hath placed two sorts of veins . in the musculous part , there are the external haemorrhoid veins , which arise from the cava : in the ●owellie or guttie substance , there are veins from the vena portae . these , and such like reasons prevailed with my father of pious memory , to prove that the spleen drew chymus , by the ramus spenicus . which opinion was at that time embraced by most anatomists , as varolus , posthius , jessenus , platerus , baubinus , sennertus , and riolanus in his first anthropographia . but that age deserves excuse , as being ignorant of what posterity hath since found out . for the milkie veins discovered by asellius , do shew , that no chyle thick or thin , is drawn by the mesaraick veins , or carried any whether , but by the milkie veins only to the liver , and not to the spleen . moreover , a ligature in live dissections declares , that nothing is carried through the mesaraicks to the spleen , but contrariwise from the spleen to the mesaraicks . yet i allow thus much to the foresaid reasons , that there is a certain generation of blood made in the spleen , by the manner hereafter to be explained , not of chyle , which hath here no passages , but of arterial blood , sent from the heart . hofmaannus and spigelius bring the dreggie part of the chyle , through the mesaraick veins unto the spleen , that it may be there concocted into blood. who are in the same fault . for the arteries are ordained to carry blood to the mesentery , which is very manifest by ligatures , and it is contrary to the course of nature , for the blood to be carried , and the chyle brought back the same way , least they should be mingled together . moreover , in live anatomists , there was never any chyle observed there . and the dreggie portion of the chyle , which no part stands in need of to nourish it self , is more fitly purged out by the guts . sperlingerus a learned man , conceives that this work is performed by the milkie veins , as to the liver . which were a ready way , if the milkie veins do go to the spleen , which no man as yet hath been able to observe . those that thought otherwise were deceived by nervie fiberkies . others who very well saw , that the mesentery sent nothing to the spleen , would have the chyle to come right out from the stomach to the spleen , by waies manifest or hidden . they account the manifest waies to be the vas breve , and its branches , by which the spleen sucks the more wa●ry part of the chyle . but the vas breve , carries acid juyce from the spleen , but nothing to the spleen , no more then the other veins . moreover , somtimes it is not inserted into the spleen , but there is a branch of the splenica without it . i omit , that the vas breve is never full of the white liquor . daniel florstius indeed hath in this case substituted the vena splenica , but contrary to experience , and the office of the veins . the splenick vein receives all its blood from the spleen and its arteries , and returns nothing , and therefore being bound in living anatomies , it is filled , and swells towards the spleen , according to the observation of walaeus , but towards the liver it is emptied . howbeit regius appeals to the ligature , that the vas breve swells betwixt the ligature and the stomach , and that it is lank between the ligature and the spleen . bachius is nothing moved herewith , though he cannot untie the knot , and hogeland is various in this observation ; so that i much doubt , whether the vas breve is alone so filled , before i shall see it attested by the eyes of some others . besides the vas breve , carolus piso proves that the wheyish and potulent matter , is drawn out of the stomach , by the gastrick and epiploick veins ; who was ignorant of the motion of humors in these veins . both the vessels disburthen themselves into the ramus splenicus , and then the blood is sent by a straight passage unto the liver , and returns unto the spleen , without any hindrance of the valves . those who are for hidden passages , would force upon us , either the pores of the stomach , or a distinct vessel , to us as yet invisible and unknown . among the former is veslingus , among the latter conringius , who nevertheless differ , touching the concoction of the humor . veslingus will have the spleen to make blood of the mor●●arry portion of the chyle , with the earthy and slimy parts mixed therewith , drawn by the invisible pores , like the milkie veins , resting upon the stomach it self , and the pancreas . conringius will have only the potulent liquor to pass by a vessel to us invisible , by reason of the close sticking of the spleen to the stomach , and the serum therein contained , which is not so white : which vessel will at one time or other be discovered . but all would be well , if those men that have eyes in their heads , would shew us either those passages , or that peculiar vessel . the pores are too narrow for the dreggie parts of the chyle to pass through , and who can hinder them sweating out some other way , rather then into the spleen ? many times when the spleen stuck not so close to the stomach , i could see no vessel , nor could i see any such thing in a youth , who having largely drunk , was here lately choaked with a bit of a neates-tongue . howbeit , reusner , piso , and conringius lately praised , do suppose , that only potulent matter , is by the spleen presently suckt out , and that therefore it makes only watry blood ordinarily . but there is no strong and sufficient reason for this opinion , seeing there are no manifest passages . nor must it only draw that which is thin , which both the blood and chylus stand in need of , as a vehicle or carrier , though it flow not alone , but is variously mixed with grosser matter , according to the constitution of the blood ; till having plaid its part , it is either separated by the kidneys , or sweats through the whole habit of the body . if the wheyish moisture be praeternaturally separated in the stomach , from the thicker chyle , either it is voided by vomit , and the grosser chyle wanting the help thereof to carry it , will make the colick in the guts , as i saw in our famous wormius ; or it is voided through the pylorus , which is alwaies open for liquid meats , and such as are easily digested , according to the observation of our most desired walaeus ; much more after much drinking , which is somtimes in great drinkers , quickly voided by urin , not passing through the spleen , but through the guts , if there be a conveniency of quality , thinness of humors , loosness of the vessels , and strength of the attractive faculty . all which conspiring , asellius rightly avouches there is no way so long , which is not soon passed over . in such as are otherwise constituted , drink does not so soon slip away by urin. for some will drink all day , and never use a chamber-pot . in some also their belly becomes loose , and the drink goes away , questionless , by the guts . the blood , indeed , of splenetick persons , is thin and warry , not that it comes such immediately from the stomach , but the fault is in the whole blood , communicated by the arteries to the spleen . i pass over , how that these are the signs of a disordered spleen , from the praeternatural state whereof , no good argument can be drawn to prove any thing , touching its natural condition ; by which answer , all other arguments brought by most learned men , for this potulent chylus are answered . it is a doubtful question , why only such creatures have spleens , which have kidneys and bladders , according to aristotle , which panarolus found true in a chamaeleon . is it because of the attraction of wheyish humors ? i cannot beleive it . but they have no spleen , because they make little blood , and therefore the wheyish humor did not want peculiar receptacles , but the superfluities of the blood is spent upon feathers , skin , scales , &c. they are therefore without a spleen , because fermentation was not necessary , in the imperfect concoction of those kind of creatures , who have a perpetual and natural lientery . riolanus hath lately in his enchiridion out of all these opinions , hammer'd a mixt action of the spleen , to attract slimy blood for its own nourishment , and after that to pour out a certain particular fermentative whey , through the splenetick arteries into the stomach , and because its flesh is of a drinking nature , to draw and suck superfluous liquor through the veins out of the stomach . to which i have already answered , part by part . the action verily of the spleen is more noble , then to receive superfluous humors out of the stomach . and through what passages should it do that ? for the office of the veins is , to carry back the blood in the parts , out of the arteries to the trunk , according to the doctrine of the circulation , which riolanus does here vainly oppose . and ligatures in living anatomies do shew the same . franciscus ulmus , carolus piso , and aemilius parisanus , will needs have it that the spleen makes arterial blood , for the left ventricle of the heart , as the liver doth for the right ventricle . which opinion is coufuted , because , . there is no way by which the blood here made , can go into the left ventricle of the heart ; for it cannot go by the aorta , because of the valves there placed at the mouth thereof . . there would ●● a mixture of perfect and imperfect juyce , if by the same way , and at the same time the heart should receive and return blood . . many creatures live without a spleen , which generate vital spirits nevertheless . mr. de la chambre in his treatise of digestion , supposes that the spleen makes spirits for the use of the belly . but there is spirit enough to nourish and vivifie the inferior parts , supplied from the aorta . but if he understand some qualification of the spirituous blood accommodated to the use of the belly , he deserves to be excused . helmont a late writer , hath destined the spleen for more noble actions . he gives it out to be the seat of his archeus , which being the immediate organ of the sensitive soul , determines the actions of the ●i●●l soul residing in the stomach . he calls it the seat. . of the understanding , wherein the conceptions thereof are formed , because it is of all the bowels the fullest of blood , and enriched with very many arteries ; and the brain does only keep the conceptions sent to it from the spleen . . of sleep and dreaming . . of venery , because pollutions are in the dig●● ; and there about the stomach , the first motions of lust are perceived : for they are said to proceed out of the loins , in which the spleen is the principal vital member . finally , persons troubled with the quartan ague , are not subject to lust , because their spleen is diseased . . of sundry diseases , which are accounted to be diseases of the brain and chest , as the tissick , pleurisie , apoplexy , falling-sickness , night-mare , swimming of the head , &c. but . all these conceits bottom upon a false foundation . . no sound anatomist will grant that the stomach and not the brain is the seat of the soul. . the spleen is full of blood for other uses , that it may prepare acid blood for the fermentation of the whole blood and the chylus . . there are living-creatures , that both sleep , and are addicted to venery without any spleen , or though they have a spleen , when the same is diseased . . nocturnal pollutions spring from an hot constirution of the spermatick vessels , and wheyish sharp blood , as the dissection of the said parts does declare . . that is rather to be affirmed touching the kidneys in the loins , as shall hereafter appear . . other parts in the belly are diseased besides the spleen ; in such as have quartan agues . yet it cannot be denied , but that the spleen does assist in some measure , by administring acid blood . the spleen is but the remote seat of the foresaid diseases , by reason of vapors raised from thence ; but proper diseases which spring not from sympathy , do primarily depend upon the brain . the last and truest opinion , is that of walaeus , my quondam most worthy master , founded upon ocular inspection , and most certain reason . he finding in live anatomies no motion of humors through the ramus splenicus of vena portoe to the spleen , did certainly conclude , that it was unlikely , that either melancholy or chyle is carried out of the liver into the spleen , by the ramus splenicus ; and that therefore the spleen receives no melancholick excrement from the liver , not that any blood is made in the spleen of melancholy or chylus . but contrariwise he observed alwaies , that all the blood was carried , both swiftly and strongly enough perpetually out of the spleen into the liver , as also the blood which comes out of the haemorrhoidal vein , the vas breve , and other veins which are joyned to the ramus splenicus . and that there is no motion of humors to the spleen , unless by the ramus splenicus of the arteria coeliaca : and therefore the spleen does not receive any matter to change and alter from any place , save the arteria coeliaca . and he conceives that it is most likely , that the blood being further to be perfected , is dissolved by the heat of the heart , and that when it is forced from the heart , through the coeliacal d●●eries into the spleen , the whole mass of blood is not retained by the spleen , but as the gall-bladder contains only choler , so the spleen holds only the acid or sharp part of the blood , which you may call melancholy , just as we see the acid spirit separated from things that are distilled : and that the said acid humor is perfected by the spleen , by means of which the spleen appears black and acid . and that this sharp humor is afterwards mingled with blood in the veins , and with chyle in the stomach , and makes them thin : and that therefore the spleen being obstructed , gross humors are multiplied in the body , not because thick humors are not drawn by the spleen , which naturally are never found there ; but because the spleen cannot communicate that attenuating acid humor to the blood or chyle . and that as much of this acid humor , as is unfit for digestion , is voided with the serum by urin , for such acid liquors , as vinegar , spirit of sulphur , &c. are easily mingled with water ; and the said acid humor by distillation may again be separated from the urin. in as much therefore as the spleen draws the sharp part of the blood out of the heart , and ●●●●ds it prepared to the mesentery , that the rest thereof being to be wrought by the liver , may become more pure and clear ; the opinion of the ancients may be allowed , which held the spleen to be the seat of laughter . for the cheerfuller , and livelier animals , or live wights , have great spleens ; the more lascivious have great livers ; the gentler have little galbladders ; the fearfuller have great hearts , and the loudest , have large lungs , &c. whence that verse had its original . cor ardet , pulmo loquitur , fel commovet iras , splen ridere facit , coget amare secur . heart fears , lungs speak , the gall moves ' anger fel , spleen makes us laugh , * liver doth love compel . the spleen therefore perpares blood to accommodate the bowels of the lower belly , and of the whole body after the manner aforesaid . and the excrementitious part of the blood , which cannot be separated by the spleen , if it be thin and watery , it is purged out . . by the arteries , not only to the guts , but also to the kidneys by the emulgent veins . hence in diseases of the spleen , urins are many times black , for which cause in such cases we administer diureticks . and splenerick and melancholick persons so called , abound with wheyish humors , as is well known from hippocrates and galen , for serum ought to be the vehicle or carrier of the grossest humor . hence is it , that persons troubled with the quartan ague , do most plentifully sweat and piss : also when it is very plentiful , by the haemorrhoid veins . . by the stomach , whence in the s●urvey , the patients spit exceedingly , as also in the quartan ague , so that galen places spitting and spawling among the signs of that disease . hence also melancholick persons are wont to be extream spitters . now it comes from the spleen to the stomach , not only by the vas breve , but also by other near vessels . if the excrement of the spleen be thick and earthy , it is voided directly by the fundament , and comes not at the stomach , for . from melancholy as galen cells us , comes the blackness of the excrements . . by reason of its weight and heaviness , it setles downwards . . the evacuation of melancholy by the internal haemorrhoid veins , does free men from melancholick diseases present , and preserves from future , as the divine hippocrates teaches in many places . chap. xvii . of the kidneys . a threefold excrement is purged from the blood ; thin choler into the gall-bladder , thick choler into the canalis bilarius , and whey into the kidneys . and because we have already spoken of the receptacles of the two former excrements , we shall now also speak of the third . this figure shews the urinary instruments , and parts serving for generation in men , in their natural situation . the xviii . table . the explication of the figure . aaa . the hollow part of the liver . b. the gall-bladder . c. the choler-passage or ductus bilarius . d. the vena cystica or gall-bladder vein . e. an artery distributed both into the liver and the gall-bladder . f. the navil-vein turned upwards . gg . the descendent trunk of vena cava . hh . the descending trunk of the arteteria magna . ii. the emulgent veins . kk . the kidneys in their natural place . ll. the emulgent arteries . mm. the capsulae atrabilariae , with branches distributed into them from the emulgens vein . nn. ureters descending from the kidneys to the bladder . o. the bottom of the piss-bladder . pp . insertion of the ureters , into th sides of the bladder . qq . a portion of the urachus or pisspip● . r. a portion of the right or straight gut cut off . ss . the preparatorie vessels , of which that on the right hand is bred ▪ out of the trunk , that on the left out of the emulgent vein . t. the pyramidal body arising from the union of the veins and arteries preparatorie , expressed on the left ●ide . v. the original of the preparatorie arteries from the trunk of aorta . xx. the stones , the left being laid open from its common coat . yy . the vasa deferentia which ascend from the stones to the belly . z. the yard . aa . the cod , which covered the left stone , separated therefrom . bb . the ilia or flanks . cc. the share-bones . dd . the loins . page ▪ they are situate under the liver and spleen , where they rest upon the muscles of the loins , between the two coats of the peritonaeum , at the sides of the vena cava and arteria magna , under which very great nerves lie hid , both of the muscle psoas , and others , which evidently pass this way unto the thighs . whence it is that a stone being in the kidney , a numness is felt in the thigh of the same side . it is a rare case which cabrolius hath observed , for the kidneys to rest upon the back-bone of the loins . nor are the kidneys seated just one against another , least there should be some impediment to attraction , and least some part of the wheyish humor should slip aside . but the right-side kidney is lowest in men , to give way to the liver , under which it rests immediately , reaching by its end , the third vertebra of the loins . it is seldom higher then the left , and seldom are the two kidneys seated one just against another . the left kidney for the most part , lies partly under the spleen , but is seldom higher then the spleen . contrariwise in brutes , the spleen goes more downwards , and the right kidney lies higher , and therefore there is a cavity in the liver by means of the kidney , which does not naturally happen in men . here some observe that the right kidney is nearer to the cava , and the left more remote , by reason of the left emulgent vein , which is much longer then the right . they are not alwaies both just of one bigness , but for the most part they are . they are commonly of the length of four vertebra's ; their latitude for the most part , three fingers , their thickness that of a thumb , yet the right kidney is very many times larger then the left , because by reason of the heat of the right part , it draws the wheyish blood more vehemently , unless it be fretted by some disease , for then it grows lean and thin . also such as are given to fleshy desires , have larger kidneys then ordinary . but their proportion is not alwaies alike convenient for the body . the surface of the kidneys , as in the liver is slippery and smooth : it is seldom in mankind uneven , as if it were composed of many kidneys or kernels , which any man may frequently find in a child yet in the womb. but the kidney is alwaies so made , in an ox and bear , in a calf , and most curiously of all in a sturgeon , in which the kidneys are made up like bunches of grapes , of triangular and quadrangular dies or tiles as it were after an artificial manner , as i have demonstrated in the anatomy of that creature . the colour of the kidneys is a dark red , but seldom intensely red . in diseased persons the kidneys are variously coloured , even as the liver and spleen are . the kidney is shaped like a kidney-bean so called , also like an asarum leaf , if you respect the plane surface . externally in the back or about the flanks , it is of a round , bunching shape ▪ beneath towards the upper and lower part it is bossie , but in the middle concave and hollow . helmont hath seen the left kidney triangular , and in the same person the right kidney not so big as an hazel-nut . hippocrates compares the kidneys to apples : without doubt to the broader sort of red apples ; unless by the word meloisin he intended the likeness of the kidneys in man to other creatures . they are knit by an external membrane , which is from the peritonaeum , to the loins and midriff , and by the emulgent vessels to the cava and aorta vessels , by the ureters to the bladder . and the right kidney , to the blind gut , somtimes also to the liver , the left to the spleen and colon. hence pains of the kidneys are exasperated by plenty of winds and excrements . they have a double membrane : the first internal one near and proper , being very thin without fat and veins , from the external and common coat of the ingredient vessels dilated ( for a vein only goes in with but one coat ) which growing very close , makes the flesh more compact , and being turned back inwards , it accompanies the vessels , enters into , and invests their bellies . another external from the peritonaeum , which adhaeres but loosely , whence they term it the swath-band of the kidneys . for it is as it were a coverlid or blanket of the kidneys ; and because it is encompassed with much fat , for the sake thereof , it hath received the vena adiposa so called , that is to say the fat-vein , so that in fat persons , the kidneys lie quite hidden . whence he that knows or searches into hidden things , is said to search the reins . for the scripture uses two words pela●oth and ta●oth , the former of which mercerus will have to be derived from a word signifying to perfect and finish , because there is in the kidneys a power of consulting , and finishing things consulted upon : the latter they derive from tiach a blot , and from the radical word tivvach to daub , or plaster , and crust over , because the kidneys are crusted , and hidden as it were with fat. some indeed explain the phrase of searching the reins to be meant of concupiscence carnal and venereal delectation , from the word calah to desire , witness rabbi david , and pagnine , or from celi a vessel , because in and from the kidneys is the desire of venereal pleasures . howbeit this also is a secret quest , stoln pleasures venereal seeking the night and dark places and secret carriages , which i have largely demonstrated in my vindicae anatomicae against hofman . fat is bestowed upon them to preserve the heat of the kidneys in regard of plenty of serum which would overcool them , and to defend the vessels . there is less about the right kidney if we beleive aristotle , more about the left , because the heat of the right kidney , either suffers it not to congeale , or melts it when it is congealed . this table propounds the kidneys both whole and cut asunder , that the ingress and egress of the vessels might be discerned . the xix . table . the figures explained . fig . i. shews the form of the kidneys and of the emulgent vessels . aa . the common membrane of the kidneys compassed about with fat , and here separated . bb. the capsulae atrabilariae , or auxiliary kidneys . cc. the kidneys . d. a particle of the proper membrane of the kidneys separated from the rest . ee . the trunk of vena cava descendent . ff . the trunk of the arteria magna descendent . gg . the ureters or piss-channels . hh . the emulgent veins . ii the emulgent arteries . kk . the spermatick veins , or seed-veins . ll. the spermatick or seed-arteries . m. the vena adiposa or fat vein from the emulgent . n. the arteria adiposa , the fat artery . fig . ii. shews the entrance of the emulgent vessels , into the hollow part of the kidneys . aaa . the inside of the kidney cut open , b. the basin of the ureter . c. the emulgent vein spred by sundry branches into the kidney . d. the emulgent artery variously divided , joyning it self to the little branches of the veins . the iii. fig . shews the rise of the aorta . aaa . the kidney cut open . b. a large cavity , or the basin of the ureter , about the kidney . c. the ureter looking downwards . ddd . little pipes embracing the caruncles of the ureter . eee . the teat fashion'd caruncles or bits of flesh , which do strain the urin into the kidneys . the iv. fig . shews the caruncles . aaa . the appearance of a kidney split open . bbb . the mouths of the ureters , which compass the caruncles opened . ccc . the papillary caruncles so called , which strain the urin into the kidneys . the v. fig . shews the kidney cut open to its belly . aaa . the kidney divided through the bossie part . bbb . the caruncles cut through the middle . ccc . the pipes of the ureters . d. a wound piercing into the belly of the kidney . page the kidneys have two bellies as it were , the outermost in the hollow part which fallopius calls porta ; through which the emulgent vessels are carried , and first they enter bipartite or divided into two , and soon after they are commonly divided into four , and so spread abroad into the whole substance of the kidneys , till at last they are consumed and spent into very small and fine threads . the inner belly is nothing but the large cavity of the ureter , that is to say a membranous cavity , made of the ureters , spred out and widened in the cavity of the kidneys . but the ureters in their progress are not attenuated within , as other vessels are , but they have the ends of their branches ( eight or ten for the most part ) broad and open like pipes , embracing certain caruncles , or little fleshy eminences . these caruncles are like kernels , less coloured and harder then the rest of the flesh . carpus was the finder out of them , though rondeletius saies that he did first observe them , and calls them mammilary productions . others call them papillary caruncles , because they are very like the nipples upon womens duggs : they are as big as pease , somwhat broad above , convex beneath , and they have very little holes bored through them , so that they will hardly permit an hair to enter , which furrows and little channels may be observed , if the kidneys be cut long-wise . i have instead of these found stones in an ox. the holes were to be exceeding small , least the blood which is requisite to nourish the kidneys , should with the serum and choler flow into the ureters , which indeed happens when the kidneys are diseased or the passages too open . they have vessels of all kinds . veins from the cava . . the emulgent or milking veins so called from their office , which are great and remarkeable by reason of aboundance of wheyish humor in the body : in which baubinus saith there are valves to be seen , which hinder the return of serum into the vena cava . but experience teaches otherwise , for with their broad end they look towards the cava , and with their sharp and lunary part they respect the kidneys , by which they are opened , according to the opinon of dr. harvey , which i have found true , and demonstrated by visible inspection , so that any matter may easily repass , from the kidneys by the emulgents to the vena cava , in the solemn circulation of the blood. by a short and crooked passage they are carried downwards to the hollow part of the kidneys , as also the emulgent arteries , which are remarkable and large , derived from the trunk of the aorta , unto the kidneys , not so much to furnish vital heat , to resist coldness , as to nourish the kidneys , and to purge away the wheyish humor , which is most plentifully contained in the arterial blood . for these emulgent vessels are seldom one like another , or one in number , somtimes with six , five , four , three , and for the most part two branches , they go distinctly to the kidneys , and that either on the one or both sides , seldom on one alone . and when they have entred the hollow part of the kidney , each branch is suddenly subdivided into four or five little ones , which being again divided into other lesser ones , they are at last spent into veins and arteries as smal as hairs , which end at the the heads of the caruncles , into which they shed their wheyish humor , that it may distil into the little pipes of the ureters : yet are the emulgents never opened at the pipes of the ureters . for wind or water being forced in , it flows indeed through the emulgents , but it goes not out by the pipes . into the left emulgent in some bodies there is implanted a branch of the vena azugos so called , which is thought to be the cause of that consent which is between the chest and the kidneys , which the arteries do not a little further . . the venae adiposae . the right being drawn from the emulgent , seldom from the trunk , the left from the cava to the outward coat , which contain blood to nourish the fat. moreover , the kidneys need no other vessels to nourish them besides the arteries , as the vesica bilaria or choler-bladder , and the piss-bladder ; for they do not draw a pure excrement as those do . the kidney hath one very small nerve on each side , from the stomach-branch of the sixt pare , distributed into its proper membrane , whence arises the sympathy between the kidneys and the stomach , as when persons diseased in their kidneys , are troubled with stomach-sickness and vomiting . but there are a few branches of nerves , which proceed from about the beginnings of the arteries of the mesentery , part of which enters into the hollow of the kidneys with the emulgents , and is disseminated through their substance . hence persons having the stone in their kidneys , have more vehement gravative and stretching pains : but their pain becomes more sharp , when the stone enters into the narrow and very sensible ureters . now this is the structure of the kidneys in mankind . for in a dog it is otherwise , in whose kidneys there are other cavities ; but in the kidneys of a man there are none , save what are formed by the emulgents and ureters variously divided . also there is a feigned dream of some of the ancients , touching the cribrum benedictum by them so called . for they feigned that there were in the kidneys , two cavities seated according to their length : the one uppermost , into which the wheyish blood should be poured out of the emulgents , the other lowermost , which a certain transverse membrane was thought to sever like a seive bored through with very small holes , which made them call it the colander , and the blessed seive , through which they would have the serum strained into the ureters , and the good blood to stay behind to nourish the kidneys . these dreams of the ancients vesalius did rightly reject ; but he is mean while deceived , while he would have such cavities in the kidneys of men , as there are in dogs kidneys , and wil not have the kidneys of a man or sheep to be cut up , because of the fat. riolanus defends this opinion of the colander or seive , but he explaines it only of the caruncles ( as i do ) which are pierced through with very small holes . their use . erasistratus and the followers of asclepiades did conceive that nature had made the kidneys in vain . and aristotle somtimes saies , that there is no need of them . but their use is to draw the wheyish blood , by the emulgent arteries , that so the mass of blood may be purged . the blood therefore going out through these vessels , is alwaies carried through the branches of the emulgents , which are spred abroad through the whole flesh of the kidneys , and go at last into very small passages , so that at last the wheyish humor is poured right out into the flesh of the kidneys : but the sanguine and laudable portion , does partly remain to nourish the kidneys , and partly returns by little emulgent veins which are open into the cava , and so to the heart . the wheyish and watry part is strained through the papillary caruncles , which have holes into the branches of the ureters , which grow together into one large cavity or expansion of the ureter , into which the wheyish humor is emptied , and through the ureters into the bladder , where it becomes urin . and because urin is yellow , a portion of yellow choler not drawn out by the gall-bladder , is thought to pass along with the serum or wheyish humor that the ureters might be clensed by choler , as the guts are . olhafius , sennertus , olaus wormius , whom a great many others have followed , as hofman , meybome , horstius , loseleus , eichstadius , sperlinger , and others have attributed to the kidneys the preparation of seed , because hot kidneys cause a propensity to fleshy lust , and cold kidneys indispose to venery , and because in creatures that use venery , the kidneys have a rank smell and tast of seed , which in guelded animals they have not . because in a gonorrhaea proceeding from aboundance of sperm , remedies are successfully applied to the kidneys : because men are said to proceed from the loins of their progenitors , and they have been famed for the seat of lust : because the loins being whipped , do raise an appetite to venery : and finally because in persons given up to lust , the kidneys are consumed . which arguments are indeed of some weight , unless peradventure that smell and rast happen to the kidneys , because they are nourished with such a nutriment as is the matter of seed , which is carried for the generation thereof in bordering vessels . and when the kidneys are hot or cold , the neighbouring places are also hot or cold , through which the matter of seed is carried , and in which it is altered , and therefore seed may have affinity to the constitution of the kidneys . for johannes walaeus conceives that the circulation of the blood cannot admit this use of the kidneys , for blood is not carried from the kidneys to the stones , by the emulgents and veins : but it falls down only out of the aorta by the spermatick arteries . but this action of the kidneys defended by such learned men , may be reconciled with the circular motion of the blood , if we shall say . . that the more wheyish part of the arterial blood is drawn by the kidneys through the emulgent arteries , whereby the rest which descends right along through the spermatick arteries , becomes more pure and fitter to make seed . of which this is a sign , that when the attraction of the kidneys is weak , and the blood comes to the stones more wheyish then it ought to be , the seed which is voided , is unfit for generation , though plentiful in quantity . . that the neighbouring spermatick vessels are irradiated and virtuated by the kidneys , even as the brain irradiates the lower parts , by an inbred property resembling light . . if any thing should be carried from the kidneys to the stones , we might very well say , it is a wheyish substance , which stirs up a sharp titillation and strong provocation and desire to venery . for i am not perswaded by the arguments of helmont , that the salt of the urin takes away the fruitfulness of the seed , if it be moderate , seeing it helps the seed both by its acrimony and fluidity or thinness of substance . little birds , indeed , though very lascivious , have neither kidneys nor bladder ; yet they have somwhat that supplies the office of the kidneys , viz. certain caruncles or little parcels of flesh , which resemble the kidneys , which are continued with the vena cava and aorta , witness aristotle and others . beverovicius artributes a kind of sanguification or blood-making to the kidneys . . because they have a parenchy●● and very many vessels . but they might have their parenchyma because of their vessels , that they might not be intangled one with another . and it was requisite they should have very many vessels , to the end they might plentifully purge away the serum or wheyish part of the blood , so that through very many and very small outlets , the whey might be issued out into the caruncles , without any considerable quantity of blood therewith . . because the kidneys which in healthy persons are red , clear , solid ; according to the kind of the disease , become somtimes obscure and blackish , somtimes whiteish ; otherwhiles loose , brittle , and as it were rotten ; and somtimes again , hard and dried . but that might happen , because as some other parts , so the kidneys might be sick , or through sickness of the body , concoction being somwhere hurt , they could not be nourished with good blood . . because the urins of persons troubled with the stone are crude : but of that another cause is commonly rendred . viz. in that the kidneys being stopped , the thinner part only of the urin can make its way forth . . because persons troubled with the stone are wont to swell and look pale , like those that are termed leucophlegmatici . but this may easily happen , because the kidneys either through weakness cannot sufficiently draw the wheyish humor out of the blood , or being stopped it cannot be duely expelled . but if he or any other shall affirm , that allowing the circulation of the blood in these parts , the blood is there somwhat more changed , then it was in its simple vessel , i shall not disagree with them therein . for themselves it is that they change the blood , but it is for the rest of the body only , that they purge out the wheyish excrement . chap. xviii . of the capsulae atrabilariae , or black-choler cases . these vessels are by most anatomists neglected and not observed , though they are evermore found in all bodies , what ever archangelus saies to the contrary . nor must we say that these capsulae are made of a superfluous matter , as a sixt finger uses to be . we are beholden to bartholomew eustachius for the first discovery of these small bodies , who mentions them by the name of kernels , and after him archangelus and bauhinus . casserius cals them renes succenturiatos deputy-kidneys or auxiliary kidneys . i shall call them , in regard of the use i allot them , capsulas atrabilarias , black-choler cases . now these cases are so scated , that they rest upon the upper part of the kidneys on the outside , where they look towards the vena cava , being covered with fat and membranes . their number is the same with that of the kidneys . for upon each kidney there rests a case . i have once seen four of them , of which the two greater being four square were seated above , and the two smaller being round , uneven , and rough , were placed beneath the emulgent veins . their magnitude is not alwaies alike ; commonly that on the right side is bigger then that on the left , yet somtimes the latter is bigger then the for●… ▪ in a child new born , they are near as big as the kidneys , peradventure because they are moister then ordinary , and contain a more thin melancholy juyce , which because they do not strongly enough expel , but treasure it up rather , therefore these cases are widened . but in grown persons they are straitned , and become less , though they abound more with melancholy , partly because the melancholy being gathered by degrees , is through the strength of nature by degrees expelled ; partly , because the serum in hotter persons is dried up , wherewith the new born infant abounded ; and partly because as the reins grow bigger , they are compressed . yet i have once observed them in a grown person , by reason of aboundance of black choler , twice as big as ordinary , whereas commonly they are no bigger then a large vomiting nut. they have an apparent internal cavity , both in persons grown and new-born babes , compassing the inner circumference of the whole case as it were , in which they are found to contain a dreggie and black humor , so that even the inner sides are coloured with the said blackness . in infants i have seen to my thinking wheyish blood in them . i admire that riolanus could not , or would not see this cavity , for though he cries that it is so small , that it will hardly admit a little pea , yet is it somtimes wider , and alwaies so large , as to contain many peasen compressed , and we can thrust a probe into it , this way and that way , without violence . it contains therefore a large cavity , respecting the smalness of its body . nor hath nature ever labour'd in vain , no not in the smallest spaces of the capillary veins . it is a small matter which they can hold , yet it may be counted much , because it is successively received in , and cast out again . this humor might have been indeed allayed and sweetned by the admixture of blood , as choler also might , yet vessels and receptacles are ordained for both these excrements , that the blood might not be polluted . in shape and substance they many times resemble the kidneys , save that their substance is a little looser ; so that they seem little kidneys resting upon the great ones . which perhaps was the reason that casserius did call them auxiliary kidneys : but more frequently their substance is flat like a cake ( howbeit hollow within ) and their shape is round-long and somwhat square . somtimes they are three corner'd , seldom round ; for they are seldom seen in one and the same shape . they are knit where they rest unto the external membrane of the kidneys so fast , that negligent dissecters , when they take out the kidneys , leave them sticking to the membrane of the diaphragma or midriff . and this is the reason that many observe them not . they have vessels : veins , and arteries , derived to them from the middle of the emulgents . somtimes also a vein is sent thither from the kidney , and somtimes also a branch near the liver from the cava is brought thereto , somtimes also from the vena adiposa , and somtimes from all those places , somtimes with a single , otherwhiles with a double branch . somtimes they have a single artery from the emulgents , somtimes a double one ; and otherwhiles they have from the trunk of the aorta , one while a single branch , otherwhiles three together . these cases have nerves also . for about the beginnings of the arteries of the mesentery , some branches of nerves mixed together are produced , one part of which goes unto the kidneys , and these cases which rest upon them . the capsulae atrabilariae in men and other creatures , are here described . in all which figures . the xx. table . the figures explained . the capsulae or cases , being round in men the capsulae or cases , being trianguler in men the capsulae or cases , being square and o● all in men the capsulae or cases , in a lamb● the capsulae or cases , in the fish , tu●sio the capsulae or cases , in an ox● a. represents the cases whole . b. shews them dissected , that the internal cavities may be seen , which are of various forms . c. points out their veins and arteries , arising from the aorta and cava , and from the emulgents . d. is the vena cava . e. is the arteria aorta . f. the vessels on both sides , called emulgents . g. the kidneys cropped off . page ● chap. xix . of the vreters , or vrin-channels . the ureters or urin-carryers , are round-long vessels or channels , arising out of the kidneys , planted into the bladder , into which they carry the urin from the kidneys . the ureters are commonly two in number , on each side one , somtimes two , & somtimes more , yet al growing into one before their insertion , as also carolus stephanus observed in a certain body . but the far renowned riolanus , in a body infected with the venereal pox , saw two ureters on either side , inserted into the bladder at ●…s places , the one towards the neck , the other in the bottom thereof . salomon albertus observed three on the right side , and but one on the left . i have frequently observed the like difference , as among other things i shew in my rare anatomical histories . their situation . they run through many parts in their beginning , middle , and end . their beginning is in the kidneys themselves , what ever hofman , riolanus , laurenberg , and plempius say to the contrary ; in which they rise like roots out of the earth , and as a vein out of the liver . nor does their similitude with the bladder move me ; because , . the nature of the ureters is peculiar and distinct from them both . . they are not much unlike the belly of the kidneys . . all parts do carry with them the nature and colour of their original , as we see in the aorta and the cava . nor does their cleaving fast to the bladder infer any thing , seeing the connexion is not greater there then in the kidneys , being conveniently separable , between the membrane of the bladder and the muscle . and therefore this original is in the kidneys , out of nine or ten little pipes or channels , to each of which the caruncles aforesaid are applied , though the caruncles may be also applied to their middle part being bored through . now those pipes go into fewer and greater branches , commonly into three , distributed into the upper , middle , and lower region of the kidney . these grow afterwards into one large cavity which goes out of the flat side of the kidney . the middle part , is the whole long-round pipe or channel , resting upon the muscles of the loins , between two membranes of the peritonaeum , with which the ureters are fastned ; above to the kidneys , below to the bladder , with the inner substance whereof they make one continued body , so that they cannot be pluckt away without breaking . their end is , where they are implanted , being carried obliquely a fingers breadth , between the proper membrane of the bladder , and it s circumvolved muscle , not far from the neck of the bladder , in its hinder part . and besides the oblique insertion of the ureters ( which cannot at al , or very highly hinder the regress of the wheyish humor into the ureters , because it is broad ) two little membranes are placed in the implantation , like the valves in bellows , shutting up the passage of the ureters , so that the urin cannot go back . hence it is , that the bladder being blown up , will not admit so much as any wind . laurentius , riolanus , and plempius deny these valves , contrary to all other anatomists . but though the passage be crooked , yet is it open enough . the gut colon is not a little wreathed , and the ileon more then that , and yet they have a valve affixed . yea they are themselves forced to confess , that the two membranes clapt together , do exactly shut up the passage of the ureters , and what hinders but that they may be termed valves . as for their magnitude . they are long-round vessels , thick and hollow , as big as straws . but in dissections of persons troubled with the stone , we have often seen their cavity so wide as to admit two fingers , yea and as big as the guts . as to there figure , they are round vessels like water-pipes , a little crooked like the letter , s. they have a double membrane : the one common from the peritonaeum for strength sake , the other proper , like the inner substance of the bladder , and continued therewith , white ( whence some and celsus among the rest call them the white veins ) bloodles , nervous , thick , strong furnished with straight and crooked fibres , that they may be stretched . they receive small veins and arteries from the neighbouring parts . they have nerves from the sixt pare , and the marrow of the loins . whence they have an exquisite sense , and are pained when stones pass through them , which sense of pain is encreased , by the distention of these membranous bodies , caused by great stones . their use is , that through them as conduit-pipes , the urin separated from the blood by the kidneys , may be carried into the bladder ; and somtimes gravel and stones , worms , pins , ha●● , quittor , blood , &c. now the urin is carried by a manifest passage formerly explained into the bladder , which passage , because asclepiades was ignorant of , he would have the urin carried into the bladder , after a blind manner , as if it were first resolved into a vapor , and did so sweat through , and afterward became an humor as before : which transudation paracelsus likewise held . chap. xx. of the piss-bladder this bladder is seated in the lowest part of the belly , between two coats of the peritonaeum , in a cavity fashioned by the os sacrum , the hip and share-bones ( as it were in a little belly of its own , separate from the paunch ) in men above the 〈…〉 rectum or arse-gut ; in women between the 〈…〉 the womb , and the os pubis , and the shar●… . it s magnitude varies , for the greater the lungs are , the greater is the bladder , so that those live-wights which have no lungs , have no bladder ; and according as it is variously distended . for somtimes being full , it does so strout in the belly , that it may be felt by the hand , and somtimes being empty , it is in dissections hardly discerned at first , by reason of its smallness , being no bigger then a large pear . the xxi table . this table expresses the coats of the bladder , as also the seed-bladders seated in the hinder-part thereof . the figures explained . fig . i. aa . the common coat of the bladder . bbb . it s middle coat , furnished with musculous fibres . c. it s inmost wrinkled coat . dd. the neck of the bladder . e. the sphincter muscle of the bladder . ff . the kernels called prostarae . gg . a portion of the ureters . hh . their insertion between the two coats of the bladder . fig . ii. a. the inner coat of the bladder being opened . bb. part of the ureters . cc. the orifices of the ureters widened in the bladder . dd. a portion of the vasa deferentia , or carrying vessels . ee . the seminal bladders displaid . ff . the kernels called prostatae divided . g. an hole going from the bladders into the beginning of the piss-pipe , furnishe with a valve . h. the common passage of piss and seed . fig . iii. a. the hinder side of the bladder , with its external coat taken off . bb. the ureters . cc. a portion of the vessels which carry away the seed . dd. the seed-cases , or capsulae seminales . dd . their end. ee . the seed-bladders expressing divers cells . ff . the kernels called prostatae . g. the piss-pipe . page the bottom is fastned to the peritonaeum , also to the navil , by an intermediate ligament , called urachus , and the two navil-arteries dried up , least when a man walks upright , the bottom should rest upon the neck . hence is the sympathy between the neck of the bladder and the navil . the neck of the bladder is fastned in women to the neck of the womb , and the neighboring hip-bones ; in men to 〈…〉 rectum intestinum . it s substan● ●…tly membranous for strengths 〈…〉 because of exten●… and w●…ether , ●…ly fleshy , because of motion . for it hath two membranes , and one muscle infolding the whole bladder , which all other anatomists except aquapendent , do make to be a third membrane , and not a muscle . the first membrane is outmost and common , from the peritonaeum , strong and thick . the other is inmost , and proper , thin , of exquisite sense , interwoven with all kind of fibres , that it may admit of much distention and contraction [ wherein there are very many wrinkles , in persons troubled with the stone , and little cavities are engraven which hold stones , being caused through long want of distention ] and it is covered with a fleshy crust , or wrinkled coat as it were , made of the excrements of the ●…igestion , least the innemost coar should be by the sharpness of the urine . that which is in the middle , betwixt this proper and the outmost coat , is by others called the second proper membrane , which nevertheless they grant to be thick , and furnished with fleshy fibres . but it is rather a muscle encompassing the whole bladder : because it hath fibres visibly fleshy , inserted into the beginning of the bladder : so that , as the circular muscle called sphincter , does cloze the bladder , that our water may not pass from us against our wills , so this muscle does help the voidance of our water , whilest by contracting it self , it squeezes the bladder . and this is , indeed , the opinion of my master aquapendent ; the truth whereof walaeus was wont thus to prove in the dissection of live dogs : having cut off all the muscles of the abdomen , he makes a small piercing wound into the bladder , out of which wound or hole , the urin spins out as far , as naturally it does from the yard : yet i shal not refuse to grant thus much to other authors : viz. that the muscles of the abdomen or belly , do also help forward the expulsion of urin. it ma es nothing against us , that the stomach , and guts , and womb , have the like fleshy membrane ; for they also did need such an one , that they might more easily be widened and contracted . hence , though the membrane of the bladder be more fleshy , yet in a large sense , the membrane of these other parts may likewise be termed musculous . but the condition of spirituous blood , forcibly issuing forth , and of a dull and lazie urin are different . moreover , in the veins , the precedent blood is forced on by that which follows , according to the laws of circulation , and the inbred faculty . the bladder hath three holes : two a little before the neck , where the ureters are inserted , of which before , the third is in the neck , to let out the urin. now the neck of the bladder , is its narrower part , through which the urin is voided . in men this neck is more long-round , narrow , and a little writhen , because being placed under the bodies which compose the yard , it is carried upwards , under the share-bones , from the fundament to the original of the yard : to which in the hinder part two kernels are adjoyned , called the prostatae . in women the neck of the bladder is short and broad , stretched forth-right downwards , and implanted above into the neck of their womb. in both sexes the neck is fleshy ( which therefore heals , being wounded , whereas wounds in other parts of the bladder are deadly ) interwoven with very many fibres , especially such as run athwart , which purse up the neck of the bladder , that our water may not pass from us against our wills , and this orbicular muscle is therefore called the sphincter . which if it be over cooled , or troubled with the palsie , or any other disease , the patient cannot hold his water . the bladder hath veins , termed venae hypogastricae , implanted into the sides of its neck , which being variously distributed through the bladder , are mutually conjoyned one with another , and with the arteries , and are penetrable by mutual holes from one to another , so that the blood may easily pass out of one branch into another , according to the observation of sylvius , that the nutritive blood brought in by the arteries , may return by the veins . now the reason why the bladder hath veins , is , because it draws a meer excrement , viz. the urin , with which it cannot be nourished . it hath arteries from the hypogastrica in men , in women from the vessels which go into the neck of the womb. it hath considerable nerves from the sixt pare , and from the medulla of ossacrum . it s use is , to contain urin , and to be the bodies chamber-pot ; also stones it contains and gravel , and somtimes other things , as hairs , witness galen , donatus , hollerius , shenkius , tulpius ; worms , by report of hollerius , mundanella , dodonaeus , of which there was a late instance at hafnia , pinns , and which is most strange , pot-herbs , according to the late observation of john van horn. and its next use is to expel the said urin contained . chap. xxi . of the seedpraeparatory vessels in men. hitherto we have handled the organs of nutrition ; those of procrea ion or generation come next to be spoken of , which are different in men from those in women . in men those which first present themselves , are the twofold spermatick vessels , viz. the two spermatick veins , and the two spermatick arteries . the right hand vein , arises from the trunk of vena cava , a little below the rise of the emulgent : the left springs from the emulgent , for otherwise it should go over the aorta , and there would be danger of breaking , or ●ather least by the pulse of the artery , the motion of the blood in the vein , should be in some sort stopped and hindered . therefore it hath its rise seldom from the cava , and somtimes from both places . both the seminal arteries do arise from the arteria magna , or great artery : almost two fingers breadths distance from the emulgents . these vessels are in men greater then in women ; and the arteries are larger then the veins , because very much heat , and vital spirit , and arterial blood are requisite , for to make the seed . somtimes one artery is wanting , and somtimes both , peradventure in such as cannot ingender . these vessels are somwhat distant one from the other ; they are obliquely carried above the ureters to the groyns , but in their progress , these veins and arteries are joyned by infinite anastomoses ( so that the arteries are so coupled within the coat of the veins , as if they were but one vessel ) and they are knit together by a membrane arising from the peritonaeum , and are afterwards carried to the beginning of the stone , like the tendrils of a vine , being so interwoven , that a curious eye cannot distinguish a vein from an artery . the xxii . table . this table comprehends the kidneys , bladder , yard , and seminary vessels , as they are wont to be shewed , taken out of the body . the figure explained . aa . the auxiliary kidneys , or deputy-kidneys . bb. the true kidneys . cc. the emulgent veins . dd. the emulgent arteries . ee . the spermatick veins . ff . the spermatick arteries . gg . the trunk of vena cava , divided into the iliack branches . hh . the trunk of the great artery , divided in like manner . iiii. the ureters . kk . the vessels which prepare the seed . ll. the same vessels where they make the vasa pampiniformia . mm. the stones covered with all their coats . nn. the vessels which carry away the seed going behind the bladder . o. the piss-bladder . p. the neck of the said bladder . qq . the kernels called prostatae . rr. the muscles which raise the yard . ss . two other muscles which widen the piss-pipe . t. the body of the yard . v. the fore-skin covering the nut of the yard . page these praeparatory vessels of generation , when they come unto the stone , are not changed into the carrying vessels , as if one continued body with them as many imagine . but they pierce through the proper coat of the stone , and are spred through the substance thereof , and so obliterated . the use of the spermatick arteries , is to carry blood and spirit to the stones , and in those various interweavings to prepare the same , by a vertue which they fetch from the stones , by reason of its long stay and accurate concoction , and sifting in those crooked mazes , that it may becom seed , and may nourish the stones , for which nourishments sake , in those that are not yet of ripe age , these arteries carry blood , before they can labor and make seed . now the use of the spermatick veins , closely interwoven with the arteries about the stones , and joyned to them by mutual anastomoses , is , to carry back that blood which remains superfluous , after the stones are nourished , and the seed made , unto the left emulgent , or to the vena ●…ediately , on the right side , where the s●…in is commonly propagated from t●… there an● need to fear , least this return of the blood through the veins should withdraw matter from the seed , or that the generating spirit , should return upwards from the stones . for by reason of the intricate mixture and intertexture of the vessels , no part goes back , save what the stones dismiss , as not necessary for themselves , nor the whole body . and therefore we do for the most part find the arteries which bring the blood greater , and the veins which carry it back lesser , because the stones do not return so much as they receive . and that the spirit is retained , the silent course of the blood through the veins , is a token . which blood , verily , is retained in the stones from flowing back , by the same power whereby it is retained in other parts of the body . chap. xxii . concerning the stones . the stones or testicles so called , as witnessing the courage and strength of a man , without which a man was no sufficient witness in the roman court , are also called did●●●i or gemelli twins , because commonly they are in number two . seldom one great one and no more , as in sylla and cotta , witness a●rianus ; seldomer three , as in agathocles the tyrant of sicilie , and some families of italy of the colci , especially at bergoma , and others at paris , according to the observation of fernelius , which is also proper to a renowned family in germany , ; and four , which aristotle partly observed , and riolanus the father , so small that they proved barren , because either they do not sufficiently digest the matter of seed , or they do not easily receive the same , because of the straitness of their passages . they are seated externally in men , without the abdomen , under the belly , at the root of the yard , in their cod or covering . . for chastities sake , if we believe aristotle . for such live-wights as have their stones hid within their body , are very lecherous , do often couple , and get many young ones . . that by reason of the longer passage , the greater stay of the seminal matter , may cause the better preparation . . laurembergius would have them nearer that external place wherein they were to generate , viz. the womb. but that nearness , doubtless , helps nothing to generation , though the nearness of the yard does : nor do we find this observed in many animals which generate out of themselves . that the stones have lain hid in the cavity of the abdomen , until puberty or ripeness of age fit for generation , martinus rulandus proves in two histories , pareus in one , and riolanus in a story not unlike . in which kind of persons , if the yard should also lie hid , we should ever and anon have an appearing change of sexes . the epididymides rest athwart upon the stones , and compass them as it were , being a kind of little stones , oblong , round , white , and wreathed , but at both ends , somwhat sharp , of which see the following chapter . their magnitude in men does commonly answer that of a small hens eg. and in men the stones are greater then in women . the figure of the stones is oval . which figure varies somtimes , by reason of the neighboring vessels more or less turgent : and therefore some say the right testicle is more full vein'd , and it is thought to be more hot , and have seed better digested . whence hippocrates calls it the boygetter , because it receives more pure and hot blood and spirits out of the great vessel , viz. the great artery . the left stone is thought to contain colder seed , more wheyish and and weak , because for the most part , the matter is beleived to be brought from the emulgent , and therefore hippocrates cals this stone the girl-getter . whence that common saying , wenches are begot by the left stone in the left side of the womb ; boys by the right stone in the right side . and hippocrates saies , there is in a man as wel as in a woman both male and foemale seed , that is to say , hotter and colder . but i am not of opinion , that wenches are alwaies begotten by the left stone , and that it receives a colder sort of seed , for , . there are ever and anon virago's or manly women , which exceed men in strength and courage . . blood is communicated from the great artery , as well to the left stone as to the right . . the arteria spermatica is oftner wanting on the right side then on the left . but the generation of the fra●ler sex , depends not so much upon the coldness of the left testicle , as upon the cold constitution of both the stones , or rather of the whole body , which administers matter for the seed . howbeit the left parts of the body are generally said to be colder then the right . moreover the right stone is fuller of seed , doth swel more , and hath a greater vein and artery , so that nature seems to design the generation of foemales more then of males . it was therefore ill said of aristotle , that nature of her self did alwaies intend the generation of males , as being most perfect , and that a foemale is ingendred , when nature being hindered , could not ingender a male , so that a woman is in his account a kind of monster in nature . howbeit nature seems more sollicitous for the generation of women then of men , for the causes aforesaid , nor does nature alwaies regard that which is best or most perfect , but that which is most necessary , as a woman is : for many of them are but enough for one man. for women when they are big with child , are useless to a man ; also they are short lived , nor can they bear so long , as a man can beget . but of this , i have discoursed more fully , in my . anatomical controversie de patribus . the testicles have coats and coverings , some proper , others common . they have two coats common to them and other parts , to defend them from external injuries . the first is formed of a thinner skin and scarf-skin , then is to be found in other parts of the body , and is called scrotum or scortum , hanging out like a purse or bag , and subject to the touch . t is soft and wrinkled , void of fat , that it might be more easily extended and wrinkled together : because the oylie matter which should make fat , goes into the stones to make seed . in the lower part it hath a line running out according to the length thereof , which divides it into a right and left part , and is called a suture or seam , the second coat consists of a fleshy pannicle , which is also thinner then is found in other places , full of veins and arteries , and called dartos . which covering is by others comprehended under the term scrotum . the proper coat or coverings , which on either side do cloath each stone are three . the first proper coat is called vaginalis the scabberd coat , and by some helico●ides , by reason of its shape , which is thin , but yet strong , full of veins , arising from the processes of the peritonaeum . it cleavs to the dartos , by many membranous fibres , which others have reckoned for a peculiar coat . whence it is externally rough , internally smooth . the second is termed eruthroeides the red coat , being furnished with some fleshy fibres , bred out of the cremaster , and inwardly spred over the former . rufus names this in the first place , and riolanus and veslingus following him , account it the first coat , because it compasses the former , and is propagated from the cremaster . the xxiii . table . the coats of the stones , their substance , and vessels are propounded in this table . the explication of the figures . fig . i. aa . the skin of the cod separated . bbb . the fleshy membrane which ●● here called dartos . cc. the first coat of the stones called elythroeides . dd. the muscle cremaster . e. the second coat of the stones , which the author calls erythroides . ff . the coat of the stones called albuginea . g. the kernelly substance of the stone . h. the pyramidal or pampiniform vessel . ii. epididymis . dd. the parastates variciformis . fig . ii. a. a portion of the preparatory vessels . bb. the pyramidal vessel . cc. epididymis . dd. parastates variciformis . e. the stone covered with its proper membrane . f. a portion of the vas deferens . fig . iii aa . the veins and arteries in the pyramidal vessel laid open . b. the epididymis . cc. the parastates variciformis . d. the vas deferens . page the substance of the stones is glandulous , white , soft , loose and spongy , by reason of very many vessels there dispersed and loose , though without cavity , as the liver also and the spleen have no cavities . they have vessels of all kinds . veins and arteries from the seminary vessels : an indifferent large nerve from the sixt pare ; somtimes also they have two nerves from the one and twentieth pare of the spinal marrow , conjoyned to the seminal vessels , carried with them through the production of the peritonaeum , and disseminated into the tunicles . they have on each side one muscle , arising from a strong ligament , which is in the share-bone , where the transverse muscles of the belly end , of which they seem to the parts . they go along through the production of the peritonaeum , which they compass about well-near , and grow to the beginnings of the stones . they are ●●●●ed cremasteres or suspensores , hangers or sustainers , for they hold up the stones , that they may not too much draw down the seminal vessels . also in the carnal conjunction , they draw back the stones , that the seed-channel being shortned , the sperm may be sooner and easier conveigh'd into the womb. in some persons these muscles are capable of voluntary motion , who can draw up , and let down their stones as they list : where these muscles are doubtless stronger then ordinary , that they may not only hold the stones suspended , but move them from place to place . the use of the stones is , by their heat and inbred faculty , to make seed . for the efficient cause of seed is the proper flesh or substance of the stones , both in regard of their hot and moist temper of their specifick property ; since no flesh in the body is found like that of the stones . now they turn the blood being prepared into seed , which is requisite to preserve the species of mankind : and that which remains over and above , either goes back by the spermatick veins into the heart , or turns to nourishment for the stones . nor can seed be ordinarily bred without the stones , nor perfect animals without them , for from them the seed receives both its form and colour . that some have ingendred without stones , though not according to the ordinary course of nature , smetius in his miscellanies , fontanus in his physica , cabrolius , hofmannus de generatione , and others , do testifie . now the place wherein the seed is bred , is not any large cavity in the stone , but certain very small vessels therein formed , covered with a very delicate thin coat , as vesalius rightly teaches . now these following authors after aristotle , have taken away the faculty of seed-making from the stones , viz. fallopius , cabrolius , posthius , casparus hofmannus , caesar cremoninus , adrianus spigelius , regius , and others , because the matter of seed does not go into the stones , nor is there ever any seed found in them . but they wil have them principally to be receptacles for the wheyish humor which flows in with the blood ; which they collect from their glandulous substance , and the largeness of the left stone . but they are confuted by eunuchs and gelt persons , whose stones being cut out or bruised , they become unable to engender . also seed hath been frequently observed in the stones . witness dodonaeus in his . observation touching a spanish soldier , hofman de generatione chap. . carpus and riolanus . it is indeed not to be found in some bodies , because it was not bred , by reason of some sickness , or imprisonment , or upon death the spirits being dissipated , a watry liquor appears instead thereof . nor can the seed come to the vasa deferentia otherwise then by the testicles , which begin at the stones , as the praeparatory vessels end in them , by the observation of very many anatomists , and why the left stone is greater then the right , another reason is alleadged by learned men . also the stones seems to give strength and courage to mens bodies , as may be seen in gelded persons , who are changed well-near into women , in their habit of body , temperament , manners , &c. and doubtless the stones do exceedingly sympathize with the upper parts of the body , especially with the heart . for we see that cordial and cooling epithems in fainting fits and bleeding at the nose , being applied to the stones , do help as if they were applied to the very heart and part affected . the cause hereof is hard to tell ; jaccbinus , laurentius , hofmannus , conceive that it comes to pass by reason of passions of the mind , which are joyned with fleshly lust . but eunuchs also are lustful , for they are great lovers of women : and eunuchs are often transported with anger and other passions of the mind , but they receive not never the more the habit of men. galen seems to have been of opinion , that a spirit was bred in the stones and diffused thence al the body over . but glandulous bodies of the number of which the stones are , are unfit to engender an hot spirit ; nor are there any passages about the stones , for the distribution of that new spirit , according to the opinion of galen . nor is therefore the opinion of mercatus allowable , viz. that those spirits are not indeed bred there ; but that the vital spirits are collected in the stones in great quantity , that from them they may return back into the whole body ; for those which are there collected , are collected to engender seed . but the opinion of thomas a vega does better please me , til i shall find a more probable , viz. that a seminal air is raised up in the generation of seed , which thus changes the whole body . the flesh truly of ungelt creatures , hath a rammish tast of the seed , which the flesh of such as are gelt hath not . this vapor or air of the seed is carried to the heart , either by the inner pores of the body , or by the veins which reconveigh to the heart the superfluities of the generated seed . helmont imagines the stones do act by a ruling power , at a distance , as the stomach does upon the womb , the womb upon the upper parts , and that without any right waies or marks ; which nevertheless an anatomist seeks to find , if it be possible . vestingus ingeniously makes the reason of the change of voice , temperament , strength , &c. in persons guelded , to be the oppression of their inbred heat by plenty of matter , which ought to turn to seed . now their sympathy with the heart , depends partly upon the nerves , partly ( for we hold the circulation in the stones ) from the foresaid veins , returning back to the heart , by which both the vertues of cordials ascend , and of cooling medicaments , even as we apply cordials and coolers to the hands , with like success . chap. xxiii . of the vasa deferentia , the ejaculatoria , the parastatae , seminal bladders , and the prostatae . wee have propounded the spermatick praeparatory vessels above , which end into the stones , to which they carry matter to make seed . now there are other vessels , which begin at the stones , and end at the root of the yard , whither they carry and there squirt out the seed , which hath been made in the stones . and these are termed vasa deferentia , or vessels that carry away the seed ; and they are two in number , on each side one . now we divide these vessels into the beginning , middle , and end. the beginning are termed parastatae , as if you would say idle attenders upon the stones , ceremonious waiters , also corpora varicosa or variciformia , because they are twisted and wreathed , like those crooked black veins called varices . galen in his interpretation of hard words used by hippocrates calls them epididymides , because they rest upon the stones , which nevertheless others distinguish by a peculiar use , as that they prepare the seed ; and the parastatae do add more perfection thereto : others invert the matter , and perswade themselves that the parastatae prepare the seed , and the epididymides finish it , which opinion of theirs they have received , i know not how well , from the ancient physitians . and they are oblong vessels , placed upon the stones , white , thick , and round , a little depressed , and solid , growing narrow by little and little . as for their substance , t is of a middle nature betwixt that of the stones and that of the vasa deferentia . for their substance is softer then the latter , and harder then the former , because they are glandulous within , and fungous ; and externally membranous . as to their original , the opinion of spigelius and other late anatomists , does against all former authority thus determine : viz. that they arise by continuation from the seminary vessels , so that both the praeparatory vessels , and the parastatae , and the out-carrying vessels , are but one continued body , receiving divers names according to its different parts , and their respective offices and situations . but walaeus conceives , that it is more suitable to what appears in dissection , to say , that these vessels do not arise from the praeparatory vessels , but are rather mixed with them , fastned to , and opened into them : and that as he supposes , to the end that the blood forced in by the praeparatory vessels , may deposite that matter which it contains fit to breed seed , into the little branches of the vasa deferentia . but the rest of the blood , which is unfit for nutrition and generation of seed , is by other anastomoses shed into the veins , and by circulation returns to the heart . now they have their original from the stones . by means of innumerable small pipes or white fibres . and there is no communion at all between the vessel that carries away the seed , and the veins , and arteries of the stones , which vesalius conceives to be apparent in dissections . yet are they fastned to the inmost coat of the stones , though they have a proper coat of their own . the use of the parastatae , is to perfect and finish the seed , by a power which they receive from the stones . moreover , while the seed abides in them , it comes to pass that vehement and frequent lust is not provoked . the ejaculatory or squirting vessels , are simply termed the middle , because they carry seed from the stones and the corpora varicosa , to the seminal bladders : for they are seen to carry a whiteish humor , yea and the parastatae are frequently found full of seed . they have a substance white and nervous ; and their figure is round and long : they have an obscure cavity , because the seed by means of the spirits whereof it is full , does easily pass . their situation is partly in the cod , partly in the cavity of the belly , above the os pubis or share-bone . for they are carried upwards , and are knit to the praeparatory vessels , by a thin membrane , and so pass along to the flanks and the share-bone , which for that cause have a slight cavity . and afterwards being turned back downwards , they are carried above the ureters , and under the hinder part of the bladder , above the rectum intestinum , they are on each side widened at the neck of the bladder , where their end is , and these vessels so widened do constitute the seminary bladders , which are many in number like little cells , and seem to make on each side one remarkable , great , and winding one , because one goes into another , which you cannot compare to anything better then to a bunch of grapes . the cavities do neatly represent the cells of a pomegranate in order and figure . rondeletius did first of al describe these bladders , and after him fallopius . these nervous bladders are seated between the ligaments of the piss-bladder and the arse-gut , by the sides of the deferent vessels , a little before the said vessels grow thick , and unite . their use is , to contain the seed being wrought , and to reserve the same til time of copulation , so that there may be seed sufficient to beget many children . and therefore that ●…ouder which aristotle relates of a bull that engendred after his sto●●s were cut off : though others attribute this effect to the prostatae , as archangelus and columbus . now the seed may be contained in these cells many months together , and in regard of the multitude of these little bladders , seed may be voided in many acts of copulation ; and all not spent at one essay . and that seed is contained in these little bladderkies , besides the authority of fallopius , platerus , laurentius , aquapendent , and casserius , it is manifest by this experiment : if you squeez them , presently feed is forced into the pipe of the yard , just like milk out of the dug , or piss out of the piss-bladder , &c. but if you press the prostatae with your finger , yet nothing comes away , unless you press the bladders also . and that the seed does not continually distil and drop out of them , into urinary passage , a little caruncle hinders , which stops their hole ▪ the perpetual seat of a virulent gonorrhaea , hath been by the observation of late anatomists found to be in these bladders , for upon dissection there hath been found an evident imposthumation in these parts . from the situation of these bladders and of the stones , without the cavity of the abdomen , riolanus would give a reason why men are not so cruelly infested with the filthy vapors of corrupt seed , as women are . but the peritonaeum does not hinder the evaporations of the seed , because the veins do inwardly open upwards . also viragoes or mannish women , are not troubled with the said vapors . the reason must therefore be sought in the quality of the seed , which being in men and manly women more benigne , does neither go to , nor infect the heart . after the constitution of the seminary bladders these deferent vessels are united into one smal passage which goes into the prostatae . now the prostatae , as if you would say the waiters , are two kernels , manifesty differing from the seed bladders , in use , form , situation , and magnitude , though hofman think otherwise ; their situation is at the root of the yard , above the sphincter or muscle of the bladder , on each side , at the neck thereof . columbus calls them prostatae , vesalius glandulosum corpus , fallopius glandulosion assistens , others call them the little stones , to difference them from the true stones . before and behind they are flat , on the sides round . they are commonly as big as a walnut . their substance is spongy , and yet harder and whiter then that of other kernels , and they are covered with a thicker membrane ; all which is to hinder the ovlie substance , of it self apt to run , from passing out . and because they are of exquisite sense , therefore they cause pleasure in copulation . these kernels are open by certain pores into the urethra or piss-pipe , which is evidently apparent in such as have died of the gonorrhaea , of which gonorrhaea these pores being dilated are many times the seat . their use is to contain an oylie , slippery , and sat humor , which is pressed forth when need requires , to daub the urinary passage , to defend it from the acrimony of the seed or urin , and that it may not fall in through driness , but may remain slippery ; because through it in copulation , the said humor does suddenly flow out of the seed . this is that which galen ment , when he said that they contained a certain humor like seed , but much thinner , the use of which humor , is to excite lust , and to cause delight in carnal copulation . mean while , spigelius , riolanus , and others do conceive that they contain seed , which is there collected , and thence voided , having attained some further perfection , as veslingus conceives . others as laurentius , conceive they do both ; for he will have the prostatae both to thicken the seed , and to breed a thin humor , and excite titillation . but that they do not contain seed , their compression shews , which voides none , unless the vesicles or seed-bladders be withal compressed . and seeing the seat of the gonorrhaea is here , which we frequently observe to continue many years , without any remarkable detriment to health , it is unlikely that the seed flows from the prostatae . i saw a man at padua , who was troubled thirty years with the gonorrhaea , and hath it still , being otherwise in health . the seed therfore is not contained in them , nor does it stay there , though it may pass through . others do conceive , that they help to make the seed , yea that they and the bladders are the only seed-makers , as regius endeavors to prove . which if it were true , guelded persons might engender . guelded persons do indeed send forth a moist matter resembling seed , and they are provoked to venery , but they can get no children . and if they have been observed at any time to engender , according to what is related of guelded horses and bulls ; there was doubtless remaining in the seed-bladders , so much seed made by the stones , as might serve for one bout of generation . but if they engendred more then once , doubtless one stone was left behind , when they were guelded . chap. xxiv . of the yard . the genital member of a man is commonly called in latin penis a pendendo , because it hangs , also virga the rod or yard , colis , &c. many other names are wont to be put upon it , which are better past over then mentioned . in english t is most usually termed the yard or prick . plato in his timaeus compares it to a certain living creature , because it hath an appetite to generation . howbeit , it is indeed the part and instrument of a live-wight , and the faculty of appetite is seated in the brain . t is seated at the roots of os pubis , that carnal copulation might more conveniently be accomplished , and that it might be no impediment to other parts ▪ it is placed in the middle , because only one in number . yet there was once a man dissected at bononia who had two yards . which also obsequens relates of a boy , among his prodigies . another named anna , being lately a vagrant in italy , had no yard , but instead thereof a certain piece of spongy flesh under his navil , which nature had provided him to piss withal . it s figure is round and long ; but not exactly , because it is broader on the upper ●ide , which they call the back of the yard . it s magnitude consisting in thickness and length , does vary , both in the several sorts of animals , and in the individual creatures of the same sort . particularly , t is in man so great as was necessary to propagate his species or kind : but proportionally shorter then in many brutes , because mankind couples after another manner then those beasts do . in particular men , there is exceeding great variety . for it is for the most part greater then ordinary , . in little men. . in such as abstain from carnal embracements , if we beleive galen . . if the navil-strings be not tied close to the navil in infants ; for otherwise , by reason of the urachus or piss-pipe , the bladder and neighboring parts , are drawn more upwards . yet spigelius is herein of a quite contrary mind . . in such as have large noses . for the proportion of the yard answers that of the nose very much , if we will beleive physiognomists . . in block-heads and dull-pated asses . some nations have this member larger then ordinary , as the aethiopians or blackmores . it consists of the scarf-skin , skin , fleshy membrane , and a proper substance of its own . it is void of fat , even in the fattest men . and it is a great question why there is no fat found either in it or about it . some , as laurentius , think it is because fat through its softness would hinder its erection : but the yard will stand , as long as the bodies thereof are blown up . others make the cause to be least the weight thereof should do hurt , and that the yard might not grow too great . but if there were a little fat , it would add nothing to the weight , nor would it enlarge the yard over much . the truer cause therefore is this , that there is therefore no fat , that its sense might not be dulled , and the pleasure of copulation abated , when the fat should melt by rubbing the yard . it s proper substance is not boney as it is in a dog , a wolf , a fox , a whale , &c. but peculiar and proper to it self , such as is no where to be found in any other part of the body . now there are four proper parts of the yard , the urethra or piss-pipe , the nut , and the two nervous bodies . the urethra or piss-pipe , is a nervous pipe or channel , alwaies of the same size , from the neck of the bladder ( to which it is joyned , but does not arise therefrom , nor communicate therewith ) like a long neck , to the end of the yard ; save where the nut is joyned with the nervous bodies . for there indeed it hath a superficial cavern or hollowness , in which an ulcer and intollerable pain does somtimes happen ▪ when some corro●i●e humor is th●●● collected , by means of a gonorrhaea , or some other occasion . it is exceedingly widened in persons troubled with the stone . alpinus saw it so wide in aegypt , that it would receive a large hazel-nut . and therefore it is easily blown up , to draw out the stone . in the beginning thereof are those pores , through which we said before the seed stills forth . there is also a little membrane or caruncle like a valve stretched before it , to keep the seed and urin from returning into the spermatick vessels . it is eroded or fretted by sharp humors , or by use of the catheter , whence follows a perpetual gonorrhaea . riolanus observs that it is found in boys , till the twentieth year of their age , but i see no cause why it should not remain in their after age , when the encrease of seed , makes it more necessary then formerly . the bodies of the yard do embrace and touch this urethra , and it is ●…d back with them , and so reaches to the n●… the figure of an s. the xxiv . table . all the parts of the yard are represented in this table . the explication of the figures . fig . i aa . the inner surface of the urethra being dissected . b. a part of the urethra which makes its way into the nut. cc. the nut of the yard . dd. the two nervous bodies of the yard . fig . ii. a. the membrane of the nervous body separated . b. the blackish pith of the said body . c. the nut of the yard made ●are . fig . iii. aaa . the inner part of the nervous body , all the spongy substance being taken out of it . b. the nerve which goes into the said body . ccc . the artery of the said body . dd. the transparent partition , by spigelius so called . fig . iv. aaa . veins running along the back of the yard . bb. arteries . cc. the nerves of the yard . d. the nut of the yard . fig . v. shews the muscles of the yard in their places . aa . the parts about the buttocks . b. the region of the share . c. the yard with its skin ●●ead off dd. the two nervous bodies . e. the urethra or piss-pipe . ff . two muscles which widen the piss-pipe . gg . two muscles which raise the yard . aa . their beginning cut off from the hip-bone . h. the fundament . i. the sphincter muscle of the fundament . kk . two muscles which draw up the arse-gut . page one membrane is internal and thin , of exquisite sense , as those can witness who are troubled with the stone . with which also the nut is covered ; and it is bred out of the thin membrane , which cloaths the nerves of the yard . the other is external , more fleshy and furnished with transverse nerves . the middle part of its proper substance , is loose , spongy , and black , that it may be distended together with the nervous bodies . the use of the urethra●…mon passage for the urin , seed , and o●… the nut or head of the yard , is the outmost swelling part thereof , roundish or pointed , even and compassed with a circle like a crown . it hath flesh more sensible and solid then the rest of the yard , covered with an exceeding thin membrane . it is soft and of exquisite sense , for titillations sake . in some men it is more sharp , in others more blunt . it hath a coat or covering called the fore-skin , or praeputium a putando , from cutting off , for the jews and turks cut it off , and therefore they are nick-nam'd apellae and recutiti , skinless or skin-cut . in which nations t is wonderful what vestingus told me himself saw , viz. that in young boys it grows out so long and pointed , that it resembles a tayl . hildanus observed it in a certain person very great and fleshy . at the lower end it is tied to the nut by a membrane or band termed fraenum the bridle , which is terminated in the hole of the nut. some will have it to be made up of the extremities of the nerves . carolus stephanus thinks it is composed of a combination of the tendons of the muscles of the yard , and a nerve . the two nervous bodies , on each side one , do make up the remaining and greatest part of the yard : the whole substance whereof is like a most thick spungy artery , stuffed with flesh . for the substance thereof is twofold , the first external , compact , hard , and nervous ; the other internal , spungy , thin , and hollow , and of a dark-red colour enclining to black ; and therefore vesalius saies t is filled with a great deal of black blood , like a pudding . now this substance is rare and pory , that it may be filled with spirit , and venal and arterial blood ; by which means the nervous substance thereof is the more stretched , and the spirits are not soon dissipated , whence proceeds the hardness and stiffness of the yard , not so much for copulations sake , as that the man might squirt his seed right out as far as might be , even to the orifice of the womb , after the yard hath been moved in the female privity . these two bodies have their original from the lower parts of the hip-bones , as from a firm and stable foundation , to which they are strongly tied with two ligaments ; where in their rise they keep some distance , that place may be allowed to the urethra ; and then they are carried upwards , and grow into one about the middle of the share-bone ( like the two horns of the letter y ) but so as they do not both remain perfect , but they loose near a third part of their nervous substance . howbeit they remain distinct , by the coming between of some membranous partition ( which consists not of a double membrane , as at the rise of the bodies , but of one single one ) very thin and transparent , strengthned with nervous and strong transverse fibres ; which fibres are ranked and ordered like a weavers comb. all kind of vessels enter into the yard , nerves , veins , and arteries . . external ones running in the skin , very frequent , from the pudenda , and also internal ones spred through its body . they are therefore mistaken , that think the yard is destitute of veins . it s internal arteries are two remarkable ones , arising from the hypogastrica , which are inserted at the beginning of the growing together of the bodies , and are spred up and down , according to the length of the yard , but in the middle , where the septum or partition is thinnest , they send branches up and down , through the spaces of the fibres , the right artery into the left body , and the left artery into the right body , carrying spirit and blood , to blow up , erect , and nourish the yard . the nerves also are disseminated from the marrow of os sacrum , through the yard , as well the external and skin-nerves , as the internal , and those remarkable ones , which ascend through the middle of the forked division , and are thence disseminated into the muscles , the whole body , and the nut ; that there might be an exquisite sense and delectation . also the yard hath two pare of muscles . the first pare short and thick , are the yard erectors ; this pare arises nervous , under the beginning of the yard , from an appendix of the hip , and growing fleshy , it is carried to the bodies of the yard , into which it is inserted , not far from their original . their use is to raise and keep the yard up in copulation . the second pare which widens the urethra is longer , but thinner or leaner . these two fleshy muscles arise from the sphincter of the fundament , following the length of the yard : then they are carried beneath and inserted into the sides of the urethra , about the middle thereof . it s use is to widen the lower part of the piss-pipe , both in pissing , and especially in copulation , when the bodies of the yard are full , that the egress of the seed may not be hindred . and in these muscles is the place where surgeons do commonly take out stones . the line of the cod being drawn to one side , according to their length , and not according to their breadth as marianus sanctus notes against the ancients , an hollow catheter being thrust into the ureter , upon which , the incision is to be made , which manner of cutting aquapendent describes and approves of . the use of the yard is for copulation : which a man cannot rightly perform without the erection of his yard , and the squirting out of the seed which follows thereupon . for the man squirts his seed right out into the mouth of the womb , where being afterward joyned with the womans seed , an drawn in , and retained by the womb , conception is said to be made . a secondary use thereof is to void urin , yet was it not therefore made , seeing women do make water without it . by reason of this twofold use of the yard , the arabians make two passages , as vesalius tells us , who observed such a like conformation in a certain person . in some the nut of their yard is not bored through in the sore part where it ought to be , but in the lower part , as hofman hath noted out of aristotle and paulus , who cannot make water if their yard do not stand , or when they sit . others , and that more frequently , have it imperforated in the upper part . they are both unapt for generation . somtimes the yard hath no passage at all as julius obsequens hath observed . chap. xxv . of the parts serving for generation in women , and first of the spermatick praeparatory vessels . the parts serving for generation in women , do some of them agree after a sort with those in men , as the spermatick vessels , the stones , and the vasa deferentia , or vessels that carry away the seed . others are wholly different , as the womb with its bottom , orifice , and neck , the hymen , the m●●tle-shap'd caruncles , the vulva with its wings , t●…itoris , and the little hillocks . the xxv . table . the parts which in women serve for generation are represented in this table , in their natural order and situation ; also the internal structure of a womans dug , is represented in the same table . the explication of the figure . aa . the liver in its proper place . b. the gall-bladder with the porus bilarius or gall-passage . c. a part of the gut duodenum . dd. the pancreas or sweet-bread in its proper situation , through which vessels go into the spleen . e. the body of the spleen . ff . the descendent trunk of vena cava with its branchings . gg . the descendent trunk of the great artery , which is variously branched beneath . hh . the emulgent vessels . ii. the true kidneys . kk . the auxiliary or deputy kidneys . ll. the ureters going down to the bladder . mm. the bottom of the piss-bladder . n. the insertion of the uracbus into the bottom thereof . o. a portion of the arse-gut . pp . praeparatory vessels from both sides . q. the rise of the praeparatory vessels from the trunk . r. the place where the trunks of the cava and aorta do branch themselves , where an artery goes over a vein . ss . portions of the navil-arteries . t. the bottom of the womb. vv. the womans stones . xx. vessels which carry the seed from their stones to the womb. zz . the trumpets of the womb , by fallopius so called , or the blind passage of the seed . yy . the two upper ligaments of the womb , resembling the wings of batts or flitter-mice . aa . the two lower ligaments of the womb , round , cut off from the share . bb . the hollow of the flank-bone or os ilij , which is in women larger then in men. the characters of the dug explained . ccc . vessels spred over the surface of the dug . d. the greatest and middlemost kernel . e. the nipple . page for we must not think with galen , archangelus , fallopius , and others , that these female genital members , differ from those of men only in situation . which opinion was hatched by those who accounted a woman to be only an imperfect man ; and that her genital members could not be thrust out by reason of the coldness of her temper ; as in men they are thrust out by vertue of their greater heat . howbeit , the generative parts in women differ from those in men , not only in situation , but in their universal fabrick , in respect of numbe● ▪ surface , magnitude , cavity , figure , office , and 〈◊〉 sufficiently manifest to a skilful 〈◊〉 to any 〈◊〉 that will compare what follows to what went before . and the falsity of their opinion is sufficiently apparent , by means of the sundry conjectures which they bring . for some liken the womb to the cod of a man , and some to the nut of the yard . some will have the neck of the womb to answer the mans yard , and others will have the clitoris . which conceits falling to the ground by their own weakness , i shall proceed to explain the parts . the spermatick praeparatory vessels in women agree with those of men , in their number , original , and office , &c. i must now therefore only tell you wherein they differ . they differ first in magnitude . these vessels in women are shorter , because of the short way they are to go , but therefore they have many turnings and windings which make up the corpus varicosum : to the end the seed may stay long enough to receive due preparation . in the next place they differ in their implantation . for in women they are not totally carried to the stones , but they are divided in the middle way : and the greater part goes to the stone , and makes the corpus varicosum , and the lesser part ends into the womb , into whose sides it is disseminated , especially to the upper part of the bottom , for to nourish the womb and the child therein ; and that by those vessels some part of the menstrual blood may be purged forth in such as are not with child . for the lesser branch being tripartite , is below the stone divided into three branches , one of which , as was said , runs out into the womb , the other is distributed to the deferent vessel or trumper of the womb , and to the round ligament ; the third branch creeping along the side of the womb through the common membrane , ends near the trueneck of the womb , insinuating it self also among the hypogastrick veins , with which and the arteries , they are joyned by anastomoses . of which see zerbus , fallopius , platerus , and others , who have shewn riolanus and my self the way . that is a rare case , which is figured out by beslerus , viz. for the spermatick arteries to be joyned by way of anastomosis with the emulgent artery . for this cause in women these vessels go not out of the peritonaeum , nor reach to the share-bone : because the stones and womb are seated within . these seminal veins and arteries are intertwined with many wonderful anastomoses , for the preparation of seed . yea and the veins do receive into themselves the hypogastrick arteries of the womb , according to the observation of arantius and riolanus . yet i remember the arteries were wanting in a woman that had bore male children , and franciscus zanchez relates how they were turned into stone in a woman of tolouse . chap. xxvi . of womens stones . now the stones of women , though as to their use , they partly agree with those in men ; yet in many things respecting their structure , they differ from them . and . in respect of their situation ; which they have within in the cavity of the belly , two fingers breadth above the bottom , in such as are not with child , and are knit by means of certain ligaments above the same : viz. to the end they might be hotter , and consequently more fruitful ; since they were to work a matter of which alone mankind was to be generated , the seed of the man being added not as a material , but an efficient cause . . in magnitude , which is not so great in women as in men , unless very seldom . for by reason of the encrease of heat , they are contracted after a woman is past fourteen , whereas they are before that time distended more largely being full of a white juyce . . in their external surface which is more uneven , then that of a mans stones . . in figure , which is not so round , but broad and flat on the fore and hinder-parts . also the stones are within more hollow , and more full of spermatick moisture . . in substance which some conceive to be harder then that of mens stones , but others conceive , and that more truly , that it is softer , and if you take off the membrane , you shall find them conglomerated or knobbed together of divers little kernels and bladders , but seldom like those of men . in some great sea-fish , there is no difference of the stones of the males and females , in substance , but only in the size . . in temperament , which is commonly accounted more cold , and that the seed contained in them , is more moist , thin , and waterish . . in coats . for they are covered with one only coat , because they are otherwise in a close place . and that coat sticks exceeding strongly to them , and is by galen termed dartos . howbeit , where the stones receive the seminal vessels , they are covered half over with the peritonaeum . . in connexion ; for they are knit unto the womb by two manifest passages , or rather the one of them is an obscure one , out of which during carnal copulation , there is shed , not a wheyish substance , but the womans seed . their use is to make seed which helps to generate after its way and manner : which aristotle against all reason and experience , was bold to deny to women , in some places of his writings , contrary to the express doctrine of hippocrates de genitura , where he tells us that women also send forth seed out of their bodies , somtimes into their womb , whereby it is moistned , and somtimes without , if the orifice thereof do gape over much . now that in the womb it helps to the generation , he thereby demonstrates , in that if after copulation . the woman shal not conceive , the seed which they have both of them voided , does flow out of the womb . but some other anatomists deny that these stones do make seed . but they will have them to be meet kernels , to receive that moisture which needs abound in the womb , which is the opinion of cremoninus ; or that they are only made for a mark and sign , which was the conceits of rhodiginus , and of hofman since him , who account them rather carcasses of stones then true stones , because they are small , void of juyce , and uncompact . but as for what concerns humidity we deny that argument , and say . that there was no need of so much preparation to water the womb . one vessel gently carrying a wheyish humor , might have served that turn , yea the pores alone might have sufficed , as it is well known to happen in a clammy humor distilling into the knee . . they may answer both intents , viz. generation and irrigation . . experience tells us that seed and no other humor hath issued out of the stones of women being dissected . guinterius was hindred in his dissection , by the plentiful eruption thereof . the nocturnal pollutions of women testifie the same , and women became barren , when in ancient times they were guelded or spayed , witness athenaeus . galen experimented the same in sows . varro writes that cows being guelt , do conceive if they go to bull presently after . . the said seed is found in the dissections of women , if they are lusty and free from d●●ases ▪ in them and in women with child , beslerus ha●…und the stones swelling with seed , which he hath expressed by a neat picture . . that it is true seed , we may gather from a real and sensible effect thereof , like that of the seed of men , as moles , and imperfect eggs , by reason of the difference of sex , to which the male adds life and perfection . . women have sufficient heat to make seed , and sufficient instruments to that end ; yea , and some of them are better provided then men . their stones are indeed smal and little , but not void of juyce . their number does recompence their smalness , even as we somtimes see more juyce prest out of a bunch of grapes , then a solid and whole apple . chap. xxvii . of the vessels that carry away the seed , especially the trumpet of the womb. concerning the vessels which carry away the female-seed , the doctrine of anatomists hath been hitherto somwhat intricate , partly through varity of opinions , and partly the obscurity of the matter it self , which nevertheless i shall endeavor to reduce , and as much as may be to illustrate the same . the deferent vessels are taken either in a large or a strict signification . strictly for those same obscure passages and vessels only , which carry part of the seed bred in the stones , into the womb . largely and generally , . for the preparatory vessels also , . for them and the womb-trumpet , which others refer to the servatory and jaculatory vessel . i shall speak of both briefly and distinctly . the deferent vessels are properly those small passages derived from the stones , either to the bottom of the womb , with a very short passage , or disseminated at the trumpets of the womb , with sundry , and those exceeding small twigs , resembling the venae lacteae , arising from the spermatick preparatory vessels , and continued with them , however here they change their name and use , because they immediately pass over , and lick the stones . galen conceives that the former is only inserted into the sides of the womb , which are termed cornua , or the wombs horns , and other anatomists are of the same opinion , who profess they could find no other insertion . but zerbus , fernelius , laurentius , found another branch herefrom , which goes not into the bottom as the former , but into the neck , so that one part of this deferent vessel which is the shorter but larger , is inserted into the middle of the horn of the same side , and there poures out such seed as it hath , into the cavity of the womb : but the other part being the narrower and longer , is carried along the sides of the womb , below the mouth , to the beginning of the neck . varolius hath also made mention of this part , and saies it is so small in such as have never conceived , that it cannot be found , save by a skilful anatomist , but in women with child it is very large . spigelius , because he could not somtimes find it , did count it a sport of nature . vestingus does seem to allow of it , seeing he brings seminal matter from the stones , to the bottom and sheath of the womb , this way . i should willingly assent to the opinion of spigelius , because it is seldom seen . little branches indeed are alwaies disseminated unto the neck of the womb , but the● 〈…〉 directly from the preparatory vessels , and bring blood rather then seed , of which see other anatomists , especially platerus , riolanus , and my father bartholinus beneath . the use of these vessels is , partly to carry the seminal matter to the trumpets , that it may be there further accomplished , and better wrought , and reserved for further use , and partly to the bottom of the womb . where another branch ends into the neck , the seminal humidity is voided this way also , causing greater delight by reason of the length of the way . the other deferent vessel , which ought to keep the seed before it be squirted out , is the trumpet of the womb , by fallopius so called , from the likeness it hath to a trumpet of war , which he thus describes . there arises a seminal passage , small and very strait , nervous , and white , from the horn of the womb it self , and when it hath gone a little therefrom , it grows broader by little and little , and crisps it self like the tendrel of a vine , till it comes towards the end . then dismissing its wrinkled crispations , and becoming very broad , it ends into a certain extremity , which seems membranous and fleshy , by reason of its red colour , and at last becomes very torn and ragged , like the jagged edges of worn clouts , and hath a large hole , which lies alwaies shut , those jagged ends alwaies falling in upon it , which nevertheless if they be diligently opened and widened , they represent the broad end of a brazen trumpet . i shall handle the particulars more distinctly . the trumpets arise from the bottom of the womb by one end , nor do they reach with their other end to the stones , or any other remarkable part. and therefore they are not manifestly passable in this other part , but shut up and blind , so that they are like the intestinum caecum , and are as it were an appendix of the womb. but this shutting up may be made according to the opinion of fallopius , which riolanus who was since him , challenges for his own , by the fringes and jagged ends of the trumpets , falling together , like raggs of cloath . they are two in number , on each side one . they are seated so as to compass half the stones , but they are distant from the stones , on every side , near half a fingers breadth , unless the womb be diseased , by which they are drawn up nearer to the stones . they are ordinarily fastned only by very thin membranes , not unlike the wings of bats or flitter-mice , through which many veins and arteries are disseminated , carried from the stones into these passages , and carrying seed out of the stones . their substance is nervous , white , thick and hard . their figure is round and hollow . somtimes their cavity so praeternaturally widened , as to contain a mole , which marquardus relates in his empirica praxi ; somtimes a child , examples whereof are recited by riolanus . nor could he see any other waies for the mans seed to enter , save the turning and winding passages of those vessels . but in a living woman , the mans seed full of spirits , might easily be drawn thither , by the widened waies of the womb misaffected , which passages being afterwards ( conception being made , and the trumpets distended ) shut up , were not seen by dissectors . or whether hath there not been a shapeless mole , or a child without life been shaped , without the seed of a man , of the mothers seed only contained in the trumpets ; which having received no life from any father , and the passages being shut up , it grew great , and kil'd the mother ? in the natural figure let us consider the beginning , middle , and end. the insertion o● beginning is at the bottom of the womb large , where it attains a nervous pipe , stretched out to the middle well-near of the trumpet , hollow , that it may transmit the seed to the bottom of the womb . the middle being capacious , shews certain little cells , containing white seed . the end is narrower , though it carry some wideness with it . howbeit before the end , it is wreathed and crisped like the tendrel of a vine , as is visible in men and beasts . the passage therefore of the trumpets , is not in all parts straight , but winding , because the way is short from the stones to the womb . but the pleasure ought not to be short , when the seed is poured plentifully out of the stones into the horns of the womb in copulation . and look what the seed-bladders are in men , as to preserve the seed , these blind passages may be the same in women , when they couple oftentimes , and stil void seed . for they may be so termed , because they are annexed to the stones by little membranes , that by vessels brought to them from the stones , as by the milkie and mesaraick veins , they may easily draw the seed by them concocted , and lay it up within themselves for future occasion , and send it forth when need requires . their use is , . according to fallopius to serve as chimneys , by which the sooty vapors of the womb may exhale . which i for my part cannot believe . for the sooty vapors are condensed , and being resolved into water , are reserved till the time of child-birth , or ascend by insensible pores , or breath out at the mouth of the womb , both in women with child , because the mouth of the womb is never so close shut as to hinder , as the examples of superfoetation testifie , as in such as are not with child . nor can i wel tel how the sooty vapors should find way through these crooked passages . . according to the said fallopius in his observations , they make seed , because he alwaies found seed in them , but never saw any in the stones ; to which i answered before . . their true use is , to draw seed out of the stones , by blind passages of the vessels dispersed through the membrane , and when it is drawn to perfect the same by some tarriance in the tendrels and cells , by the irradiation of the vertue of the stones ; that it may be more fit for a child to be made of ; finally to carry it to the womb , especially in the act of copulation , by those little pipes implanted in the horns of the womb , that it may meet the mans seed in the cavity of the womb or its neck , to cause conception . chap. xxviii . of the womb in general . the womb is by the latins termed uterus , from uter a bottle by reason of its hollowness , in which sense tacitus does use uterum navis for the keel of a ship. isidorus saies t is so called , because t is on each side one : in a more large signification t is termed venter in the digests and institutes . also t is called matrix , utriculus , and loci muliebres , where consist the beginnings of generation , according to varro . in other animals , according to pliny , t is termed vulva , especially in sows , which the ancient romans did account a delicate dish : of which see plutrach , and langius in his epistles , also martial , horace , apitius , athenaeus , and among late writers castellanus . hofman conceives that vulva is corrupted from bulga , and bulga a word used by lucilius and varro , is originally french , if we believe festus , who renders it a bag. nonius interprets it to be a satchel or knapsack hanging about a mans arm. see hereof vossius . but the term vulva is approved by celsus , and the authors formerly commended . it is situate in the hypogastrium , or the lower part of the lower belly , which is framed in the cavity termed pelvis , by the ossacrum and the flank-bones . and therefore that pelvis or basin , is larger in women : and therefore they have buttocks greater and wider . now it was requisite that it should be so placed , that the womb might be distended according to the greatness of the child , and that the child might be conveniently excluded . moreover the womb is placed in the middle inclining to no side , save somtimes when a woman is of child with a boy or a girl : for then the child lies more to the right or left side , though that be no certain rule . now it lies between the intestinum rectum or arsegut , which is beneath it , and the bladder which lies upon it , as between two pillows . why therefore should we be proud who are bred between dung and urin ? it s magnitude is considered in length depth , and thickness , and all these vary in respect of bodies , age , and venery . it s length in those of a middle stature , who use venery , from the external privity to the bottoms end , is commonly eleven fingers ; the bottom is three fingers . the breadth of the bottom , is two or three fingers , because in women not with child the latitude of the bottom and neck is one and the same . and hence the amplitude may easily be conjectured . but in virgins , which have not attained to ripeness of age , it is little and less then the bladder : in such as are full of age it is greater : yet if they abstain from venery it is small enough , though thick , as it is also in very old women . but it is greater in such as have oft conceived , and bore children : that a man may well near grasp it in his hand , unless when the women are great with child : for then it is more and more enlarged , and whereas before gravidation , the bottom of the womb did not pass beyond the beginning of ossacrum , it reaches afterward to the navil and beyond , so that it rests upon the thin guts . the xxvi . table ▪ this table presents t●● generative parts of wome● taken out of the body . the explication of the figure . a. the right side deputy-kidney . b. the left deputy-kidney . cc. the kidney on both sides . dd. the right side emulgent veins . ee . the right side emulgent arteries . f. the trunk of vena cava . g. the left emulgent vein . hh . the left emulgent arteries . ii. the right spermatick vein . k. the right spermatick artery . l. the left spermatick artery . m. the left spermatick vein . nn. the trunk of the great artery . oo . the stones in women . pp . a broad ligament , like the wings of bats or flitter-mice . qq . the trumpets of the womb. r. the bottom of the womb. ss . the round ligaments of the womb , cut off at the share . t. the neck of the womb. vv. the hypogastrick veins on both sides . xx. the hypogastrick arteries on both sides , carried unto the neck . y. the sheath or scabberd of the womb. z. a portion of the intestinum rectum , or arse-gut . aa . the ureters cut off . bb . the vasa pampiniformia , or vessels crisped like the tendrels of a vine . cc. a passage or deferent vessel to carry from the stones to the horns of the womb. page the figure of the womb is by some counted round , by others pear-fashion'd . but though the womb encline to roundness that it may be of the greater capacity ; yet we conceive with soranus and fallopius , that its bottom may best of all be resembled to a gourd ; because it is by little and little straitned downwards . but the neck of the womb resembles an oblong and round pipe or channel . the connexion is either of the neck of the womb or of the bottom . the neck is tied by its own substance , and by membranes ; but the bottom by peculiar ligaments . on the foreside the neck grows to the piss-bladder and the share-bones , by membranes arising from the peritonaeum . in the hinder part to the ossacrum , and the rectum intestinum , with some fatness . but about the privity it grows together with the fundament . on the sides , it is loosely knit by certain membranes to the peritonaeum . the bottom is not fastned by its substance , but is free , because it ought to be moved , as shall be said in its action ( w●●refore a venetian woman died of pains in her womb , the bottom thereof being tied by the call ) but in the sides it is knit by two pare of ligaments , whose use is to hold the womb suspended or dangling . one upper pare is broad and membranous , and is held to arise from the muscles of the loins ; and it ends into the bottom of the womb , near the horns . it is loose and soft , that it may be distended and contracted . aretaeus likens it to the wings of bats or flitter-mice . and by help of this pare , the bottom is fastned to the bones of the flank . but because it is interwoven with fleshy fibres , therefore vesalius and archangelus have , perhaps not unjustly , reckon'd them to be muscles . now they carry along the praeparatory and deferent vessels , even as they contain the stones . now this pare of ligaments or muscles , is somtimes loosned by violence , difficult labor in childbed , weight of the child in the womb , &c. so that the bottom of the womb fals into the privity , somtimes with the neck inverted ; also somtimes it hangs out , and is cut off ; in which case also it is necessary that there be a solution of the connexion of the neck . the other pare is lower , being round like earth-worms , reddish like muscles ( whereupon some have conceived them to be muscles , that perform the office of the cremasters in men , so that the womb is by them moved up and down , or at least is established and strengthned , in carrying burthens , expelling the child , outcries , and labors , in deflux of humors into this part , which opinion pinaeus embraces . also it is hollow , especially in the end . it arises from the sides of the bottom of the womb , and at its beginning touching the deferent vessels , it ascends to the groins , and as the spermatick vessels in men , so these ligaments in women , pass along through the productions of the peritonaeum , and the tendons of the obliquely descendent muscles of the belly , and there they are obliterated into fat , or membranes of the bones near the clitoris , to which they are fastned , and degenerated into a broad and nervous thinness . where two other muscles begin , without the belly , being thin and broad , cloathing the whole inner face of the lips ; by help of which , some women move the lips. the remaining part of the foresaid ligament , runs to the knee , and afterward into a membrane of the inner part of the thigh . hence it is , as riolanus acquaints us , that women with child do in their first months complain of a pain in the inside of their thighs . the use of this part is , . as hath been said , to draw the bottom of the womb upwards , least it should fall down in relaxations , in bearing of weights , and in taking off pains ; which nevertheless be more rightly said of the pare . . to hinder the ascent of the womb towards the upper parts , which of it self cannot happen , unless wi●hal the privities which are continued therewith , and the sheath be drawn upwards , but in the womb relaxed , and distended , it often happens . . riolanus suspects that the excrementitious humors of the womb are somtimes carried into the kernels of the groins , by these ligaments , where also he hath found venereous b●bo's raised . otherwise , hippocrates draws the bubo's in the groins of women from their courses , which aurelius severinus refers to critical abscesses , and arantius seeks out their passages in the veins , by which the turgent humer is carried from the womb to the groins . i put the arteries in place of veins , whereby excrements are both here and in other parts , carried to the extremities or outmost places in the body . . spigelius in a woman kil'd with over much carnal copulation , observed these ligaments near the womb , full of seed . which makes me suspect that these ligaments , having received a seminal moisture , do moisten the neighbouring parts in women with child , that all parts may more easily be loosned and stretched in virgins and barren women , they are meer ligaments , and by their moisture defend the womb from the violence of burning heat . the substance of the womb is membranous , that it may be dilated and contracted , as need shall require , furnished with many pleits and folds , which in women with child are stretched our , to widen the womb , but they are contracted when the child is excluded , and in aged women . besides these pleits , it hath in women with child pipes and large cavities , or cells exceeding manifest . now the substance of the womb is made up of a common and proper membrane . the common is doubled , and grows to the sides on each hand , arising from the peritonaeum , being exceeding thick , and most firm for strength , smooth every where , save where the spermatick vessels enter , or the ligaments go out . the proper and internal is also double ; though it is hard to discern so much , by reason of its close adhaesion , save in exulcerations . and be●ween both there were fleshy fibres , such as are found in the stomach : which some call the proper substance and parenchyma of the womb ( whereinto a spungie body is here and there strewed ) and the use thereof is to heat the womb . but these membranes are not of the same thickness alwaies : as was said before , when i spake of the magnitude . the vessels of the womb are veins , arteries , and nerves . the veins and arteries accompanying one another , are carried between the coats of the womb , and pour forth their blood into those membranous pipes of the womb , but are not carried into the inmost cavity of the womb . and they are twofold : some arise from above , others from beneath . for , from the upper and lower parts , that is to say , from the whole body , the blood ought to come , both that in the monthly terms , the whol body may be purged , and also that in the time of a womans going with child , her fruit might be nourished . those which come from above , do creep all the womb over , but especially in the bottom thereof , and they are branches derived from the seminal vessels , before the praeparatory vessels are constituted , and also from the haemorrhoidal branch , whence there is so great a consent between the womb and the spleen . the left ends of the veins and arteries are joyned with the right ends : that the right part may also be augmented with plenty of blood. the menstrual blood is shed forth by the arteries in women not with child : and therefore according to the observation of walaeus , if about the time of the menstrual flux , the pulse of the heart and arteries may be made greater , then the blood is more vehemently forced into the womb by the arteries , and so the menstrual flux furthered . we see also when we have given cordials appropriate to the womb , and stirring the spirituous part of the blood , that then the courses encline to flow . finally , the colour of the menstrual blood in healthy women , declares that it is arterial blood . now it r●ns back again to the heart , by the veins ▪ ●…d to the arteries ▪ for all that blood neither can , nor must be voided out of the body , when they are obstructed , because the blood cannot freely pass upward out of the lesser veins of the womb into the greater , the menstrual blood is collected in great quantity , and makes great commotions of the womb . those veins and arteries which come from beneath and ascend , do arise from the hypogastrick branches of the cava and the aorta , and creep through the neck of the womb , and the lower part of the bottom , where they are every where joyned with the superior ones . for very broad vessels are united through the bottom , both without , and in the substance of the womb , which anastomoses do more appear in menstrual women , and in such as are with child . and they may be easily observed , if in dead bodies some of them be blown up . for they all swell by that blast into one . the mouths of these vessels or pipes rather , do enter into the cavity of the bottom , and are called acetabula or cotylidones cups or saucers : which gape and are opened , when the menstrua are purged . and in women with child , when the womb-liver is joyned to them ( in beasts the verticilli or tufts ) drawing blood for the child . and because branches are carried into the neck of the womb from these vessels , by them women with child that are plethorick , may void menstrual blood in their first months , when there is more blood then needs to nourish the child . for it is not probable , that that blood comes out of the womb : for the child would be suffocated , and through too great opening of the internal mouth of the womb , abortion might follow . now it is observable , that the vessels of the womb , do in the time of a a womans going with child so swell with blood , especially about the time of childbirth , that they are as big as the emulgent veins , or half as big as the vena cava or aorta . nerves very many in number , are carried from the pares of the nerves of os sacrum , and from the sixt conjugation of the brain , to the neck of the womb , and the parts about the privities for pleasures sake : as also to the lower part of the bottom . whence there is a great sympathy betwixt the womb and the brain . to the upper part of the bottom few nerves are carried , and they are intertwisted like a net. the xxvii . table ▪ the womb taken out of the body , with the stones , and all kind of vessels fastned thereunto , and the piss-bladder . the figures explained . fig . i. a. the piss-bladder turned upside down . bb. the insertion of the ureters into the bladder . cc. the neck or sheath of the womb into which very many vessels are disseminated . d. the bottom of the womb. eeee . the two low and round ligaments of the womb cut off . ff . the vas caecum . or trumpet of the womb , as yet fastned to this upper and broad ligament . gg . the same vessel on the opposite side , separate from the broad ligament . hh . the deferent vessels of both sides , ending from the stones to the bottom of the womb. ii. the upper and membranous ligament of the womb , resembled to the wings of batts , through which very many vessels are disseminated , arising from the praeparatory vessels . k. the praeparatory vessels of one side , as yet not freed from the membranous ligament . l. the praeparatory vessels of the other side , freed from the membranous ligament , that their insertion into the stone may be discerned . mm. the stones of which the right is covered with its membrane and the left quite naked . nn. very many veins and arteries spred abroad into the neck and bottom of the womb , serving for the monthly purgation and the nourishment of the child . oo . nerves spred up and down through the body of the womb , which are represented by the graver too large . fig . ii. a. the bottom of the womb . bb. the lowermore round ligaments of the womb cut off . c. the region wherein the inner mouth of the womb is placed . d. the right stone covered with its membrane . ee . the deferent vessels reaching from the stones to the horns of the womb . f. the upper and membranous ligament of the womb , fastning the deferent vessels to the stones . g. the membrane of the stone separated therefrom . h. the glandulous or kernelly substance of the stone . i. the neck of the womb , commonly called the sheath . kk . passages arising from the deferent vessel , and carried into the neck of the womb , into which they say women with child do squirt their seed . page that conception hath been made , and a child formed out of the womb , some examples testifie . touching the trumpet of the womb , i spake before , from the relation of riolanus . that a child was conceived in the stomach of a young woman the wife of an abominable taylor , and voided by her mouth the length of a mans finger , but well shaped in all parts external and internal . salmuth informs us , describing the story from the letters of komelerius to gothofredus hofmannus , nor does he doubt of the truth of the story . that the same may be performed in the neck of the womb , those superfoetations , seem to demonstrate , which are voided in the first place to make more room for the larger conception in the womb . but these are to be accounted very rare and praeternatural cases , if true . but superfoetation , whether in the womb or without , depends from the virtue of the womb , reaching all over the whole body thereof . the womb is therefore necessary to preserve the species or kind . howbeit it contributes also to the health of the individual , as the emunctory or clenser of the whole body . howbeit very many women have lived very long , and happily without it , witness abenzoar , aegineta , wierus , zacutus . when it hath fallen out putrified , it hath been all in a manner cut off without danger , according to the observations of rhases , carpus , mercurialis , langius , a vega , paraeus , baubinus , and others . fernelius tells us he saw a childing woman , who voided with her child her whole womb , pluckt away by the roots , without danger of life . saxonius relates other stories of like nature . saronus saies that sows are made more corpulent in galatia , by cutting out their wombs . pliny tells us that sows were hung up by their sore legs , and had their stones and wombs cut out , that so looseing the use of venery , they might become more fat and delectable to the palate . nor is it without reason , because the womb is the mother of many diseases , by reason of the obstruction of the narrow vessels , and the ready falling down of humors , which when the womb is away , are more readily purged out by a larger passage . moreover another action of the womb is said to be a certain natural motion : whence plate would have the womb to be a certain animal or live-wight , and aretius saies it is an animal in an animal , because of its motion . for in carnal copulation , and when it is poffessed with a desire to conceive , it is moved now up and then down , and gapes to receive the yard , as a beast gapes for its food . and somtimes it is moved downwards , to expel the child and secondine , with so much violence , that it falls out . moreover it is moved with , rejoyces in , and is delighted with sweet smelling things : but it shuns stinking and strong smelling things , as castoreum , asafoetida , &c. hence aristotle saies , that women with child will miscarry at the smell of a candle-●●uff . but the womb is sensible of c●… not under the formality of odours , but is only affected by the delicate and subtile vaporous matter conjoyned . even as we see al the spirits recreated , by sweet smelling things , not in respect of the smell precisely , but of the vapor conjoyned therewith , which is familiar and acceptable to the spirit . and therefore the genital parts of women are the sooner affected , because they have an exceeding quick sense . and because sweet smelling things have good and pleasing vapors joyned with them ; and stinking things have filthy and ugly vapors ; therefore by the latter , the spirits are made more impure , and because the womb is full of spirits , therefore she is delighted with sweet and fragrant things , and abominates such as are stinking . and nevertheless , some women are found whose wombs are badly constituted , who are put into fits of the mother by sweet smelling things , and cured by such as stink : because nature being provoked to expulsion by the latter , does with the stinking vapors expel the morbifick matter . but with the former filthy vapors are stirred up in the womb , which before lay hid , so that they ascend to the midriff , heart , brain , &c. whence proceed strangling fits of the mother . now these vapors ascend partly by the sensible pores , and partly by the veins running back , and carrying the said vapors with the uterine blood : for i cannot allow of the power helmont assigns to his ruling parts , without manifest and known passages . now the womb it self does not ascend , nor is it moved out of its place , unless being distended , it takes up more room then ordinary , nor does it roule up and down like a bowl or globe in the cavity of the belly , as hippocrates and fernelius have imagined . nor do the horns of the womb being swelled , move any more then the womb it self , as riolanus suspects , for they are fastned by their membranes , and they cannot shed their seed into the belly , the waies being stopped , but vapors have an ●asie motion , which being dissipated , the swelling of the belly presently falls . besides its sense of smelling , tasting , feeling , it is furnished according to helment , with a kind of brutish understanding , which makes it rage , if all things go not according to its desire . but these things favor of the opinion of plato , who improperly did compare the womb to a living creature . whence that fury proceeds , i have already declared . as for what that same novellist helmont saies , that it lives many times , and keeps a coile after a woman is dead , no man will easily believe it . for its life depends upon the life of the whole body ; and if it stir after death , either that motion proceeds from winds , or from a child seeking its way out , after the mother is dead , as sundry examples demonstrate . sphinx theologico-philosophica , tells us that the mother being dead , a child suddenly issued out of her womb , and cried lustily . after which manner laurentius describes the birth of scipio and manilius . eberus hath two examples of a child born after the mothers death , as also johannes matthaeus , and the like cases are fresh in the memory of many here at hafnia . but in opposition to winchlerus , sperlingerus , and others that deny it , we must observe , . that the child must necessarily be strong . . that the orifice of the mothers womb must be large . . that the mother being dead , the mouth of the womb must be widened , and her thighs spred , or else the child will be strangled before it can come forth . chap. xxix . of the bottom of the womb , and its mouth . wee have treated hitherto of the womb in general , and its similar parts . the dissimilar parts follow , into which we have divided the same : viz. the bottom , the neck , and the privity , with the parts annexed . the fundus or bottom of the womb , is that part which reaches from the internal orifice to the end upwards . we divide it into the lower and narrower part and the larger upper part ; to which we ad a third part viz. the mouth . the lower and narrow part , is that between the mouth of the womb , and the beginning , largeness thereof , and it may be called the short neck , to difference it from the true and long neck . for before the wideness of the womb begins , between it and the inner mouth , there interceeds another neck as it were , or narrower channel , then the largeness of the bottom , and this is observed both in man and beast . and fallopius is of opinion , that this part was called the neck of the womb by the ancients , as galen , soranus , &c. pinaeus reckons this part to be as long as a mans thumb , i have observed it to be five fingers breadth , long in a doe . the cavity hereof is not large , but such as will admit a probe or large quil . it is rough , least the seed which hath been drawn in , should flow out again , as happens in some barren women , which have this part slippery , by reason of bad humors . this roughness arises from wrinkles , which according to the observation of pinaeus , have their roots situate beneath , and their edg tending inwards or upwards , that they may easily admit , hardly let go any thing . the large and upper part is chiefly termed fundus or the bottom , and this part is properly called the womb or matrix , and it is the principal part for whose sake the rest were made , being wider and larger then the rest . it is seated above the os pubis or share-bone , that it may be there dilated and widened . the womb hath in a woman only one cavity , not distinguished into any cells , as some falsly attribute therunto seven cells . in brutes it is commonly divided into two parts , and therefore those parts are called the two horns of the womb : though the form of horns is not conspicuous in all brutes , but in cows , does , sheep , goats , &c. howbeit in imitation thereof , authors have attributed horns to the wombs of women , because on the sides of the bottom thereof , there is on each side some protuberancy , where the deferent vessels are inserted . but the womb of a woman is very seldom divided into two parts , as it is in beasts , as it hath been observed in some by the brother of baubinus , sylvius , riolanus , and obsequens before them . and i doubt whether their wombs be so divided , who bear two or more children at a birth . the last year many women at hafnia bore twins contrary to their custom , yea and some three children at a birth , which they never did before nor since . we must not therefore account that to be proper to families , or attribute the same to the wombs being double , which properly belongs to the seed . also that they are not conceived in a double womb , the womb-cake testifies , which alone is sufficient for many children , only it hath so many strings fastned to it in several places , as there are children , as besterus hath lately described it in a like history . yet is it divided into the right and left part . in the former boys are for the most part ingendred : in the latter girls . and it seldom happens otherwise , if we believe hippocrates and galen . hunters have this sign whereby they known whether the beast they hunt have a male or female in her belly , for if when she is struck dead , she fall on her right side , they conclude she is big of a male , because the burthen she goes with is most weighty on the right side ; if on the left she fall , they judg it is a female . t is reported that women with child of a boy , do lift their right foot higher then their left , as they walk , as salmuth gives us to understand , all which signs are nevertheless fallacious . hippocrates and his followers do reckon other signs , which are not proper for this place . the right and left side are differenced by a line or seam which sticks up obscurely , which aristotle termes the median line . the like line is seen in the lower belly under the navil , dividing that region into two parts , which they conceive to be then more visible , when women bear twins . but in some women with child i have seen this line manifest , who bore afterwards only one child . the outward surface is smooth and even , and covered as it were with a watry humor . the inner part hath many porosities , which are mouths , through which in the time of a womans going with child , blood easily passes out of the veins of the womb to nourish the infant . it s use is to receive the seed , contain the child , nourish it , &c. the orifice or inner mouth of the womb is oblong , and transverse , but very narrow ( but when it gapes , it is round and orbicular , which is perhaps the cause why the german midwives call it the rose , and the french midwives , the crown of the mother ) like the hole of the nut of the yard , that no hurtful thing may enter in , nor the seed drawn thither , easily pass out . if at any time it fall out of the privity , or be turned inside out , it resembles exactly the mouth of a tench . if the situation thereof be changed , so that it be not just in the middle , looking towardst he bottom , t is conceived a man cannot squirt his seed thereinto , and that the seed will sooner flow back , then the woman conceive . if it be quite absent , which seldom falls out , an uncurable barrenness is thereby caused . as also barrenness is caused , if it be otherwise affected , viz. with cancers , scirrhous tumors , obstructions , callosity , over much fatness : especially through over much humectation and relaxation , either through over much copulation as in whores , or through too great a flux of humors . in women with child a glewish clammy matter grows to the orifice , and fills the short neck well-near ; that these parts being moistned , may more easily be opened in the time of travel . within the channel of this mouth to the lower part thereof , grows its little bunch , which does more exactly shut ●…ole , according to the observation of riolanus ▪ he also informs us that about this little bunch , there are to be seen pores or little holes , which seem to be the ends of the deferent vessels , ending at the neck . columbus found those vessels implanted like the teeth of a comb , full of blood. by this orifice , the womb draws the seed into it , which being conceived , it is said to be shut so close , that the point of a needle cannot enter . and therefore physitians do vainly squirt liquors thereinto with a syringe , and whores endeavor in vain to draw out the conception . but it is opened in superfoetation , in the ejection of a bad conception without hurt to the child , which somtimes happens in the emission of seed , but it is especially opened after a wonderful manner at the time of child-birth , when it ought to be widened according to the greatness of the child , so that the wideness is in a manner equal from the bottom of the womb to the privity , whereout the child passes . and this saies galen we may wonder at , but we cannot understand . and he admonishes us upon this occasion , that it is our duty to acknowledg the wisedom and power of him that made us . but this orifice as well as the womb , does chiefly consist of wrinkled membranes , which being smoothed out , will admit of unimaginable dilatation . chap. xxx . of the greater neck of the womb. in the bottom of the womb we have observed three things ; the bottom it self , the lesser neck , and the orifice . in the greater neck also , three things are to be noted . the neck it self , the hymen , and the mouth of the bladder . of the hymen we shall treat in the following chapter . the neck or channel of the womb , is by aristotle also somtimes called matrix , and the door of the womb , fallopius calls it sinus pudoris , the privity . it is a long channel , being hollow even when the child is in the womb , admitting both a probe and a mans finger , as may be seen in such as are new born . it is situate between the external and the internal mouth , receiving the yard like a sheath . it s figure . the neck is somwhat writhen and crooked , also it is shorter and straiter , when it is loose , and fals together ; that the internal parts may not be refrigerated . but it is straight and widened . in carnal copulation . . in the monthly flux . . in the time of child-birth , when it is exceedingly stretched according to the shape of the child ; whence also proceeds the exceeding great pains of women in travel : and then as also during their courses , women are very much cooled . it s magnitude . the length thereof is eight fingers breadth commonly , or seven ; so as to be as long as a mans longest finger . it is as wide as the intestinum rectum or arse-gut . but the longitude and latitude of this part are so various , that it is hard to describe them . for in carnal copulation , it accommodates it self to the length of the yard , and this neck becomes longer or shorter , broader , or narrower , and swells sundry waies according to the lust of the woman . and when that happens , the caruncles swell with spirits which fill them , as appears in cows and bitche●… desire copulation ; but the channel is made narrower and less , as also in the act of generation , that it may more close embrace the yard : and therefore its substance is of an hard and nervous flesh , and somwhat spungy , like the yard ; that it may be widened and contracted within , the upper part is wrinkled , when it is not distended , but being widened , it is more slippery and smooth . howbeit in the neck of the womb also when it is distended , there are many orbicular wrinkles in the beginning of the channel near the privity , most of all in the fore part next the bladder , less towards the intestinum rectum on which it rests ; and they serve for the greater titillation caused by the rubbing of the nut of the yard against the said wrinkles . and in young maids these wrinkles are straiter , and the neck narrower , through which the menstrual blood is voided ; also in grown persons that are yet virgins . but the wrinkles are worn out , and the sides become callous , by reason of frequent rubbing , . in old women . . in such as have used much copulation , or have frequently bore children . . in those that have been troubled with a long flux of the courses , or of the whites . and in all these the substance does also become harder , so that it becomes at last gristley , as it were old women , and such as have born many children . but in young maidens , it is more soft and delicate . the use of the neck is to receive the yard being raised , and to draw out the seed . finally , beyond the middle towards the end of the neck , in the fore and upper part , not far from the privity , comes the insertion of the bladder into sight , that the urin may there be voided by the common passage . it is as long as a knucle of ones finger , without fleshy , or rather covered with a fleshy sphincter . pinaeus observes that it is black within , of the same substance with the piss-pipe in men , as any man may see , now riolanus that told us so . wierus hath noted in his observations , that the outer extremity of the neck of the bladder , does not in all women appear in the same place , in many t is seen above the outer straits of the neck of the womb , under the nymph ; in some few it lies hid inwardly , in the upper part of the privity . but the entrance into the bladder , is sound on the back-side , when the membrane called hymen is there : of which we are now to speak . chap. xxxi . of the membrane called hymen . the hymen or membrane called eugion , is by others called the closure of virginity , and the flower of virginity , because where it is , there is a sign of virginity . now whether or no there is any sign of virginity , ought not to be doubted . for all men find that marry virgins , that there is somwhat that hinders their yard from going in , unless it be thrust forward with great force and strength . whence terence saies the first copulation of a virgin is exceeding painful . and at that time for the most part , blood issue with great pain , more or less ; which blood is also called ●…er of viro. for by reason of the widening of the strait neck of the womb , and the tearring of the hymen , all virgins have pain and a flux of blood in their first copulation . younger virgins have more pain and less flux of blood , because of the driness of the hymen and the smallness of their vessels ; but those that are older , and have had their courses , have less pain and greater flux of blood , for the contrary causes . but if her courses flow , or have flowed a little before : the yard is easily admitted , by reason of the relaxation of those parts , whence there is little or no pain , and little or no flux of blood . and therefore maids ought not to be married at that season , least the bridegroom come to suspect the virginity of his bride . now what it is that hinders the yard from entring , that is to say , in what part the token of virginity consists , there are sundry opinions and differences . i. the arabians say the hymen is a piece formed of five veins at the middle of the neck of the womb , inserted on either side , so that the mouths of the right-side veins are joyned with those on the left . these are fancies . ii. others ( among whom are fernelius and ulmus ) do say that the sides of the neck grow together , and when they are separated and widened , the veins are broken which run in those parts . but this is contrary to experience , which witnesses , that in little girls the neck hath its cavity , nor do the sides thereof stick together . iii. others say it is a transverse membrane . and herein they are right . but they are deceived , who have feigned it to have holes in it like a seive , and placed it in the lowest end of the neck : through which they would have the urin to be voided . iv. the newest opinion of all , is that of severinus pinaeus , a most expert surgeon of paris , who hath wrote an whole book of the notes of virginity , not unprofitable to be read . now he accounts the four myrtle-shap'd caruncles to be the hymen , tied together by a small membrane , placed in the outer part of the neck of the womb ; of which hereafter . and some learned men are at this day of his opinion , as bauhinus for one . i could find no other in a young girl , lately dissected in this place . v. the more common opinion is , that the hymen is a transverse membrane going athwart the neck of the womb , a little above the neck of the bladder , which resists the first entrance of the yard . and many experiments and authorities stand up for this opinion . and in the first place of four most renowned anatomists , of padua , vesalius , fallopius , aquapendent , and casserius . and all antiquity had some knowledg hereof . hence the author of that old friers verse , or riming verse . est magnum crimen perrumpere virginis hymen . t is a huge sin to break the skin of a virgins gim. archangelus , alexander benedictus , and wierus assent hereunto . carpus also knew as m●…ger seem to have been ignorant hereof in the . sect. of his . exercitation , where he speaks of a root that extreamly excites lust . for he saies ; if any shall piss thereon , they say he will presently be full of fleshy desires : virgins that look to cattle in the fields , if they sit thereon or make water , t is said the skin in their privity will break , as if they had been defloured by a man. columbus and sebizius did three times find it , baubinus twice , as he averrs in his book of the similar parts , and wolfius seems in his institutions to assent thereunto , who witnesses that he found it at padua . adrianus spigelius affirms that he found it in all the virgins that ever he did cut up , and i my self and veslingus at the same time saw it at padua . nor is it necessary to bring all the authorities which might be had in this subject to this place . and whereas columbus and paraeus deny that it is alwaies found , and laurentius saies he could never find it : the reason was that they wanted bodies to dissect , or were negligent in their work : or they might dissect supposed virgins who had been defloured . or if they dissected young virgins , they through wantonness do somtimes with their fingers break the said skin or membrane . but if they shall say they did cut up abortive births , girls of two or three years old &c. i answer t is incredible that the hymen should be wanting in such , seeing the authorities and experiences of skilful anatomists forecited , are against it . again , if in some by them dissected , it was wanting ; by the same right that they say this membrane is praeternaturally present , we shall say it was praeternaturally absent . for it is seldom absent , and for the most part present . and others that are for laurentius against us , such as capivaccius and augenius , are to be rejected as persons not skilled in astronomie . vi. there is a midling opinion of melchior sebizius , viz. that all the signs of virginity must be joyned together , when they are present . and when the hymen or skin so called is absent , we must rest in the straitness of the neck and other marks , which being widened in the first copulation , pain and effusion of blood follows by reason of the solution of continuity . these things thus promised , let us come to the structure of this hymen or thin skin which goes cross the neck of the womb . t is situate in the neck of the womb , near the end thereof , just behind the insertion of the neck of the bladder , or a little more inward . for the situation does now and then vary , though the difference is but little . and there this membrane goes cross the cavity , like the diaphragma or midriff . it s figure . in the middle it hath an hole like a ring , so that in grown maids , it will admit the top of ones little finger , through which hole the courses flow . but aquapendent hath many times found this hole in a threefold difference . i. as being naturally constituted , and just opposite to the external privity . ii. higher , and not just against the privity . iii. that in the middle was no round hole , but a chink somwhat long . sebezius likens it to the horned moon a little full . for nature sports her self in the variety of shape . but seldom is the hymen without any holes 〈…〉 then the courses cannot come away , whence f●… last dis●… death , unless it be ope●… its magnitude . on its sides , where it grows to the neck of the womb , t is thicker then in the middle . it s connexion . it is continued to the substance of the neck , as if it grew out of the same . it s substance is partly membranous , partly fleshy , nor yet very thick . and in some it is thinner and weaker then in others . as in the prayan virgins of campania , who are there all devirginated after twelve years of age , partly by the heat of the sun , partly of their own bodies breaking the membrane , as i was told by relation of friends there . in some it is more soild and thick , and somtimes so strong , that it must be cut open , especially when the bridegroom is lazie and impotent : for if he be a lusty carle , he is wont after some months labor , to make his way through . this membrane is furnished with many little veins , which being broken in the first copulation , pain and blood-shed arises . finally , it wears away at last , either through copulation , or wanton rubbing ; even as in men the fraenum or bridle of the yard is somtimes torn . but there is a great and serious question , whether or no in the first carnal act , all virgins must needs void blood , as a certain sign of their virginity ? i answer , that it happens so for the most part , and ought alwaies so to happen . and therefore in . of deuteronomie , at marriages the bloody cloath was shewed to the elders , as a witness of the virginity of the bride . leo africanus saies the same custom was used in mauritania , and i was told by a syrian , that it is observed at this very day in syria . augenius indeed out of rabbi salomon and lyranus , do understand this text metaphorically , as if the spreading of the garment did signifie , the words of witnesses , by which the chastity of the bride was diligently enquired into and declared . but the best interpreters retain the litteral sense of the words . sebizius proves that it was to them a perpetual sign , because . their virgins were married very young . . every one was careful of himseif because of the law of jehova● . others contrarywise conceive that it was a sign for the most part . marius excepts when the bridegroom is impotent , and a surgeon may easily judg in such a case . sennertus saies in that law the affirmative inference is good , but not the negative ; and that nothing else can be concluded , but that where it is , it is a sign of virginity . therefore it may be hindred , and not appear . . if virgins break it through wantonness with their fingers , or some other instrument . hence it is that some nations , sow up the privities of girls new born , leaving a little way for the urin to come forth ; nor do they open it till the time of marriage : and then the bridegroom causes it to be opened , that he may be sure he hath a virgin. . if it be the time of her courses , or she have had them a little before . . if the chink in the hymen be very long , for then there happens only a dilatation and no breaking . . if the neck of the womb be very wide , and the yard not sufficiently thick . . if the man thrust in his yard cleverly . . if the virgin have had the falling down of the womb , whereby the hymen was broke . . if the virgin be in years before she is married . . if by continual deflux of sharp humors , the ●n be either moistued or fretted , which frequen●…pens in sickly men , through fault of their con●… badness of the climate 〈…〉 healthly hebrew virgins , being in a good climate , and of a strong constitution , did easily by care avoid these inconveniences . the use of the hymen is , to defend the internal parts from external injury . . to testifie a maids virginity . now a maid may conceive without hurting the token of her virginity , which americus vesputius relates to have been common in the indies , and speronus and peramatus prove the same . t is reported that at paris a certain woman in this present age wherein we live , was got with child , without any detriment to her virginal parts , and a like history is related by clementina . which we may conceive to be done five manner of waies , reckoned up by plempius and sinibaldus , which for honors sake , i shall here omit . nor does this any waies prejudice the conception of our savior , which was performed without any of these waies , without the embracement of any man , and only by the overshadowing of the holy spirit , of which it belongs to divines to treat . if we believe suidas , the membrance was by the midwives found in the virgin mary , when it was question'd , whether she had lost her virginity or no ; which i conceive to have been inconsistent with the modesty of that blessed virgin. the living simon magus , that he might be reputed for a god , boasted that he was born of his mother rachel , she being a virgin. st. augustine conceits that in the state of innocence , the seed of the man might be conveighed into the womb of the woman , her virginity remaining uncorrupted , even as now menstrual blood comes out of the womb of a virgin , without any detriment to her virginity . which opinion vives does explain and approve . but that women can become fruitful without the seed of a man , is incredible . for caranza judges that story of pomponius mela , of certain hairy women in an island , which are fruitful without any copulation of men , to be a fable . touching incuboe , the question is different , which i have handled in another place . it was lately reported in france , that magdalena ●● a●vermont the wife of hieronymus augustus de montelione a french knight , did conceive a son called emmanuel , only by imagination , which de lord a professer at monpelier , made to be suspected , and p. sanchius in the same place did wish me not to believe it . old authors relate that mares in portugal , do conceive by the wind , ludovicus carrius does justifie their report . but justinus the epitomizer , does more rightly explain their meaning to have been only to note the fruitfulness of those mares , and the speediness of their conception chap. xxxii . of the womans external privity in general . where the neck of the womb ends , there begins the last and outmost part of the womb , viz. the womans privity , or the outward orifice , or mouth of the neck of the womb ; others call it vulva quasi valva , as if you would say a folding door , also cunnus a cuneo from a wedg , or from an impression [ whence in a manuscript of english receipts , i have found it called the print ] plautus calls it saltus , a wood or grove , or straight . also by another metaphor he calls it concha the shell-fish , and na●●● the ship ; others commonly call it natura muliebris , the womans nature . varre tells us the romans called it porca the furrow or parsley-bed , the sow . and what experience of biting made , suidas and eustathius call it cuneiron or cuona , the dog , let those judg that can speak by experience . it is only one in number . obsequens tells of a woman that had two privities , and licetus hath observed many such as monsters . it s situation is external , in the former region of the share-bones , where very many parts are to be seen without dissection , and some without drawing open the lips ; as the hairs of the share , the lips , and the hillocks themselves ; the great external chink , the wings , the tentigo ; but some parts cannot be seen without drawing the lips aside , as the fossa navicularis , the two smaller chinks by the nymphs , the bodies of the clitoris , the hole of the neck of the bladder , with with a fleshy valve , the wrinkled chink or immediate mouth of the neck , with four caruncles , and as many membranes : where afterwards the channel begins of which we have spoken . the hairs of the share in such as are ripe , break out about the lips , the better to close the chink . and they are in women more curled then in maids ; of sundry colors , being produced by nature , partly the shelter , and partly to cover these parts , which she judges ought in decency to be covered . but the italian and eastern women out of a desire of cleanliness and neatness , do by art remove these hairs as unprofitable . the lips being drawn open , there appears . magna fossa the large trench or ditch , with the outer great chink , and we may call the foresaid ditch fossa navicularis the boat trench , because of its likeness to a little boat or ship. for it is backwards more deep and broad , that the lower and after-end might degenerate as it were the ditch or trench . in this ditch the lips being opened , two holes appear , but hardly visible , save in live bodies , out of which a good quantity of wheyish humor issues , which moistens the mans share in the time of copulation . the orifice or beginning of the neck of the womb , is in the middle of this ditch . now this ditch with the external chink were to be large , that the child might in the external part come out more easily , seeing the skin cannot be so stretched , as the membranous substance within may be . then we meet with two collateral chinks , which are less : the right and the left , and they are between the lips and the wings . now in this large ditch , there are first of all to be seen certain caruncles or little parcels of flesh , of which we are now to discourse . chap. xxxiii . of the myrtle-shaped caruncles . in the middle of the ditch or trench aforesaid , appear four caruncles or little particles of flesh , presently after the wings . they are so situate that each possesses a corner , and oppose one another in manner of a quadrangle . one of them is before in the circumference of the hole of the urinary passage , to shut the same ( it being greater then the rest , and forked ) least after the water is voided , any external thing as air , &c. should enter into the bladder . the secon opposite to the former , is situate behind , the two remaining ones are collateral . their shape resembles the berries of myrtle . their size varies , for some have their shorter , longer , thicker , and thinner then others . howbeit they abide til extream old age , and wear not away so much as in those that have used frequent copulation and frequent child-bearing . they have some membranes joyned to them , which pinaeus together with the caruncles terms valves : so that their substance is partly fleshy and partly membranous . the hole in the middle between these caruncles , is of various size , according to the age of the party . howbeit riolanus hath observed , that in virgins it equals a third part of the great chink . also he conceives , these caruncles are made by the wrinkling of the fleshy sheath of the privity , that the external part being narrower then the sheath , may in time of travel be widened as much as it . and therefore in a child-bed woman , after she was brought to bed , he observed them for seven daies quite obliterated , by reason of the great distention of the privity , nor is there any appearance of them till the privity be again straitned and reduced to its natural form . their use is , i. to defend the internal parts , while they immediately shut the orifice of the neck , that no air , dust , &c. may enter . to which end also the nymphs and lips of the privity do serve . ii. fortitillation and pleasure , while they are swolen , and strongly strain , and milk the yard as it were , especially in young lasses . but pinaeus will have their use to be far different . for he saies these caruncles , whose extremities are fleshy membranes , are so bound together , as to leave only a little hole , and so to make the hymen or true mark of virginity . nor will he have it seated across or athwart , but long-waies , so that the figure of the whole hymen should make an obtuse cone , or a cone with the sharp end cut off . chap. xxxiv . of the clitoris . fallopius arrogates unto himself the invention or first observation of this part. and columbus gloriously , as in other things he is wont , attributes it to himself . whereas nevertheless avicenna , albucasis , ruffus , pollux and others , have made mention hereof in their writings . the xxviii , table this table comprehends the sheath of the womb , the body of the clitoris , and the external female privity , both in virgins , and such as are defloured . the figures explained . fig . i. aa . the bottom of the womb dissected cross-waies . bb. the cavity of the bottom . c. the neck of the womb. d. the mouth of the neck in a woman that hath bore a child . ee . the rugged inside of the neck cut open . ff . the round ligaments of the womb cut off . fig . ii. a. the nymph or clitoris rather in its proper situation . bb. the hairs of the privities . c. the insertion of the neck of the bladder near the privity . dd. the privity . ee . the wings of the privity . ff . the neck of the womb cut off . fig . iii. a. the body of the clitoris sticking up under the skin . bb. the outer lips of the privity separated one from another . cc. the alae or wings , and the nymphs likewise separated . d. the caruncle placed about the urin-hole ( a ) ee . two fleshy myrtle-shap'd productions . ff . membranous expansions which contain the chink . fig . iv. presents the privity of a girl . a. the clitoris . bb . the lips of the privity . cc. the wings or nymphs . d. the orisice of the urethra or piss-pipe . ● . ff . h. four myrtle-shap'd caruncles . e. the upmost caruncle which is divided into two , and shuts the passage of the piss-pipe . ● . the hole of the hymen or virginity-skin . ● . the lowest caruncle . ● . the fundament . k. the perinaeum . fig . v. letter a. shews the membrane drawn cross the privity , which some have taken to be the hymen or virginal-skin . fig . vi. shews the clitoris separated from the privity . a. the top of the clitoris resembling the nut of a mans yard . b. the fore-skin thereof . cc. the two thighs of the clitoris cut off from the protuberancy of the hip or huckle . fig . vii . the clitoris cut asunder athwart , its inward spungy substance is apparent . page now the clitoris is a small production . it is seated in the middle of the share , in the upper and former end of the great chink , where its size is commonly small ; it lies hid for the most part under the nymphs in its beginning , and afterward it sticks out a little . for in lasses that begin to be amorous , the clitoris does first discover it self . it is in several persons greater or lesser : in some it hangs out like a mans yard , namely when young wenches do frequently and continually handle and rub the same , as examples restifie . but that it should grow as big as a gooses neck , as platerus relates of one , is altogether praeternatural and monstrous . tulpius hath a like story of one that had it as long as half a mans finger , and as thick as a boys prick , which made her willing to have to do with women in a carnal way . but the more this part encreases , the more does it hinder a man in his business . for in the time of copulation it swells like a mans yard , and being erected , provokes to lust . it s substance is not boney ( though it was so in a venetian courtezan , who had it cut off , and the hardness whereof did inflame the yards of the lovers ) but as that of a mans yard , it consists of two nervous bodies hard and thick , within porous and spungy ( that this part might rise and fall ) arising distinctly from the hip-bones , about the brims of the said bones . but they are joyned together about the share-bone , and make up the body of the yard . its muscles are , according to pinaeus three , according to riolanus and veslingus four , like as in a mans yard , and serving to the same intent . the two uppermost round ones , rest upon longer ligaments , and proceed from one and the same place ; the two others being lower , broad , and fleshy , proceed from the sphincter of the fundament . the outmost end or head , sticking out like the nut of a mans yard ( the rest lying hid ) is called tentigo , having an hole as a mans yard , but no thoroughfar . it seems to be covered with a fore-skin as it were , which is made of a small skin arising from the conjunction of the wings . also it hath vessels of all sorts brought unto it . veins and arteries common to it and the privity , a nerve from the sixt conjugation , all more large then the nature of its body might seem to require , to cause an exact feeling and erection . it s use is to be the seat of delectation and love. and it is like the froenulum or bridle on the nut of a mans yard . for by the rubbing thereof , the seed is brought away . howbeit aquapendent conceives that the use of the clitoris , is to sustain the neck of the womb in the time of copulation . bellonius and iovius do conceive that this is the part wherein the aethiopians were wont to circumcise women . aetius and aegineta do shew us how to cut it off , confounding it with the nymph . and even at this day , the eastern nations , in regard of its bignes extraordinary , do sear it , that it may grow no more . and they hire ancient women to perform this piece of surgery , which they improperly term circumcision . and it is to those people as necessary , in regard of the deformed greatness of the clitoris , as it is comely ; for at alcair in aegypt , wenches go naked after this circumcision , and when they are married , they wear a smock only . of which things is also this kind of circumcision , i have discoursed at large in my puerperial antiquities . chap. xxxv . of the wings and lips. two red productions offer themselves to our view between the lips , which they term pterugia and alas , that is the wings . galen calls them nymphs , either because they do first admit the bridegroom , or because they have charge of the waters and humors issuing forth . for between them as it were two walls , the urin is cast out to a good distance with an hissing noise , without wetting the lips of the privity . others call them the curicular caruncles . they are seated between the two lips. their magnitude is not alwaies alike : for somtimes one wing , otherwhiles both , seldomer in virgins then in women , do grow so big , especially being frequently drawn by the fingers , or otherwise by an afflux of humors ▪ that by reason of the impediments thereby happening , t is necessary to cut them . and galen tells us that this disease is frequent among the aegyptians ; so that they are faln to cut them in virgins that are to marry , and in other women also ; and aeetius and aegineta do speak to the same purpose , which others will have to be understood of the clitoris . and they are in the right as i conceive , because the clitoris being over long , may hinder the amorous embracement , and may be raised like the yard ; but the nymphs cannot be this way troublesom , which are softer , and in some do hang down very long , yea in whores that trade with these parts . they are in number two ; the right and the left , now they are in the beginning commonly joyned together , where they make a fleshy production , like a fore-skin cloathing the clitoris . their figure is triangular , but one angle is blunter then the rest , viz. that which comes without the lips. it is like a cocks-comb : and for that cause haply by juvenal termed crista . it s coloi● is red like a cocks-comb under his throat . t is covered with a thin coat rather then skin , as the lips and other parts of the mouth . it s substance is partly membranous , soft , and spungy ( bred peradventure of the doubling in of the skin , at the sides of the great chink ) and partly fleshy . their use is the same with that of the myrtle-shap'd caruncles . and moreover that the urin might be conveighed between them , as between two wals . some conceive they serve as a ligament , to suspend and straiten as it were , in virgins , the lower part of the external chink , which seems unlikely . the lips perform that office , and the nymphs should rather straiten such as are defloured , in whom they are longer . the two lips , between which the external chink consists , have certain risings adorned with hair , which are termed monticuli veneris , the hillocks of venus . in women they are flatter then in maidens . this part is that which is properly termed the privity . these hillocks are longish , soft bodies , of such a substance , the like whereof is not to be found in the whole body again ▪ for it consists partly of skin , and partly of spungy flesh , under which is placed a parcel of hard fat. 〈…〉 juncture of the lips , is in virgins right , strait , as it were a ligamentish substance for firmness ; but in such as have lost their maiden-head , it is loose , and in such as have had a child , yet looser ; as riolanus hath found by experience , and any body else may find that covers the glory of such experiments . the use hath been hinted before . chap. xxxvi . of the membranes which infold the child in the womb. all the parts serving for generation , both in men and women are explained . but because my design is to discourse of what ever comes under knife of an anatomist , i must also propound some things which are contained in the womb of a woman with child , such as are i. the infant , whose structure differs only in some things , from that of a grown person . which i shall briefly recount , as i did publickly , not long since demonstrate the same , at the diffection of a child . now the parts of a large child differ from those of a render embryo , and the parts of both these from those of a grown man. . in magnitude , either proportionate to the whole body , or less proportionate . . in colour , some parts are more red , some more pale then in a grown person . . in shape , as may be seen in the kidneys and head. . in cavity , as in the vessels of the navil and heart . . in number , either abounding , as in the bones of the head , breast , and sutures of the skull ; or deficient , as in the call , some bones , of the back , wrist , &c. . in hardness , as in the said bones . . in situation , as the teeth . . in use , as the navil-vessels , and those of the heart , the gut caecum , &c. . in motion , as the lungs , &c. . in excrements . . in strength and perfection of the whole . the xxix . table . this table shews how the parts of a child in the womb differ from those of a grown person . the figures explained . fig . i. aa . the deputy-kidneys . bb. the true kidneys , as yet distinguished into sundry kernels , il expressed by the graver , in respect of their situation . c. the arteria magna , out of which branches go to the deputies and the kidneys . d. the vena cava out of which the emulgents proceed , and the little veins of the deputies . fig . ii. shews the posture of a child in the womb , which does nevertheless somtimes vary . a. the head of the child hanging downwards , so as its nose is bid between its knees . bb. the buttocks to which the heels are applied . cc. the arms. d. the cord drawn along its neck , and turned back over its fore-head , which is continued with the womb-cake , expressed in the next figure . fig . iii. aaa . the membrane chorion divided . bb. the membrane amnios , as yet covering the cord. cc. the hollow and inner side of the womb-cake which looks towards the child , with the twigs of vessels . d. a portion of the twisted cord. fig . iv. shews the outside of the placenta , which cleavs to the womb , though here separated , with the clifts and chinks [ eeee ] which vary in number and depth . fig . v. shews the skeleton of a young child , in very many things differing from that of a person grown up ; as appears by the text fig . i. aa . the deputy-kidneys . bb. the true kidneys , as yet distinguished into sundry kernels , il expressed by the graver , in respect of their situation . c. the arteria magna , out of which branches go to the deputies and the kidneys . d. the vena cava out of which the emulgents proceed , and the little veins of the deputies . fig . ii. shews the posture of a child in the womb , which does nevertheless somtimes vary . a. the head of the child hanging downwards , so as its nose is bid between its knees . bb. the buttocks to which the heels are applied . cc. the arms. d. the cord drawn along its neck , and turned back over its fore-head , which is continued with the womb-cake , expressed in the next figure . fig . iii. aaa . the membrane chorion divided . bb. the membrane amnios , as yet covering the cord. cc. the hollow and inner side of the womb-cake which looks towards the child , with the twigs of vessels . d. a portion of the twisted cord. fig . iv. shews the outside of the placenta , which cleavs to the womb , though here separated , with the clifts and chinks [ eeee ] which vary in number and depth . fig . v. shews the skeleton of a young child , in very many things differing from that of a person grown up ; as appears by the text these things will be more evident , if we shall run over all the particles which are in a child different from the parts of our bodies , . the umbilical or navil-vessels , vulgarly called the navil strings , are three , and hollow throughout to pass and repass the mothers blood , which in grown persons turn to ligaments . . there is little or no appearance of the call , because there is as yet no publick digestion of the stomach or guts , and they are sufficiently cherished by the members of the child folded together and the hear of the womb. . the stomach is smal , no bigger then a wall-nut , and for the most part empty , there being no publick concoction , or it is moistened with a clammy humor . . the caecum intestinum is large , somtimes thick , other whiles long , for the most part ful of excrements , of which i spake before . . the thin guts appear contracted , colored with yellow excrements descending through the gall-bladder . . the thick guts especially the rectum , do contain thick black excrements , from the private digestion , of the stomach , guts , liver and spleen or of the spleen only , voided hither by the caeliaca , or of the liver alone , purged out by the choler-passage . they are black , through their long stay . . the true kidneys , are compacted of very many kernels . the deputy kidneys are large and more hollow . . the liver with its 〈◊〉 fills both the hypochondria . the spleen is smal , because there is yet no fermentation in the stomach and veins . the color of both , is more bright and red , then in a grown person . . in the dugs there are no kernels , only a little sign of a nipple . . the thymus growing to the vessels , is visible beyond the heart with a threefold large kernel . . the ears of the heart are large , especially the right ear , and pale . . the unions of the vessels in the heart , by anastomosis and a little channel , are singular , of which we shall speak in the following book . . the lungs shine with a yellow redness , which is afterwards allayed by their motion . because they are at present immoveable , because transpiration alone and the ventilation of the mothers blood do suffice the child in the womb , unless it happen to cry in the womb. . in the head all things are large . the eyes stick out , the skull is exceeding big , but divided into many parts , the brain is soft and commonly overflows with moisture ; the pericranium continued with the dura mater , passes through the sutures . . in the skeleton , the bones of the whole body are soft in the first months , afterwards some are hard , according as they are of use , as the ribs ; some are gristly , as the brest-bone , the wrist-bone , and the tarsus or beginning of the foot ( all without any hard apophyses or epiphyses ) which nevertheless in tract of time do grow to a bony hardness , the middle parts growing hard first : and after their hardning some remaine one continued bone , others are divided into many particles . . the crown of the head remains very long open , covered only with a membrane , which by little and little with age grows close up . the sagittal future reaches to the nose . the greater conjunctions of the bones are moveable , placed one upon another , that in the coming out of the womb , the skul being pressed , may give way to the straitness of the passage . the os cuneiforme is divided into four parts . the bones of the nose and both the jawes are divided , a gristle coming between . the teeth lie hid in their sockets , covered with the gums . the vertebrae of the back , have no sharp productions , that they may not hurt the womb. the breast-bone being soft , hath in the middle according to the length thereof , four little round bones , plane and pory . also the planke , hip and share-bones are distinguished by gristles . the carpus and tarsus are gristly , and afterward as the child grows bigger , they are spread out into divers bones , when there is a necessity of using the hands and feet , to handle and go . . in the outward parts , as the skin , hairs , nails , &c. there is some difference , known to all . ii. the membranes which invest the child , cloath and cover it : of which in this chapter . iii. the navil-vessels , of which in the chapter following . the membranes which infold the child ; are the first thing bred in the womb after conception , to fence the nobler part of the seed as may be seen with the eyes , even in the smallest conceptions , and as the authority of all authors well-near does testifie . their efficient cause , is the formative faculty , and not only the heat of the womb ; as the heat is wont to cause a crust upon bread or gruel . for then , i. the crust would stick hard to the child and could not be separated . ii. the heat of the womb is not so great , as to be able to bake the substance of the seed in so short a time ; whereas these membranes are bred well near immediately after the conception . and if there were so great heat in the womb , no conception could be made , according to hippocrates in the . aphorism of his fifth book . we conceive their matter to be the thicker part of the womans seed . others , as arantius , will have them to be productions of the inner tunicles , the chorion of the peritonaeum , and the amnion of the membrana 〈◊〉 . others that the mothers seed alone makes these memibranes : others , that they are made as well of the mans as the womans seed . these membranes in man-kind are two , in brute beasts three : which being joyned and growing together , do make the secundine so called . . because it is the second tabernacle of the child , next the womb. . because it comes away by a second birth , after the child . [ hence in english we call it the after-birth . ] the first membrane is termed amnios because of of its softness and thinness , also agnina , charta virginea , indusium , &c. and it is the thinnest of them all , white , soft , transparent , furnished with a few very smal veins and arteries , dispersed within the foldings thereof . it compasses the child immediately and cleaves every where almost to the chorion , especially at the ends , about the womb-cake , united in the middle thereof , where the umbilical vessels come forth . yet we can easily separate it from the chorion . there is in it plenty of moisture and humors wherein the child swims which proceeds in brutes from sweat , in mankind from sweat and urin. but aquapendent having observed that in brutes the sweat and urin were contained in several little membranes , the latter more low and externally in the chorion , the former higher , and more inwardly in the amnion ; he thought it was so in mankind much more . but experience and reason are against it , because there are no passages to the chorion . and because we do not find the urachus open in mankind , therefore the urin cannot be thence collected in the amnios , but is voided by the yard if it be troublesom , and the remainder is kept till the time of the birth , in the bladder , which in children new born is for the most part distended and full , but in brutes empty . nor does the sharpness of the urin offend the child in the womb , because . it is but little in a child in the womb , because of the benignity and purity of its nourishment . . the skin is daubed with a clammy humor , and brutes are defended by their hairiness . therefore the use is i. that the child floating therein as in a bath , may be higher and less burthensom to the mother . ii. that the child may not strike against any neighboring hard parts . iii. that in the birth , the membrane being broke , this humor running out , may make the way through the neck of the womb , smooth , easie , and slippery . part of the amnios does ever and anon hang about the head of the child when it comes forth , and then the child is said to be galeatus or helmeted . this helmet the midwives diligently observe for divers respects , and they prognosticate good fortune to the child , and others that use it , if it be red ; but if it be black , the praesage bad fortune . paraeus , lemnius and others , conceive that the happy and strong labor of the mother , is the cause that the foresaid helmet comes out with the child , but in a troublesom labor it is left behind . spigelius contrariwife , thinks that when the mother and child are weak , it comes away . besterus makes the reason to be the roughness of the amnios , which the child is not able to break through , or the weakness of the child , for which cause it seldom lives to ripeness of age. i have seen both those that have come into the world with this helmet , and those without it , miserable ; and by chance it comes to cleave both to the heads of strong and weak children . the second membrane is termed chorion , because it compasses the child like a circle . this immediately compasses the former , and lies beneath it in a round shape like a pancake , whose inner or hollow part it covers and invelops , spreading it self out according to the measure thereof . it is hardly separated therefrom , and it strongly unites the vessels to the womb-liver , and bears them up . towards the child it is more smooth and slippery , but where it is spread under the womb-cake , and fastned thereto , it is more rough : also it is sufficiently thick and double . in brutes the cotyledons cleave hereunto , which consist of a fleshy and spungy substance . but in mankind , this membrane cleavs immediately to the womb , by a certain round and reddish lump of flesh , fastned to one part only of the womb ( commonly the upper and former part ) nor does it compass the whole child ; being framed of an innumerable company of branches , of veins , and arteries , among which bl●●d out of the vessels seems to be shed and interlarded . that same round mass is called placenta uteri the womb-pancake , by reason of its shape ; also the womb liver : which i will now exactly describe according as it hath been my hap to see it . it s figure is circular , but the circumference unequal , in which i have observed five prominences ranked in due order , and the membrane chorion in the intermediate spaces , thicker then ordinary . where it looks towards the womb , it is rough and waved , like baked bread that hath chinks in it ; and being cut in this part , it discovers an infinite number of fibres , which if you follow , they will bring you to the trunks of the veins . it is one in number , even in those who bear two or more children at a burthen . for into one womb-cake , so many cords are inserted in divers places , as there are children . it s magnitude varies according to the condition of the bodies and the children● yet it is about a foot in the diameter . the substance thereof seems to be a body wove together of infinite little fibres , blood as it were congealed being interposed , which is easily separated . seeing therefore it hath a parenchyma , it is no wonder , if like a kind of , liver it make or prepare blood to nourish the child . the nature and appearance of the substance , is not every where alike . for here and there it is glandulous , especially in the tops of the hillocks , as being the emunctories of the childs work-house , placed in the outmost verges . it is thicker in the middle of the hillocks ; and thin about the brims , variously interwoven with the capillary veins : for , it hath vessels , viz. veins and arteries running through the same , from the umbelical vessels , which by little and little are all extenuated about the brims of the womb-cake , making wonderful contextures , closely sticking to the substance thereof , so that no part of the branches is void . they are joyned together by various anastomoses , which shall be hereafter described , through which the blood in the child runs back , out of the arteries into the veins . for i have observed in the veins of the womb-cake , how that the blood contained , may easily by ones finger or an instrument , be forced towards the trunk or cord , but not towards the womb-cake . the contrary where to happens in the arteries , which by impulse of the finger , do easily send the blood to the womb-liver , but hardly to the trunk . it s use is . to support the navil-vessels , under which it is spred as a pillow . the xxx . table . this table presents a child in the womb naked , al the coats both proper and common being divided . the figure explained . aa . portions of the chorion dissected and removed from their place . b. a portion of the amnios . cc. the membrane of the womb dissected . dd. the womb-cake or womb-liver , being a lump of flesh furnished with divers vessels , through which the child receives its nourishment . e. the branching of the vessels , which in this place make one ligament to cover the umbilical vessels . ff . the band or ligament , through which the umbelical vessels are carried from the womb-cake to the navil . gg . the situaton of a perfect child in the womb , ready to be born . h. the implantation of the umbilical or navil-vessels into the navil . the third called allantoides the pudding-membrane , does not cloath the whol conception , but compasses it round like a girdle , or a pudding . it s use is , to receive urin from the urachus in brutes . for in mankind there is no such membrane : for the child in a woman , its urin is received by the amnios mingled with sweat : or is kept in the bladder till the birth-time . and therefore spigelius cannot be excused , for admitting this membrane in mankind ; whose description ( because it belongs not to this anatomy ) he that desires to see , let him look in aquapendent . chap. xxxvii . of the vmbelical or navil-vessels . the membranes being diffected and removed , the umbelical vessels come in view , so called , because in the region of the navil , the child being excluded , and the blood a little forced up to nourish the s●me , they are cut off , and being tied in a knot , do make the navil which is in the 〈…〉 of the belly , yea and of the whole body , if you measure it with a circle , the arms being stretched out . now there are four navil-vessels : one vein , two arteries , and the urachus . which are covered and veiled as it were with a certain common coat or crust , which some call intestinulus , funiculus , laqueus , &c. which does not only wrap up all the vessels , but also distinguishes them one from another . and the use of this coat , is to keep the vessels from being intangled one within another , broken , or any other way hurt . the vena umbilicalis , much greater then the artery , being carried through the two coats of the peritonaeum , is bred in the first place before all other veins , in respect of perfection , because it ought to afford nourishment to the rest . it is seen inserted into the liver by a cleft , and goes through the navil , somtimes simple , otherwhiles double , and divided into two branches , the length of about an f●ll and half , as far as to the womb-cake . and it is variously coiled or rouled about , that its length-might prove no hinderance . from the navil it goes over the breast , and from thence it is obliquely carried over the right and left side of the throat and neck , turning it self back at the hinder-part of the head , and so over the middle of the fore-head unto the womb-cake ; somtimes also by this simple flexure on the left hand , it compasses the neck like a chain . all which is to be understood of the whole cord , and the rest of the vessels contained therein . and this journey being finished , it spreads infinite branches through the secondine , till it loose it self into exceeding delicate fine hairy thrids . it s use is to draw blood to nourish the child , and to carry it into its liver , now the way is doubtful . most men perswade themselves , that the veins and arteries of the womb , are joyned with the little veins and arteries of the womb-cake , and that from them joyntly blood is derived into the navil-vessels to the child . but the arteries are to be excluded from this office , because they are not joyned to the womb , nor ought they to carry any thing to the child , but to carry back from the child to the womb-cake . the veins do only bring thither , and that by a twofold way , either immediately from the womb , or mediately . immediately , when they are joyned to the vessels of the womb ; mediately , when by the interceeding or going between of any fleshy substance whatsoever , both in mankind and beasts ( which is alwaies for the most part glewed to the womb , and violently broke off in the birth ) it is sucked through pipes , first out of the womb into the outer parts of the womb-cake , and thence into the capillary veins thereof , out of the least into the greater , till at last it is carried to the umbilical trunk , and to the liver . nor does it slip through the veins of the womb into the pipes , because the blood of the veins does not nourish , but it is brought in by the arteries in a woman with child , and goes up back again by the veins , in a woman not with child . this vein seems full of certain knots : which are nothing but a more thick and fleshy constitution of the membrana carnosa in those parts ; and a wider opening , wherewith as a spoon , the blood is drawn in , in its long journey , and is by little and little stopped , least it flow too violently ; that the blood may be there the longer labored , as we see in the spermatick vessels : and that the vessels may be stronger . by the number of these knots , the midwives do guess the number of children that a woman shal bear : and if the knot which first follows , be white and narrow , they foretel that the next child will be a girl , if red , round , and swelling , that it will be a boy . the first divination is vain ; for there are as many knots in the navil of the last child , as of the first . but the latter may be excused by the defect or abundance of natural heat , whence the diversity of sexes arises . from the distance of the knots one from another , they foretel that the conceptions will be sooner or longer one after another , and that there will be twins , if one knot rest upon , or be near to another . which we have often found to be false , though chance , do now and then confirm the hope of credulous women . two arteries are inserted into the iliack arteries , and are carried with the vein after the foresaid manner to the womb-cake , where it is spred about in divers branches , whose use is not , as hath hitherto been believed , to bring to the child vital spirit with arterial blood , because these arteries are not joyned to the arteries of the womb , according to the most certain observation of arantius ; but to carry back part of the arterial blood , which is superfluous to the nourishment of the child , by the two iliack branches into the placenta or womb-cake , partly to nourish the same , and fill it with vital spirit . partly that the blood may there be made more perfect , being weakned by a long journey , and nourishing the membranes ; which afterwards runs back again to the child , by the hairy twigs of the veins joyned thereto , with that new blood coming out of the womb . this motion is confirmed by experience . i have often pressed the swelling veins with my finger , and have observed that the blood is easily forced out of the vein towards the child , not to the womb-cake , where the knots like valves do stop the same ; contrariwise , it is easily forced out of the arteries into the womb-cake . the same is manifest by ligatures . for the umbilical arteries of a live child being bound , as yet cleaving to the mother being alive , walaeus hath observed and others after him , that they pulse between the ligature and the child , but have no pulse between the ligature and the mothers womb . for this motions sake the venal and arterial branches are joyned together by anastomoses , within the womb-cake , that the passage might be ready for the blood to run back out of the little arteries , into the little veins . i have here , following my own sight , observed several waies of anastomoses . for somtimes the twigs of the veins and arteries , do go one over another cross-wise , both internally and externally . somtimes they are joyned by insertion , somtimes they couple side to side , and somtimes they are wreathed . the smallest twigs of the branches are inoculated into the greater , united in like manner , but with more blunt anastomoses , till the arteries are reduced to four branches , the vein to two , which at last grow into the trunks of their own kind , springing out of the womb-cake . the arteries go about the veins , and do partly accompany them , and partly creep alone by themselves . i suspect that there are anastomoses only in those places , wherein they are necessary for the passing blood out of the arteries into the veins , and that the solitary veins do suck fresh blood out of the womb. without the navil and womb-cake , these vessels being united , as they pass along like a rope , they are well twisted one with another , yet for the most part by an orderly circumvolution , even as a larger rope is made of smaller cords twisted together , representing the wreathings of our unicorns horn , which we could easily perceive by holding it to the light . which is so contrived . least by the winding passage of the navil-vessels , the motion of the blood should be hindred , seeing every vessel that is twisted , keeps it course . . that the child in the womb might receive its pittance of nourishment by little and little , without danger of choaking . . that by this wreathed and crooked journey , the future a●●ment of the child , might be by little and little purged and clarified . moreover , it is to be noted in the twisting of the cord . that knots and spots are transparent in the vein and not in the arteries , by reason of the blood appearing through a thinner coat . . that a spans distance from the conjunction there appears , a wonderful contexture , and a rougher and more confused twisting then in other parts . . in the outer coat of the intestinulum , infinite cuts and lines are seen imprinted as it were , according to the length thereof , colored on the outside with blood , such as are to be seen in the cerebellum . it s length was before noted , viz. an ell and an half , in a grown child , or three spans , that the child may stir more easily , the blood may be better prepared , and the secondine drawn out . if this cord be somtime either overtwisted , or by motion wrapped about the neck of the child , there is danger that the child will be strangled , and the mother have an hard labor , because the child is drawn back by reason of the shortness of the cord , nor can it bear the violence of an indiscreet midwife . i have seen it twisted divers times about the neck of a child , whereby the birth was retarded for divers hours , and when the child came forth it could hardly breath : if in such a case the childs face be red t is a good sign , but a deadly token if the face be black and blew . 't is as thick as a mans finger , because strength and a just capacity is requisite to sustain the vessels . when it is dry it becomes smaller , and it is kept to procure other births , the xxxi . table . it shews the child taken out of the womb , but fastned still to the womb-cake , the umbilical vessels being separated about their rise . the explication of the figure . aaa . the abdomen or belly opened . b. the liver of the child . c. the piss-bladder . dd. the guts . e. the umbilical vein . ff . the umbilical arteries . g. the urachus or piss-pipe . h. the umbilical vessels out of the body joyned together by one membrane . iii. the umbilical or navil-vessels extended from the chorion to the child . k. a ligature which makes the veins beneath it ful and the arteries lanke and empty . llll . the veins and arteries dispersed through the womb-cake . mmm . the womb-cake . page . the child being born , the rope must be tied near the belly , the distance of two or three fingers breadths , with a strong thred wound often about , and about three fingers from the binding , it must be cut off , and the navil must be lookt to , till it dry and fall off , of its own accord . now the times of its falling of are uncertain , in respect of the constitution of the child , and the plenty of blood which flows thereto , from whence the midwives prognosticate how long the child shall live . if it fall of the fift day from the hour it was tied , they foretell the children will be long-lived ; if on the third day , they say they shall be short-lived . the navil being thus shaped and confirmed , is covered with a strong skin , which may be preternaturally stretched to an immense degree , to receive the guts in a rupture of the navil , such as severinus hath described in a picture , and as my self have seen at hafnia in an ancient woman . in some there is a passage through the navil into the belly . alpinus reports that the aegyptians cure a bloody flux , by thrusting their fingers into the patients navil , and turning it divers times about . dung came out of the navil of a student , and worms like earth-worms with quittor came out of the navil of a boy , according to the observation of salmuth . tulpius saw quittor which nature sent from the chest , come out at the navil , and folius found stones bred here . i. d. horstius observed blood flow from the navil in a certain gentleman , monthly . and he tels us of a boy who had a wheyish liquor like urin dropping from his navil , and somtimes fresh blood . for the inner vessels are many times opened , by the acrimony of the blood and wheyish humors . also the navil doth insensibly open it self when purgatives , medicines for the mother and to kill the worms , &c. are applied thereto . now these vessels , after the child is born , do within the belly degenerate into ligaments : the vein to a ligament of the liver , the arteries into lateral ligaments of the bladder . because their use is now lost , and there is no longer any passage of the mothers blood , unless they be somtimes preternaturally opened as in the examples alleadged . yet are they not of so great moment , that their breaking or cutting off , should cause death , as some and among them laurentius imagine , being questionles abused by some fabulous story . for they report that the aegyptians punish robbers by flaying them alive , and that they leave the navil untoucht , that they may be tormented the longer : for they think when the navil is cut off a man must needs die , the four vessels being destroyed . but riolanus a man of great experience saw contrary examples , and any man may judg by a rupture of the navil . if death follow , it is by accident , the inner parts being also hurt , and a wide dore opened for all hurtful things to enter . sperlinger conceives that they are choaked , because the navil being cut off , the liver falls down and draws the midriff , the organ of breathing . but . this shortness of breath doth not cause sudden death . . the liver is held up by another strong ligament from the peritonaeum . the fourth vessel , the urachus or piss-pipe , which is half as little again as the artery , consists of two parts , according to the observation of riolanus ; the inner , which is nervous , arising from the inner coat of the bladder the outer which is more membranous , from the bottom of the bladder . it is not after the same manner in beasts as in mankind . in beasts t is carryed without the navil between two arteries , and is at last spred out and widened into the coat which is termed allantoides , where urin is collected and reserved , till the young one is brought forth . and therefore this vessel is termed urachus , that is to say the piss-pipe . in mankind , . it doth not go without the navil , and therefore it doth not make the coat allantoides , for which cause the child hath only two coats . . the urachus is not hollow throughout according to the experiments of carpus , arantius , cortesius , riolanus and others , whom i have found to be in the right , in such bodies as i have dissected both old and young , though aquapendens and spigelius would ▪ perswade us otherwise . but it is a little cord or ligament , wherewith the bladder is fastned to the peritonaeum and sustained , least when it is distended with urin , its neck should be squeezed : though i deny not but that the same thing is done by the arteries . but a child in the womb voids urin by its yard into the membarne amnios ( which makes it so ful of liquor ) and a great part is retained also in the bladder , which is the cause that new born children , for the first daies are in a manner continually pissing . aqua-pendens denies this because , . the motive faculty doth not exercise it self in a child in the womb. . no muscle acts. . neither doth nature use so different a manner of voiding urin in men and beasts . but i answer , . that the various moving of a child in the womb , which big-bellied women feel , doth witness that the child hath a moving faculty though imperfect . . the bladder is provoked to excretion , by the over great quantity and sharpness of the serum , or wheyish humor . . the coat called allantoides which is not in man-kind , doth shew the difference between man and beast . uarolus will have all the urin to be contained in the bladder , till the birth time . but then it would be broken with over stretching ; and whence comes all the liquor which is in the coat amnios . aqua-pendens , spigelius and almost all others will have it go out by the urachus , and be collected between the amnios and allantoides , as in beasts . but seeing it is not perforated , but solid in man-kind , it cannot admit the urin. for it cannot be strained through , without a manifest passage , because it is thick , and the same way might hold in grown persons . veslingius propounds both these opinions and determins nothing . now it is no more porous in a young child then a grown person . and laurentius eagerly defends this opinion out of galen , bringing the examples of some , who when their urin was stopt , did void it at their navil . but i answer : this is done praeternaturally , as it is also a known opinion of many , that the umbilical vein hath been preternaturally opened in hydropical persons , and voided the water . and laurentius himself confesses , that all the four umbilical vessels do turn to ligaments ; wherein he is right , for they are dried . how therefore can they be opened unless preternaturally ? so it was i conceive preternaturally opened in the same italian called anna , who hath no yard , in stead whereof a spungy bit of flesh hung out under his navil , whence the urin dropt . fernelius and others have other examples of the urachus opened . before the production of all the umbilical vessels in the womb , the seed being curdled in the top of the hinder part , two certain roots are inserted , on each side one from the horns of the womb , first observed by varolius and called radices dorsales , the back roots which are obliterated , when the rudiments of the child are framed , touching which riolanus explains abensina . the second book ; of the middle venter or cavity . the middle venter or belly termed thorax the chest , and by some absolutely venter , is all that which is circumscribed above , by clavicles or channel-bones ; beneath the midriff ; on the foreside by the breast-bone ; on the hinder part by the bones of the back , and on the sides by the ribs . the fore-part is called sternon and pectus , &c. the hinder-part , the back ; the lateral parts are termed the sides . howbeit the ancients as hypocrates and aristotle , &c. did comprehend all from the channel-bones as far as to the privities , that is to say , the middle and lower belly under the name of chest . and therefore in this sense hypocrates did well write , that the liver is seated in the chest : which other unskilful persons not understanding , did imagine that hypocrates was ill versed in anatomy . it s figure is after a sort oval , though not exactly , and hypocrates compares it to a tortoise or the belly of a lute . in mankind , it is more bunching in the fore-part , but in the middle of the brest-bone it is flatter , about the sides round , because of the bowing of the ribs , in the back more flat . it s magnitude in general , varies according to the different degree of heat : for by the wideness of the chest we measure the heat of the heart . but in particular persons it is larger towards the lower belly , where the vital bowels are concealed , and grows narrower by little and little at the beginning of the neck . it s outer substance is partly bony , partly fleshy . this middle belly is not wholly fleshy as the lower is , . because it was not to contain any parts , that were very much to be stretched . . that over-much fat might be bred there , and hinder respiration . yet is it partly fleshy , because it contains parts which-ought to be moved , as the heart and lungs , and for the same cause , it could not be altogether bony , like the skull ; for that is a very rare case which cardan mentions in his . book of subtilties , page . in my edition , of a man that instead of ribs , had one continued bone ●rom the throat to the flanks . yet is it in part bony , for to safeguard the noble parts . for , its use is , to contain the vital parts as the lower and first belly contains the natural . now the parts likewise of this belly are either containing or contained : and the former either common or proper . the common are the same which are in the lower belly . howbeit these things following are here to be observed . the skin of the middle belly is hairy under the arm-pits . these hairs are called subalares pili , being useful to keep those parts from wearing and fretting , in the motion of the arms , seeing they exceedingly and quickly sweat , because they are termed the emunctories of the heart , receiving the excrements thereof ( in some also that are hotter of constitution and strong-hearted the breast is hairy ) as the groins are called the emunctories of the liver . moreover , there is little fat found in the chest , if you except the dugs , that respiration may not be hurt by the weight thereof . for by reason of its bony part , so great plenty of the matter of fat could not flow into it , as in the lower belly , which is wholly fleshy , and therefore alwayes the fattest part of the body ; the middle belly or cavity is indifferently stored with fat ; the head is least fat of all . but the fat it self being otherwise white , is wont in the chest to appear a little more yellow then ordinary , by reason of the heat of the vital parts which lye under the same ▪ the proper parts besides the muscles , bones , &c. are the dugs of both sexes , the midriff , the membrane of the sides termed pleura , and the mediastinum or partition-wall . the parts contained are the bowels and vessels . the bowels , are the heart with its heart-bag or pericardium , the lungs and part of the wesand or wind-pipe , o● aspera arteria . the vessels are the branches of the venae cava and arteria magna , underpropped with the thymus or kernel in the throat . and sundry nerves . chap. i. of the dugs . according to our anatomical method , the first parts in the chest which we dissect , as soon as we have done with the lower belly , are the dugs . now we shall treat of the dugs of women , casting in between while , wherein those of men differ therefrom . the scituation of the dugs , is in the middle of the brest , above the pectoral muscle , which draws to the shoulder . . because of the nearness of the heart , from whence they receive heat . . for comeliness sake . . for the more convenient giving of suck : because the infant cannot presently walk after the manner of brutes , but being embraced in his mothers arms , it is applied to the dugs . no other creatures have dugs in their breasts saving the apes , who hold their young ones in their arms likewise . laurentius tells us the elephant does the like , and riolanus sayes as much of the bat or flitter-mouse . some great sea-fishes of the whale-kind have dugs on their brests , full of milk , as we lately observed in a whale that came out of norwey . they are two in number : not because of twins ; but that one being hurt , the other might supply its office. howbeit varro reports , that sows will have so many pigs as they have teats . walaeus in a certain woman observed three dugs , two on the left side of her brest , and one on the right . and cabrolius observed in a certain woman four dugs , on each side two . as to their magnitude . in girls new born , there is only a print or mark visible on the brest , and afterwards by little and little it swells , and in little wenches hardly any thing appears beside the teats , untill by degrees they grow to the bigness and shape of apples ; and when they are raised two fingers high , their courses begin to flow . in old women they wither away , so that nothing appears but the nipples , the fat and kernels being consumed . in women they swel more , and in women with child the last moneths , they are more and more encreased . in men they do not rise so high as in women , because ordinarily they were not to breed milk [ yet because of the equality of the kind , it was convenient that men should have them as well as women . ] and therefore in men , the dugs are commonly without kernels : yet in burly people , the fat which is under them raised the breasts . in the kingdom of sengea , the dugs of women hang as low as their bellies ; and in the isle of arnabo , 't is said they turn them over their shoulders to their backs , and there suckle their children . their shape is roundish . they represent as it were an half globe . and in some because of their over-great weight they hang down . the dug is divided into the nipple and the dug it self . for in the middle of the dug there is to be seen a peculiar substance , which , is called papilla , the teat or nipple , being spungy , like the nut of a mans yard , and therefore it will fall and rise when it is suckt or handled . for it hath an excellent and exquisite sense of feeling , because it is as it were the centre , into which the ends of the nerves ▪ veins , and arteries do meet . which is apparent from the delicacy of its sense , and the redness of its color , a sure token of blood brought in by the arteries , by reason of the concourse whereof , chyrurgeons do judg cancers and other tumors about the nipple pernicious . riolanus believes that the skin is doubled , and as it were compressed : but the doubling would make it thicker . but the skin is exceeding tender , easily rubbed off , and apt to be pained when the child sucks very freely . only in old women it grows thick . not is the nipple any other where made of the skin straitned or folded . if the nipples turn upwards , a male child is in the mothers womb , if downwards a girl according to the tradition of hypocrates , which hath not been as yet ratified by the confession of women with child . as to number , there is one nipple on each dug . hollerius saw two nipples upon one dug , which both yielded milk. their colour in virgins is red , in such as give suck it enclines to black and blew , and in them also they are more sticking out , by reason of the infants sucking ; in such as are past child-bearing , the nipples are of a black color . they have a circle round about them which is called areola the little parsley-bed , in virgins pale and knotty , in such as are with child and give suck , brown , in old women black . 't is bored through the middle , with very small holes for the milk to pass through : for the use of the nipple is to be instead of a pipe or funnel , to put into the mouth of the infant , whereout it may suck the milk : secondly , to serve for a pleasing titillation , whereby mothers and nurses are enticed the more willingly , and with a certain sense of pleasure to give their children suck . the dugs do inwardly consist of a membrane , vessels , kernels , or rather kernellish bodies , and fat : though the two last do chiefly make up the dugs ; the kernels and fat lye concealed between the membrane and the skin . now the fleshy membrane does fasten the kernellish substance which it compasses , unto the muscles which lye thereunder . the kernels are many : in virgins more hard , in old women consumed , in such as are with child and give suck , more swelling and pappie . yet there is one great one , just under the nipple , which the other lesser ones do compass about , and infinite textures of vessels lye between them . riolanus hath observed a womans dug to consist of one continued kernel , and not of many , the contrary whereto we see in scirrhous and cancerous tumors . the use thereof is , to turn blood into milk. and the use of the fat of the dug is to encrease heat , and to make the dug of an even round shape . and therefore such as have the fat consumed by some disease or old age , they hang ill favoredly like empty bladders , and are unfit to make milk. the vessels . the dugs receive their skin and external veins from the axillary , which are called the thoracicae superiores , the upper chest-veins , which in women with child and such as give suck , are often black and blew visible . they receive other internal veins , brought thither a long way , that the blood might be the longer therein wrought , which are termed mammariae venae or dug-veins , which descend on each side one , from the trunk of the axillary vein , under the brest-bone , to the glandules or kernels of the dugs . these are met by other ascendent veins , by the right muscles , of which before : and therefore the infant being born , the blood is carried no longer to the womb , but to the dugs , and is turned into milk. and hence it is that women which give suck , have seldom their courses . hence also , when the children suck over-much , blood comes out at the nipples . yea , it hath been observed that a womans courses have come away through her dugs , and milk by her womb ; howbeit , this is a rare chance . but the matter of milk , be it what it will , cannot according to the principles of the bloods circulation , be carried by the veins to the dugs . the venae mammariae or dug-veins , do only carry back what remains superfluous , after the child is nourished , and milk made . moreover , they are seldome joyned with the epigastrick veins , and they are too few and small , alone to carry so much blood from the womb , as may suffice a child that is a liberal sucker . their arteries proceed from the upper trunk of the great artery : and from the subclavian branches , which are joyned after the same manner with the epigastrick arteries , as was said of the veins . the th racicae arteriae or chest arteries , so plentifully and evidently , that in cancerous tumors of the dugs , a woman hath bled to death by them , of which case i remember some examples . hence it seems more likely , blood is carried to the dugs to make milk , which blood being consumed in fat and elderly women they are therefore none of the best nurses . hence it is that women which give suck , receive great damage by loosing their blood ; contrariwise they are advantaged , by whatever may draw and provoke their blood to their dugs , as by rubbing them , &c. now prosper martianus and petrus castellus do maintain out of hypocrates , that the matter of milk is twofold , viz. blood and chyle : and that the greatest part of the matter thereof , is pressed out of meats and drinks , not yet digested in the stomach , into the dugs , by the child swelling in the womb , and after the child is born , by the passages made wide by sucking : and that another small part is made of blood ascending from the womb , which is rather to be reckoned as an efficient cause , by reason of its heat , then of a material cause . that blood alone is not the matter of milk , besides the authority of hypocrates , they prove , because . otherwise it were impossible that a woman should live , voiding two pounds of blood every day , in the form of milk. . when a woman gives suck , her courses flow , which in the first moneths of her going with child , are suppressed . . when a woman left breeding milk , she would fall into a dangerous pl●thory , or fulness of blood. . there would be no child-bed purgations at all , the milk being so violently carried into the dugs , the second day after child-birth , that it causes a feaver . . nature would then have framed greater vessels from the womb unto the dugs . . the milk would not retain the smell , and vertue or operation of the meats eaten , because these things are changed in the blood . the blood collected into the dugs , does breed madness . aphor. . sect. . but that it depends upon the stomach and the chyle , these following reasons evince . . the force and efficacy of purgatives , is after some hours violently carried into the dugs , as divers experiments do teach . yea and our country-women , when children that have the cough , suck at their breasts , they drink pectoral decoctions , and believe that the sucking child does presently draw them . . if a nurse do swallow an hair in her meat and drink ; it comes into her dugs according to aristotle , and sticking in the nipples , it causes the disease trichiasis or hair in the nipple . . a branch of cichory according to the observation of martianus , hath come out of a womans dug , which she had eaten the night before at supper : and bran hath been seen in the excrements of a child that only lived with sucking . . nurses perceive as soon as ever they have eaten and drunken , the going down of the milk , and the swelling fulness of their dugs . yea , and our nurses are extraordinary careful not to eat , while they give their children suck , for otherwise the children should suck undigested milk. . castellus pleads their scituation over the stomach , not near the liver or womb , excepting in beasts . . the milk is colder then the blood , and leaves more excrement in her that gives suck , then blood does in the embryo or child in the womb . howbeit we find many difficulties in this new opinion , and those of no small moment . . there are no manifest passages from the stomach to the dugs , which if any man can find , i shall willingly acknowledg my self convinced . martianus , indeed , castellus , vestingus , and horstius do talk of invisible passages , like the milkie veins , which cannot be discerned in a dead body ; or at least they conceive the pores of the flesh may suffice to admit a passage for milkie vapors . but the pores seem too narrow for thick chyle to pass through , which in the mesentery did require large milkie veins , which any body may discern . a subtile spirit and thin vapors with smoakie steams , do pass through the pores , and not the chylus , nor blood , according to nature ; for if so , then there were no use of vessels . nor is the infant satisfied only with vapors . i willingly acknowledg , that nature endeavors the translation of humors from one part to another by unknown wayes , but she does it compelled , and besides her customary course , whereas the breeding of milk is a constant and ordinary thing . . the dugs being heated by any other cause whatsoever , do not breed milk , but the action is hindred by the said heat . . nurses confess , that after they have drunk , the milk does manifestly descend out of their backs , and from about their channel-bones , and puts them to some little pain . for there the chest-arteries are seated , and not the stomach . . a tender infant should be ill nourished with undigested meat , having been vsed to be nourished with blood before . . out of the nipples of children newly come out of the womb , before the use of meat , a wheyish matter drops like milk , before they have eaten any meat . . what shall we say to that aphorism of hypocrates ? if a woman want her courses , neither any shivering o feaver following thereupon , and she loath her meat : make account that she is with child . . cows , when they eat grass after hay , or hay after grass , before the fifteenth day , there is no perfect change either in the constitution or colour of their milk or butter , according to the observation of walaeus ; yet they perfectly change their chyle the first day , but their blood more slowly . also our nurses observe , that after they have slept , and their meat is digested , their dugs make milk , which does not so happen , if they want sleep . . hogeland proves by famines and seiges , that when all the nutriment of the nurse is turned into perfect blood , yet nevertheless milk is bred in the dugs . wherefore until some diligent hand shall have found evident wayes and passages , for the answering of the contrary arguments : you are to note . . that we admit of the chyle as the remote matter of milk , but not as the immediate matter thereof . . that the blood being plentifully evacuated by the milk , is bred again by plentiful meat and drink ; and therefore the plenty of milk ceases when there is little drink taken in , as all nurses do testifie . morcover , such as are of a sanguin complexion afford most milk , whereas those that are of a tender constitution grow lean by giving suck . . that all the blood which is poured out of the arteries into the dugs , is not turned into milk , but only the more wheyish part , a great deal running back by the veins into the heart . . that women which give suck have their courses , because the vessels of the womb are then more enlarged , then in the first moneths of their going with child : and ever and anon they flow sparingly from nurses , and leave off by fits . also women that give suck seldom conceive , unless they be of a plethorick habit of body , that is to say full of good blood . our women when they would wean a boy , if their dugs swell , they do by certain medicines keep back the milk , by straitning the vessels , that the matter thereof may not enter nor be drawn that way . . that the breast and dug-arteries are large , and are more and more widened by continual sucking . . that the milk doth drink in the faculty of meats and purgatives , even by mediation of the blood , which conserves the color and faculty of the meats , though sundry digestions have preceded ; though vapors alone be raised , and the substance ascend not . . that many things are performed in the body , according to the singular constitution of particular persons , yea and many things which rarely happen , which is to be understood of the milk , which was in the dugs of that man at cous , and of other things thence voided . nerves are carried from the nerves of the chest , especially the fift , for to cause sense , and they end in the nipple . besides these vessels , the dugs have also white pipes , according to the observation of later anatomists , springing from the whole circumference of the lower part which growing narrower , do alwayes meet together , wherein milk being made , is preserved for use . whether or no they are nothing but widened arteries , becoming white , because of the change of the milk and the bordering kernels ( which i am willing to believe ) i leave to acuter eyes and wits to determine . they treasure up the milk , when there is occasion of omitting to give the infant suck : and when that use is over , they grow as small as the most capillary veins . their use is , . general in women and men , to be safeguards to the heart : hence nature hath given men of cold complexions larger dugs then ordinary ; and women that loose their dugs become rough-voiced , according to hypocrates . nor doth the pectoral muscle hinder , which performs the same office , which is riolanus his objection ; for the more noble parts require great fencing , even by the smallest thing , as the eyes from the eye-brows , the heart from the water in the heart-bag or pericardium , &c. ii. in women their use is to breed milk , to nourish the young infant . for the child was nourisht by blood in the womb , and milk is the same blood only whitened , so that nature seems to have put a trick upon living creatures by obtruding upon them the gentler appearance of white milk , in place of red blood , as plato hath it . which is the cause that the people of savoy and daulphine did anciently prohibit their preists , the use of milk , as well as of blood. now the efficient cause of milk , is not the womb , where milk was never observed , nor do the dugs breed milk , by that vertue thereof which it self wants ; nor of the veins or arteries , unless it be the nearest , can the vertue be communicated from the dugs . for as for what baronius relates of st. paul , how when he was beheaded , not blood but milk ran from his neck , either it was a miracle , if true ; or a serous humor flowed out , which sometimes flows from the arm , when a vein is opened , and i have seen it very like to milk , or finally the liquor of kernels being cut , did resemble milk . but the true efficient cause of the milk , is that same kernelly flesh of the dugs , unto which there is none like , in the whole body . now it works this moderate concoction by the propriety of its substance , and by reason of its proper temperament . aulus gellius conceives the milk becomes white , by reason of plenty of heat and spirit book . chap. . but i am more enclined to believe , that milk is white , because it is assimilated to the dugs that are of the same color . somtimes therefore ( though it happen seldom ) milk may be bred in virgins , and in women not with child , according to the observation of bodinus in his theatre of nature , of joachinus camerarius in schenkius , of petrus castell●s touching one angela of messina , of a. benedictus and christopher a vega concerning a girle of bridges , and of others . in scania in our country , a maid was lately accused to have plaid the whore , because she had milk in her dugs , which nevertheless she proved to be a propriety of her family , by producing her young brother who likewise had milk in his breasts . infants new born shed a wheyish milky liquor out of their nipples . these examples are confirmed by the authority o● hypocrates in the . aphorism of his fifth section , where women have milk though neither with child , nor lately delivered . and this happens , when the dugs are filled with abundance of spirituous blood , and suppression of courses be joyned thereto : for then the glandulous substance digests more then is necessary to nourish the woman . yea , in men that are fleshy , large-dug'd , and cold , of constitution , a milky humor , and as it were milk is frequently seen ; especially if their nipples be frequently suck'r , and their dugs rubbed , as the examples of many do testfie . aristotle writes of a certain hee-goat in the i stand le●…s , who yeilded so much milk , that c●rds were made thereof . matthiolus , tels us that in sundry places of bohemia , three goat-bucks were found , that gave milk , by which persons that had the falling-sickness were cured . others have seen men , out of whose dugs store of milk came . aben-sina saw so much milk milked from a man , that a cheese was made thereof . c. schenkius relates that laurentius wolfius had store of milk in his breasts , from his youth , till he was fifty years old . jo. rhodius had such an host in england , and santorellus knew a calabrian , who his wife being dead , and he unable to give wages to a nurse , did nourish his own child with his own milk . walaeus saw a flemming of like nature , who being even forty years of age , could milk abundance of milk out of huge dugs which he had . a. benedictus relates the story of a father that gave his son suck . and nicolaus gemma , vesalius , m. donatus , aqua-pendens , h. eugubius , baricellus , do witness the same thing , and i have allready told you as much of a boy of scania in our countrey of denmarke , and cardan saw a man thirty four years old , out of whose dugs so much milk did run , as would have suffised to suckle a child . they relate how that in the new world , all men well-near abound with milk . now that this was true milk which we have related did run from men , is hence apparent because , it was as fit to nourish children , as that of women . iii. the use of the dugs in women is to adorne them , and render them the more delectable to men. iv. they serve to receive excrementious moisture . whereupon their dugs being cut off , women incur sundry diseases ; because the blood which ascends finding no vessels to receive it , runs hastily into the principal parts , the heart , lungs , &c , which danger i conceive the amazones did study to avoid , by their so vehement exercising themselves in warfare . some cut the dug off when it is cancered , but the operation is dangerous , by reason of the bleeding which follows . chap. ii. of the intercostal , or rib-between muscles . sundry muscles which we meet within the chest shall be first of all explained in the fourth book , by reason of the method of section . but the intercostal or rib-between muscles , so called ; because they are interwoven between the ribs , must be explained in this place . now they are totally fleshy , forty four in number , on each side two and twenty ; eleven external ; and as many internal . for evermore between two ribs , two muscles rest one upon another : and there are eleven intervals or spaces between the ribs . others have done ill to make their number sixty eight . for in the intervals of the true ribs , they have made divers muscles lying hid between the boney parts of those ribs , differing from those which are found between the gristley parts . the external ones arise from the lower parts of the upper ribs , and descending obliquely towards the back-parts , they are inserted into the upper parts of the lower ribs . the internal contrary wi●e . the external end at the cartilages : the internal fil the spaces , both of the ribs and gristles . they have oblique fibres and mutually cross one the other like this le●●● x , because the muscles are otherwise short , because of the smalness of the intervals . hence in the opening such as have a suppuration in their chest , section is to be made straight according to the course of the fibres , nor overthwart , they have received sundry vessels . veins from the azygos and upper intercostal , arteries from both the intercostals . nerves from the sixt pare ; joyned to them which proceed from the marrow of the back . their use , is to dilate and contract the chest ; the external imitate the drawing of the subclavius : by raising the ribs , and straitning the chest , and help towards exspiration . the internal draw away the ribs , and by enlarging the chest help the drawing in of the breath . galen , contrarywise , makes the external serve for drawing in , and the internal for blowing out of the air , whose opinion is favored by vestingius , others with vesalius , will have the external muscles to thrust the lower ribs upwards , and the internal ones to draw the upper muscles downwards , that they might so mutually assist one another in straitning of the chest . but we should rather think , that when the internal ones are quiet , the external do act by themselves . fallopius , arantius , riolanus , do account them only to be fleshy ligaments of the ribs , whereby they are knit one to another , because the ribs cannot be moved of themselves , save by the muscles of the chest . but the thorachick or chest muscles being unmoved , the ribs are often moved by help of these muscles , receiving some impulse also from the diaphragma or midriff . the ligaments of a muscle are never bare . the ribs may be fastned one to another , and likewise moved by these , which is common to all other muscles . howbeit the motion of the ribs is obscure , because they are inarticulated in one part only , and the parts between the ribs are narrow ; but their number supplies their smalness . chap. iii. of the diaphragma or midriff . the i ▪ table ▪ the explication of the figure . this figure presents the external proper parts of the breast , also delineates the situation of the midriff in the body . a. the pectoral muscle in its proper place . b. the same out of its situation . c. the muscle serratus major anticus , or greaterfore-side-saw-muscle in its own place , being partly visible . d. the same out of its place . e. the serratus anticus minor , lesser foreside-sawmuscle . ff . the claviculae or chanel bones . g. the subclavian muscle . hhh . the intercostal , or rib-between muscles . iii. the diaphragma or midriff . k. part of the great descendent artery . l. an hole for the vena cava descendent . m. an hole for the gullet passing through the diaphragma . nn . the venae phrenicae or phrenick veins so called . oo . the phrenick arteries . pp . the two appendices or appurtenances of the diaphragma . qq . the muscles termed psoas . rr. the musculi quadrati or square muscles of the loynes . ss . the internal cavity of os ilium , or the flanck-bone . page ●● it s situation is overthwart , or across the body , and because it enclines a little downwards , oblique . it s figure is circularly round , saving the long appurtenances . this muscle is in number only one , because of the unity of its action common to both sides , but it is a great one . meyssonerius saw a double midriff at lyons . it s magnitude answers the diametral wideness of the lower belly , which is comprehended between the lower vertebra's of the back and the ribs . hence great and whaley flesh , because they have longer and more ribs then we have , have a larger midriff , creeping mean-while as far as to the extremities of the ribs . for , for it seems to arise from the vertebra's of the loyns , by two somwhat long fleshy parts ( which cleave to the muscles of the loyns , at the sides of the great artery , and growing by little and little wider , about the lowest vertebra's of the chest they grow together , where this muscle begins to grow circular ) and is fastned to the chest round about , beingknit where it is fleshy to the extremities of the ribs : though we should do peradventure more rightly , to make the beginning thereof , in its whole circumference , as well from the loyns as the ribs , which galen doth also somwhere insinuate : for seeing it could not be knit to the eleventh vertebra , because of the great artery , and the beginning of the lumbal muscle , it is strongly inserted , by its two smal appurtenances to the vertebra's of the loyns . galen somwhere ( whom sylvius , vesalius , aquapendens , spigelius and many more follow ) will have the middle of the diaphragma to be the head thereof , because the nerves are there inserted , and the centre in a circle , upon which one point of the compass doth rest , while the other is carryed about , may be well taken for the head of the said circle . but as it is a peculiar muscle , in situation , action , figure , nobility , &c. so hath it somwhat peculiar in this point . but the beginning or head cannot be in this centre , because it is moveable , and the ribs and vertebrae of the loyns , in respect thereof immoveable . moreover , the nervous or tendinous part , is the end of the muscles , and not their head. it s substance is fleshy , in the middle nervous and membranous , where a membranous centre shews it self and a nervous circle in stead of a tendon , to which fleshy fibres do run , from the circumference of the chest , as to their centre . whence necessarily the middle part of the motive muscle is nervous , for otherwise it could not be moved . secondarily , it helps to strength , in a perpetual motion , and in the suspension of the bowels which adhere thereunto ; moreover it serves to secure the vessels which pass through . to sustain the beating of the heart , it was not to be strong , as riolanus suspects , because . a soft part doth easily give way and yeild to a blow . . the point of the heart doth not strike against the midriff in its pulsation , for the heart smites the breast when it is erected in the systole , and is contracted at the sides ; in the diastole when it descends to the diaphragma , it becomes soft and flaggy , and gives no pulsation . note that wounds in the nervous centre of the diaphragma , are by all accounted deadly , whether because a nervous part being offended , doth induce a convulsion , or because it cleaves to the pericardium or heart-bag and to the liver , or because respiration perishes , and the heart placed over the same is likewise hurt ; for the pericardium and liver being hurt , do admit cure . a wound is more safely made in the fleshy circumference thereof . it is cloathed with a double membrane , for strength . the upper is from the pleura , to which the pericardium or heart-bag is firmly fastned , and somtimes also the lobes or laps of the lungs by little smal fiberkies ; the lower is from the peritonaeum . also it hath its proper substance , formerly described . it hath holes : some being very exceeding little , and others great . those very little ones are the pores , through which vapors arise from the inferior parts . they are widned by the perpetual motion of the diaphragma , not by odours and fumes , as helmont believes . otherwise , because the membrane is thick , it hinders the drinking in of thick vapors , and will not let them ascend without the vessels . among the greater , there is one on the right hand , in the middle of the nervous part , to give a passage to the vena cava : another on the left hand greater and somwhat backwarder , for the letting through of the gullet or oesophagus with tw●… nerves which go unto the stomach . and where it arises about the vertebra's of the loins , there appears a division , for the through-fare of the great artery , and the vena sine pari , or vein without fellow . these wide holes do admit from the inferior parts , the passage of thick vapors with the blood , which cannot be prohibited by the diaphragma . hence in the . aphorisme of the fift section 't is said , in a fruitful women , her lower parts being perfumed , the scent goes up to her nostrils . as to its vessels . it has veins and arteries from the neighbouring vessels vena cava and arteria magna , called venae phrenicae : and sometimes from the vena adiposa nerves are spred through its whole substance , being ▪ brought from the spinal marrow of the neck , between the fourth and fift vertebra : which is proper to this part , and common to no other internal part under the channel bones , because according to the conjecture of the renowned hofman , it was not to lie open to external wounds or blowes , least we should be masters of our own life or death . but instruments of death are every where obvious , which the love of life and fear of god hinders us from makeing use of . now they are carried through the cavity of the chest , and are propped up by the mediastinum . other anatomists have observed other nervs passing that way from beneath , proceeding from the costal and stomachick branches . and because the nervs of the diaphragma or midriff are in their passage mingled with certain little twigs , which are spread abroad into the muscles of the jaws and lips ; hence when the diaphragma is smitten there arises a kind of laughter , which is no real laughter , but a counterfeit one such as they call risus sardonius the sardonian laughter , because the muscles of the face suffering a convulsion at the same time , and the jaws and lips being moved this way and that way , the partie seems to laugh . such was the laughter of thycenis in hippocrates and of agnerus in our countryman sarco his relations , who was cut asunder in the middle with a sharp sword : also of that man in aristotle whose midriff being in the fight pierced with a dart , made him die laughing . pliny relates as much of other fencers , and homer tells us that juno laught with her lips when her forehead scowled . galen makes the cause of the sardonian laughter ▪ to be in the musculus latus quadratus , the broad square muscle . but it reaches not to the lips , laurentinus politianus , makes the spirits to be the cause of this convulsion , which because of the sense they have of some troublesome thing , run back to the upper parts . mancinius will have the heart to be widened , and the face drawn into the posture of laughing , by the hear which is raised by tickling and wounds , because he will have the heart to be the seat of laughter , in defence of aristotle whom physitians have confuted . riolanus has sometimes observed laughter to arise in the guelding of a man , which was the forerunner of a deadly convulsion ; for which cause he condemns our reason drawn from the nerves , not giving us in the mean time any better reason viz. why laughter should arise upon the wounding or hurting the nerves of the midriff and privities , and not when any other nerves are wounded . it s use is to help free respiration ; for violent respiration is assisted by the muscles of the chest ; the former respiration galen ●erms gentle or small , which depends only upon the midriff , the other strong , the intercostal muscles assisting thereto , a third sublime , where the diaphragma , intercostal or rib between muscles , and muscles of the chest do act all together . birds indeed , though they breathe have no midriff , but their breathing which is light and scarse perceptible , because of the lightness of their bodies , is performed by their lungs and chest . contrariwise fishes which breathe not have a midriff , but membranous , to seperate one belly from another . in the greater sort of sea fishes of the whaley kind , i have observed a fleshy midriff like that of creatures which live on the land. now the motion thereof is thus : when the breath is drawn in , the midriff is stretched , when it is blowne out , it is remitted or slackned , contrary to the opinion of arantius and laurentius . of whom the latter will have the midriff contrary to all other muscles to draw towards its end , and he will have the fibres which run out from the circumference of the chest , to be equally contracted , and the ribs to be drawn to the nervous circle , and so to cause respiration . but how can the membranous centre of the septum , draw the ribs to its self and contract the whole chest unless haply because it is fastned to the mediastinum . but i have observed more then once in dissections of living bodies , that the midriff is stretched out , when the creature draws in its breath . for the guts are driven downwards by the midriff when the breath is blown out , and they ascend again when the breath is drawn in , which also any man without anatomical section , may perceive in himself , by laying his hand upon his belly . in wounds of the diaphragma , the guts and stomach , when the breath is drawn in ascend into the chest , which paraeus twice observed , which differs only according to more or less , from the naturall course of breathing . now the motion of the midriff ought to be such , because the chest when the breath is drawn in , must be widened to receive and contain the air and swoln lungs ; and contrarywise , when the air is breathed out , the chest ought to be straitned , because then the sooty vapours are expelled , and the lungs flag and become small again , and therefore in the former case the midriff is lifted up , and in the latter depressed . jo. walaeus besides that motion , whereby the fleshy part gives way inwardly , has observed another motion in the diaphragma during the drawing in of the breath , whereby the fleshy part thereof being contracted into it self , comes to have folds in it , so that one portion of the fleshy part is placed upon another : and he observed that this folding is chiefly about the appendices or appurtenances , and when the breath is strongly drawn in : and he conceivs that by this means the midriff is the more shortened , and the chest by the lifting up of the ribs , more widened . ii. to assist the muscles of the belly , in their compression , when they would force out the excrements and the child in the womb : for from above it thrusts the guts downwards . hence , according to the observation of platerus , when the belly is costive , sneezing and coughing do help , because thereby the midriff and dung conteined in the guts , are driven downwards , because of the strugling of the said midriff and its bearing down , the excrements of the belly and urine come away of themselves in live anatomies and in such as are put to death by hanging . iii. to distinguish the lower belly with the natural parts , from the middle belly with its vital parts , least from the ignoble parts frequent vapours should ascend , to the parts more noble , as the heart &c. iv. according to hippocrates , it is the fan of the lower belly , which fannes and cooles the hypocondria or parts under the snort ribs . v. others suppose it causes natural respiration , because it depends not upon our will and pleasure , and moves when we are asleep , and never so much as think of it , and by help thereof , men in apoplexies do for a season breathe . but piccolhomineus does more rightly assign a voluntary motion thereunto , howbeit only when some necessity constrains , as in easing of the belly , pissing , and fetching of breath , because it is a muscle of a nature by it self ; but not a motion absolutely or simply voluntary , which is discerned in progression & apprehension , that is to say in going and handleing . it s motion ceases in a strong apoplexy , only transpiration does then remain : but in a light apoplexy , we see the diaphragma also moved with the chest muscles . chap. iv. of the pleura , mediastinum , and thymus . the pleura or rib-coate , which the greeks call chitòn hupezocòs , or absolutely bumèn , is a membrane which on the inside cloathes the cavity of the chest , hard and white , but in some pleuretick persons according to hippocrates , black and blew , whence it is that practitioners conceive that this is affected in the pleurisie , which notwithstanding is demonstrated to happen secondarily , by manelphus , cletus , platerus , zacchius , vitaglianus , benedictus . it is somewhat thicker and stronger then the peritoneum . ariseing from the coats , which cover the intercostal nerves which proceed out of the backbone , by means of which it is continued with the coats of the brain . and therefore it is thicker in the back , to whose vertebra's it cleavs as it were inseperably . hofmannus will have it arise from the breast-bone rather than the vertebra's of the back , wherein he is out , as i have proved in my animadversions upon hofman , and in my anatomical colledge . in diseases of the chest , it becomes many times ten-fold thicker : though others say it is so attenuated in pleuritick persons , that it can hardly be descerned . fallopius saw it of a thick callous substance , in a dropsie of the lungs , and platerus saw it in like manner swoln by a scirrhous tumor . it is every where double , that the vessels may be carryed within the folding thereof . the outer part which looks towards the chest , is harder and thicker , the inner part being fastned to the ribs is thinner . between these the matter of the pleurisie is often collected , and not only between the pleura and muscles . galen makes it to be single , and will allow it to be double , only about the mediastinum . riolanus explains that same duplicature to mean its thickness , which cannot be shewed without tearing . the contrary whereto is manifest in the swoln sides of such as have the pleurisie . it hath its inner surface smooth , least it should by its roughness hurt the lungs ; its outer more rough that it might be the stronglyer fastned . somtimes it is found furnished with a little fat ( as there is also now and then in the peritonaeum ) near the vertebra's of the back , where the vessels are greater then ordinary . the ribs also have their periosteum or membrane so called , which some call the third coat of the pleura , and others membrana circumossalis the bone-about membrane . it hath very many holes , the lowermore of which i have reckoned up in the history of the diaphragma , the upper are there where it affords passage to the vena cava , the arteria aorta , the wezand or aspera arteria , the gullet and the nerves of the sixt pare . as for its vessels . it hath veins from the solitary vein or vena fine pari , and the upper intercostal or rib-between vein ; arteries from the intercostal or rib-between artery , and from the great artery ; nerves , twelve in number , proceeding from the foreside of the vertebra's of the chest . and therefore wounds in this part are attended with most grievous pains . it s use is . . according to galen to plaster over the whole cavity of the chest and to render it smooth and even , that the lungs migt not be hurt in their motion . . to cloath the chest and its parts on the inside ( even as the peritonaeum affords coats to the parts of the lower belly ) and to constitute the partition membrane . or , mediastinum , which is an of-spring of the pleura , being a doubl● membrane ; separating the cavity of the chest and the lungs into two parts . for after that the pleura having taken its original about the back hath ascended by the sides to the brest-bone , taking its course again towards the back-bone , it is carried right out from the middle of the brest to the back . being fastned on each hand to the sides of the brest-bone , this membrane is not obscurely double , as is the pleura , but visibly , being constituted of the pleura doubled ; and there seems at first sight to be as great a space between both , under the brest-bone , as the breadth of the breast-bone comes to . but this is only in appearance and not really so ; for that same cavity under the breast-bone , is then only caused , when the breast-bone is in dissection , pluckt from the mediastinum , for before the membranes of the mediastinum are most closely united one to another . which it is strange that no anatomist did observe before ad falcoburgius . after him , i have often made the experiment , in grown persons and children new born , in land-beasts and large sea-fishes ; nor could i shew any cavity betwixt the mediastinum and breast-bone , no not to the most expert spectators , but i found the membranes of the former sticking close by certain fibres to the latter , which we forcibly separated with a penknife . which that it might be more apparent , the inwards of the belly and the midriff being taken away , i made it visible to the eyes of all that were present . these things are to be understood of the lesser cavity ( to satisfie riolanus who is my adversary in this point ) between the membranes of the mediastinum and the sternum : for the greater , wherein the evermoveing heart is seated , no man in his right wits will ever deny . in this greater cavity , or in this duplicature● if a wound inflicted on the foreside shall penetrate , lightly , so that the heart settling beneath remain unhurt , it is sufficiently void of peril and safe enough ; which one unskillfull in anatomy would pronounce deadly , but towards the vertebrae , the cavity grows narrow by little and little , and the membranes meet together . but in the middle the cavity is wider , and in the fore part of the said cavity , the heart and vena cava are placed ; in the latter part the gullet , with the stomach nerves . if in this cavity humors praeternaturally assemble and putrifie , they may safely be let out by boreing an hole in the breast-bone , if we believe columbus and hofmannus , which nicolaus fontanus doth notwithstanding deny . it is of a thinner and softer substance then the pleura ; and about the vessels t is frequently full of fat like the call. for vessels , it hath veins and arteries from the dug-vessels and the solitary vein or vena sine pari , applied inwardly to the breast-bone , which being taken away they become visible : also it hath its own proper vein called mediastana , which is somtimes one and large , other whiles double and smal . also the phrenick and stomachick nerves are carryed through this duplicature , and afford branches to the mediastinum . the use of the mediastinum is , i. to divide the chest into two parts , that one division of the lungs being hurt by a wound or otherwise , the other might perform its office . ii. to hang the heart and heart-bag dangling in so free a posture , as to strike against no part of the chest . iii. to sustaine the vessels running through the same , as also the midriff in mankind , least it should by the weight of the bowels be drawn too much downwards . the ii. table . the figures explained . this table represents the brest-bone cut off and lifted up , also the mediastinum and the lungs , with the midriff . fig . i. aaa . the inner surface of the brest-bone and the gristles interwoven therein . bb. the dug-veins and arteries descending beneath the brest-bone . c. the glandulous body called thymus . dddd . the sides of the mediastinum pluck● asunder . ee . the distance between the two membranes of the mediastinum which is caused by its forcible separation from the brest-bone . f. the protuberancy of the mediastinum , where the heart is seated . gg . the lungs . hh . the midriff . i. cartilago ensiformis , the sword-like gristle . fig . ii. a. the left nerve of the midriff . b. the right nerve thereof . c. the upper membrane of the midriff a little separated . d. the naked substance of the midriff . e. the hole for the gullet to descend through . f. the hole or the vena cava . ggg . the membranous part or centre of the midriff . hhh . the portions or appendices thereof , between which the great artery descends . fig . iii. represents that same glandulous body , seated by the larynx ▪ aaa . the glandules or kernels which naturally breed upon the larynx . b. a portion of the jugular vein , out of which two smal twigs proceeding , do spread themselves through the substance of the glandules or kernels . page blood-conveighing vessels do pass through this thymus or sweet-bread ; howbeit in the substance thereof , being dissected , we cannot manifestly disscerne any . the use therefore of the thymus is . to underprop those great vessels which ascend that way , as the vena cava , arteria magna , and their branches passing along to the arms and shoulder-blades . . also for safeguard , as is usual , and that the vessels may not be hurt by touching upon the bones . . that it may be as it were a cover and fence for the heart , for i have seen it as a bulwork to the heart , which the heart of a child in the womb stands in need of , because as yet it stirs not . and therefore it hath a large thymus , as a sturgeon also hath and other creatures which live in the water , by reason of the external cold . chap. v. of the heart-bag and the humor contained therein . the pericardium which some term the coat , case , box , chamber , cover of the heart , or heart-bag , &c. is a membrane compassing the whole heart , whose figure it therefore emulates , as also its magnitude : but it is so far distant from the heart , as is necessary for the hearts motion , and the reception of the liquor contained in this bag. columbus assures us , that a scholar of his had no pericardium . it arises at the basis from the coates which compass the vessels of the heart , which proceed from the pleura ( for this coat is not between the basis of the heart and the pericardium ) where for their sakes . it hath five holes ; viz. for the ingate and outgate of the vena cava , and for the letting out of the other three vessels . it s situation is more to the left side then the right ; and more to the fore then the hinder part of the body . it is knit circularly to the mediastinum , with very many fibres , and to the neighbouring parts , but especially the nervous circle of the midriff , it cleaves exceeding close , which is a thing peculiar to mankind : for herein a man differs from dogs and apes , and in all other creatures likewise , the difference holes . it s external surface is fibrous , the internal slippery , and both void of fat . it s substance is thick and hard , and so much harder then the lungs , as it is softer then a bone . its vessels . it hath smal veins . below from the phrenick vessels , above from the axillary . it hath no arteries that can well be seen ; peradventure , because it is so near the heart . yet doubtless it hath some although hard to be discerned . it hath very smal nerves , from the left recurrent , and the little twigs of the septum . it s use is i. to be a firme tabernacle for the heart , that in its motion it might not strike against the hard parts of the body . ii. to contain a wheyish or watry humor , like urin to see to , though neither sharpe nor salt , transparently clear , in some like water , wherein flesh hath been washt ; guil. toletus in burgensis calls it a flegmatick humor of an unpleasing tast . and because of this liquor galen resembles the heart to a bladder . this humor is found in all animals naturally constituted , both living and dead , yea and in the child in the womb , as appears by the dissection of bodies both living and dead : but in some more in others less ; in persons that are in a consumption , it is very little and inclining to yellowness . in persons pleuritick it is now and then of a quittorish nature , according to the observation of salmuth . in dead bodies t is more plentyful : because then very many spirits are in the cooled parts of the body condensed into water . in women ▪ children , and aged persons , t is more plentyful , by reason of the debility of their heat . if it happen to be in two great a quantity , palpitation of heart , and a suffocating death follows therefrom : if it be quite consumed , a consumption of the body happens . but that it may be bread a fresh when it is spent , we see clearly in those whose heart-bag being wounded , the said liquor hath run out ; for in johannes saviolus , his heart-bag being wounded with a dagger , water issued at every pulse of his heart , out of the wound , yet was he happily cured by the renowned veslingus . whence this water should have its original , the opinions of learned men are different . i. the first opinion is of those , who will have it to be sent out of the vessels of the heart , seeing blood-letting cures the panting of the heart proceeding from the super abundance of this liquor : and they conceive that this waterish liquor is forced out by the fervent heat of the heart , as in a stick of wood when it burns the sap runs out . of kin to this is the opinion of nicolas massa , which will have it to proceed from the strainings of the blood , which come from the liver to the ear of the heart . and hofman is much of his mind , who maintaines that it is part of that wheyish moisture which ascends to the heart with the blood ; but because the motion thereof is perpetual , there would no smal danger arise , from so large an afflux of humors . i let pass , how that the stronger persons , whose blood is moved most swiftly , have less quantity of this water then those that are weaker . ii. others , and among them hippocrates seems to make one , will have it to proceed from our drink , some portion whereof they conceive peirces like dew out of the asperia arteria , into the arteria venosa . iii. some conceive it proceeds from a watry matter in the seed , as the inbred air of the ears , is thought to proceed from a windy matter in the said seed . iv. of kin hereunto is the opinion of jasolinus , who will have it to be a select , most perfect and elaborate portion of the serons humor , sent thither by nature it self , haply in the first formation of the child , through the veins and arteries , besides another part of the drink , of which hippocrates speaks , and he has experiments touching the same . v. some say it proceeds from the watry excrements of the third digestion . vi. others from the spittle , slipping out of the kernels of the tongue into the wezand , and from thence into the arteries and heart . vii . others , from the fat of the heart , by agitation turned into water . viii . others from the thicker part of the air which we draw in , being changed into water . ix . and lastly , some think ( which i conceive to be most likely ) that it proceeds from moist vapors and exhalations , forced out of the humors of the heart by the motion and heat theerof , and thrust forth into the heart-bag and there congealed into water , in regard of the compactness of the said heart-bag . it s use is , i. to moisten and cool the heart , and to facilitate the motion thereof . and therefore those in whom it is consumed , have their hearts roasted : as it happened to casimire the marques of brandenburg : and to that young man of rome , mentioned by panarolus . hofmannus being of a contrary mind , will needs have it to be as a spur and incitement of heat ; as smiths are wont to dip their wisps of straw in water that they may burn the longer : and as wood is sprinkled with water to make it burn more lustily . but those bundles of straw are preserved by the water , because their substance being made more moist and tenacious , is not so soon consumed . but the heat of the heart is preserved by its radical moisture , and by the blood continually flowing in , nor doth it need any incitement from the water , for if so , then the heart would be more hot and lusty in old persons , who have most water in their heart-bags , ii. it serves to make fat by congelation . iii. that the heart by swimming therein , may be less ponderous , and may not strike against any part . an humor likewise is commonly found in the cavity of the chest , resembling blood and water mingled together , wherewith the parts of the chest are smeared , that they may not be overheated nor overdryed . hence the side of our saviour being opened , blood and water flowed out , which by the suddan flux , and mixture of blood and the authorities of the ancients , i have at large proved , in my dispute of the side of christ , against laurentius , arias montanus , bertinus , nancelius , poza , tremellius , beza , tirinus , grotius and others , who would have it to proceed from his pericardium or heart-bag , also against collius , tarnovius , brentius , laurenbergius among the late writers , and cyprianus , prudentius , brigitta , vida , sannazarius , vigerius , &c. who would fetch it from the vessels of the heart being wounded . now the objection of p. laurenbergius is not worth a button , who saies there was not enough of the said liquor in the cavity of the chest ; because . the natural quantity might suffice , seeing the evangelists do not record that it come away in a great quantity . . it might be augmented in that last conflict for life , notwithstanding the great perfection of his body , which being for our redemption made liable to temporary passions , underwent death it self . . i have at padua somtimes observed so great a quantity of water in this part , that it hung down like a great purse , the midriff being depressed by its weight . jasolinus in wound of the chest ( the inner parts being unhurt ) did somtimes collect every day five measures of water called heminae , for thirty daies together , which the membranes being inflamed , was dried up and diminished , but when the inflammation was cured , it returned in its former quantity . in a boy at paris , who died of the small pox , i being present , store of water was found in this part , but of a green colour , of which else-where . chap. vi. of the heart in general . the heart is called in latine cor à currendo from running , because of its motion ; some peradventure will derive it from the greek name kêr which they derive from céo which signifies to burn : the greeks term it cardia , we the heart , quasi bieròn a sacred thing . it is the principall part of a living creature , which none is found to want according to aristotle , and by the hurting whereof the creaure does for the most part immediately die , because it is the fountain of life , and labors the vital spirits , which having made , it distributes , by the arteries arising from it self , into the whol body , yet may you find examples in schenkius of those that have had no hearts . see also gellius book the . chap. . galen relates that beasts sacrificed have lowed at the altar , after their hearts were taken out ; and the lord verulam tells of a man who spake three or four words of a prayer , when his heart was pluckt out of his body , and in the hand of the executioner . plinie tells us the entrails were twice found without any heart , when caesar sacrificed , and julius obsequens saies the same . the lives of such persons were maintained by the remainders of arterial blood. and spigelius suspects that among the bowells , the heart was rather hid , and unfound then wanting , who saw so much fat in an ostrich , that a man might easily have bin deceived , so as to think the fowl had no heart . peradventure those hearts of the sacrifices were stole away by the devil . a live-wight dies not with every hurt of the heart . for the heart undergoes all kind of diseases . . putrefaction , witness galen , in a pestilential and a putrid fever . . the consumption according to plinie , to be dried like a roasted warden , according to jordanus . to be wholly consumed by immoderate heat , as tileseus averr's . . inflammation , in which case it cannot live a natural day , as saxonius found by experience in a certain reader . . filthy hollow ulcers have bin found therein by fernelius , trincavellius , riverius . . divers kinds of tumors , columbus saw an hard tumor in the left ventricle of a cardinal , as big as an egg. benevenius saw a swelling of black flesh . massa , hollerius , bauhinus , and joubertus , have other like stories . i lately found in the parenchyma of an oxes heart on the left side a swelling as big as a pigeons egg , in a double coat , full of whey and flegm . on the out side gesner saw an excrescence of flesh , in the basis the quantity of an ounce and six drams bavius makes mention of the membrane eaten and fretted away round about . also histories shew that it will bear wounds for a season . paraeus tells of one wounded in the heart who ran two hundred paces . jacotius tells of an hart that carried an old arrow fixed in its heart , which is confirmed by thomas à vega and alexandrius . galen saw an hare wounded in the heart , run a darts cast after the wound received . of a student at ingolstade , sennertus and iohnstonus tells us , who had both the ventricles of his heart peirced through with a weapon , and nicholas mullerus of a souldier who lived fifteen daies after he had received a wound in his heart , of which he hung up a table at groeningen . he recounts many like examples seen by himself , and tulpius tells us of one that lived two daies , being wounded in the right ventricle . glandorpius tells us after sanctorius , that the heart of a rabbit was pierced with a sharp instrument , and yet it lived many months after . wee must therefore note . that the heart can endure diseases , but because it lies far from the way of medicines , it cannot hold out so well as other parts . . that , as galen tells us , if the wounds do pierce into the belly thereof , the party or creature wounded dies , of necessity , but if they be in the substance thereof , it may live a day and a night , but then inflammation arising death follows . that the right ventricle does more easily bear an hurt , because upon the left depends the life of the whol body . . both ventricles may endure a small time after they are hurt , if the vessels that continue the motion of the blood , be undamnified . the heart is one in number , theophrastus writes , that in paphlagonia partridges have two hearts , an example whereof galen relates in a man , in his anatomical administrations . it is situate in the middle of the body , not considering the leggs , as it is in brutes ; in which the heart is in the middle , for moveableness and securities sake , and in the middle of the chest likewise , where it is on all sides compassed with the lungs . now the heart in respect of its basis , is exactly in the middle , that nourshing blood and spirit might more commodiously be distributed into the whole body . howbeit the motion thereof is more discernable in the left side . because in its left ventricle the vital spirit is contained , and from thence arises the arteria magna , hence the common people imagin that a mans heart resides in his left side , but practitioners applie cordials to the left side . because the point of the heart enclines towards the left side , under the left nipple , that it may give way to the diaphragma : now to the right hand it could not decline , by reason of the vena cava , which ascends there through the middest of the chest . sometimes the upper part of the heart enclines to the left side , and such persons are left handed if we beleive massa , those whose heart is exactly in the middle , use both hands alike . as to its magnitude . in a man proportionably the heart is greater then in other creatures , as also the brain and liver . according to the common course of nature , it equalls six fingers breadths in length , and four in breadth . otherwise , the greatness of the heart differs according to the difference of the age and temperament . for persons cold of constitution , and fearfull have great hearts , but such as are more hot and confident , have little hearts : of which see donatus . hence aristotle saies of fearfull creatures , as the hare , deer , mouse , hyena , ass , weazel , &c. that they have a great heart , considering the proportion of their bodies . the philosiphers of aegypt , in ancient times , as appears by herodotus in his euterpe , have dreamed these things of the greatnes of the heart . that the heart of such persons , as are not wasted by any violent disease , does every yeer grow two drams heavier , till they become fifty yeers old , so that a man of fifty yeers age , his heart weighs an hundred drams : but from the fiftyeth year to the hundredth , by a retrograde or back motion , it looses every yeer two drams , till it vanish away , and the party die . it s figure is conick , because it ends in a point . it s upper part by reason of the full vessels therein , is broad and round , although not exactly , and is called the root and head , and basis of the heart : the lower part being sharper is called conus , mucro , vertex , cuspis and apex cordis ; the cone , point , top of the heart . hippocrates calls it the end and taile . on the foreside the heart is more bossie , on the hinder side more flat . in the contractions the whole heart is longer as some hold , but broader and more drawn together according to others ; in its dilatations or widenings it is greatest , and of a globous figure , of which i shall speak more exactly hereafter . it s connexion is to the mediastinum and the midriff by the pericardium ; but to other parts by its vessels , they are joyned to the basis . the point being free , and hanging dangling like a bell in the steeple , that it may the more easily be drawn back to its basis , or moved to the sides . it s substance is first membranous , like a bladder , in the child in the womb , afterward from the mothers blood there grows flesh or a solid , thick and compacted parenchyma . . that it might endure the perpetuity of the motion : for a fence , and that it might more forcibly drive the blood to places far distant in the whole body . least the subtile and lightfull spirits contained even in the moveable blood should exhale together with the inbred heat . in the right side the wall is less thick , because it sends blood only to the lungs , which have their venal blood not so subtile . the strength of the left side is greater , by reason of stronger motion to drive on the blood , to supply the necessity of the whole body . in the point , the flesh is thicker and harder not so much because it ought not to be moved , as riolanus conceives , as because it is free , contracting the whole heart in a brief manner , and destiture of vessels and ears . in its basis , it is not so much softer as thinner . whose vessels and ears do recompence what it wants of firmness . now this flesh hath all kinds of fibres , so mingled one with another , and so compact , that they cannot be easily discerned ; partly for strength , partly for motion . for all these fibres being stretched in the systole of the heart they draw together the ventricles and the inner sides , to help the protrysion or thrusting forward of the blood . this substance is cloathed with a coat hardly separable , for the greater firmness , to which it grows in respect of the matter , not of the efficient cause . there is fat about the pasis of the heart but hardly about the cone or sharpe end thereof , because it is moistned by the liquor of the heart-bag , . to anoint the veins about the heart . . and to moisten the heart , that it may not be dryed by motion . . to heat the water in the heart-bag , as the fat of the kidneys doth , according to the conjecture of john daniel horstius . somtimes it is quite hid with the said fat , which spegelius , riolanus , jessenius observed in a prince of lunaeburg , so that the by-standers are apt to be deluded and think there is no heart . it was nevertheless rightly said by aristotle , galen and avicenna , that fat called pimele could not grow about any hot part , as the heart , the liver , the arteries , the veins , &c. for this kind of fat is easily melted by heat ; but in the mean while , to stea● adeps or tallow , which differs much from pimele or greasie fat , in substance , consistency and place , as i have demonstrated in my vindiciae anatomicae from pollux , suidas , erotianus and others , may grow about such parts , because it is not easily melted . which makes a sputtering when it is put to the flame of a candle , because of a watry substance mingled therewith , according to the observation of jasolinus , which hinders it from suddain congealing : so that it is no wonder that it is not melted by the heat of the heart . now this same tallow is bred about the heart , either because the heart being of a very hard substance is nourished with thick blood , of which suet is bred ; or because excrementitious dregs are bred of the nutriment of the heart ; or because the blood is much stirred , as by the great agitation of milk , better is extracted , which is the opinion of achillinus . as for vessels . the heart hath a vein which is termed coronaria the crown-vein , because it incircles the heart , and is somtimes double . it arises from the cava , without the right ventricle , about whose basis it expatiates in a large tract from the right eare , and with a wide channel it compasses about externally to the left ear , which it doth not enter , but turns aside into the parenchyma of the heart . hence it spreads its branches downwards through the surface of the heart , but the greatest store through the left side thereof , because the flesh is there thicker . a smal valve is fastned in its original , which grants entrance to the blood into the right ventricle , but will not suffer it to go out . the iii. table . the figure explained . this table shews the situation of the heart in the body and the going out of certain vessels therefrom . a. the heart in its natural situation enclosed in the heart-bag . bb. the lungs . cc. the nervous part of the midriff . ddd . the flesby portion thereof . e. a portion of the vena cava above the heart , going upwards . f. part of the said vein peircing the midriff . g. the great artery arising out of the heart . hh . its branches to med carotides , the drowsie-arteries . i. the point of the heart enclining to the left side of the body . kk . the nerves of the sixt conjugation , from which the recurrent nerves do spring , which distribute five branches to the heart-bag & the heart . l. the left ear of the heart . m. the right ear. n. the vessels of the heart-bag . o. the cartilago scutiformis , sheild-fashioned gristle . p. the first pare of the muscles of the larynx in their proper place , q. the situation of os hyoides . r. the aspera arteria or wezand . s. the axillary artery , about the original whereof , the right-hand recurrent nerve begins . page as for its use . some have perswaded themselves , that it serves to nourish the external part , because it is lesser then ordinary , creeps about the external surface only , and the heart is nourished with arterial blood . others will have it to nourish the whole heart . licetus assignes its office to strain the blood to the left ventricle of the heart , which i wonder at , because . it is exceeding smal . . it creeps about the external parts . . it arises externally from the vena cava . and not from the right ventricle of the heart . botallus seems to have acknowledged the same way , whose opinion examined by walaeus . others , as riolanus , make it serve not so much for nutrition , as to repaire the fat ; but , first it reaches farther then the fat . . no branches thereof are to be seen in the fat . . the fat may be generated from vapors of the heart , without any veins . the true use of the coronary vein is , to bring back the blood of the other veins , when it returnes from nourishing the heart , into the right ventricle again , which the situation of the valves doth hint unto us , and the unfitness of this blood to nourish the solid substance or parenclyma of the heart . it hath two coronary arteries from the great one , at the same place , in its original , before it passes out of the pericardium , furnished with a valve which prohibits the regress of the blood. through these , because they are moved and pulse , blood is carryed to nourish the heart and ears , and here is made a peculiar kind of circulation , as harvy teaches , out of the left ventricle into the arteries , out of them into the coronary veins , out of which it slides into the right ventricle , being to be forced again through the lungs into the left ventricle . now some men perswade themselves , and especially hogelandius , that the blood which remains after nutrition , doth not all pass back through the veins , but that some particles thereof sweat through the parenchyma into the ventricles , and cause fermentation in the generation of arterial blood . but . the fermentation , if there be any , may be made by the reliques contained in the cavities . . the coronary vessels , do not reach unto the ventricles . . t is hard when the body is in health , for the blood to sweat through so hard and compact a flesh , unless the blood be very wheyish , and the body of a thin texture . . why doth not the blood sweat through the skin , which in some parts is very thin ? . no particle remains in the flesh , save what is ordained for the nourishment thereof . nerves it hath likewise , obscure ones , from the sixt conjugation , inserted into three places : one being terminated into the heart it self : another into its ears ; a third among its greater vessels , to cause sense and not motion according to piccolhomineus , because the nerve being cut asunder the heart moves nevertheless . the heart hath not many nerves , but a great contexture of fibres like to the nerves , which aristotle perhaps reckoning for nerves , said the heart was the original of the nerves . but that may be materially true , not formally . yet i have seen in the heart of a sow , the branches of the nerves with intangled twigs towards the cone or point , carryed from the septum to the wall of the belly . yet that is false which fallopius tells us , that a great squadron of nerves is spread up and down the basis of the heart , resembling a net : for the motion of the heart , is no animal motion , but a natural motion , because the heart is no muscle : for the heart is moved without our will , and it beats in the child in the womb , before the child hath received the animal faculty . and galen did rightly deny that the heart was a muscle . . because it hath all kind of fibres . . because a muscle is the instrument of voluntary motion . but if any one shall say the heart is a muscle subservient to natural motion , i shall oppose such an improper manner of speaking : and so that of hippocrates may be true , that the heart is a muscle . for he defines a muscle to be flesh made up into an orbicular shape . others conceive that being long boyled it resembles a muscle , and that then it is not one , but divers muscles , by reason of divers motions contracted into themselves . others grant it to be a muscle of a nature by it self , as the midrifl , which is perpetually moved . walaeus most rightly of all others calls it not a muscle , but saies it is contracted in its motion like a muscle , by fibres interwoven in the flesh , and especially in the ventricles , like the temporal muscle in such as chew their meat . the temperament of the heart in respect of active qualities is hot , yea the hottest of al the parts of the body . how beit with a gentle and light-ful heat , not scorching and burning , if it be rightly disposed . and therefore t is no wonder , that in live dissections , somtimes we feel so little heat in the heart with our finger , especially when our skin is thick , we hold it but a little while , and the external air is not rightly prepared before hand . it communicates the same heat to other parts , and renders ths arterial blood fit to nourish , which heat being asswaged in the veins by reason of the long jorney , it must of necessity run back again to the heart , that it may be refurnished and restored with the same heat . but vain is the opinion of averroes , that the heart is cold , because of the cold parts which it contains , viz. its vessels and valves : unless haply he ment the heart void of spirit , as many will have it . those whose heart is hotter then ordinary have their breast rough with hair , and the parts near their hypochondria ; and those men are angryly inclind , and daring . seldom is the heat of the heart so great , as that it self should thereby become rough with hair , such as pliny and valerius maximus tell us was found in aristomenes a micenian ; and in hermogenes● a ●…cian , coelius rodiginus relates : and benevenius , z●… lusitanus and murelus avouch that they saw such ●●●●ry heart in certain famous theives . now such 〈…〉 are audacious in the highest degree , extream 〈…〉 crasty , and for the most part wicked . riola●●● ●●us , that the matter of these haires , is the thi●●●or things of that wheyish humor which is in the heart-bag . but i am more apt to beleive , that it is the plenty of fuliginous excrements springing from an hot heart . as to the passive quallities , the heart is moist , viz. more moist then the skin , but drier then the muscles , because harder : for the parts of the bodie , look how much softer they are then the skin , by so much are they moister then it . it is a most rare case for a mans heart to be so solid , dense and compact , as that it will not burn , such as was the heart of germanicus the son of drusus ; or cartilaginous , such as riolanus observed in a wicked fellow . the primary use of the heart . . according to harvey , baccius , and other of his followers , is no other then to be the instrument of the soul , to force and urge the venal blood received from the ears into the arteries , by whose assistance it dispenses nutriment to the whole body , and is rather joyned as an assistant to the ears , that being of greater force , it may supply the defect of the ears . but this is a secondary use of the heart . for . nutriment was to be prepar'd & filled with vital heat , which it has not else where save from the heart . . nature might have provided for this passage of the blood , by some other member not so laboriously framed , . the necessity of the heart would not be so great as it is . . it is a signe that some farther thing is performed i● the heart , in that venal blood does not nourish , before it enters the heart . now the primary action of the heart is to be . ii. the fountain of heat , whence it is spred into the whole body , whereby the parts are animated and sustained . swowneing teaches so much and other defects of the heart , in which the heat of the heart being intercepted , the members of the body begin to flag and being destitute of heat , become stupid . and therefore cordials do good in such cases , which stir up the languishing and nummed heat of the heart . also the dissection of living creatures does shew , that the heart is hot , yea that the heart of a creature being taken out and newly dead , a warm finger , or some other warm thing being laid upon it , is seen to come to its self again and to stir , which the lord bacon constantine , harvey , and others have observed in a dove , an eele , a salmon , and a man. it is therefore the fountain of heat , both in respect of its substance and of the blood contained in it . i joyn both together . for the heat springs not from the blood alone , as harvey would have it , for the heart in an egg , and a child in the womb , before it is perfect and hollowed with ventricles , is hot and moves , and the same heat remains in hearts taken out of the body and cut up . the blood which flows thither from the coronary vessels , flowes thither for nutritions sake and to preserve the heat . nor are the rest of the sanguine parts , therefore judged to be hotter then other parts because they more abound with any heat , but because they have arteries full of arterial blood , and depend upon the influence of the heart , wherewith the blood is heated . so that unless all the blood did pass through the heart , the parts would never grow hot , and the further the blood goes from the heart , by so much the sloer in its motion , and the colder it growes . that the coldness of the heart makes the parts of the bodie cold , though full of blood , the slowness of the pulse is a sign . nor do the blood and heart grow hot only from the motion of the heart , as the followers of des cartes wil have it , for . they grant that the fiery atomes or indivisible particles of fire , are excited and put into action by motion , though they are only brought into play , but not produced by the said motion . . many things are moved without waxeing hot , as water , unless they have an inbred principle of heat . . before motion there was heat proceeding from the seminary original , which is afterwards preserved by continual motion . iii. not so much to make as to perfect the blood. it makes arterial blood and perfects the venal , or that which is contained in the veins . for they are out who attribute too much to the heart , as if the heart alone did make blood of the chylus , they also are mistaken , who maintaine that the heart contributes nothing to blood-makeing . i goe in a middle way . the liver challenges the first makeing of the blood of the chylus , as i have formerly demonstrated , which because it is not there perfected , being to thick and unfit to nourish , it is necessary that it should receive its perfection from other parts . no part is fit for this work save the heart , which is one of the first parts generated in the womb , and through which in a grown person all the blood in the body has its passage . that the lungs and heart-ears should perform their office , no man will beleive . the heart perfects two sorts of blood , that of the liver and that of the veins . that of the liver is twofold , the ●●● of the vena portae , the other a cruder sort newly ●…f chyle . the vein blood i● likewise twofold one of the descendent trunk of vena cava , and the other of the ascendent trunk of the said vein . it receivs the liver blood through the cava , to which another joyns it self out of the lower and upper truuk , which remaining over and above after the parts are nourished , by its long journey is become pauled and sluggish , and has lost its heat , which is necessary for pulsation and nutrition . this perfection which the blood receivs from the heart , is hereby confirmed , in that the blood when it comes out of the left ventricle , has not altogether the same consistence nor colour , which it had when it entred the right ventricle . the diversity consists in heat and plenty of spirits , wherewith it is furnished when it goes out of the heart , and which it wants when it enters thereinto ; and in effect or operation , for that which goes out is fit to nourish , but that which enters in is most unfit , vital spirits are added by the inbred faculty of the heart , and the sooty vapors are taken away by that most short concoction , being evacuated by the lungs and pericardium or heart-bag . for what parts does the heart perfect and renew the blood . the ancients did beleive that the heart made blood only to nourish the lungs . but the vessels of the lungs are greater then is requisite only for their nutrition , and there is continually more blood forced thither by the pulsation of the right ventricle , then could any waies be useful for the lungs , unless they were to be nourished with as much blood as is sufficient for the whole bodie . and that all is not consumed upon the substance of the lungs , the blood which returnes is a witness , which runs in great plenty at every pulsation , to the left ventricle , through the arteria venosa , which in live anatomies being tied , is seen to swell betwixt the ligature and the lungs . for there is no way for it to return into the right ventricle , the passage being stopped by the close shutting of the mitre-fashionned valves . the right ventricle therefore is busied about blood which is to be sent to nourish the lungs ; the left doth perfect the blood which flows back from the lungs , being there impraegnated with air , for the nutrition of the whole bodie . for the arterial blood alone is that which nourishes , because it is only fit for nutrition , and it alone is forced through the arteries into the utmost parts of the bodie . to perfect this blood many things concur . . heat , which is very dull and lasie , as well in the crude blood of the liver , as in the returning blood of the whole body . . vital spirit which by the confession of all men , ought to be joyned therewith , . light the companion of the spirits , by which the blood receives a more illustrious color , is moved and made fit for nutrition . . a certain light and momentary concoction , sweetning the crude : parts , attenuating the whole substance , and drawing forth the latent flame . . the whole fabrick of the heart , internal and external , and the vessels both receiving and expelling . . the separation of excrements , though the receptacles of the said excrements are not very manifest . the sooty vapors of the right ventricle do evaporate through the vena arteriosa . the watry vapors of both the ventricles , are congealed into the water of the heart-bag , and are spent into the substance of the hairs under the arms. the remaining excrements continue mixed with the blood , and are carryed into the arteries , and the wheyish parts are purged by the emulgent arteries into the kidneys , and by sweats into the habit of the body , the thicker parts by the hemorrhoidal arteries and the ramus mesentericus . some parts return with the blood through the veins into the heart , that by several repeated courses , there , they may be at last mastered and overcome . whether or no is the blood equally perfected in the right and left ventricle ? although the heat of both the ventricles doth seem to be equal , because in mankind they are both made of spiritful seed , and as much is afforded to the right ventricle by the liver-blood , and the returning blood of the veins , as to the left by the lungs ; moreover in live anatomies we can hardly perceive that the one is hotter then the other . yet that in the left the blood receives greater perfection , these signs and tokens do perswade me ; because . it receives the blood in some measure prepared from the lungs . . it ought to perfect it for the whole body , whereas the right perfects it only for the lungs . . it hath thicker walls , more compacted fleshy pillars , wherewith the heat is both more easily preserved and reverberated , and the blood more strongly driven . . the blood is therein more frequently clottered by heat , and cartilaginous and boney substances appear being dryed by heat . . when the left ventricle is hurt , there is greater danger of death , then when the right is hurt . . many live-wights want the right ventricle . . in dying persons it is sooner dead and void of motion then the right . . the cavity thereof is more narrow , and therefore it doth more easily preserve and perfect that which is contained therein . we cannot exactly define the place . it is the whole cavity , endued with the virtue of the parenchyma , because the blood fils the whole in the diastole , and the inbred spirit , is every where diffused . nor is there any token , of any stay which the whole blood makes in one place more then another , nor of any peculiar virtue of any particle . the time. it is perfected in a moment , because . it is forthwith received and expelled , and makes no tarriance . . from its abidance there , the blood would not be perfected but become adust . . the flame on the candle snuf , lights another candle in the twinckling of an eye . . the arterial blood doth continually run to the extremities of the body , and therefore it ought to be continually and suddenly perfected in the heart . iv. a fourth use of the heart is perpetually to move . . that it might preserve the blood and all parts of the body from putrefaction . . that it may help the heat and elaboration of the blood. . that it might kindle and stir up the vital light. . that it might send fitting nourishment to all parts . this motion of the heart is termed pulsus the pulse , which is continual without ceasing , raised by the influent blood , and the pulsifick or pulsative faculty , there resident . it consists of a systole , diastole ●…systole . which must be diligently ●…ned by all their causes , according as oc●… inspection of living bodies and reason shall dictate . systole , being the proper and natural motion of the heart , is a contraction and drawing of the heart into a narrow compass , that the blood may by that means be forced out of the right ventricle through the vena arterialis , into the lungs , and out of the left ventricle through the aorta into the whole body . diastole , being an accidental motion , is the widning of the heart , that blood may be drawn in through the vena cava into the right ventricle , and through the arteria venosa into the left , peri-systole is a certain rest and stop going between both motions , when the blood is about to enter into or go out of the ventricles , so smal in healthy persons that it cannot be discerned , being very manifest in such as are at the point of death , it is only one between the systole and diastole , or between the diastole and systole . this is the natural state of the heart . besides these motions two others are observed . . a certain undation or waving towards one side according to the carriage of the right ventricle , as if it did gently wreath it self , as we see in an horse when he is drinking ; of which harvey speaks . . a trembling motion of the heart , when it is cut in sunder . the former depends upon the situation of the right ventricle : the latter is preternatural to the heart , not arising from other particles or smal bodies , sent in by the coronaria , which is then cut in sunder , but from the remainders of the vital spirits . we are taught by the testimony of our eyes , that in every diastole blood is plentifully received in , and in every systole plentyfully expelled , both into the vena arteriosa and the aorta . this appears i say to our eye-sight . . by ligatures or bindings in live anatomies . if the cava and the aorta with the vessels of the lungs shall be bound or pressed down with the finger or any other instrument on either side ; we shall manifestly perceive that the part of the cava which is inserted into the heart is made empty ; that in the diastole of the ear , it is filled , and thereby the heart ; and that the other part of the ascendent and descendent vein , on this side the ligature , doth swel . in like manner , the arteria venosa being tied near the heart , by the diastole of the left ear , it is made void and empty on this side the ligature where it looks towards the heart , but towards the lungs it arises and swels . the arterial vessels of the heart , do shew themselves in a contrary fashion : for the vena arteriosa being tied , it swels towards the heart , because it is filled by the systole of the right ventricle ; the arteria magna being bound , swels between the heart and the ligature , being filled by the systole of the left ventricle . . besides the ligatures , we may gather as much from the vessels being opened or wounded . the vena arteriosa and the aorta arteria being opned by a lancet , at every systole or elevation and contraction of the heart , it pours forth plenty of blood , as long as the heart continues strong , for when it languishes , it intermits some pulses , before it voids any blood. now we observe no such thing , when the cava or arteria venosa , are opened between the heart and the ligature . the iv. table . the figures explained . this table doth in some measure express the systole of the heart in a living-creature , and the circulation of the blood. fig . i. aa . the lungs drawn back . b. the aorta artery bound , and swelling towards the heart . c. an orifice made in the swoln part . d. the vena arteriosa tied , in like manner swelling towards the heart , growing yellow where it looks towards the lungs . ee . the ears on both sides . ff . the fore-side of the heart , being in the systole somwhat hard , and bent , and with its sides extended , its point being drawn back to the basis or broad end. gg . the coronary vessels . fig . ii. shews the form of the heart in its diastole , and the motion of humors in its vessels . aa . the arteria venosa without binding , being ful towards the lungs , empty towards the heart . b. the left ear , which receives blood from the arteria venosa . c. the vena cava tied , empty towards the heart , ful towards the liver . d. the right ear swoln or heaving . e. the hinder-side of the heart , as it is in its diastole , flagging . ff . the hinder part of the lungs , which are bunching or bossie . fig . iii. and iv. represents the inside of the earlets or little ears of the heart . the third figure represents the left earlet ; the fourth , shews the right aaa . . . the plane membrane of the earlet . b. . the orifice of arteria venosa . . the orifice of vena cava . cccc . . the three-pointed valves with seven fibres , in . the same with five only . ddd . the larger fleshy pillars . eeee . the lesser fleshy pillars , interwoven one within another with wonderful artifice . fff . many-fold cavities formed between the pillars . page . the swelling of the heart and the flagging thereof , being palpable and visible to the external sense , do sufficiently demonstrate , when it is made strait in the systole , that of necessity somwhat must be squeezed out as it were forcibly , and that when it is widened in the diastole , it must needs be filled with humors . . the ventricles in the diastole appear greater , and in the systole lesser . . from the largness of the vessels of the heart : the vena cava and arteria venosa , do open into the heart with wider mouths , then to suffer only a smal quantity of blood to enter . also the arterial vein and the aorta are larger , then to send forth nothing , or only spirits . the quantity of blood which fills the heart in the diastole , and which goes out by the systole at every pulsa●… not be exactly measured ▪ be●…ies according to the different state of the heart , and the temper of animals , their age , sex , course of diet and life , &c. it is apparent to our eyes in live anatomies , that much is received and expelled . but it moves not in and out in so great quantities in persons that are well in health , when the heart is more quiet and hath the command of it self . the antients supposed that a drop or two was enough at a time , and that the blood did freely pass and repass the same way . but one drop of blood unaltered , is not able to fill the heart , nor doth provoke it to pulsation , not to speak how the foresaid experiments do shew the plenty that passes to and fro . now the valves do hinder the free passage and repassage of the blood by the same waies , of which the three pointed ones or tricuspides so called , do hinder the blood which enters the heart from passing back the same way , and the mitre-shap'd valves do hinder the blood which goes out of the heart from returning the same way . later physitians , are divided in their opinions . some suppose that a drop or two is either so rarified as to fill the heart , amongst whom is des cartes ; or is turned into spirit , as riolanu's primrose , leichner and others suppose , who measure it by grains , whom we shall answer when we come to the causes : others being patrons and favourers of the circular motion of the blood , as harvey , walaeus , conringius , slegelius , &c. do calculate the quantity , by ounces , drams and scruples . to clear up this question , three things are to be considered , . how much blood is contained in the diastole of the heart . . how much is expelled or driven out of the heart , in its systole ; whether all that enters the heart in its diastole , is squirted out in the next systole . . how many pulsations the heart makes in one hour ; or how often the heart receives somwhat by its diastole , and expels somwhat by its systole , in the space of an hour . . in the heart being in its diastole , harvey hath found above two ounces of blood . also plempius found near upon two ounces of blood , in the left ventricle of the heart of a man that was hanged . riolanus will hardly allow half an ounce in the left ventricle of one that was hanged , and saies there was more blood in the right ventricle . hogeland also wil have half an ounce or a dram at least , to enter , at every opening of the ear. now the quantity of all the blood contained in the body , doth seldom exceed twenty four pounds , or come short of fifteen . . in the systole there is expelled either a fourth part , or a fist , or a sixt , or at least an eight , or all together that is contained in the heart . harvey supposes half an ounce in a man , or three drams , or one dram , in a sheep and a dog he saies a scruple . and he proves the same by that suddain effusion of all the blood , if the very least artery be cut , and because in the space of one half hour , all the blood may be passed through the heart , he certainly concludes , that in every systole of the heart , much blood is expelled . conringius approves of his computation . walaeus admits of half an ounce , but he supposes only one scruple , as doth slegelius . regius has many times observed half an ounce , somtimes two or three drams , in the heart of a dog dissected . hogeland contents himself with a dram . i being more sparing suppose half a scruple , in the smallest proportion to the quantity which issues in such as ●…ded . for there goes not out so much i●… free heart , ●s in one that is bound and forced ; 〈…〉 there so much expelled in the following systole , as was drawn in by the diastole , some part sticks in the hollow pits of the heart , much states in the cavity formed by the production of the three pointed valves and distinct as it were from the ventricle ; finally , the heart cannot be so straitly contracted in the systole , as to squeeze out every jot of the blood therein contained . therefore conringius doth rightly suspect that abides there the space of one or two pulses , till by little and little it raise it self , which i understand of the reliques and part of the blood , not of the whole received by the foregoing diastole . . primrose numbred in one hour pulsations of the heart . riolanus . walaeus and regius , harvey , . in some , , . cardan . plempius . slegelius . i have told upon mine own wrist about , but the number varies according to the age , temperament , diet &c. of every person . so many systoles therefore and so many diastoles there will be in one hour , as long as the heart is vigorous , for a languishing heart has more diastoles then systoles . from these three praemises i have calculated , how much blood may in an hour be squirted out of the heart , by its sundry pulsations . from scruple times repeated , arise . l . ounces . scruple l . oun . dr . scr . scruple l . oun . dr . scr . half a scruple l . oun . drās , scr dram l. ounces . drams l. ounces . half an ounce l. ounces . ounce l. ounces . now supposeing all the blood contained in a mans body to be fifteen pounds , if that be taken away which goeth into the nutriment of the parts , the defect whereof is suplied by new blood bred in the liver , it will follow , that more blood passes through the heart every hour , then can be afforded by the concoction of the liver and the stomach . that all the blood in the body passeth through the heart , in the space of a quarter of an hour , or half an hour , or an hour , or an hour and an half , or two houres at the most . for i cannot agree to riolanus his conceit , that the blood is circulated only once or twice in a day , because he builds upon a false supposition of drops , and that only half the blood is circulated . that the parts to be nourished do not need so much blood for their nourishment . because neither the vessels are broken , nor the arterial blood can run back again because of the valves nor is elsewhere dissipated , of necessity it runs back through the veins into the heart , and the circulation is performed , of which i shall speak more in my book of veins and arteries . what the form of the heart is in its systole and diastole , is known by three tokens . by the anatomy of living creatures by the comodity and convenience of motion and rest . . by the carriage of the fibres and the situation of the parts . in the systole the point of the heart draws up to the basis or broad end , and it becomes broader because it is busied in expelling the blood , the length 〈…〉 being changed , into breadth , because the basis ●●● broad ●nd is immoveable in respect of the point , which is tied to no vessels . but according to the observation of walaeus in those living creatures , whose aorta arteria does not proceed from the basis , the broad end or basis of the hea●t withdraws it self from the point . riolanus will have the pasis of the heart alwaies to draw towards the cone or point thereof , because the said cone is harder then to be drawn or bended backwards . but else where , he denies that the basis being strongly fastened to the vessels , can be drawn towards the point . and therefore other , whom he and slegelius do follow , conceive that it is extended long-waies , that its walls being contracted , it may expel the blood. but then the orifices of the vessels being drawn downwards in the lengthening of the heart , would be shut , and a contrary motion would happen ; besides that living anatomies do shew , that the heart becomes shorter in its systole . nor can it appear longer but shorter , if either the point draws to the basis or the basis to the point . both forms serve for expulsion of the blood , for whether you press a bladder ful of water longwaies or broadwaies , you will squeeze out the water as soon one way as another . . the inner walls are on each side , drawn up to themselves towards the ribs , because they are contracted and straitned , as we find by putting our finger in : but the outer parts being swelled , seem to be made broader , by reason of the contraction of all the parts , blown up in the distension . it differs therefore from galens systole , which leichnerus will have to be drawn likewise into it self , the longitude of the heart being changed into latitude . for indeed and in truth the diastole is , when the heart is made wider , either long-waies or broad-waies , to the intent that it may be filled , unless the inner parts be straitned . . the foreside of the heart is lift up towards the breast-bone , especially obout the basis . for the broad end or basis of the heart , smites the breast where the pulse is felt , because that part is raised , and nearest the breast-bone ; in the systole the heart is , vigorated and mettlesome , not in the diastole , and then the arteries are dilated and filled , whereas the heart is emptied in the systole , and at the same time the pulse is felt , in the wrist and the breast , at one and the same time . but the pulse is most of all discerned , in the left side of the breast , because there is the orisice of the arteria aorta . . the whole heart becomes every where tight and hard . . it is more contracted and straiter then within , and less in bulke , which we judg by our sight and feeling . . it appears white , especially in the more imperfect sort of animals , by reason of the voidance of blood in its systole . in the perisystole , when the heart is loose and soft , before the diastole follows , and the heart is in its properstate . . the point withdraws it self from the basis , and the basis from the point in some persons . . the lateral parts internal and external do extend themselves towards the ribs . . the foreside falls in , the hinder part is depressed , especially above at the orifice of the aorta , according to the accurate observation of walaeus . the other perisystole which goes before the systole , is hardly by any notes discernable from the diastole ▪ in the diastole , which backius tells us begins in the middle way to dilatation , and ends in the middle way to contraction , . the upper side is lifted up and swolne by blood flowing in on either hand by the venal vessels , the swelling proceeding by little & little to the point . but it doth not then smite the breast , as laurentius and rosellus would have it , because the arteries undergo the systole , and the heart ceases from expulsion , for which cause it is not vigorated . . it is more flagging and softer , because it suffers in its reception of blood . . the fides remain more lank and extended , and the cavities remain wider , and therefore when a man puts his finger into a living heart , he feels no constriction . . it is red , because of the thinness of the walls , and the blood received in , which is transparent . . the cone departing from the basis in the perisystole , renders the heart more long . that it may be more capacious to receive the blood . that it is drawn back towards the cone , as many write , our eye-sight will not allow us to believe , nor can it or ought it so to be . it cannot because the fibres are relaxed and not bent ; nor ought it , because it must be enlarged to receive , which you may in vain expect , the ventricles being straitned and revelled . nor do i assent to des cartes and regius men of most subtile wits , that in the diastole the point draws near to the basis , in the systole it departs therefrom ; for they confound the perisystole or quiet posture of the heart , in which the heart is soft , loose and void of blood , before the diastole is performed , after the systole is ended . moreover , walaeus believes , that those men were deceived , who in a wounded living heart , pretend to have seen blood expelled in the diastole ; because they took that to be the dilatation , which was indeed and in truth the contraction . the blood which goes out of the wound , goes out in the diastole , not driven by the pulse , but because the way lies open downwards , it gently slides out , drop by drop . the efficient cause of the motion of the heart , is either immediate or remote . the immediate is twofold , the blood and the pulsifick faculty . pulsifick or pulsative faculty . the blood either remains in the same quantity as it flowed in , or it is changed in quantity by boiling , working and rarifying . . pure blood and sincere , flowing in through the vena cava and arteria venosa , and remaining such , only becoming more perfect and vital , raises the heart into a tumor like water in a bladder or skin-bottle , which being for the greatest part distended , because the plenty of blood is burthensome , it raises its self to expel the same , by gathering together its fibres ; and this motion happens to the heart in this case , as the motions of other members , viz , the stomach , guts , bladder , womb , which are extended by the reception of chylus , whey , wine , blood , &c. which being expelled they fall again ; and like the muscles , which are stretched being swoln with animal spirits . by this blood the heart is continually moved , as a mill-wheele is by the perpetual falling down of the water , which ceasing the wheel stands still . there is plenty of blood enough to distend it , no● so much furnished from the liver , as from the 〈◊〉 and descendent branches of the cava , running back from the remotest veinulets or smallest branches of the veins , and it is continually forced along , with celerity and vehemency , according to the demonstrations and doctrine of harvey and walaeus . i shall justifie what i now say with only one experiment : if the vessels which bring into the heart be tied and so stopt , the hearts motion ceases , and there remains nothing but a wavering and a palpitation ; but the ligature being loosned , it recovers its motion . aristotle makes the cause to be blood which is not pure , nor in so great quantity as to be able of it self to distend the heart , but boyling and working , which boyling of the blood many have followed , though explained after a different manner . caesar cremoninus makes the cause to be the resistency of the heart , and the swelling thereof by reason of the ebullition , which afterward falls , by reason of the inbred heavyness of the heart , as parts puft up with wind , do of their own accord settle when the wind is out , and the heaving of the earth caused by repletion and blowing up of wind , settles again , by the peculiar heavyness of the earth . caspar hofman flies to the inaequality of the boyling blood , which is like boyling water , part whereof ascends and part descends . others do interpret the matter with greater subtilty saying that the blood is changed into an airie spirit . primerose saies , that blood just as milk , honey , and very many things besides , doth exceeding swel and rise , so as to become nothing but a kind of spirit or light air. leichnerus saith that of one grain of good blood a great quantity of cordial balsam is made : even as by one grain of odoriferous gum cast upon a cole , an whole chamber is filled with a delitious smel . but many difficulties stand in the way of this opinion . . no boyling is of it self equal , but the pulse is somtimes equal . . the pulse should be greater according as the boyling is greater . but the boyling of the blood is greatest in burning fevers , by reason of the extremity of bubbling heat and the various nature of the blood , yet is the pulse in such cases very smal , and in putrid fevers it is evermore little in the beginning according to galen . . in live anatomies , if you wound the heart or the arteries near the heart , pure blood leaps out abundantly , not frothy , nor boyling , nor heaving , and it continues as it came forth . nor can it in a moment of time , either boyl in the heart or leave boyling , if it did boyl . yea and if in two vessels you shall receive the veiny blood out of the cava near the heart and the arterial blood out of the aorta near its orignal , you shall find no difference : neither at the first , nor afterwards . this harvey , walaeus , and as many as have made trial can witness with me . . it cannot all be turned into pure spirit by the heart , nor ought it so to be . not the former , because there is not so much heat in a sound heart , nor can the blood taken out of the arteries set over a great fire be all extenuated , as conringius hath observed . not the latter , because the parts for whose nourishment it is ordained , are not meerly spiritual . . plunging into cold water would asswage the boyling . but the arm being hard bound till it swel and grow red again , and then thrust into most cold water or snow , when you unbind the same you shall perceive how much the blood returning to the heart doth cool the same , as harvey hath taught us . the most subtile renatus des crates and cornelius hogelandius , and henricus regius who tread in his footsteps , with equal commendation , do after another manner demonstrate the motion of the heart to proceed from a drop or two of blood rarified : when the ventricles of the heart are not distended with blood , of necessity two large drops do fall thereinto , one out of the cava into the right ventricle , another out of the venosa arteria into the left , because those two vessels are alwaies full , and their mouths towards the heart are open , which drops because of their aptness to be dilated , and the heat of the heart , and the remainders of blood therein burning , presently they are set on fire and dilated by rarefaction , by which the valves through which the drops entred are shut and the heart is distended . but because of the straitness of the ventricles , the blood rarifying more and more cannot there abide , therefore at the same moment of time , it opens in the right ventricle the three valves of the vena arteriosa which look from without inwards , and being agitated by heat , it breaks out through the said vena arteriosa , and by distending the same and al its branches and driving on the blood , makes them beat the pulse : but in the left ventricle it opens the three valves of arteria magna looking from without inwards , and through them breaks into the great artery , which it widens , and drives the next blood warmed and ex●…led by the former pulsations , into the rest of the arteries of the whole body , that they might be thereby distended . and so they conceive the diastole is caused . and they say the reason of the systole is , because the blood being expelled out of the ventricles of the heart , the heart is in part evacuated , and the blood it self in the arteries cooled , wherefore of necessity the heart and arteries must flag and sink , whereupon way is again made for two drops more to enter , that so the diastole may be repeated . i dare not deny a light rarefaction from a gentle heat , such as we observe in the opening of a vein , and i grant that it may be somtimes praeternaturally augmented ; but that a few drops should be rarified into so great a bulk , as to cause the motion of the heart , and that they should be cooled in the arteries , many arguments , besides those before those opposed to the ebullition of the blood , do disswade . . living dissections , in which neither when the heart , nor when the arteries are wounded , does the blood come out drop by drop or rarified , but pure , such as the ear had forced out . . the heart being cut in pieces or pricked , is seen to pulse , without any rarefaction of blood , which is but imaginary . . in strong dogs the point of the heart being cut off , walaeus observed , that when by reason of the efflux of blood , it was not half full , it was nevertheless erected , but not filled by rarefaction : but when it was contracted , that portion of blood which remained in the heart , was cast out to the distance of more then four feet . it is in vain to call in the outward coldness of the air as an assistant cause : for the blood in the heart doth not grow cold in a moment , the heat thereof being yet vigorous , as a boyling pot taken from the fire and uncovered doth not immediately cease to boyl but after some time . . jacobus back doth elegantly devince the same from the structure of the heart and its vessels . for the musculous flesh of the heart being firme and strong , is unapt to rise and fall by the bare rarefaction of the blood . a more vehement action is requisite to move this vast bulk . also the arteries of the heart should have had a greater orifice , and the rarefied blood being to go forth would require a larger space , then then was necessary for its entrance . . a confusion would arise in the motions of the heart and valves , as he observes . the diastole of both of them would be performed in the same time , and so the valves should be useless , both which is repugnant to experience . moreover the valves must , be both shut and open , in the systole of the arterie . . that it should be cooled in the arteries , neither reason or occular inspection will permit . it is drawn hot out of the arteries , differing little or nothing from that which is contained either in the heart , or near it . in the small arteries there is indeed no pulse felt , but that is to be imputed to the smalness of the vessels and their distance from the heart which forces the blood . nor ought it because it enters into the capillary vessels , that it may nourish the parts with hot blood , not with such as is cooled and thickned , before it is changed into the secondary humors . and what use is there of rarefaction , if it presently settle again . the experiments and reasons which learned men bring to the contrary , from an eele and an hunting dog , from the contraction of the members by cold from palpitations , from spirit of wine resembling the pulse , from vehement protrusion &c. are easily answered if you consider that a certain motion is restored even in hearts that are dead , by exciteing their heat as in muscles . the fault is in the vessels contracted by colds not in the blood. when they fall in and flag . palpitations arise from plenty of blood , as examples testifie , suppression of the courses , and the cure by blood-letting . in the heart there is an even motion , different from that which raised by spirit of wine or any thing else . . the protrusion by pure blood is more vehement , if the faculty concur , and the fibres of the heart be united . . the heart is in its perisystole or very near it , when in the point cut off , no dilatation is observed , if it continue still in the systole , the dilatation is not felt , till the diastole follow . the pulsifick faculty implanted in the heart , must needs be joyned with the blood as the cause of its motion , either that it may guide the influx and egress of blood , and assist the same , which would otherwise proceed disorderly , as i explain the matter ; or that it might of it self produce the motion , according to the opinion of the ancients , which cannot be conserved , if the perpetual flux of the blood should be stopped . that the heart stands in need of such a faculty i prove . because the pulse would be alwaies unequal , the influx being unequal , unless directed by some faculty . . when the heart in feavers is more vehemently moved then ordinary , through the urgency of heat , and in dying persons nature being at the last pinch , and using all her might , yet is the motion of the heart weak , as appears by the pulse , because the inbred faculty is either lost or weakned . contrariwise , though the said faculty be strong , and the influx of the blood cease or be hindred , after large bleedings , or by reason of obstruction of the vessels , either in the whole habit of the body , or the passages thereof , or near the heart , the motion of the heart fails . and therefore both are to be joyned together as primary causes . . any particles of the heart being cut off , do pulse by reason of the reliques of this faculty or spirit remaining . . the heart being taken out of the body , or cut in pieces , lightly pricked with a pin , does presently pulse , as walaeus hath observed . . it were contrary to the majesty of the principal part , to be moved by another whether it will or no , without any assistance from itself , and so to receive a violent impression . regius hath substituted the influx of animal spirits into the fibres of the heart instead of animal spirits , and hogeland the little petite atomes of the blood moved in the parenchyma . but we must know in the first place . that the motion of the heart is natural which lasts perpetually , yea against our wills , and when we are asleep , and not animal . . that we exclude not the spirits , which are the souls servants and instruments . . the small boddikies or indivisible particles of the blood , have all dropped out in dis●ected hearts , because the vena coronaria was cut asunder . and that if any reliques of the said bodikies did remain , they could not be excited to motion , either by pricking alone , or by raising heat , unless a spirit or faculty be allowed , which being extinguished , though the pieces of the heart be laid in never so hot a place , they will never pant . among the remote causes there is the vital spirit , as well that which is implanted in the heart , as that which comes thither from without , with beat sufficiently manifest in live dissections , and which warms the whole bodie . and that either not shineing with light , as most will have it , or ▪ shineing . that a lightfull heat of the heart is requisite in this case , many things argue . the motion of the elements is simple , never circular , and light moves it self and the humors with a circular motion . the heart and the blood are more quickly moved by light then otherwise they could be , which in the twinkleing of an eye , dazeles all things , illuminates all things . . there is in all particular parts besides the obscure principles of the elements , also a lightfull part propagated from the seed , which ought to be preserved by a like flame , kindled from the heart in hippocrates to dream of pure and brightly shining starrs , signifies health of bodie . no homor although hot , does pant and move it self , unless a burning flame , as we see in spirit of wine , a candle , and other things . in glow-wormes their hinder-part only pants and shines , where their heart is , of whose light i have discoursed in my second book of the light of animals chap and . that the vital spirit is really endued with light , and that there is an inbred light in the blood and heart , which helps forward the circular motion of the blood , i have demonstrated in my said treatise lib. . cap. . . h●●mont consents that the animated spirit , in the left ventricle of the heart , inlightned by the former light , is the mover of the heart . after caimus and other ancient authors , ent asserts the same thing touching the flame , raised out of the seed in the first bladder of the heart raised by the heat of the hen which hatcheth , and first of all shineing forth , when the lungs perform their office . yet he errs , that in the external widening he begs , in the construction more inwardly he tends to the beginning : for in the systole all that illuminats is expelled , and then it is vigorated in a narrow heart , which is evident in optick tubes and hollow glasses . i ad that in the diastole of the left ventricle , it sets on fire and kindles by the systole from the lungs , the vital flame . . the shape and conformation of the heart and vessels being exceeding well fitted to receive and expell the blood . especially the fibres of the heart , and the fleshy columns . these make not so much for the strength of the heart alone , as for the motion . for all the fibres being contracted greater and lesser , in the walls and septum , which according to harvey are circular , as in an artificial net , or purse squeezed , the contents are expelled . they are stretched in the systole , and remitted in the diastole . by help of the smaller fibres , wherewith the flesh is interwoven , a languishing constriction is made , but to a stronger , those greater fleshy ones concur contained in the ventricles , which walaeus often observed in live bodies dissected . the pulse of the heart , the blood and the extream parts , the pulse is from the heart , which ceasing , the motion also ceases . now it begins from the vena cava , and is continued from the auricula dextra , by and by from the right ventricle into the vena arteriosa , or if the point be cut off , externally from the arteria venosa into the left earelet , thence into the left venricle , out of which the pulse is felt by a manifest constriction to goe into the aorta , in the anatomy of living creatures . they drive , because the blood is offensive by its quantity . they are moved being irritated by any external force . blood is continually suppeditated . for blood thrusts and drives on blood , so that even after the heart has bin taken out of bodies , walaeus has seen a quick motion of the blood in the veins . which nevertheless did not happen by any proper power , which the blood has to move it self , but partly by the driveing of the external parts , which remitt or send back that which remains after nutrition as bur●…ensome and superfluous , partly by a spontaneous contraction of the vessels filled with blood , whose arteries in living bodies being bound towards the heart , do swell ; towards the extream parts they are empty : but the veins too near the smallest branches and the parts from which they bring back the blood are puffed up , but are flat where they look towards the heart , to which they drive the blood ; in a word , partly by the contraction of the muscles and their driving , in the fleshy and outward parts , as harvey observes . the attraction of the heart and parts , least they be destitute of aliment profitable and sufficient for them , which we observe according to nature in those parts that are nourished ; but besides nature in wounds , ulcers , tumors , &c. and this may easily be done , because the blood dispersed in all places , is immediately fastened to the heart and parts which draw it , the pulse of the cava and arteries assisting the same . chap. vii . of the parts of the heart in special , viz. the earlets , cavities , septum , vessels , and valves . the parts of the heart which are specially to be considered are either externally seen as the earlets ; or within only , as the ventricles or two cavities , the septum or partition , and the vessels with the valves . the earlets or little ears , were so termed , not from hearing , but because of some resemblance in their shape . for from a long basis they end in a blunt point ( howbeit the left is more accumulated ) of an obtuse triangle ; and they have a cavity , that the ventricles might be produced before the heart . for that same pulsing bladder in an eg , is the earlets , because they were necessary in the child in the womb , though the heart were not so soon necessary , which afterwards grows upon the bladder . others give another reason , because the earlets observe the same proportion in their pulsing as the bladder had . but this is very hard to distinguish in the first generation . others take the bladder for the heart , whose expansions or earlets appear red , because they are transparent , but the heart is not seen by reason of the plenty of seed , and pulse intermitted . i suspect that both may lie hid under the vesicula or bladderkie , but that the earlets are presently drawn and moved , because of their use . otherwise it would seem inconvenient that the appendix should be greater then the whole body . nor is the heart a bare parenchyma or affusion of blood . it hath cavities produced doubtless out of the foresaid bladderkie . now the earlets are processes or appendixes ; and according to hofman , nothing but the substance of the heart attenuated and widened . which i know not how true it is . i should rather say they seem to be the substance of the neighboring vessels dilated , although they are made first of seed out of the bladder , and are the first motion , and the last in dying . they are situate at the basis of the heart , before the orifices of the vessels venal to which they cleave , and whereby they are mediately joyned to the heart . they are on each ●ide one for two they are in number , answerable to the number of the hearts ventricles , the right earlet being greater , and the left smaller . and both are large in an embryo or child in the womb : the former is joyned to the vena cava , with which it seems to be one common body ; the latter to the vena arteriosa . the substance of the earlets is peculiar , such as there is none in any other part ; by reason of their singular use . howbeit they are thin and soft , for their more easie contraction and nervous for strengths sake . but the left is more hard , a little more fleshy and thicker : yet the heart is not so . howbeit they answer in a certain proportion to the ventricles of the heart . their external surface , when they are extended and full , is even and bossie or bunching ( but their circumference unequal ) when they are contracted , it is wrinkled ; and in the left it is more wrinkled then in the right , because the inner fabrick is more turning and winding , and hath more pits in it , for the earlets being inwardly dissected and spread open , do discover unto us . a certain flesh-membranous plain , stretched out to the extremities of the treble pointed valves , to which the fibres of the valves are fastned . . about the whole circumference fleshie columnes grow out , first the great crooked ones , out of which spring many lesser ones , with a wonderful and neat contexture , somtimes single , somtimes wreathed , and infolded either with the great ones , or with one another . . between these columnes deep pits are seen , more in the left , fewer in the right . in the middle partition of each earlet . folius hath found out many little holes , which i have also seen , through which he conceives the blood is carried into the left ventricle , when there is need of less matter . but seeing they are rarely to be seen , nor do they penetrate into the ventricles , yea they are less , i am more apt to think they are pores common to many , serving for motion , or the nutrition of the part. botallus hath found a passage sufficiently visible near the right earlet , which goes presently right out , into the left ventricle . this walaeus explains to be ment of the oval hole , or that passage by him observed , which goes obliquely out of one earlet into the other . such an one i have often seen in oxen and goats , but it is the coronal vein , nor does it pierce into the left earlet , but descends into the parenchyma of the heart . the v. table . the figures explained . fig . i. shews the heart cut in sunder athwart . a. the basis of the heart . b. the point of the heart . c. the right earlet . d. the left earlet . ee . the shape of the left ventricle like an half moon . ff . the cavity of the left ventricle . gg . the partition between the ventricles . fig . ii. shews the vena cava with the right ventricle dissected . a. the orifice of the coronary vein . b. the appearance of an anastomosis , between the vena cava & vena pulmonalis . ccc . the trebble-pointed valves with the fiberkies wherewith they are fastned . d. the ventricle cut long-waies . fig . iii. a. the right ventricle of the heart opened . bbb . the sigma-fashion'd valves , visible in the vena arteriosa . fig . iiii. aa . the arteria venosa dissected . b. the print of an anastomosis between the arteria venosa and vena cava . cc. the two mitre-shap'd valves . d. the left ventricle opened . fig . v. a. the great artery cut asunder near the heart . bbb . the semilunary valves , in the orifice of the great artery . page their motion is manifest to the sense in live anatomies , by reason of the blood rushing in , and filling them , wherewith they swell in living bodies , and by their contracting themselves , by means of their fleshy fibres contracted into themselves , endeavoring to force the blood out into the ventricles . there are three parts of their motion ; systole , diastole , and the rest or pause which comes between them , which cannot be discerned , save in persons ready to die , for they are performed so swiftly in sound persons , that they seem to be confounded , and to be performed all at once , as in the discharge of a gun , all seems to be performed in the twinkling of the eye , and in swallowing , as harvey informs us . the diastole is caused by the blood received from the vena cava and arteria venosa . the systole is performed , when the earlets being filled , do by contracting themselves , expel the blood into the ventricles . the diastole and systole of both the earlets , do happen at one and the same time . when the right earlet undergoes its diastole , at the same time the left ear undergoes the same ; when the latter is contracted in the systole , the former also expels . but the diastole of the heart and earlets , happens at different times , as also both their systoles . the systole of the earlets happens at the same time with the diastole of the ventricles , and contrarily , and the constriction of the earlets doth alwaies forego the diastole of the ventricles , both in healthy persons and in such as are at the point of death . but the motion of the former is more lasting then the motion of the latter , when the left ventricle ceases , the left earlet still continues pulsing , which being extinct , the remaining motion is in the right ventricle , and that ceasing , the right earlet proceeds panting , being the last that dies , save that when it ceases , a certain trembling motion doth as yet continue in the blood which flows in , by reason of the driving of the extream parts . their use , is i. to be store-houses to the heart ; for they first received the blood and air , that they may not suddenly rush into the heart , whence the heart might be hurt , and the animal faculty suffocated . and hence it is that they are placed only at the vessels which pour into the heart , and not at the arteries which void the blood forth . ii. to safeguard the vessels to which they are joyned . iii. to be instead of a cooling fan to the heart , according to hippocrates . iv. according to walaeus , to be in place of a measure , by which the vena cava and arteriosa do measure the blood into the heart , for seeing all the blood was not to go out , at every pulse , but the greatest part was to stay behind to be further perfected , nature joyned the earlets to the heart , as vessels which should give in so much blood to the heart , as was naturally to be cast forth at every pulsation . for which cause he thinks it is , that the right earlet is greater then the left , because the right ventricle is more capacious then the left , and like-more is voided therefrom then from the left , viz. sooty exhalations and the nutriment of the lungs . the cavities of the heart or its ventricles , chambers , or caves &c. are not three , as aristotle falsely ascribes to greater beasts , for three are not found , no not in a whale , but only two , as walaeus and sylvius have observed in the dissection of a young whale . nor did galen at rome find more in an elephant . and by a very rare chance three were observed by aemilius parisanus at venice in the heart of a certain coverlid-maker . and veslingius twice observed the like . also walaeus saw a third ventricle in the heart of an oxe . caesalpinus observed three in birds and fishes , and the right ventricle doth easily appear to be divided into two near the point , by a certain thin partition , yet in truth both come into one . licetus understands that same third ventricle of aristole , to be the prominency of the right ventricle , turned in beyond the left , so that the left ventricle commonly so called is aristotles middle ventricle . conringius doth otherwise excuse aristotle , viz. that the right ventricle in his account is whence the cava arises , the middle whence the aorta springs and the left , whence the arteria venosa or left earlet arises , which being the least of all , is in smal live-creatures hardly visible . but so there should be four ventricles , the vena arteriosa being added , as at first sight may seem , not three only . there are therefore only two cavities found in the heart of a live-wight , the right and the left , having their inner surface uneven and rough , especially the left . the heart of a certain polander cut up by riolanus , was perfectly solid , having no ventricles at all . many pits are formed in them by the fleshy fibres , in the right more , but narrower , in the left fewer , but deeper , that they might contain the blood received in , hence in the constriction of a living heart they are lesser , in the dilatation wider . the pits are constituted and fenced by those fleshy particles termed la●ertuli musclekies , somtimes round , sometimes thin , being five or more in the right , two only visible in the left , but very thick ends . veslingus observes that the larger have pores which pass through them . the use of them , is according to some , to be ligaments of the heart . massa counts them little muscles . vesalius and riolanus call them columnae carneae , fleshy pillars , which being contracted , do further the diastole of the heart . parisanus saies by help of them the heart contracts it self , walaeus also hath observed in live dissections , that they assist the contraction or systole of the heart , especially when it is strong and vehement , at what time their swelling begins at their basis , and goes on by little and little unto the point . harvey saies they draw the cone or point of the heart to the basis or broad end thereof , by their obliqu● fibres . and he is apt to think that heat is carried through all of them . a. benedictus and ent , that they hinder the blood from going into clotters , while it is shaken and agitated by them . ba●●●us , that they are instead of ropes and bands , to hinder least in the contractions of the heart , the valves being forced beyond their pitch and overshot , should be unable to retain the blood. slegelius will have it that they are contracted , that they may shut the orifices of the vessels of the cava and vena arteriosa by their fibrekies . all these opinions are true and must be joyned together , as will manifestly appear to him that shall accurately consider the times of the motions of the heart . many things are preternaturally found in the ventricles of the heart . bauhin hath sound bits of far , and our most expert countryman wormius hath took out of both the ventricles certain caruncles or smal particles of flesh , whiteish within , but of a shining red color without ; which i also have long since found , at padua and at hasnia in my dissections , both of men and beasts , erastus hath found a flegmatick concretion , like yellow marrow , which is found , in the boyled bones of oxen. vesalius two pounds of glandulous and blackish flesh , benivenius a gobbit of flesh like a medlar . salvius hath observed worms , as also i. d. horstius at confluentia ; may a twibladed snake like a whip at london , and m , a. severinus much such another at naples . hollerius found stones ( with an impostume ) in a woman troubled with the stone ; and wierus stones as big as pease . bones are more rarely found in the hearts of men. yet gemma did once find some , and riolanus twice , in the dead body of president nicolas being eighty years of age , at the beginning of the aorta , and in the queen mother of lewis the thirteen king of france , being after her decease opened to be imbalmed . johannes trullus sound one in the heart of pope urban the eighth of a triangular figure representing the letter t. simon pauli my renowned praedecessor in the anatomical theatre , took a bone as hard as a stone of a figure of the pythagoraean letter y , out of the heart of a man of hasnia forty years of age , the bigness of a wallnut , and the shape not unlike the heart . i conceive they are all bred through the dryness and slow motion of the humors in aged and sick persons . yet nature makes use of this defect to provoke and quicken the motion of the blood , when it passes slowly , as waters flow more easily when a peice of wood is cast in , or that all the blood may not clotter , as our women and butchers stir their blood about with a stick , when they intend thereof to make puddings , that it may not go into clotters . the right ventricle receives blood out of the vena cava , which vein it receives into it self : and therefore it hath not so thick a flesh or wal , as the left hath , that their might be an even poise , seeing it contains more matter , and bears a greater weight then the left . nor is there so perfect a concoction made in this ventricle , as in the left in which there is more heat . it is not exactly round but semicircular , resembling the moon encreasing , nor does it reach to the end of the point , but it seems to be as it were an appendix to the left ventricle , which when the left is taken away , seems still as it were to represent an whole heart . yet is it deeper and larger then the left , by reason of the store of blood , which it was to contain , both to nourish the lungs , and to make vital spirits in the left ventricle . for its use is . to receive blood out of the vena cava , to nourish the lungs , the said blood being poured into the lungs through the vena arteriosa . therefore fishes which have no lungs , and draw no air in at their mouths , are without this ventricle , having no more then one . this right ventricle therefore , does concoct and attenuate the blood , for the nourishment of the lungs . ii. to send the thinner part of the blood through the septum or partition , into the left ventricle , to make vital spirits ; and the thicker part through the lungs , both to nourish them , and that it may return to the left ventricle , for the nutriment of the whole body . iii. further to perfect and prepare the blood which runs back as superfluous after the extream parts are nourished , and the crude blood which is bred in the liver . the left ventricle is narrower , but more noble ; having a round cavity , and which reaches unto the point of the heart . it s flesh or wall is three times as thick as that of the right ventricle . also it is harder , that the vital spirits may not exhale , and that the motion of the blood might be stronger , being to be forced into the farthest parts of the body . it s use is to make vital spirit and arterial blood , of a twofold matter , i. of blood prepared in the right ventricle , and passed through the septum and the lungs . ii. of air drawn in by the mouth and nostrils , prepared in the lungs , and transmitted through the arteria venosa with the blood into the left ventricle of the heart , to kindle and ventilate the vital flame , yea and to nourish the same . the latter fishes stand in need of and leucophlegmatick persons , the former such as are seated in a narrow or infected place , or are under extream heat , for fear of suffocation and extinction of the flame in the heart . the use therefore of both ventricles is in a manner the same , viz. to generate arterial blood , and to perfect the venal , and to receive the same running back from all parts of the body through the veins , and to expel the perfect blood through the arteries into the farthest parts of the body , that they may be thereby nourished . this is proved by the conformations of the ventricles , which in part are like one to the other , in the right two vessels , a vein and an artery carrying out , and bringing back and as many in the left . in the former are two sorts of valves the trebble pointed , and mitre-shap'd , and the like in the latter . the left expels and receives as much as the right , save that it is consumed in nourishing the lungs and the heart . yet their different constitution and magnitude , argues some difference . whence . there is a different coction in the one and other , as hath been demonstrated above . . the right works for the lungs the left for the whole body . . the right sends sooty exhalations and blood to the lungs ; the left receives from the lungs blood impraegnated with aire . there is a septum or partition between the two ventricles , which is thick like the other wall of the left ventricle ( which columbus once observed to be gristley ) hollow on the left side , on the right bunching , full of hollownesses and holes . which some suppose to be the third ventricle of aristotle ; which hollownesses or caves are more large towards the right side , but their utmost ends towards the left side are hardly discernable . helmont describes them to be triangular , whose cone ending in the left ventricle , is easily stopped , but the basis of the said triangle in the right ventricle , is never stopped save in death . but i have seen them circular so that they could easily admit a pease , but ▪ obtuse towards the left hand . that they are open is the opinion of the ancients and of many anatomists which follow them . gassendus ▪ saw payanus at ajax shew the septum of the heart to have through-fares , by reason of sundry windings and crooked con●-holes as it were , and that by lightly putting in his probe , without any violence , which he wreathed gently and turned it upwards and downwards and to the sides . and although by a probe breaking the tender flesh of the septum , we may easily make a way , yet we may not doubt of the eyewitness of gassendus nor of the dexterity of payanus ; seeing i also of late found the partion of a sows heart , in many places obliquely perforated with manifest great pores , which were open of themselves without the use of a probe , so as to admit a large pease ; but when i put in my probe , it brought me to the left ventricle , where a thin membrane as it were an anastomosis was placed , hindering any regress . riolanus also hath seen it bored through towards the point , where it is most thin . walaeus in the partition of an oxes heart , did somtimes find a cavity in the upper part according to the length of the heart , open into the left ventricle about the point of the heart , the length and breadth of a mans fore-finger , which he conceives to be the third ventricle mention'd by aristotle . yet are they not alwaies open in dead bodies , because in living bodies they are kept open , by the continual agitation of the heart , which ceasing , they are not so visible to the eye-sight , even as we see no manifest passages , when the sweat breaks out plentifully through the skin , nor when the seed breakes out of the kernels and spermatick vessels , into the urinary passage : nor the pores by which the empyema or out of the blood out of the vena arteriosa peirces into the arteria venosa , through the substance of the lungs , or the blood in the liver , out of the branches of porta into the cava . caelsus is in the right , where he saies , that nothing is more foolish , then to think that look what and how it is in a living man , so it must needs be in one that is dying , yea that is dead . whence many ( as columbus , spigelius , hofman , harvey , &c. ) have denyed that any thing passes through this septum or partition . but it is no wonder that they make a doubt of it : for , i. they are so crooked and winding , that a probe cannot easily pass through them . howbeit these pores become more conspicuous , in the heart of an ox long boyled , as bauhinus , riolanus , my self with others can witness . and you are to observe , in opposition to hofman and plempius that deny it . that in the boyling a moderation must be used , and that the fibres in living bodies do never stick so close together , but that they leave pores , as the nerves do shew , finally , that the quickest-sighted anatomists can see no membrane in the boyled hearts of oxen. ii. in dead bodies all passages fall in and shrink together . iii. that an extream straitness was requisite in the end ; because the thinnest part of the blood , is strained as it were in that part : and in the mean time , because these holes are not in vain , therfore , the use of the septum or partition of the heart , is , that the thinner blood may pass there-through into the lef ventricle , for the generation of vital blood and spirit , which is afterwards distributed through the arteries into the whole body , for to preserve and stir up the life and natural heat . but the thicker and greater part of the blood , by a natural and ordinary way , and not a violent only , is communicated to the arteria venosa , through the vena arteriosa , by mediation of the lungs , that in the left ventricle it may be mingled with that which sweats through the septum . the thicker part is ordained to nourish the lungs , and that it may return back to the left ventricle t is tempered with air. the thinner part passing through the septum , nourishes the same in its passage , because the external coronary vessels do only creep through , and in that long and dangerous journey through the lungs , it would vanish away and come to nothing . by this way only such as dive deep into the sea , and those that are hanged for a smal while , do live a while and come to themselves , after the motion of their lungs is ceased . the motion of the septum or partition doth help forward this passage , which that it is moved according to the motion of the ventricles , i have these signs and tokens ; because . it is furnished with circular fibres , as well as the walls , in a boyled heart , such in a manner as are in the sphincter muscle , as harvey testifies , which seeing them move the ventricles , they must as well move the septum . . a certain palpitation is felt , if you put in your finger into a living heart , according to the observation of walaeus . . in creatures ready to die , when the motion of the left ventricle ceases , the septum follows the motion of the right ventricle , as the same harvey observes : and if the right ventricle be wounded , riolanus tells us , that the motion remains in the septum in his observations . yet the same riolanus in another place being wiser , denies that it is moveable , unless towards the basis where it is soft gives way a little , and that so it ought to be that the passage may be maintained , because when the ventricles are dilated above the through-far'd septum , and straitned again like bellows , the little holes would be shut up . but there is no fear . for in the systole , when the point is drawn back to the basis , the pores are opened in the septum moved upwards , that the blood may at once pass both the septum and the lungs . contrarywise in the diastole , because the heart is distended long waies , the pores are drawn back with the septum , and are shut up , until the heart be filled . as to the heart-vessels there are found four remarkeable ones going out of the heart which hippocrates calls the fountanes of humane nature . into the right ventricle are inserted two veins ; the vena cava and vena arteriosa ; into the left , as many arteries ; arteria venosa and arteria magna . before all which are placed within eleven valves or little dores , made of the tunicles of their vessels widened and stretched out . the veins which bring in to the heart , viz. the cava and arteria venosa , have trebble-pointed valves , looking from without inwards ; the arteries which carry away , viz. the aorta and the vena arteriosa , have sigma-shap'd or mitre-fashion'd valves open inwards , shut outwards . the former admit blood into the heart ; being open they suffer the blood to flow out , being shut they hinder it from returning the same way . the trebble-pointed valves do not only wink , but they are close shut by the blood distending the heart , and by the constriction of the heart which straitens the vessels . the sigmoides or sigma-shap'd are shut by the relaxation and falling in of the heart in the diastole , whereby the fibres being stretched out long-waies , they are drawn downwards with the walls and so shut , like the chains in draw-bridges . the trebble-pointed or tricuspides , are opened by the impulse of new blood through the cava , and arteria venosa , and the diastole of the heart , whereby the fibres being drawn downwards , they are opened ; but the mitre-shap'd valves , are open'd in the systole by the constriction of the heart , and the blood urgeing its way out . also they may be praeternaturally shut , by the blood expelled and standing seated in the full vessells , to which , endeavouring to run back , they make resistance by reason of their conformation , which artifice of nature , we see every where imitated by the flood-gates and locks made upon rivers . but that according to nature they are not shut by the returning of the expulsed blood , as some conceive walaeus proves , because . our senses observe that the blood is carried from the heart , not to the heart by the arteries . . in a rare and languishing pulse , the artery doth not rise or swel last in the upper part towards the heart , but it swels there first . . if an artery be tied two fingers from the heart , and it be so opened betwixt the ligature and the valves , that the blood may freely pass forth , yet the valves will divers times straitly be shut , and the heart is orderly moved . table vi. the explication of the figures . this first figure shewes the right side of the heart entire , and withall the earlet cut off , and the vessels which goe out of the heart , but especially the anastomosis by which folius will have the blood to flow from the right into the left ventricle . fig . i. aaa . the heart in its proper posture , over the surface whereof , the vena coronaria is disseminated . bb. the right earlet of the heart , partly dissected , partly intire . c. a certain white and circular place between the earlets , in which on one side , under a certain little skin like a valve , an anastomosis is found , that is a wreathed winding hole , through which folius will have the blood to pass , into the left ventricle . d. the vena cava dissected , as far as to the situation of the liver . e. the vena aorta which goes to the throat and arms dissected . f. the arteria magna ascending . g. the same descending near the back-bone . h. an arterial pipe , which joines the great arterie with the arteria venosa . i. the arteria venesa yssuing out of the right ventricle of the heart . k. the vena arteriosa , nurse of the lungs , yssueing out of the left ventricle . aaaa . the vena coronaria radicated and diffused through the surface of the heart . b. the beginning of this vena coronaria , in the earlet near the vena cava . cccc . a certain portion of the earlet dissected . dd . the other part remaining yet intire . ee . a probe thrust into the anastomosis . f. a little skin like a valve placed at the mouth of the anastomosis . gggg . the branches of vena cava , spred up and down and rooted in the liver . hhh . ascendent branches of the arteria magna . fig . ii. this other figure shewes the left ventricle of the heart , as also the earlet dissected , together with the going out of the probe , demonstrated in the first figure . aa . the heart cut open through the whole left ventricle . bbb . an exact representation of the said ventricle . c. the egress of the probe , through the anastomosis , from the right into the left earlet . d. a valve placed at the mouth of the great artery . ee . the left earlet of the heart dissected , being less then the right . ff . the arteria venosa going out of the right ventricle of the heart . gg . the arteria magna ascending . h. the said artery descending near the back-bone . i. the arterial pipe knitting the vena arteriosa to the magna arteria . k. the trunk of the great artery , ascending to the arms and throat . aa . a certain part of vena coronaria dispersed through the surface of the heart , the smallest part thereof is visible . bb . the arteria coronaria dissected . cccc . the left earlet cut open as far as to the vena arteriosa . dddd . certain nervous particles , in the very ventricle of the heart , accounted nerves by aristotle . ee . the probe thrust in through the anastomosis . fff . certain smal holes , through which folius will have the blood to pass , while the anastomosis grows together , and there is need of less matter . g. a valve on the side also set before the anastomosis . page and therefore many of the ancients and later writers are deceived , who imagined that the blood did freely pass out of the heart , and back again thereto . and that the valves do not naturally close and open , appears by a tumor in the arteries between the ligature and the heart , and the emptying of the veins near the heart . the first vessel is the vena cava inserted into the right ventricle , with a very large and gaping orifice , three times greater then the orifice of the aorta , and therefore it seems rather to arise from the heart , then from the liver , especially seeing it sticks so firmly to the right ventricle , that it cannot be separated therefrom . whether it hath any motion is hard to determine . aristotle and galen seem to have been of that opinion ; but the interpreters expound those places to mean an obscure motion . but walaeus hath discovered a manifest motion therein , from the jugulum as far as to the liver , but most evident near the heart : and that therefore even in that place the vena cava is furnished with fleshy fibres , whereof it is destitute in other places . also ent hath observed that the vena cava of a dead beast , being with a mans finger lightly touched in the belly near the thighs of the beast , did express a trembling motion . it s use is , to bring in blood from the liver , and the whole body , by its ascending and descending trunks . a membranous circle grows to the orifice thereof , to strengthen the heart : which is presently split into three strong membranous . valves , termed janitrices , gatewarders , looking from without inwards , that the blood may indeed enter ; but not return back into the cava . they are termed tricuspides , trebble-pointed , by the greeks trichlochines , because they are like the triangular heads of darts , when they are shut , and fall close one to another . they grow , as also the rest of the valves do , to many shreds ( in the cava commonly each one to five remarkeable threds , intertwisted with many little ones ) whereby they are joyned to that fleshy particle , before explained ; which some call the ligaments of the heart , others as aristotle perhaps , the nerves of the heart . the vena arterialis or vas arteriosum , the arterial veins or arterial vessel . others call it arteria pulmonaris , the lungs artery , because it is in truth an artery , both in substance and use . t was called a vein first by herophilus and afterwards by most other anatomists , before the circulation of the blood was found out , from its office , because it sends blood to nourish the lungs . t is termed an artery , i. by reason of its substance , which consists not of a single coat , as a vein doth , but of a double one . ii. because in a child in the womb it performs the office of an artery , and pulses as shall be said in the next chapter , as also in a grown person , because it carries nutritive blood to the lungs , which is partly wrought in the right ventricle . this vessel passes out of the heart with a smaller orifice , and yet greater then the lungs stand in need of : for columbus and arantius observe , that two fingers have been thrust thereinto ; and it ought to be the greater , because it receives blood from the continual pulsation of the right side of the heart . moreover , resting upon the arteria magna and inclining to the left side , it goes to the right and left parts of the lungs with a double branch , a right and a left : which afterward spend themselves into sundry branches in the lungs . it use is , to receive blood out of the right ventricle , and to carry it to the lungs for their nourishment , and according to the observations of latter authors , to pass over the rest of the blood through the arteria venosa into the left ventricle of the heart , and to hinder the blood from sliding back again into the heart . three valves are placed therein , arising from the coat of the vein it self , looking from without inwards , and resembling an half circle , or the letter sigma , as it was anciently figured , and did resemble the latine letter c. the arteria venosa , which others call vena pulmonaria , is the third vessel of the heart , which is seen in the left ventricle . it is termed an artery because of its office : for i. it pulses in a grown person , because it is united to the left ventricle , but it moves not by a proper motion of its own , because it is neither an artery , nor doth it carry pure arterial blood . ii. it is implanted into the left ventricle . t is called a vein , . because of its substance . . because in a child in the womb , it performs the office of a vein . and it is produced as it were from the cava , to which it is joyned , by way of anastomosis . yea and in a grown person , it carries blood also to the heart , as doth the cava . it arises with a round and great orifice ( greater then that of the arteria magna ) divided into two parts presently after its egress , just in a manner as if it arose with a twofold mouth ; and it is disseminated into the right and left part of the lungs . the use . i. in its dilatation to draw air to the heart , not bare and simple air , but mixed with the blood which returns from the lungs , for the generation of vital spirits and arterial blood , and to nourish and kindle up the vital flame . for the arteria venosa being opened in living anatomies , doth pour blood and not pure air into the heart , which for the most part we observe thicker then ordinary in the carcasses of men and beasts , because the motion of the left ventricle ceasing , the blood received in this vein , cannot be driven or drawn to the heart . and when the arteria venosa is cut or opened , there appears no air , because the air is not pure and simple , being mixed throughout with blood . and when the lungs of a living or dead creature are by art blown up , not a jot of air is perceived to come thence to the heart , because the carriage of blood is wanting , and the natural drawer and driver is also wanting . but that the air such as it is , doth come into the heart , their examples do testifie , who have been stifled with the sums of quick-silver . coles , lime , &c. and otherwise the lungs and lung-pipes were made in vain . ii. in the contraction of the heart to thrust out a portion of vital blood , into the lungs , together with sooty exhalations ; which is an old opinion . but that in the systole of the heart , blood or sooty steams should be carried this way . . the valves hinder , which will not suffer any thing to return . . the arteria venosa being tied , doth swel towards the lungs , and is lank and emptied near the heart . . being opened it pours forth blood on this side the band , but beyond it being opened it voids neither blood nor sooty exhalations . . the sooty steams of the right ventricle , do evaporate through the vena arteriosa , turn into water in the pericardium or heart-bag , breed the hairs in the arm-pits , and exale into the whole habit of the body , through the aorta . . the air which goes into the heart , and the sooty steams which go out with the blood , should be carried the same way , in contrary motions , which is a thing unusal in the natural course observed in the body . for though ever and anon excrements are driven from and nutriment is drawn to the same part , yet the way is different , especially where the afflux is continual , as in the arteria venosa from the lungs ; or at least they are performed at different times . therefore . iii. in the contraction of the heart , it drives blood which is superfluous after the nourishment of the lungs , or that which runs back , out of the vena arteriosa , into the left ventricle of the heart . two valves only are placed at the orifice of this vessel , which look from without inwards ( bred out of the nervous circle which grows out of the substance of the heart ) which being joyned together do resemble a bishops mitre , they are greater then the valves of the cava , have longer threds ( and each hath seven large ones , besides little ones annexed to them , which from a broad basis do commonly end into a sharp point ) and for strengths sake very many fleshy explantations . therefore two were sufficient to shut the orifice close , because they are greater then others , the fibres longer and larger , the columnes or pillars stronger , and the orifice it self is more ovall-shap'd , then that of the rest . the arteria magna or great artery so called , because it is the root of all others , is another vessel of the left ventricle , from whence it proceeds and arises . at the orifice hereof , is placed instead of a prop , not in men , but in certain beasts , as harts , oxen , horses , &c. a certain hard substance , which is somtimes gristly , somtimes boney , according to the greatness and age of the beasts . in man the most noble and strongest , harvey saw a portion of this artery turned into a round bone , near the heart , whence he concludes that the diastole of the arteries , is caused by the blood alone , not by any pulsifick faculty , derived through the membranes . also johannes schroderus writes that the meeting together of the arteries in the basis of the heart , was in an heart degenerated into a bone . the use thereof is , to communicate the vital spirit , with the nutritive arterial blood , received from the heart , unto all parts of the body , for nutrition and life ; which that it may not pass back again into the heart , three valves are placed ( like those in the vena arteriosa exactly shut ) looking from without inwards , which are termed sigmiodes or sigma-shap'd valves . chap. viii . how the vessels are united in the heart of a child in the womb. the vessels in the heart are otherwise disposed when the child is in the womb , then they are after it is born ; which though galen knew and made mention thereof ; yet the greatest part of anatomists have either neglected the same , or have delivered falsities thereabout , by saying that the unions of the vessels were some of them only made by a chanel , others only by way of anastomosis . but the conjunctions or unions of the vessels of the heart in a child in the womb , are twofold : one is made by an anastomosis , another by a chanel . by anastomosis an union is made of the vena cava and the arteria venosa , under the right earlet , near the coronaria , before the cava doth absolutely open it self into the right ventricle . the hole is large and of an oval figure . now nature contrived this union by way of anastomosis , . by reason of vicinity . . because of the likeness of substances . before this hole in the cavity of arteria venosa is placed a pendulous , thin , hard , little membrane , larger then the hole . it s use is , i. according to the doctrin of galen and his clients , that the blood may be carried through this hole , out of the cava into the arteria venosa ( not into the right ventricle , for vital spirit is not yet bred , nor do the lungs need blood so attenuated ) to nourish the lungs ; because they could not otherwise be nourished in a child in the womb , because in it the heart hath no motion whereby the blood might be forced out of the right ventricle into the vena arteriosa : and therefore this arteria venosa , is a vein in the child in the womb. but that it serves the turn of the heart , and not only to nourish the lungs , divers things evince observed by the favorers of the circular motion . for . the heart is moved even in an imperfect child , after the third moneth , as egs and embryo's do testifie . but before the third moneth only a little bladder of the earlet pants , as in insects before the heart is perfectly hollowed . but this motion were in vain , if the heart should not receive or expel any thing . . the blood by the anastomosis is immediately poured into the left ear , and is necessarily thence conveighed by the systole of the heart , into the left ventricle . . all the blood is carried through these unions , doubtless not for the sake of the lungs alone , which might be nourished after the same manner as in grown persons , although void of motion , the veins in part gaping . . the child in the womb is nourished with arterial blood , which can come from no place but the heart , as shall be demonstrated hereafter . therefore , ii. the true use is , that it might conveigh part of the blood in a child in the womb , out of the cava of the liver , into the left ventricle of the heart , which cannot go thither the ordinary way , the lungs neither dilating themselves nor respireing . in which passage the right ventricle also draws somwhat to it self ▪ and that the blood may not slide back into the cava , a little membrane there placed hinders , when it fals in and settles . a little while after the birth this hole grows together and is dried up , so that a man would think the place had never been perforated , and that by reason of the plenty of blood in a grown person , forced out of the lungs now opened and inlarged directly to the left earlet , which suffers not a smal quantity of blood to flow out of the anastomosis , whereupon being shut it grows together . howbeit in grown persons , it remains for a season open . pinaeus observed it thrice , riolanus once , and my self more then once . botallus most frequently in calves , sows . dogs of a large size , and therefore he would have it to be alwaies and naturally open , that blood might pass this way out of the right to the left ventricle . caecilius folius treading in his foot-steps , thinks it is open in all men , to the same end , as in a child in the womb , but contrary to experience . for it is then only open , when nature hath shut up other passages , as i saw at padua in that old man , whose arteria venosa was stopped with flegm . in water-fowl and other animals that live in the water , as ducks , castors , swans , bitturns , &c. it is alwaies open , because they live now and then in the water , without the use of their lungs . and i have somtimes observed in dead bodies the little membrane winking , and receiving the probe without any violence , but i cannot allow that it is so alwaies . and that light opening would be unprofitable . for the passage of so much blood . another union is by a longish channel , viz. that of the vena arterialis , and the arteria magna , because they are distant one from another . the vii . table . the explication of the figures . in this table are presented the unions of the vessels of the heart in a child in the womb , also the heart incompast with the lungs , and the smal twigs of the wesand or wind-pipe call'd aspera arteria . fig . i. a. the heart . b. the ascendent trunk of vena cava . c. the descendent trunk thereof . d. the ascendent trunk of arteria magna . e. the axillary artery . f. the descendent trunk of the great artery . g. the earlet of the right ventricle . k. an anastomosis as it appears in vena cava . fig . ii. a. the little heart of a child in the womb. b. the trunk of the arteria magna , springing out of the heart . c. a portion of the said artery going down-wards . d. the vena arteriosa drawn out of the heart . ee . the channel between the vena arteriosa and arteria magna . ff . the rise of the arteries termed carotides or drousie arteries . g. the beginning of the subclavian right artery . fig . iii. a. the right nerve of the sixt pare going towards the lungs . b. the same nerve on the left side . c. the middle branch between the two nerves . d. the off-spring thereof , which is carried to the pericardium . ee . the two greater branches of aspera arteria , which on the back-sides are membranous . ff . the hinder part of the lungs . g. the proper membrane of the lungs . hh . a remaining portion of the pericardium or heart-bag . i. the heart in its proper place . fig . iv. a. the aspera arteria or wesand , cut off under th● larynx . b. it s right branch , divided first into two . c. the left branch of the arteria aspera , distributed in like manner into greater and lesser branches . ddd . the extremities of the branches , page by the arteria venosa ] where it is divided into two , as if it had three parts ; the least whereof notwithstanding is the channel . in infants of three or four years old , it is stil to be seen , but without any through-passage : in grown persons t is by little and little attenuated and dried , being distitute of all nutriment , because no humors pass any longer through the same , until through absence of life and nourishment , it putrifies and consumes quite away . the use thereof is , i. according to the mind of galen , that the vital spirit being received from the navil-arteries into the arteria magna , may from hence be carried , through that channel into the vena arteriosa and so straight into the lungs , to maintain life . but , . it serves not the lungs alone . . the navil-arteries do bring out of the arteria magna , but carry nothing thereinto . . the pipe is greater then to serve only to carry spirits . . the lungs of a child in the womb being red , are not nourished only with spirits . ii. according to petrejus and hofmannus , to bring arterial blood to nourish the lungs . who had said well , if they had not omitted the good of the whole body . iii. according to late writers , that the blood which slides out of the upper trunk of cava into the right ventricle may pass through this pipe , the greatest part thereof indeed to the aorta , that so with the rest it may nourish and enliven the whole body of the embryo ; but the least portion of all goes up to the lungs by the ordinary way . both the ventricles in the child perform one and the same thing , and part the blood which is to be carried , because the more perfect blood is supplied by the mother , and therefore the walls are a like thick . and the two ventricles in the child which doth not respire , perform the same , which in imperfect animals void of lungs , is accomplished by one ventricle . this pipe therefore assists the anastomosis in transporting the blood of the heart , because either of the waies would otherwise be two narrow . for i have observed in a girle new borne , by me publickly dissected , that the pipe was wanting , because the anastomosis was larger then ordinary : and there is reason for it . the lungs must be nourished and the whole body must be nourished . which can never be effected , unless the arterial blood be distributed out of the aorta . it comes not from the mother through the iliack arteries , because they are not joyned to the arteries of the womb , besides their motion is contrary , as the binding of the navil arteries doth shew . for the navil-arteries derived from the child , do swel towards the heart thereof , and towards the placenta or womb-cake they are empty ; for the arterial blood in the child ▪ after it is nourished , runs back through the iliack veins to the placenta , as a part of the child which must be nourished , out of which it passes again into the navil-veins , and is mixed with that other blood which comes out of the veins of the womb , and runs joyntly back again to the liver and heart of the child , that the circulation may be repeated . now it flows conveniently out of this vena arteriosa through the pipe or channel into the aorta , by reason of its situation downwards , and its crooked insertion into the aorta . therefore seeing the arterial blood , is not carried fr●● the mother , upwards to the heart , neither can the lungs be nourished thereby . chap. ix . touching the lungs . the lungs called i● latin pulmones in greek pneumoe●'s or pleumones , have their name from respiration or drawing in and blowing out the air : because they are given to animals living in their air and breathing , but not to fishes which have neither neck nor voice . they are seated in the cavity of the breast or chest , which they fil , when they are distended . they are divided into the right and left part by means of the mediastinum : that one part being hurt , the other may yet perform the office. each of these parts is divided into two lobes , laps or scollups , about the fourth vertebra of the chest , of which the upper is shorter then the lower ; seldom is one part divided into three lobes , as in brutes ; because a man goes bolt upright , brutes looking downwards ▪ nor by reason of the shortness of the chest , could any thing lie between the heart and the liver , except the midrif . yet oftentimes piccolhomineus , riolanus and my self , have after hippocrates and russus ephesius observed three . now the lungs embrace the heart with their scollups as with certain fingers . their shape resembles that of an ox-hoofe . on the outside towards the cavity of the chest , the lungs are bossie or bunching out , on the inside they are hollow , where they embrace the heart . their colour in the child is red like that of the liver : by reason of the nourishment is receives from its mother ; in grown persons t is yellowish pale ; somtime ash-color'd : in such as have died of a long sickness blackish . in some persons healthy enough . i have seen them party colored , like marble . in that part where it is knit unto the chest by fibres , t is red , as in a child in the womb. t is knit in the fore-part to the brest-bone by the mediastinum , behind to the vertebra's ; somtimes the lungs at the sides grow to the pleura by certain fibrous bands , whence arises a lasting shortness of breath . now this connexion doth frequently deceive physitians , nor knowing or discerning penetrating wounds of the chest . nicolas massa conceives this connexion profitable to the heart , least it should be oppressed with the bulk of the lungs , or the facility or breathing should be hindred , and riolanus saies he evermore found this a●●esion . i have cheifly observed it about the lower ribs . near the diaphragma , least they should press and bear upon it . others say the lungs are bound to fibres , that in the wounds of the chest , they might follow the motion of the chest , though with a weaker motion . hippocrates in his second book de morbis calls it the lungs slipt down to the side ; and this comes to pass either from ones birth , or after a pleurisie , or by reason of tenacious and clammy flegm interposing it self ; o● from some external cause , as negligent curing of a wounded or suppurated chest . also the lungs cleave to the heart , by the vena arteriosa and the arteria venosa . the substance in a child in the womb is compact and thick ; so that being cast into water it sinks , which the lungs of grown persons will not do . but after the birth , because it begins to be moved with the heart , by heat and motion the heart becomes light and soft , lax , rare and spungy ; so that the lungs will be easily raised and fall again , and easily receive the air : which may be seen by the use of a pare of bellows in dead bodies . helmont hath seen the lungs hard and stoney , in an asthmatical person , and salmuth observes that little stones have been there generated in shortness of breath . also touching stones we have the testimony of galen , trallianus , aegineta . the lungs are compassed with a thin light membrane , furnisht with many pores which pores are sufficiently visible , when the lungs are blown up with a pair of bellows , and job . walaeus hath observed the said pores in live anatomies , as big as a large pease . this way the sanies or corrupt matter of the chest may penetrate and come away by coughing . this membrane is produced from the encompassing pleura . for when the vessels enter into the lungs , they devest themselves of their coat , which grows out of the pleura , which doth afterwards invest the lungs . the vessels . the substance of the lungs is interwoven with three sorts of vessels , which make not a little also for strength . two proceed from the heart , of which before : the vena arterialis and arteria venalis . the third is proper , viz. the trachea or aspera arteria so called , of which in the following chapter . if these vessels be fretted asunder as in persons phcisical , or having the consumption of the lungs , many times plenty of blood is cast forth , or some cartilaginous substance ; yea and the vessels themselves of the lungs intire , which i have seen , and tulpius hath two examples . and oftentimes persons in a consumption die suddenly , because the greater vessels being fretted asunder , the heart is strangled with blood issuing there from . these vessels of the lungs are great , not so much because they wanted much blood , for their substance is very smal , setting aside the vessels , nor needed they so much blood as is sufficient to nourish the whole body ; but they are great , because the greatest portion of the blood is carryed this way out of the right ventricle of the heart into the left by those wide passages , for the more subtile blood can find its way through the obscure pores of the septum . this passage is proved . . by the greatness of the vessels . for the vena arteriosa and the arteria venosa are most large . and because the former is a vessel which carries out of the heart , it is furnished with the mitre-fashion'd valves , which hinder the blood from passing out of the lungs the same way ; and the latter bringing blood out of the lungs into the heart , has the treble-pointed valves , hindring the blood from returning . . great quantity of blood is continually sent by the pulse of the heart , through the vena arteriosa and thence through the arteria venosa unto the left ventricle , which is further confirmed by ocular inspection . . by ligatures in living anatomies . for the vena arteriosa swels towards the heart ; but near the lungs it is empty ; the arteria venosa contrarywise , swels towards the lungs , but is empty towards the heart . . the left ventricle of the heart being wounded , or the arteria aorta , great plenty of blood will issue , as long as life remains , till all the blood in the body be run out . and from what other place can it come , seeing so much is not contained in the heart , but out of the lungs through the arteria venosa , which had drawn the blood out of the vena arteriosa by the anastomoses . . in the arteria venosa as well of a living as a dead body , so much blood is found , that it hath often hindred me in my publick dissections . . by the similitude of the vessels one with another . the vena arteriosa carrying out of the heart into the lungs , is just like the aorta in substance , largeness , neighbourhood , and valves . the arteria venosa doth in like manner resemble the vena cava by straitness of connexion , substance of a vein , earlets and treble-pointed valves . this circulation through the lungs is furthered , . by the widening of the lungs when air i● drawn in , which being every where filled , the vessels are distended , as when they cease , the motion of the blood is either retarded , or quite ceases . . by the situation of the vessels of the lungs . the vena arteriosa is disseminated in the hinder or convex part of the lungs , because it is strongly moved by the pulse of the heart , the arteria venosa doth cheifly possess the foremore and hollow part , that the blood might more readily slide into the heart . in the middest of which the branches of the wind-pipe are seated , that in the blowing out of the air , they might receive sooty exhalations from the vena arteriosa , and in drawing the air in , they might communicate the same to the arteria venosa . . the anastomoses , by which the vessels are joyned together , both the branches which joyn mouth to mouth ( though in dead bodies they cannot be discerned by the eye-sight ) and the pores of the parenchyma which is light and porous . it is to be noted for the answering the objections made against this circulation . . that the lungs are not oppressed or burthened so long as they being sound , the blood perpetually glides through by peice-meal . . that the blood doth not drop out through the pipes of the wesand , because partly they draw in only air or sooty exhalations , and in no wise blood of a thicker nature then they , unless they be preternaturally fretted in persons that have the consumption , partly because nature never ceases to drive found humors through the passages ordained for them , and retains what is necessary , which would otherwise go out at the passages of the body being opened . . although the lungs of dead bodies are whitish , yet the vessels do manifestly transpire through the external coat . the parenchyma it self is frequently ful , in persons strangled with blood , in others it is found emptied , because in the pangs of death it is forcibly excluded . . in burning feavers , both the lungs are hot , and thereupon the voice is hoarse and dry , and they are oppressed , as appeared in the epidemical feaver which raged up and down this year , by which many were strangled . . it is no good judging of the healthy state of the body , from the preternatural state thereof . very smal nervulets from the sixth pare are spred only through the membrane thereof ( which if it be inflamed , a pain will be felt , and communicated to the side it self and to the back ) not through the substance of the lungs , least by reason of their continual motion they should be pained . hence the ulcers of the lungs are without pain . howbeit riolanus allots very many nerves to the substance of the lungs also , drawn from the implication and contexture of the stomach nerves . i also have seen many spred abroad within the lungs , proceeding from the sixt pare , and alwaies in a manner accompanying the bronchia or lung-pipes , derived from the hinder part , and only a little twig conveig'd to the membrane from the forepart . what the action of the lungs is , authors question . that they never move at all is helmonts paradox , but serve only as a seive , that the air may pass pure into the chest , and that the muscles of the belly alone do suffice for respiration . but that they are indeed and in truth moved , the cutting up of live bodies shews , and wounds of the chest , that they move long and strongly . moreover that they may be moved , any one may try with a pair of bellows . finally , they ought to be moved , for otherwise both the heart would ●e suffocated , and the motion of the blood in the lungs , would be hindred . the muscles of the belly do indeed concur , but secondarily , because they are not joyned to the heart , and when they are moved respiration may be stopped , yea , and when they are cut off in a living anatomy , the lungs are moved nevertheless . but whether they are moved by their own proper force , or by some other thing , is a further question . averrhoes who is followed among the late writers by john daniel horstius , conceives the lungs are moved by their own proper force , not following the motion of the chest , for otherwise saies he we must grant that a violent motion may be perpetual . but we are to hold , that though the lungs are the vessel of respiration , yet they are so not by doing , but by suffering . for they have no motive force of their own , as averrhoes will have it ( because at our pleasure we can stop our breathing , or quicken or retard the same ) nor do they receive the principle of their motion from the heart , or from the blood raising them , as aristole conceives , and his followers , for . the efflux of the blood out of the heart , is made by the orninary motion , but the respiration is voluntary . . the cause of the pulse and respiration would be one and the same , and they would be performed at one and the same time . but thirty pulses answer one respiration . . while we draw in our breath strongly , and hold the air drawn in for a season , the swelling of the lungs should compel us to let our breath go , because it lifts up the chest , according to their opinion . . the blood of the heart doth not abide in the lungs by an unequal retention , so as to distend them , but it is forthwith expelled according to nature . . when it tarries longest in diseased lungs , it makes shortness of breath or difficulty in breathing , but no tumor . . in a strong apoplexy , the motion of the lungs ceases , the pulse being safe and the heart unhurt . nor are the lungs raised up , by the air forced in , which when the chest is lifted up , because it hath no other space whither it can go to , it is carried through the aspera arteria or wesand into the lungs , as falcoburgius and des cartes conceive , and hogelandius , regius , and prataeus who follow him : for . the air may easily be condensed , as may be proved by a thousand experiments , as by cupping-glasses , weather-glasses , whips , trumpets , winds and infinite things beside ; and therefore it may be most straitly compacted about the chest , and compressed within it self , as well by the internal subtile nature of the air and dispersed by atomes , easily recollected one within another , as by the external impulse of the chest , whereby it may more easily be condensed , then driven into another place . , by the motion of the chest or such a like body , we do not see the lightest thing that is , agitated . by an hole in a wall all chinks and dores being closely stopped , our nostrils being stopped , we may with our mouthes draw air out of the next chamber , to which it is not credible that the air moved by the chest , can reach with a strong motion ; and though air may penetrate into the chamber , through some chinks and rifts , yet is it not in so great quantity , as to stretch the chest so much as it ought to be stretched , in free respiration . the same experiment may be made in a glass or silver vessel applied close to ones mouth . . while i have held my breath , i have observed my belly to be moved above twenty times the while . but whether is the air then driven ? must it not needs be , because all places are ful of bodies , that the air next the belly is compressed and condensed ? see more of this subject in my vindiciae anatomicae , and in a peculiar discourse . therefore the lungs do only follow the motion of the chest to avoid vacuum : and therefore only they receive the air drawn in , because the chest by widening it self , fils the lungs with air . now that the motion of the lungs arises from the chest experience shews . for . if air enter into the chest , being peirced through with a wound , the lungs remain immoveable , because they cannot follow the widening of the chest , the air insinuating it self through the wound , into the empty space . but the chest being sound , the lungs follow the widening thereof , to avoid vacuum ; as in pipes , water is drawn upwards , and quittor , bullets , darts and other hard things are drawn out of body through the avoidance of vacuum . . if the midriff of a live creature be peirced through with a light wound , respiration is stopped , the chest falling in . but somwhat there is which hinders many worthy men from assenting to this cause of the lungs motion , because after the chest is perfectly opened , the lungs are oftentimes moved along time , with a vehement motion . but according to the observation of johannes walaeus , franciscus sylvius , and franciscus vander shagen , that is not the motion of constriction and dilatation , which is the natural motion of the lungs ; but it is the motion of an whole lobe upwards and downwards , which motion happens , because the lungs are fasten'd to the mediastinum , the mediastinum to the midriff , and the lungs are also seated near the midriff : whence it happens , while the creature continues yet strong , that either the lungs with the mediastinum are drawn , or by the midriff driven , the diaphragma or midriff , not yet falling down nor loosing its motion , which i observe in contradiction to the most learned son of horstius . now that this motion proceeds not from the inbred force of the lungs , doth hence appear , in that alwaies when the chest is depressed , the lungs are lifted up , being forced by the midriff , which at that time rises a good height into the chest ; and contrarywise the chest being lifted up , the lungs are depressed . and because the lungs are the instrument of respiration , hence it hath these following , uses , i. according to plato , galen , and abensinae , to be a soft pillow and cushion under the heart . ii. according to others who follow columbus ▪ to prepare and wellnigh generate the vital spirits ( which are afterwards to receive their perfection in the heart ) whiles in them the blood is as it were circulated , first boyling with the heat of the heart , and afterwards settled by the coldness of the air . iii. it hath more proper uses when it is dilated , and when it is contracted . when the lungs are dilated , they receive in the air like a pair of bellows through the branches of the wind-pipe . i. to prepare aire for the heart , for the convenient nourishment of the lightful spirit . for every quality of the aire is not a friend to our spirit , as is seen in such , as are kild with the smoak of charcole , and the steam of newly whited walls . helmont conceives that the air is united to the spirit of the heart , and that it receives a fermentation in the heart , which accompanying the same they do both dispose the blood to a total transpiration of it self , which is the reason why in the extremity of cold weather and at sea , we eat more heartily , because the thinness of the air disposes the blood to insensible transpiration . backius is somwhat of the same mind , who conceives that by the moist and thin body of the air , the blood is made apt to run , so as that it may be diffused into the smallest passages of the body . others ascribe both these effects to the abundance of serosity in the blood. therefore hippocrates saies that water is hungry ; and we see that such as are given to drink , are enclined to sweat much , as also scorbutick persons . ii. to fan and cool the heat . for we see that the heat of our bodies stands in need of somwhat that is cold , without which it is extinguished , as is apparent in such as stay long in very hot baths , as the flame of a candle in a close place , wanting air goes out . and therefore the lungs are called the fan and cooler of the heart , and the fishes in the water and other animals that have but on ventricle in their hearts , are without lungs , because they do not want such a cooling . as also infants in the womb , being fanned by their mother , and the wide anastomoses , have their lungs without motion . hence it is that having seen only the lungs , you may judg how hot any creature is ; for nature makes the lungs the larger , by how much the heart is hotter . therefore the lungs are not absolutely necessary to life , but serve to accommodate the heart . for instead of lungs a boy of amsterdam four years old , had a little bladder ful of a membranous wind , as nicolas fontanus a physitian of that citty doth testifie , which being guarded with very smal veins , had its original from the aspera arteria or wesand it self , whose office it is to cool the heart . who nevertheless died of a consumption , because haply , his heart was not furnished with a sufficient quantity of air. when the lungs are contracted in expiration , they do again afford us a twofold use . i. sooty excrements do pass away through the same , being carried out of the heart with the blood , through the vena arteriosa . ii. to make an articulate voice in men , and an inarticulate sound in beasts , by affording air to frame the voice . and therefore creatures that have no lungs , are mute , according to aristotle . chap. x. of the lung-pipe or wesand . the pipe or channel of the lungs , is by the ancients called arteria , because it contains air : galen and others call it trachea arteria or the rough artery , because of its unevenness , and to difference it from the smooth arteries . lactantius terms it spiritualis fistula , the spirit or air-pipe , because the air is breathed in and out thereby , now it is a pipe or channel entring into the lower part of the lungs , with many branches , which are by hippocrates termed syringae and aortae , whose head is termed larynx , of which in the following chapter ; the rest of its body is termed bronchus , because it is moistened with drink . for that some part of the drink doth pass even into the wind-pipe and lungs , hippocrates doth rightly prove by an hog new kild , in whose lungs matter is found just so colored as the the drink was , which he drunk immediately before he was killed . and that some drink may be carried through the wind-pipe , may be proved out of julius jasolinus an anatomist of naples , who seeking in the body of a noble person , the cause of his death , found his pericardium or heart-bag , so distended with humor , that it being squeezed , some of the said humor came out at his mouth . as to its situation : in man-kind it rests upon the gullet , for it goes down from the mouth straight along to the lungs : and at the fourth vertebra of the chest , it is divided into two branches , each of which goes into the lungs of its respective side : they are again subdivided into two other branches , and these again into others till at last they end into very smal twigs in the surface of the lungs . but the branches thereof which are greater then the rest of the vessels of the lungs , entring into the lungs , do go through the middle thereof , between the vena arteriosa which is hindermore , and the arteria venosa which is before it : with which it is joyned by obscure anastomoses , or conjunctions of mouths , hardly discernable by our eye-sight . in bruits t is situate much after the same manner . yet we must note that it is different in a swan , and after a manner altogether singular . for being longer , it insinuates it self by a crooked winding into a case of the breast-bone , and soon after from the bottom of the case , it returns upwards , and having mounted the channel-bones , it bends it self towards the chest . but before it reaches the lungs , t is propped by a certain boney pipe , broad above , narrow beneath , which in a duck is round , then it is divided into two branches , which swel in the middle , but grow smaller where they tend to the lungs , till they enter into them . 't is cloathed with a double membrane : one external , another internal . the external is a thin one arising from the pleura , and sticks close to the intermediate lingaments of the gristles , and ushers along the recurrent nerves . the internal being furnished with straight fibres is thicker and more solid ( most of all in the larynx , least of all in the branches of the lungs , indifferently in the middle pipe ) to the end it may not easily be hurt by acrimonious drinks , or other liquors voided by coughing , or falling down from the head. it arises from the coat which compasses the palate , and therefore is continued with the mouth . it is smeared with a fat humor to hinder its being dried up by motions , loud cryings , drawing in of hot air , going out of sharp sooty exhalations , &c. and by the superaboundance or deficiency hereof the voice is hurt . for in the former contracted by distillations , it becomes hoarse ; in the latter through burning feavers , &c. it becomes squea●ing . if it overabound , we are quite dumb and unable to speak , and the moisture being consumed our speech returns again : which might happen in that same dumb son of craesus mentioned by herodotus , and in aegle a samian wrastler , mentioned by valerius maximus , and zacharias orphanus a fool , of whom nicolas fontanus tels a story in his observations . this coat is of exquisite sense , that it may raise it self to expel what ever is trouble-some thereunto . between these two membranes is the proper substance of the trachea arteria , which is partly of the nature of a gristle , and partly of a ligament . the viii . table . the figures explained . this table represents the aspera arteria , the oesophagus , the recurrent nerves about the arteria magna and the arteria axillaris , behind fig i aa . the muscle contracting the oesophagus . bbb . the oesophagus or gullet . ccc . the aspera arteria or wesand placed under the throate . d. the membrane between the wesand and the gullet . eeee . the nerves of the sixth conjugation . ff . nerves of the tongue inserted behind . gg . the right recurrent nerve , turned back to the artery of the shoulder . hh . the left recurrent nerve about the descendent trunk of the arteria magna . ii. a nerve tending to the left orifice of the stomach and to the diaphragma . kk . a nerve descending to the diaphragma . l. the jugular arteries on each side one . m. the left humeral artery . n. the right humeral or shoulder artery . oo . the arteria magna or great artery . pp . the trunks of the arteries descending to the lungs . fig . ii. this figure shews the upper part of the gullet with its muscles . aa . the musculi cephalo-pharyngaei s● called . bb. the musculi spheno-pharvngaei . cc. the musculi s●●lopharyngaei . dd. the s●luncterd awn from the gullet . e. the in●de of the gullet . f. the descending part of the gullet . page i. for the voices sake : because that which makes a sound must be solid . ii. otherwise by reason of its softness it would alwaies fall together , and would not easily be opened in respiration . it was to be partly ligamental , and not wholly of a gristly substance : for if it should consist of one only gristle , or many circular ones , i. it would be evermore open , and not somtimes widen and then fall together . ii. it would bear hard upon the gullet , to which nevertheless , it ought to give way , especially in the swallowing down of solid meats , that the throat or gullet might be sufficiently widned . and so the gristles help to frame the voice ; and the membranous ligaments for respiration . the gristles are many , round like rings , but not exactly . for on their backside , where they touch the gullet , a fourth part of a circle is wanting , in place whereof there is a membranous substance . from their shape they are termed sigma-shap'd resembling the old greek letter c , til they are fixed in the lungs , for then changing their fignre , they change their name . for the wind-pipes do there consist of perfect gristles , round , four square , or triangular , but where they are joyned to the rest of the vessels of the lungs they become membranous . these gristles are joyned together by ligaments going between , which in men are more fleshy , in brute beasts more membranous ; and in men the shew like little muscles . and the gristles do every where keep an equal di●…n from another , and the higher , the ●…ey ●hey are . it hath vessels ●●mmon wi●● others . veins from the the external jugulars ; arteries from the carotides ; nerves , from the recurrent nerves of the sixth pair . it s use is , i. in drawing in the air , that by it as a pipe , the air may be received from the lungs , as from a pair of bellows . hence comes that same wheezing in such as have the tissick , the pipes of the wesand being stopped , so that the air coming and going and not finding a free passage makes that hissing noise . ii. in blowing the air out , i. that through it fuliginous excrements may be voided at the mouth and nostrils . for which intent the mouths of the vena arteriosa do so artificially joyn with the mouths of the aspera arteria , that there is passage only for sooty steams but not for blood , unless it come away by force and violent coughing . in the next place , that it may help to form the voice , which it doth by expiration likewise , though some juglers frame their voice by inspiration only or drawing in of their breath . and therefore hippocrates calls it the breathing and vocal organ . a wonder therefore it is that some men can live long in the water like fishes , by nature and not by art , if cardan is to be believed in the second book de subtilitate , when he makes relation of one calanus a diver in sicily , who would lie three or four hours under the water . and how in the west-indies everywhere , such as dive for pearl-oysters , will lie an hour together under the water . if they did this by some art , it were not so wonderful . so the aegyptians are most perfect divers , and exercise robberies that way . for as appears by the description of nicolus christophori radzivilij his journey to hierusalem , they lie lurking under the waters , and not being content to steal on land , what ever they can catch they draw into the water , and carry it away : and frequently they catch a man as he lies upon a ships deck draw him under the water and kill and strip him of his cloathes : so that such as sail are said many times to watch all night armed , and in the same parts , aboundance of fisher men will dive under the water and catch fish with their hands , and they will come up with a fish in cach hand and a third in their mouths . these persons doubtless , do either live only by transpiration , as such do that have fits of the apoplexy and the mother ; or they have anastomoses open in their hearts , by means of which as in the womb , the blood is freely moved ▪ without any motion of the lungs . chap. xi . of the larynx . the head or beginning of this lung-pipe , is termed larynx , which is the voices organ . t is situate in the neck , and that in the middle thereof , for it is in number one , that there may be only one voice . it s figure is round and almost circular ; because it was to be hollow for the voices sake ; but on the foreside it is more extuberant , on the hinder side depressed , that it may give way to the gullet , especially in the time of swallowing , in which while the oesophagus is depressed , the larynx runs back upwards , and so assists the swallowing , both by giving way and bearing down that which is to be swallowed . it s magnitude varies according to the ages of persons . for in younger persons the larynx is strait which makes their voice shril : in grown persons t is wider , and therefore their voice is bigger . to which also the length or shortness of the larynx doth contribute : and if plenty of air or spirit be drawn and expelled , the voice becomes big ; if little , it becomes smal . and therefore according to galen there are two causes of a great voice : the largeness of the aspera arteria , and the strong blowing out of the air , and hippocrates saies both these are caused by great hear . and therefore in his book of the seed , he teaches us that the stones do contribute to the formation of the voice , hence males when they grow of ripe years change their voice . a guelded horse looses his neighing . a capon leaves his crowing or crows after a weaker fashion , different from his former crowing . the parts of the larynx or about the larynx : are gristles , muscles , membranes , vessels and kernels . its muscles do first of all offer themselves , which move the gristles , which the larynx is possest of , that it may be moved with a voluntary motion , seeing we utter our speech , as we please our selves . now the muscles of a mans larynx , are but thirteen , four common and nine proper : though some make twenty , other eighteen , others fourteen . the ix . table . the figures explained . this table represents the larynx , with its muscles and gristles . fig . i. a. the gristle cal'd shyroides or scutiformis , sheild-fashioned . bbbb . a pair of common muscles called sternothyroides . cc. another pair of common muscles called hyothyroides . fig . ii. a. the epiglottis lying yet hid under the scutiformis . b. the scutiformis or sheild-fashion'd gristle . cc. its process . dd. two muscles proper to the larynx , of which that on the left hand is removed from its place , that the ring-fashion ● gristle e. may be seen . f. the extuberancy of the ring-fashon'd gristle , or cartilago annularis . g. a portion of the aspera arteria . fig . iii. aaa . the bone hyoides with three extuberancies . b. the epiglottis . cc. the sheild-fashion'd gristle , hollow on the back-side . dd. the two muscles cal'd cucullares , or the hinder pair of the cricoarythenoides so called . e. the hinder and membranous part of the aspera arteria . ff . the muscles cal'd arytenoides , by some the ninth pair . fig . iv. a. the concave part of cartilago scutiformis dilated . b. the third pair of proper muscles cal'd cricoarythenoides laterale . c. the first pair of proper muscles . d. the fourth pair cal'd thyroarythenoides internum . ee . insertion of the recurrent nerve . ff . the hinder and membranous part of the aspera arteria . fig . v. aa . the cartilago thyroides or scutiformis . bb. the inferior processes thereof . c. it s concave part. fig . vi. a. the inside of the cartilago annularis . b. it s lower and fore-side . c. it s hinder and upper-side . fig . vii . a. b. the cartilago arythenoides according to its hinder side joyned , as yet to the annularis . c. the broader and back-part of the annularis . fig . viii . ix . shews the gristles which constitute the arythenoides , separate from the annularis . page . the common are those which are implanted into the larynx , and yet do not arise therefrom . the proper have both their original and termination in the larynx . the first pair of the common , called by the ancient sternothyroides , being lower more , arises within from the breast-bone , its original being broad and fleshy , and going a long by the wezand , it is inserted beneath into the sides of the sheild-fashion'd gristle . it s use is to straiten the chink of the larynx , by drawing down the scutiformis . the second pair called hyothyroides , being the uppermore , arises from the lower side of the os hyoides , being broad and fleshy , and touches the scutiformis , being implanted into the basis of the said scutiformis . it s use is to widen the chink , by lifting up the scutiformis , spigelius and vestingius assign contrary offices to these : for they will have the first pair to widen and the second to straiten the chink of the larynx . others do here add a third pair , which columbus nevertheless and casserius do account but one muscle . but this is rather musculus deglutitorius , or a swallowing muscle , because arising from the scutiformis tis wrapped about the gullet . it is judged , by contracting the sides of the scutiformis , to straiten the chink : but it is no servant to the larynx unless by accident . the first proper pair , arises on the foreside , from the lowest part of the scutiformis , as the insertion of the nerves doth shew , and ends at the annularis . and therefore this pair may be termed thyrocricoides ; but not , as most anatomists will have it , cricothyroides . some will have it to arise from the fore-side of the cricoides , and to end into the lowest side of the scutiformis . if it be broad and spred out side-waies , it may be divided into two pair , the foremore and the side pair , and so riolanus divides it . but it is for the most part single and smal enough . it s use is to draw the cartilago annularis to the scutiformis . ( lightly , because it is almost immoveable ) so that they may be joyned together , and kept in that posture . others who differ about its original , will have it to widen the chink or the scutiformis . the second pair rises from the back side of the annularis , with a fleshy orignal , and is implanted into the lower part of the glottalis or arytaenoides , with a nervous end , opening the larynx , by drawing asunder the two gristles called arytaenoides . and therefore they are called par cricoarythenoides posticum . casserius cals them par cucullare . the third pair , cricoarythenoides laterale , arises above from the sides of the annularis , and is inserted at the sides of the glottalis , into the joynt , there where it is not touched by the former , and opens the larynx , with the same oblique carriage of the gristles . the fourth pair , called thyroarytenoides , being inward and very broad , proceeds from the scutiformis , viz. from its inner and fore part , and from the cricoides likewise , as riolanus suspects , and ends into the sides of the glottalis , or the arytaenoides , which while it contracts and draws to the thyroides , it shuts the larynx , by a straight passage . when this pair is inflamed in a sq●…ie , it makes the disease deadly , because it exactly shurs the chink . the ninth muscle , which others term quintum par arytenoides , arises from the hinder line of the guttalis , and being carried along with transverse fibres , it is inserted into the sides thereof , shutting the larynx , while it straitens the cartilago arytaenoides . for it is to be noted , that all the proper muscles of the larynx , are ordained either to contract or widen the chink , which that it may be the more conveniently accomplished , some of them widen and straiten the thyroides , others the arytaenoides , which gristles do compass the chink , which being drawn in , or widenest , the chink is withal made narrower or wider . whence it appears , that i have not unskillfully propounded the muscles of the larynx , as riolanus upbraides me . the epiglottis in mankind has no muscle ; for it is not voluntarily moved in men , as some vainly perswade themselves ; but is only depressed by the weight of such things as are swallowed . but in brute beasts , the epiglottis hath muscles , because they are continually eating , and chewing the cud , and they have a very great epiglottis . and in them some muscles arise from the hyoides , and are implanted into the basis of the epiglottis , which they lift up ; ( and this pair vesalius reckons to be the fift common pair ) and others are seated between the coat of the epiglottis and the cartilage , shutting the same . the gristles of the larynx are five : which in elderly persons do somtimes attain a boney hardness ; by means whereof , some have scaped the danger of suffocation , when they hung upon the gallows . the first gristle is termed cartilago thuroides , or scutiformis , scutalis , clypealis , peltalis , &c. from its shape ; because it resembles a sheild , being in a manner four-square , hollow within , bossie and bunching without , but more in men then in women : because their necks are made even , for beauties sake , by those kernels placed by the larynx . that same bunch which is seen on the foreside of the nec●…s called adams apple , because 〈…〉 common people have a beleife , that by the judgment of god , a part of that fatal apple , abode sticking in adams thro●● , and is so communicated to his posterit● . it is distinguished in the middle with a line , and therefore some have made it double , whereas in truth it is very rarely found otherwise then single . in its corners it hath processes , above two long ones , wherewith by help of a li●…ment , it is joyned to the lower sides of os hyoides ; and beneath two likewise , by which t is j●…d to the following gristle . the second is the cricoeides or annularis , because it is round like a ring , and compasses the whole larynx . now it resembles the turkes ring , wherewith they arm their thumbs when they shoot , for the hinder part is broad and very thick . the fore part is straiter and drawn in like one of our rings . t is vulgarly termed innominata , or the nameless gristle , because the ancients gave it no name . t is the basis of the rest of the gristles , by help whereof they are joyned to the aspera artera , and therefore it is immoveable . the third and fourth , which others count for one , when the membrane is taken of appears to be double . t is called arutainoeides , guttalis , by reason of its resembling the spout of an ewer , whereout the water is poured , if the two processes of the upper part are considered , which being joyned together do make up that little chink which modulates the voice , which others term ●…gula , parva lingua , or glottis , the 〈…〉 tongue , for the voice cannot be 〈…〉 through a narrow passage . this rests upon the upper and hinder side of the cricoides , in the cavity of the thyroides . in this place is to be observed a certain hollowness , which is formed between the guttalis and the scutalis , by the membranes which gather up the cartilages ; into which if peradventure while one is speaking or laughing , and the epiglottis is open , a cru●● of bread or a drop of drink do happen to fall , it causes coughing , because it goes against the course of the wind . but if any thing slide leasurely down the chink , by the walls of the larynx , it hinders not the wind , and so causes no coughing . the fift is termed epiglottis , which covers and shuts the chink , least an considerable quantity of meat or drink should fall into the wesand , but that the epiglottis being shur , they might pass down the gullet . but it is not exactly shut , so that some smal quantity of drink may slip down the sides . for when we say that drink passes not into the wesand and the lungs , it is to be understood of the greatest part ; for that some is carried thither , i have shewed you before . and therefore in diseases of the chest , we prescribe electuaries and lozenges , which are to be held in the patients mouth , his head leaning backwards , till they melt away , that some portion of them may slip in by the walls of the wesand . t is opened when we laugh , and therefore men must be careful that the● do not laugh when they are supping of broath 〈…〉 the like . also let such as are greedy eaters take ●…eah , any meat get between the epiglottis and the 〈…〉 whence immediately suffocation follows , as i have se●● in a yong man of hafnia , who was suddainly choaked by a peice of neats-tongue weighing an ounce and an halt , greedily eaten . now the substance of the epiglottis is soft , and its shape resembles a tongue , or an i vie leaf , according to hippocrates . and on either side a membrane is fastend to the common mouth ; such an one as that which being daubed with a clammy humor , doth compass the inner cavity of the larynx , and the outside thereof is likewise covered thereby . as for vessels . the larynx hath veins from the internal jugular . it hath arteries from the larger branch of the carotides . it hath nerves which galen terms vocales , for the motion of the muscles , from the recurrent branch of the sixt pair . two parcels of kernels attend the same . one parcel at the upper part of the larynx , viz. at the sides of the uvula 〈…〉 gargareon which are called tonsilla or amyg●… also paristhima and antiades the almonds of the ears : which being spongy ( on each side one ) ●o 〈…〉 the moisture of the brain , t●●● it into spittle and therewith m●●sten the throat , larynx , tongue and oesophagus ; though it helps also our tasting , which cannot be performed without moisture . these kernels are about the root of the tongue , and are covered with the common coat of the mouth , and receive veins from the jugulars . they have placed by them two little white bladderkeys , which receive ●ero●ity out of the kernels , and void forth into the mouth . riolanus doth acknowledg no such in a man , but sustitutes in their stead ligamental membranes , stretched out from the uvula to the almonds . others stand by the lowerside of the larynx , on each side one , at the sides of cricoides and of the first ring of the wesand , being great and spongy , through which veins are spred , from the jugularis externa . in women it is more perspicuous ; in a man and in an ox , more fleshy and red . the use is , to bedew the larynx , with a clammy and fat , but not fluid moisture , that the gristles may be more fit for motion , and the voice may be made sweeter : which is imitated by those who anoint their pipes with oyl . the use of the larynx is to be the organ of the voice . for the organs of the voice are either remote or immediate . the remote are the chest and the lungs , without the assistance of the heart ; for if the four vessels of the heart should be tied , and the heart cut off , yet a dog can both run and bark , as besides later authors , galen did often experiment : and the illustrious sr. francis bacon , in his history of life and death , article . tels of an unbowelled man , who after his heart was taken out , uttered three or four words of his prayers . the immediate are either preparatory , as the trachea ; or assistant as the muscles and nerves ; or conservatory , as the mouth and throat . but the most principal part is the larynx : and that part thereof termed glottis is the next and adequate organ of the voice . now the voice is made after this ma●●er : the air is suddenly and strongly blown out by the lungs , and the chink is moderately straitned , where by the smiting of the air the voice is made , as we perceive the wind to whistle through the chink of a dore. and therefore aristotle cals the voice a smiting of the air ; understanding , in a causal way of expression , the acton for the quality springing therefrom . and if the breath go out , the organ being wide open , it causes a sig● . and therefore , that noise which animals make cannot properly be termed a voice , they wanting this organ ; as the noise which some sishes make , the croaking of frogs , and the ●re●king of grass-hoppers . aristotle tels us that the croaking of a frog is made , when the lip of the lower jaw being equally let down , and a little water being in their throats ' the upper jaw which remains immoveable , is so forcibly bent , that their eyes seem to sparkle . but , it is evident , that a frog hath lungs , and a chink in stead of a larynx . and therefore the voice is an animal sound , made by the glottis through smiting the air as it is breathed in and out , being produced to signifie the conceptions of the mind . and therefore voice is only in living creatures , nor is every sound in them a voice , but that which is made in the glottis ; not coughing , nor hawking , if any fishes make a noise , it is by their gills or some such thing , but not by their mouths . creatures without blood and insects , as bees waspes , locusts and the like , utter no voice , but as aristotle rightly observes in his fourth book de historia animalium , they make a noise which proceeds from their back , as for example sake , a grass-hopper makes a noise , by rubbing its wings one against another ; for in these insects there is contained a certain spirit and air , in a membrane beneath the septum transversum . others will have it that insects make such noises by beating the air after sundry manners with their wings . the differences of voices are infinite , which are made , . by the figuration of the mouth . . by the different percussion and modulation of the air , as we see in pipes . . from the largeness and other qualities of the instruments , viz. the larynx , wesand , lungs and chest . . according as the voice comes to the ear , intire or mangled . and besides these differences , every particular beast hath a voice of its own , which the brutes themselves can accurately distinguish , having herein a better hearing then men. for a lamb newly brought forth , knows its mothers bleating among a thousand sheep , and the ew likewise knows the bleating of her own lamb from all others . which is also true of henns and chickens . for the same voice never happens , because the instruments do never agree in all things : even as bells made of the same matter , the same weight , the same form , and by the same workman , do nevertheless alwayes differ in sound . the parts of the voice or speech , are vowels and consonants . we represent the vowels only by five letters , because the root of the tongue is only moved by so many motions . but when a vowel is further cut and modified , in the fore part of the tongue , by the lips and teeth , it becomes a consonant , which therefore cannot be uttered without a vowel , because that is its matter , seeing it arises only from a vowel modified and cut : just as from the confused sound of a pipe , an articulate and harmonious sound is made , when after a certain method , the sounding air is again stopped and cut by the fingers . chap. xii . of the oesophagus or gullet . the oesophagus which some term gula , others stomachus , and coelius aurelianus via stomachi and ventris the way of the stomach and belly , in english the gullet , is the pipe or funnel of the stomach , as the wesand is the pipe of the lungs . 't is so scituate , as that it begins in the throat , where it is termed pharynx , and from thence goes down right forward , under the wesand , into the stomach . and when it is come as far as to the fift vertebra of the chest , giving way to the aorta , which passes through the middle thereof , it bends to the right hand ; afterwards it rises again to the left great artery , and at the eleventh vertebra , through the diaphragma or midriff it enters the left mouth of the stomach , accompanied by two nerves arising from the sixt pair . it hath a few veins from the cava , the azygos , intercostal and jugular veins . it hath arteries from the intercostal arteries , and the internal carotides . and nerves from the sixth pair . it s connexion is , at the beginning with the jawes and larynx , by the coat of the mouth , which is common to it and the stomach . to the vertebrae , the trachea and neighbouring parts 'tis joyned by membranes arising out of the ligaments of the back . and because it lies upon the spina or back-bone , therefore when it is diseased , we apply external remedies to the back-bone . a glandulous body grows to the hinder part of it , which affords moisture , to wet the cavity thereof , the better to assist the swallowing of things . and somtimes it swels so much , as to hinder the swallowing of all liquid meats and drink . it s substance consists of a triple coat , that it might more easily be stretched long-wayes and broad-wayes . the first is common with the stomach . this some will have to arise from the ligaments of the vertebra's , others from the pleura , who are therein both mistaken . for it hath its rise , there where the membrane of the stomach arises , viz. from the peritonaeum , for it is one continued body with the membrane of the stomach , it is exceeding thin and in a manner destitute of all fibres . the second is the first proper one , the external being more fleshy , thicker and softer , then the other ; being as it were a muscle bored through , being commonly reputed to be interwoven with round and transverse fibres . also hofman doth thereby prove it to be a muscle , because it suffers convulsions and palsies . the third is the second proper one , internal , more nervous , somwhat subtile and harder , being commonly said to be interwoven with streight and long fibres . it is contained with that membrane which covers the palate , throat and lips , and therefore when a man is ready to vomit , his lower lip trembles . howbeit , contrary to the vulgar opinion aforesaid , our eyes can witness , that the inner coat is furnished with transverse and circular fibres , the external with straight and longish ones . the muscles of the gullet which other have passed over in silence , are four . the first , is the same i spoke of before , treating de larynge . it is only one like a sphincter muscle compassing the gullet . and therefore riolanus , spigelius , and ves●ingus term it musculus oesophagus , being the authors of that name . the second , is the sphaenopharyngaeus by them so called , arising from the internal acute process of the sphaenoides , and being obliquely implanted into the sides of the oesophagus , that it being drawn upwards and widened , it may be the more wide to receive in meat . the third is stylopharyngaeus , which arising from the bodkin-shap'd acute process , is stretched out to the sides of oesophagus ; which both dilates and amplifies . the fourth , is cephalo-pharyngaeus , commonly said to arise from the chin , but according to late authors , from the lowest part of the heads-top where it is nearest the neck ; and is inserted with a various contexture of fibres into the beginning of the oesophagus , where it is larger : and therefore because of its latitude and fabrick , it seems to be two . the action therefore of the oesophagus is animal ; seeing it is performed by muscles and not natural , as the vulgar opinion is of all authors , and swallowing doth doubtless depend upon our free will and liberty . now swallowing is performed after this manner : when any thing is to be swallowed , that same first muscle which galen terms sphincter doth every way contract it self , whereupon its oblique fibres , which reach from the oesophagus to the larynx , are made transverse , which being done , the larynx is lifted up , and the gullet is depressed ; and the cavity of the gullet so depressed , is made more narrow . hereunto the fourth muscle is assistant . for as the first being contracted , embraces the meat which by chewing is brought into a round mass , and so bears it down : so this fourth muscle also contracting it self , comes out as it were to help , and that the meats received in at the mouth may not go back , it straitens and repels them on every side , and transmits them into the gullet , so that by both these muscles contracted , and the semicircular joyned therewith a perfect circle as it were and sphincter is made , viz. by the fourth in the upper part of the pharynx , and by the first in the lower . the use of the gullet is , that by it as by a funnel , meat and drink may be passed into the stomach . and liquid things are indeed more easily swallowed then solid ; contrarywise in some sick persons solid meats are more readily swallowed then liquid , because the faculty is more provoked by a stronger object , being otherwise lulled a sleep as it were ; especially in the palsie . chap. xiii . of the neck . an appendix or appurtenance to the middle belly . is the neck , as a medium between the head and the chest . 't is termed collum a colendo , because it is wont to be adorned : or a colle from an hillock , for it arises out of the body , as an hill out of the rest of the earth . 't is oblong for the modulation of the voice ; and therefore animals which utter no true voice , as fishes and frogs , have no necks : and those which make the greatest voice , have the longest necks , as cranes and geese , &c. by the use of venery the thickness of the neck is altered , because heat distends the aspera arteria , the carotides , and the jugular veins . whence it was an ordinary practice among the romans to measure the brides neck the day after the wedding , by which they knew whether she were a virgin or corrupted , as we learn out of catullus and mercurialis . the hinder part of the neck is properly termed cervix . now the parts of the neck are either external , as the skin , muscles , &c. or internal ; as the vessels which run through the trachea and oesophagus : of the latter i have spoken , of the rest i shall speak in their proper places . the use of the neck is , . for the oesophagus , wesand , and lungs . hence creatures that have no lungs , as fishes , have no necks . . to be instead of an hand to some creatures , to take their meat with , according to galen . . that it may afford nerves to the fore-parts , the shoulder , cubit , hand , midriff ; for those creatures only have these parts who have necks . the third book of the uppermost cavity , viz. the head . the third or upper venter or cavity is the head , the chief mansion-house of the sensitive soul which is placed in the top of the body , for the eyes sake , which are there placed as in a watch-tower ; and requisite it was that the brain should be near the eyes , because they have soft nerves , which cannot be caried far . the head is round like a globe , but a little flatned withal , and longish . 't is greater in man then other creatures , because of the largeness of his brain . and for more safeguard , the head is altogether bony . the head is divided into the hairy part , and that which is without hair. the former is termed calva , the latter facies . the external parts of the calva are these following . sinciput , which is the forepart reaching from the forehead to the coronal suture . occiput , which is the hinder part , reaching from the lambda-fashion'd suture , to the first vertebra of the neck . vertex , which is the part scituate between the two former , bunching out . tempora , the temples , which are the side-parts , between the eyes and the ears . now the parts which constitute the calva , are some of them external and cloathing , others internal and contained . the former are either common , as the scarf-skin , the hairy-skin , the fat , the fleshy membrane : or proper as the pericardium , periostium , the muscles , the bones , the menings . the contained are the brain , the petty-brain , and the marrow , which is partly in the skull , partly in the back-bone . the smooth part of the head , called the face besides the parts containing , hath parts proper to it self , viz. the upper part which is called the forehead , and the lower in which are the organs of the senses ; as the eyes , nostrils , ears , and mouth , wherein the tongue and other parts are concealed . chap. i. of the hairs . in the head there is the greatest plenty of hair , therefore the nature of the hair may conueniently be delivered in this place : though considered as an excrement , it does not belong to this place . hairs are found well-near in all creatures that engender their young ones within their bodies , as aristotle assures us : instead whereof fishes have scales , birds feathers , and some beasts as the hedg-hog , have long sharp prickles . now the hairs are indeed bodies , but not parts of the body , unless in a very large signification , as when we say some parts serve only to adorn the body . the immediate material cause of which the hairs are made , is certain fuliginous and excrementitious vapors , thick and earthy , yet somwhat glewish and clammy . it s therefore false , which some affirm , that the hairs and nails are nourished and generated of good and laudable nutriment . for they grow even in persons consumed and pined away , and being cut , they grow again in all ages of a mans life ; and the oftner they are cut , the sooner they grow again . yea in dead men , as on thieves upon the gibbet , &c. they grow . see paraeus at the end of his book , who had an embalmed body in his house twenty four years together , the hairs and nails whereof grew again as often as they cut them . they are therefore bred of sooty steams and vapors , of the third concoction , or of the fleshy substance it self , by whatsoever heat resolved into vapors . the remote matter , is nothing seminal out of which the hair sprouts as a flower , nor any fat substance enclining to the nature of the seed or blood , but a superfluous moisture ; especially that which is contained in the kernels . and therefore where there are kernels , in those places there are commonly hairs , as at the ears , in the arm-pits , in the groins , &c. and if somtimes there are kernels without hairs , this want of hair springs from a too great quantity of humors . for the matter in which , or the place where hairs are bred , ought not to be too moist , nor too dry ; as we see nothing grow in a wet fuliginous soyle , nor in ground over dry and parched . and therefore the skin , because it is a temperate part , as the place of generation of hairs ; but if it be too moist , or too dry , as in some persons it is , the hair does not shoot forth : and therefore crusted animals , as crabs , lobsters , oysters , &c. have no hairs . the skin therefore on which hairs must be bred , ought to be moderately dry , least the hair should fall from its root ; but it must not be immoderately , but laxe and rare , least otherwise the hair should not make its way through . and therefore hairs may grow all over the skin , because it is every where porous , and every pore hath the root of an hair fastned therein , excepting the palmes of the hands and the soles of the feet , which parts because of their continual motion and wearing , have no hairs , and because they were to be of an exquisite sense . and for this cause there grows no hair upon a scar , because it hath no pores . hairs also do somtimes grow on the inner membranes of the body , in the heart as was said before , in the womb , in the urinary passages , witness hypocrates , galen , schenkius . hair was found in the stomach by ●●eer , and lately in norway bairs were voided by vomit from the stomach , whether bred there , or taken in . at the danish hellespont red hairs were lately taken out of the musculous flesh of an ox leg . the efficient cause of hair , is not the soul , nor any vegetative hair-making faculty , but moderate heat , drying up those fuliginous vapors , and thrusting them forth into the pores of the skin . these three things already explained , are the chief requisites for the generation of hair , viz. the matter , the place convenient , and heat . from whence by the rule of contraries , the cause of baldness may be gathered , viz. . when matter is wanting . . when the skin is originally too dry , and afterwards grows drier , and is not moistened by any neighbouring part . now the fore-part of the head is here to be understood , which is commonly the only bald place ; for no man , according to aristotle , becomes bald on the hinder-part of his head. for either fat or other moisture in the hinder-part and the temples keep them from baldness ; fat in the fore-part , the skin becomes dry and hard like a shell , and therefore is bald . . by reason of too much or too little heat . for weak heat does not sufficiently dry the matter , as in cold and moist persons , and such as are in years . and therefore the humor growing over hot by carnal copulation , is the cause of baldness , and for this cause boys and eunuchs do not become bald . . also four husbandmen near bruxells became bald by poyson , as franciscus de paz the king of spains physitian observed , and wrote thereof ●o nicholas fontanus ; and hamelmannus in his annals tells of an horse of the count of oldenburg , which by poyson was made bald hither , because this poyson had some specifical contrariety to the hairs , or because the spirits being extinguished , and the vigor of the body quelled , the roots of the hairs could not be retained in the skin . such a poyson is the fat of a certain whale in the island of feroe , newly taken out , by which copper-vessels are also broken . the hairs are commonly divided into such as are bred in the womb , and such as grow afterwards . those bred in the womb are threefold , those of the head , of the eye-lids , and the eye-brows . the hairs which grow afterwards , are such as spring up when a man comes to a just age ; that is , in a boy when he begins to breed sperm , and in a maid when her courses break forth , for then the skin grows open . also these are threefold : for . hairs breed on the share , seldom in the womb and the heart . . in the arm-pits , also in the nostrils and ears . . on the chins of men but not of women ; for in women their courses spend the matter of hair which should make a beard , and therefore somtimes , when their courses are poxt , women have hairs growing on their chins . it was a rare case for a young woman of thirty years of age , one of the arch-dutches of austria's women , to have ever since she was a girl , before her courses brake forth , a long beard with mustachios like a man. and i saw such a like girl not long since in the low-countries , who was also hairy all her body over . lately helena marswin in fionia , had a girl with a long beard of a reddish yellow colour . the end or use of hairs , i. is to cover the parts . ii. to adorn them . and this is chiefly seen in the hairs of the head and face . for . the hairs of the head do shield the brain from external injuries of cold and heat , &c. so in aethiopia by a peculiar thrumming of their hairs , they are defended from the heat . and as a man hath the greatest brain of all creatures , so hath he thereon most plenty of hairs . . they moderately heat , as otherwise in the head there is no fat to keep it warm : but rather a bony substance , and that far distant from the heart . now the hairs according to the advice of the physitian , are to be let grow , or to be cut off in this or that person , but they must not be shaven off , because thereby defluxions are caused . so also the beard does cherish and moderately warm the chin. in persons that are recovering out of sickness , the hair must not be cut off , for fear of a relapse , touching which question see sitonus . . they adorn : for bald persons and thin-hair'd are deformed . so the beard also adorns a man , and makes him venetable , especially if the hairs be spred all about . but in women there was no need of so venerable an appearance . iii. to purge the humors and spirits , and the whole body of superfluous sooty steams . and therefore frequent cutting the hair , quickens the ●ight , and celsus in a long defluxion of rheum , bids us cut the hair to the skin . c. aurelianus sayes that in the phrenzie , when the hair is cut off , the parts transpire , being freed from a great burthen . hence a reason may be drawn why helmont . ●asting an asses milk , could tell whether she had been curried and combed that morning or not . iv. to afford signs whereby to know the temperament , manners and hidden diseases of every person . the form of hairs is not the soul , as many would have it , because in persons that consume , and such as are dead , the hairs grow ; and those who conceive with plempius , that there is a soul in persons dead twenty four years , i leave the readers to make an estimate of their wisdom . nor do they retain a vegetative life in dead persons , for so the whole man should not die , nor is there any thing in a dead carkass , that should rather preserve this life , then the sensitive or rational , not to say that these ignoble parts by the long-lasting of their lives , should excel all other parts . plants indeed spring living from the lifeless earth , but out of a living seed , which i deny to be in the hairs , and therefore they stick not in the body like plants , nor are bred thereout . nor must we say with plotinus , that certain reliques of life remain after death , as warmed rooms remain hot , when the fire is out ; for such reliques of life could not remain so many years . the form therfore of the hairs may be described by their accidents , which are these following . i. magnitude : now the head-hairs are longest , because the brain is greater then the rest of the kernels : also they are thickest , because the skin of the head is most thick , howbeit it is laxe and open , and contains sufficient moisture . according therefore as the skin is thick or thin , rare or compact , and the humor plentiful or scanty , and the heat weak or strong , the hairs become thick or thin , hard or soft , plentiful or scanty , &c. he had store of hair on his head , who could suffer himself to be shot in the head with a bullet , and had no hurt , whom busbequius saw in his voyage to constantinople . yet they grow not infinitely , because the exhalations are not so plentiful , nor does the expulsive faculty work infinitely . . their figure : the hairs are straight and flat , in such as abound with moisture , but curled in such as are dry . therefore curled hair is harder then that which lies flat . hence all blackmores are curle-pated , because of their dry temperament . but the scythians and thracians have long flat hair , because they are moist , according to aristotle . again the hairs are straight because of the straightness of the passages through which they break forth ; and crisp because of the crookedness of the said passages . the augmenting glass informs us that the hairs are quadrangular ; though others will have them to be round because of the roundness of the pores . also they are porous or hollow within , as the disease plica in poland does shew , and the hairs of an elk. again because they may be split , they have pores , according to aristotles maxime . iii. their colour : which in brutes follows the colour of the skin ; and in men is exceeding variable , according to the country , ambient air predominant humor , age , &c. for those that dwell in hot and dry countries , have their hair not only dry , crisp and brittle , but also black , as the aegypians , arabians , indians ; also the spaniards , italians , and part of the french have their hair for the most part black . they who dwell in cold and moist countries , have their hairs not only soft and ●t●aight , but for the most part yellow or white , as the inhabitants of denmark , england , norway , swedland , scythia , &c. again the predominant humor makes the colour of the hairs : as in flegmatick persons , the hairs are for the most part white , and so of the rest . also the variety of heat makes variety of colours : for immoderate heat makes black hairs : for a vaporous excrement is raised by the heat , and is changed into an exact sooty stream . but temperate heat makes the hairs yellow ; more temperate makes them red ; a weak heat makes them white . but both these causes of colours do easily concur in the hair , as when flegm abounds , weakness of heat is joyned therewith , and when blood abounds , heat is moderate , &c. also a change in the colour is made in respect of age , as also of other accidents . for grown persons have their hair not only thicker , harder , stronger and more plentiful , but at length also grey and whiteish . but no hairs on the body of man are naturally green , or blew , though there are both green and leek-colour'd choler in mans body ; the cause whereof is not the thickness of the hair , uncapable of light , as cardan imagined , because the hair is capable of being yellow , its thickness nothing hindring ; but , as scaliger rightly philosophizes , seeinge , ●ry colour is not agreeable to every plant , no more is it to the hairs . yet i have seen green hair'd men at hafnia , and those as work metals have their hair commonly green . marcellus donatus relates of antonius maria catabenus , grey hair'd through age , how that much choler mixt with blood abounding in his body , not only his skin became of a verdigreese or yellow-green colour , but his grey hairs were also died of the same hue . the ancients conceived that grey hairs did proceed from driness , as the leaves of trees when they are dried , look white . but aristotle confutes them . for those who go with their heads covered , do sooner grow grey , and yet are not so dried , as those that expose their heads bare to the air . again some are grey as soon as they are born or quickly after , which cannot proceed from dryness . now they grow soonest grey that go alwaies with their heads covered , because the heat cannot be fanned , but is overwhelmed and strangled , which being extinguished , an external heat is introduced ; so that putrefaction is the cause of grey hairs , which sprung from scarsity of innate heat , which cannot so digest the humors as in youth . and the outmost and smallest end of the hair is whitest , where there is least heat . now why a white humor should arise from putrefaction , the cause is , according to aristotle , because a great part is turned into air , which being well mixed with an earthy and warry substance makes whiteness . hence also it is apparent , why men are soonest grey about their temples , because there great and fleshy muscles are placed under the skin , which through moisture do easily putrifie . add hereunto , that the bones of the temples are very thin , and therefore extraneous heat can easily pass through them . chap. ii of the membranes without and within the skull . the external membranes which compass the skull , are two : the pericranium and the periostium which compass the brain ; also there are two meninges or matres so called , viz. dura mater and pia mater , that is to say a thick membrane and a thin one , which perform the same office in their cavity , which the pleura performs in the middle cavity and the peritonaeum in the lowest . the pericraneum is a membrane thin and soft , compassing the skull , and springing from the dura mater coming out at the sutures of the skull . that it springs from the dura mater , the extraordinary consent between the brain with its meninges and the pericraneum , does sufficiently prove , which cannot be by any other way more conveniently made forth . moreover , this production of the pericranium from the dura mater , is manifestly visible in infants , in whom the moles of their heads are not yet sufficiently closed . those fibres wherewith horstius , spigelius , and laurenbergius do conceive that the pericraneum is only fastned to the dura mater , do not go unto the throat : for the bones being by little and little hardned and compressed , that same continuity of the pericraneum and dura mater , was broken off with age , from whence arose that appearance of fibres which hath deceived some . the periostium is a most thin and nervous membrane , and therefore exceeding sensible , by help whereof , all the bones saving the teeth being compassed therewith , become sensible . i distinguish these two membranes with vesalius and bauhinus against fallopius , laurentius and others , who confound them , seeing they may be accurately separated by a skilful anatomist . now the various muscles about the head shall be explained in their proper place . the crassa meninx or harder membrane called also dura mater , because of its thickness and hardness , and because many conceive all the membranes of the body do arise out of this and the tenuis membrana or pia mater , does cover the skull all over on the inside , and all its cavities and hollowness ; and sticks strongly to its basis , so that some have thought it took its original from thence . now it compasses the brain also loosely , on the upper side , and covers the inside of the skull . ( for wheras hildanus and varolius have observed that it is straitly fastned to the skull , that was besides the ordinary course of nature ) that there may be some distance between , as there is between the heart and the heart-bag , both in living and dead bodies , though in the latter it is greater , by reason of the defect of spirits and the falling in of the brain , which i grant olbafius and hofmannus ; and this is so contrived that the swelling vessels of the brain , may not be compressed , and that there may be no hindrance of the motion of the brain , which is made up of systole and diastole , and is continual , as may be seen in wounds of the head , newborn children , and most vehement pains of the head , as fabricius hildanus hath observed : and i my self have frequently seen this motion in wounded persons . strange therefore it is that some learned men will needs deny this motion . but it is a very hard task to assign the true cause of this motion : some make it to be the meninges ; others the arteries ; others the substance of the brain . but it is ill ascribed to the meninges : for a great portion of the brain being taken away , and the meninges themselves , the brain was observed to move in a living sheep , by the renowned riolanus . they judg better who ascribe the same to the arteries , for the motions of the brain and arteries do happen both at one and the same time , as may easily be observed in fractures of the skul , and in the heads of infants . yea and walaeus observes that in those who being wounded in the head to the brain , have extream anguish , only certain conspicuous arteries do move , and not the substance of the brain ; and when the parties wounded gather strength , the motion of their brain evidently returns . also coiter hath observed in living lambs , kids and dogs , that the brain it self hath no motion but only the arteries . to him olbafius gives consent , because the motion is most observable about the cavities of the dura mater , where are most arteries . and therefore i conceive we must not have recourse to the substance of the brain : which is also soft and flaggie , and sufficiently indisposed for motion . but the chiefest motion is observed at the full of the moon , by reason of the working of the humors at that season . but that also springs from the arteries , which are more distended with blood : for the motion of the heart becomes quicker or slower , according to the various influence of the stars . that the motion of the brain should answer the motion of the lungs , i have no sufficient sign to prove . now it is fastned to the pia mater and the brain , by vessels ; to the skul by thin membranous fibres springing out of it self , passing out through the futures , and constituting the pericranium . this meninx or coat is double , as the rest of the membranes are . the external part respecting the cranium , is hard , rough , and of a small sense , because of the hardness of the skull which it was to touch . the inner part is smooth , slippery , brightly shineing and white , being more drenched with a waterish moisture . it is fourfold where it distinguishes the brain from the petty-brain , in which place dogs have a bone underpropping their brain , that it may not bear hard upon the cerebellum , branilet , or petty-brain . but on the crown of the head it is doubled , where it divides the brain into the right and left part : and because the reduplication is in the hinder-part broad , and grows afterwards narrow by degrees , yet not to a point , so as to represent a reapers sickle , therefore they term this body falx the sickle . and while it is thus multiplied , it constitutes . cavities hollownesses , being receptacles of abounding blood and spirits , and they are four in number ; which galen somtimes calls the ventricles of dura mater ; and others call them sanguiductus , cisternes of blood. the i. table . the figures explained . this table represents the coverings of the brain both proper and common , in the same order in which they are represented in anatomical dessections . fig . i. shews the enternal parts . aaa . the skin and the scarf-skin with the roots of the hairs . b. the true skin separated from the scarf-skin , c. ddd . the membrana carnosa furnished with little veins . ee . the muscle of the fore-head out of its own proper place , receiving the nerres which come out of the hole , o. ff . fat spred over the skull . g. the pericranium lying upon the periostium in its natural situation . i. the same separated from the periostium and turned inside out . k. the periostium spred out upon the skull . l. the same pluckt of from the skull . mm. the skull naked . n. the coronal suture . pp . the sagittal suture . qq . the temporal muscle as yet covered with the pericranium . fig . ii. the skull being taken away this figure discovers the coats of the brain . aa . the dura mater covering the left side of the brain . bbb . veins and arteries sprinkled up and down the same . ccc . the brain covered only with the p●a mater . dd . the turnings and windings of the brain . eeee . vessels sprinkled up and down the pia mater . f. the dura mater drawn downwards . ggg . the upper cavity engraven in the dura mater . page cavities , as walaeus suspects , or knit immediately to the cavities themselves , do disburthen themselves , into the cavities , and these two being afterward united , do make up . the third which is longest of all : for it goes all along the head to the tops of the nostrils . galen somtimes calls it a vein , because it contains store of blood. and when these cavities are opened , an immeasurable quantity of blood comes out by the nose , which is supplied from the arteries . the fourth cavity , not reaching to the skul as the former , is short , and goes inwardly between the brain and the brainelet , unto the glandula pinealis . it arises , where the three former meet together , and this beginning some from herophilus call torcular the wine-prest ; and nymmannus conceives that this part is cheifly obstructed in the apoplexy . but . we do somtimes allow thereof , as a remore cause ▪ for all that accident is to be referred to the noble ventricle . . vital blood may be brought to the brain by the rete mirabile , whence vessels go for nutriments sake , to the substance of the brain the third , or the uppermost of the sickle ; and the fourth cavities , do seem to me to end into the two former , or greater lateral ones ; in which i follow fr. sylvius exceedingly verst in the anatomy of the brain : and that not by a streight passage , but inclining to the sides ; so that there is no common concourse of these four ventricles ; though these greater lateral ones are joyned by an intermediate passage or channel . yet here also i have found some diversity according to the variety of subjects , so that they have somtimes met , and somtimes been separated . riolanus makes the torcular with galen to be in the third longitudinal cavity , beca●se it distributes blood into all parts of the brain and brainlet or cerebellum , which reason holds truer in reference to the arteries . besides those four cavities or ventricles already described , three others , by the information of sylvius have in dissection presented themselves to me ; which nevertheless , i have not alwaies , and i tell you so much , least any man not finding them presently in one or two bodies , should accuse me of falshood . riolanus accounts them to be coherences of the duglicated brain , spred under the greater once ▪ by the intercedency of the pia mater . which is nothing , for they have cavities as the others have , nor are they naked coherences . the one of these , which was also observed by vesalius , is carried through the lowest part of the sickle , and therefore i have termed it , the lower ventricle of the sickle ; and for distinctions sake , i have termed that which is commonly call'd the third , the upper ventricle of the sickle . this lower ventricle of the sickle , ends into the fourth ventricle . the other two smaller lateral ones , on each side one , are distant about a thumbs breadth from the greater , situate in the dura mater which distinguisheth the brain from the brainlet , not being so long as they . the one of them goes into the great lateral cavity ; i have also seen them ending into the fourth . from the cavities ▪ arise the branches or creeping jugular veins , and into them the arteriae carotides , being distributed upwards and round about , and opening into them by mutual anastomoses . the ii. table . the figure explained . this figure represents the right side of the brain , cut away to a great depth , according to the passage of the ventricle . a. the nose . b. the right ear. cccc . a portion of the skin of the head hanging down . d. a rudiment of the muscle of the hind-part of the head. e. the socket of the eye . f. the forehead bone. g. the bone of the hinder-head or occiput . hh . the left side of the brain , covered as yet with its dura mater . iii. the dura mater of the right side hanging down . kkk . the falx or sickle . l. the end of the sickle at the galli crista or cocks-comb . mmm . the upper cavity of the sickle . nn. the lower cavity of the sickle . o. the greater right-hand lateral cavity . p. the ingress of the upper cavity of the sickle into the greater lateral cavity . q. the fourth ventricle between the brain and the brainlet . r. the ingress of the fourth ventricle into the greater lateral one . s. the common passage of the greater lateral cavities . tt . a portion of those great vessels which pass into the upper cavity of the sickle . vv. part of the great cleft in the brain . ● the lower and outer part of the right ventricle , where a little twig of the corotick artery , peirces as far as the plexus choroides . y. the hinder and larger part of the right ventricle . z. a roundish cavity of the right ventricle resembling the finger of a glove . a. the upper and inner part of the right ventricle , under the corpus callosum . b. the descent and orifice of the right ventricle going into the third or middle-most . ccc . the glandulous intertexture called chorocides . dd . the root of the spinal marrow . e. the brain continued to the root of the spinal marrow . ff . the corpus callosum so called . gggg . the hinder and lower part of the brain , continued to the corpus callosum , and forming the cavity of the right ventricle . hh . a portion of the left side of the brain appearing under the falx or sickle . ii little arteries creeping along the surface of the right ventricle . page the use therefore of the ventricles , is not so much to contain the two sorts of blood , received from the veins and arteries ; as only to receive the arterial blood , by means whereof they pulse . for the arterial blood communicated to the brain by the arteria cervicalis , which remains over and above after the nutriment of the brain and brainlet , and the generation of animal spirits , is voided into these caveties , either immediately or mediately , by the little twigs of the cavities , as walaeus suspects ; and from thence through the jugular veins which are joyned to the ventricles , together with a thin skin cleaving to their walls , it runs back downwards to the heart , that it may be wrought over again . for that the blood is circularly moved in the brain also , appears likewise by the ligatures of live creatures ; seeing the jugular being bound , swels towards the head , but is empty and lank towards the cava and heart . p. laurenberg conceives ●●● animal spirits are generated in the cavities , without any firm judgment or probable reason . a. kyperus a most learned man , conceives that a special use of these cavities is , to ventilate and cool the blood , for the better service of the brain and the generation of animal spirits ; seeing the extremities of the arteries do end in them , and the ventricles themselves are closed in by a single , cold membrane . but in my judgment the arterial blood does not come into the cavities , before it be cooled , when it returns from the generation of spirits . and then it needs no cooling , being to return immediately through the veins into the heart . the use of the dura mater is , i. to cover the brain with the marrow and nerves thence arising . ii. to distinguish the brain from the brainlet , and the brain it self into two parts . iii. to constitute the pericranium , while it sends ligaments therefore , through the sutures . th● pia mater call'd so because of its thinness , doth immediately enclose the brain , and its parts and ventricles , least they should run about ; therefore it was to be thin and soft ; and it is of most exquisite sense . it is thicker in the third ventricle , then the rest , if we will believe olhofius . the sense of this membrane was more dul in him that had three bones growing thereto without hurt , which were seen at paris by my cosin-german henricus fuiren : & in that venetian , who had a pretty large tooched bone , growing in falce or the duplicature of the meninx , which folius did shew me . it s use is ; to cloath the brain , the brainlet , the marrow and the nerves . chap. iii. of the brain and its marrow in general . within the skul a threefold soft and white substance is to be considered : the brain or foremore part , the brainlet or cerebellum the hindmost part , and the inmost partwhich lies deep under the brain being a white marrow ; which because others do ignorantly confound with the brain it self ; i do thus truly set down the truth of the matter . the brain commonly so called hath two parts , the one internal the other external . the external part is properly and stricktly called the brain and is all that which appears outwardly soft , of an ash color or yellowish white ; which color some conceive to arise from an innumerable company of veins there disseminated ; and this external substance is as it were the bark . the internal is the remaining substance which lies hidden beneath the the former , being more hard compact and white , which we may call the marrow , in which are seated the ventricles commonly so called , but not in the brain it self ; so that the brain and marrow it self differ , . in situation . . in color . . in consistency . . by the going between of lines . . in magnitude . . in figure . . in cavities , which are in the marrow , not in the brain . . in nobility . the white part therefore of the brain seems to be buryed in the ash-color'd part , as the chrystalline humor is in the glassie . and though these two substances , the white and the ash-color'd , do in dead carcasses putrified seem very closely united and continued one to another ; yet in the fresh bodies of healthy persons suddenly killed , they are separated with sundry lines , so that they may be very well actually severed , if great dexterity be used , and dissection be begun presently after the parties death , otherwise they are overflowed with much moisture and fall in . this middlemost white substance or marrow , i divide into the round and long parts . the globous or round part , which i shall call the head of the marrow , resembles the figure of the skul , and is of great bulk , having in it three cavities or ventricles commonly so called . the long part , which i will call the tail of the marrow , arises immediately out of the former like a certain tail , wherein is ingraven the calamus scriptorius or fourth ventricle so called by some ; wherein i hold the true generation of animal spirits to be affected . and this long portion of the marrow , is the beginning and original of all nerves whatsoever that are in that place ; contrary to what is commonly thought . also this lengthened marrow may be considered in a twofold manner : either as it remains still within the skul , and then the nerves arise therefrom , which are vulgarly ; attributed to the brain : or as it is without the skull , and slides into the back-bone , gaining the title of the spinal marrow . but that young learners may not be confounded , i shall now propound the structure of the whole brain commonly so called . the greatness of a mans brain is remarkable in proportion to the rest of his body , as aristotle observes . and for the most part a man hath twice as much brain as an ox , viz. the quantity of four or five pound weight , because he is a more noble creature , and perpaps because he goes bolt upright : for when when we would have any thing that is moveable to stand upright we put a great weight on the top , to prevent its falling . yet the scull of a monstrous beast lately found in scania , might preternaturally contain twice that quantity of brain . the skull it self is kept in the study of wormius . and among man-kind , men have more brains then women . for to them the greatest brain is given , that have most need of brains , and greatest use of them , for the exercise of sundry excellent animal faculties . yet spigelius or bucretius will not allow of this difference of the brains of the two sexes , moved doubtless by ocular inspection , and the great minds and endowments of some women , which the foregoing age and this of ours have brought forth . but women are therefore said to have less brains then men , because for the most part they have less bodies . the iii. table . the explication of the figure this figure presents the left side of the brain bowed back into the place of the right , which according to the foregoing figure is taken away , as also the great clift of the said side . aa . the left ear. bb . the skin of the head hanging down . cc. part of the ●●rehead-bone . d. the socket of the eye . eee . the hollowness of the skull , wherein the lower part of the brain was contained . ff . the dura mater hanging down . hhhhh . the left side of the brain invested with the pia mater iii. the great clift of the left side of the brain , seated over the root of the spinal marrow . kk . the left root of the spinal marrow , appearing in the bottom of the great clift , with new rudiments of the winding , and vessels there distributed . llll . the windings of the brain , according to which the branches of the carotick artery are distributed . mmmm . the branches of the carotick artery , ending into the larger left-side ventricle . nn . the greater left-side lateral cavity or ventricle . oo . the smaller left-hand lateral ventricle . p. the entrance of the smaller lateral ventricle into the greater page the outward surface of the brain is ful of turnings and windings like those of the guts : which we must not say were made for understanding with erasistratus , seeing asses also have them ; nor for lightness sake as aristotle would have it ; nor that they are without end or use , as others conceit ; but that the vessels of the brain might be more safely conveighed through those turnings and windings , least they might by continual motion be in danger of breaking , especially at the ful of the moon , when the brain doth most of all swel within the skul . the windings of the brain ( which i first learnt of fr. sylvius a great anatomist ) if you diligently examin the matter , you shall find to descend a good depth , & that the brain doth gape on each side , over & above that same middle division made by the sickle , with a winding clift , which begins in the forepart , about the roots of the eyes , whence according to the bones of the temples , it goes back above the root of the spinal marrow , and divides the upper part of the brain from the lower part . yet now and then , that same great chink cannot be found or very hardly . instead thereof i have found a certain smal lateral clift on each side easily separable , even in the common section , near the ventricles , ful of the carotick arteries . the inner surface hath sundry extuberances and cavities , as shall be said in the following discourse ▪ the colour is white , because the brain , as all other parts hath its original from the seed , but so , that it hath less of amplification then of constitution : and therefore in extream fastings the brain suffers no diminution . it s temperament is cold and moist , which appears from its whiteness and moistness . and therefore hippocrates saies the brain is the seat of cold and clammy humors . for the overgreat heat of the brain is an hinderance both to reason and sleep , as appears in phrenetick persons . yet is it by reason of the spirits hotter then any air , as galen rightly saies ; yet is it not so exceeding hot ▪ as the heart its substance is proper to it self , such as is not in the whole body besides . hippocrates doth liken it to a kernel , by reason of the colour and plenty of moisture . it is soft and moist for the more easie impression of images and conceptions , for it is the seat of imagination : yet is it not so soft as to run about , but hath a consistent softness , so that what is imprinted therein , may continue for a season : for the brain is also the seat of memory . the followers of des-cartes doth weave the brain together of soft and pliable fiberkies , mutually touching one another , with intermediate spaces of the pores , by which fiberkies the images of objects are imprinted upon the brain . they do indeed excellently explain the reason of sense , if this hypothesis of theirs were true . but such fiberkies are not found in the soft substance of the brain , unless we shall mean the beginning of the spinal marrow , out of which the little ropes of nerves do arise . it is a rare case for the substance of the brain to be quite wanting , but horstius saw it somtimes much diminished by over great use of carnal embracements , as his epistles shew . howbeit schenckius , valleriola , carpus , &c. saw a boy without any brain ; as also nicolas fontanus at amsterdam in the year , who instead of a brain and spinal marrow , found a very clear water enclosed in a membrane . sundry vessels are disseminated through the brain . for if you squeeze the substance thereof , many little dripplekies of blood do sweat out : and therefore i conclude with galen that very many capillary veins and arteries are there disseminated : which i have also divers times beheld with mine eyes . which will then principally happen , as fr. silvius observes , when the brain is flaccid and friable , because he observed that then it would come of it self from the vessels , in dissection ; and especially if the vessels by means of age , or any other waies , are become more solid then ordinary . now there are no nerves disseminated through the brain and therefore it is void of all sense . the veins which are carryed through the substance of the brain are , . the five branches of the jugular veins , some of which go into the cavity of the dura mater , others are spred up and down through the coats and substance of the brain . but they , according to the observation of walaeus , are no other then , . very smal twigs , which on either side go into the substance of the brain , out of the cavities of dura mater . there are four arteries from the carotides and cervicales , whereof the former are disseminated into the brain upwards and downwards , the latter into the brainlet or cerebellum . in the chinks the same carotick arteries are carried in very great number , both in the surface and the bottom , which fr. sylvius conceives to be the cause of that same troublesome pulsing about the temples in some kinds of head-ach : though in the judgment of a. kyperus the pulsation of the external arteries adds somwhat hereunto , as the cure of the pain doth shew , by opening the said arteries . the use of the brain according to aristotle , is to cool the heart , which galen justly refutes , because the brain is far from the heart . but there are some peripatericks who deny that aristotle dissents from the physitians , while he saith the brain is made to temper the heat of the heart , and they will have it made to produce animal spirits : in as much as the animal spirits cannot be generated , unless the vital spirits be first cooled but , the use thereof is , . to be the mansion of the sensitive soul , for the performance of animal functions . now the brain is no particular organ of sense , as the eyes , ears , &c. but an universal one : for judgment is made in the brain of the objects of all the senses . also it passes judgment touching animal motion , whereas it self hath no animal motion : but it hath a natural motion , communicated from the arteries , and that a perpetual one of widening and contracting it self , as appears in wounds of the head and new-born children , in the forepart of whose head , the brain is seen to pant , because their bones are as yet exceeding soft and plyable . in its dilatation the brain draws vital spirit with arterial blood out of the carotick arteries , and air by the nostrils . in its contraction it forces the animal spirits into the nerves , which like conduit pipes carry the said spirit into the whole body , and therewith the faculties of sense and motion . and by the same contraction , the blood is forced out of the ventricles through the veins unto the heart . the matter therefore of the animal spirits is two fold ; viz. arterial blood ful of vital spirit , and air. touching the place of its generation we shall speak hereafter . for i am not of their opinion who confirme that this spirit is generated in the substance of the brain , or in those ventricles in the forepart thereof . . that the animal spirit may be contained and kept in the brain as in a store-house , after it is generated . and the substance , truly , of the brain is a convenient house and receptacle for the animal spirit , seeing it is the same with the internal marrowy substance of the nerves , which also contains the said animal spirit . now i am of opinion that in the brain , properly so called , or the rinde , is contained animal spirit for sense ; and that in the whole marrow head and tail , spirits is kept for motion , which shall be made manifest in the following chapter . chap. iv. of the parts of the brain in particular , and i. of the lengthened and spinal marrow , and its noble ventricle . some with galen , vesalius , fallopius , intending to contemplate what is contained in the brain , begin their dissection in the upper part and proceed to the lower , and therefore they do unfitly propound and explain many parts . i , treading in the steps of constantinus varolus , shall take a quite contrary course , yet such as is true and accurate , beginning at the lower part of the brain and so passing to the uppermost : and i shall afterward propound the order of parts from top to bottome , for their sakes that will needs follow the vulgar and common way of dissection ; where also a third way of dissection shall be propounded . beginning therefore at the lowest part of the brain , we meet first with the beginning of the lengthened marrow ; the progress whereof because it is contained in the vertebra's of the spina or back-bone , therefore it is termed spinalis and dorsalis , medulla , the spinal or back-marrow . and if any one shall think we ought therefore to begin with the brain , because the spinal marrow is said to take its beginning therefrom ; we answer , that we make the marrow both as it is within the skull and in the back-bone , to be the beginning rather of the brain ; and that the brain being divided into two parts , is as it were a certain double process or production of the marrow it self . which is yet more manifest to those that behold the anatomy of fishes ; for there the head and tail of the marrow , is very great , but the process of the marrow , or the brain is very little : the cause whereof is , that fishes use motion more then sense , intimating that the brain or barke contributes more to sense ▪ and the marrow it self to motion . hence fish are dull of sense , but very nimble in motion . and according to this opinion of ours that saying will be verified , than an hard body is fittest for motion , and softer for sence . the iv. table . the figures explained . this table presents the fourth ventricle of the brain , the brainlet , and the corpus callosum , in several figures . fig . i. aa . the brainlet or cerebellum and its globes . b. the worm-like process of the cerebellum or brainlet . cccc . the processes of the brainlet , which make the bridg of varolius . d. the beginning of the spinal marrow . ee . two roots or smaller processes of the spinal marrow arising from the brainlet . f. the fourth ventricle likened to a pen ▪ gg . a portion of the brain cleaving to the brainlet . fig . ii. aa . the inner whiteish substance of the brainlet . bbb . the outer and more duskish substance compassing the white about . cccc . an elegant structure of the brainlet representing the branchings of trees . fig . iii. aa . the appearance of the brain cut off in the middle as far as to the ventricles . bb. the corp●s callosum drawn a little to the left ●ide . c. a portion of the sickle turned backwards . dd. the right fore ventricle uncovered above . ee . the left ventricle open in like manner . ff . the plexus choroides . g. a portion of the speculum or septum lucidum . hh . the dura mater drawn away on both ●ides . ●● . the two thighes or portions of the fornix . page the lengthened marrow arises as some conceive from the brain alone , according to others from the brainlet or cerebellum . but it hath both ( to speak now at a vulgar rate ) for its beginning . for it arises from four roots or foundations ; two of which are greater from the fore-part of the brain commonly so called , two are lesser from the inner part of the brainlet or petty brain . from these united , the spinal marrow seems to be constituted . but it is peradventure a more true opinion to think , that those originals are processes of the marrow it self , as was said before . the substance of the medulla oblongata or lengthened marrow , is a little harder then that of the brain . one part thereof is within the skull , four fingers breadths above the great hole of the hind-part of the head. another and the longest part thereof is without the skull in the vertebra's , from the first of the neck to the last of os sacrum . it s figure is longish and round , the scripture calls it the silver cord. in its beginning it is thicker and larger then elsewhere . it is further divided into the right and left part , even as the brain is , by the pia mater which immediately invests the same , which may be seen in the marrow of an oxe indifferently boyled . hence there may be a palsie of only one side of the body . now it is divided into many little cords as it were , about the sixt and seventh vertebra of the chest : and if the spinal marrow of a body newly dead ▪ be presently plunged in cold water , and a separation of these cords made , you may see the shape of an horses tail , ( especially towards the end ) divided into many long hairs : so that according to laurentius , the nerves also of the back and loyns , do spring from the marrow of the neck . it is covered with a tripple membrane , the first which immediately covers it , is from the pia mater . the second is from the dura mater and cleaves to the former , which two , according to the observation of spigelius , are not separated any distance one from another , as they were within the skul , but touch one the other . the third being external springs according to galen from a strong ligament , which binds together the foreparts of the vertebra's , and in the hinder part ends into a strong coat , least in bending or extending the back-bone , the marrow should be hurt . a thick and clammy humor is poured round about this coat , to moisten the same . afterwards the marrow is shut up in the vertebrae , least it should be hurt ( as the brain is shut up in the skul ) seeing it is a noble part , and the original of the nerves . therefore the ancients called the cavity of the spina or back-bone hieran surigga , the holy pipe. in the beginning of this marrow , while it is yet in the skul , there appears ingraven . an hollow cavity , which galen calls the ventricle of the brainlet ; others call it the fourth ventricle of the brain , though it is not in the brain . but i shall term it the noble ventricle of the marrow . this is most solid , most pure , most subtile , but least of all , for it containes a matter of geater force and faculty then the rest , as galen saies . and because , after a straight even progress , it is widened on each side , and sharpened afterwards into a point , because of this shape t is called calamus scriptorius , the writing pen or quil . now from the cerebellum or brainlet , which is joyned to this marrow , another and middle half of this ventricle is constituted , as it were a cover ; so that all this cavity is between the brainlet and medulla oblongata , or production of the marrow , but the cheif cavity is the lowermost , which is in the marrow . the use of this ventricle i hold to be this , viz. that it should be the place where animal spirits are generated and elaborated . for this ventricle is . the most pure and subtile . . it hath a cavity sufficient for that purpose . . it is seated in such a place , that it can poure forth animal spirits , into all the nerves round about it . and therefore herophilus did rightly judg , that this was the most principal ventricle . nor can i devise how it came to pass that certain learned men could not see these weighty arguments , who have written without cause , that i assigned the generation of animal spirits to the calamus scriptorius , without any reasons moving me thereto . now must we think with spigelius , that this ventricle did only result by consequence , out of the round particles of the brain , touching one another without any design of nature : for nature doth nothing to no end , no not when she seems most of all to do so . others conceive that the animal spirit is bred in the fore ventricles of the brain . but they are full of excrements , whose receptacles they rather are , as appears by the glandula pituitaria unto them , and in that they are often found filled with flegm , and abundance of water . others in the rete mirabile , others in the plexus choroides . but in these we hold the animal spirit is prepared , but not generated , for nature is wont to provide intertwinings of vessels for the preparation of any matter : and seeing these vessels are so smal , how can it be generated in them , especially seeing so many excrements of the brain flow through the ventricles . others will have them to be wrought in the substance of the brain . others in the lengthened body of the spinal marrow . but the generation of so subtile a spirit , did require some cavity , which is also allowed to the generation of the vital spirits . for which cause some have been induced to allot the making of the natural spirit to be in the right vencle of the heart , because there is no cavity in the liver . i am therefore of opinion that the animal spirit is prepared in the rete mirable , and yet more in the plexus choroides , and that is generated and wrought up in this cavity of the medulla elongata , or in the noble ventricle ; and afterward , as much of it as not derived into the spinal marrow and the nerves of the brain , is preserved and retained in the whole brain , as in a store-house . the use of the lengthened and spinal marrow , is to be the original of all the nerves . for from that part thereof within the skull , those nerves arise which are commonly attributed to the brain , being usually reckoned to be seven pair . but from the longest part thereof which is in the back-bone , anatomists do reckon thirty pair of nerves to arise , viz. as many as there are holes in the vertebrae . mean while we must not so understand the matter , as though only so many branches or cords did thence arise . for every nerve arise ▪ with many little strings or fibres , which going out at the hole of any vertebra , are there joyned together by the membranes , as if the nerve came out of one branch . chap. v. of the cerebellum brainlet , or petty-brain . the brainlet being as it were a little and private kind of brain , is a certain smaller portion , placed under the brain in the lower and after-part of the occiput or minder-head : in brutes it takes up commonly the whole region of the occiput . it hath the same substance , consistency , colour , motion , &c. with the brain . in the turnings and windings it differs from the brain . the brain hath sundry circumvolutions with out any method or order ; the brainlet hath circular and ordinate ones , stretched one over another like plates . they are differenced partly by interposed vessels , partly by the pia mater , which being separated , the several circles may be taken out after another . the inner substance is various , whiteish and ash-coloured , which distributed certain vessels as it were . the vessels interposed betwixt the several plates , are carried through the pia mater like nets , which according to the accurate observation of francis sylvins , arising from the branches of the arteria cervicalis , do at last end into the fourth ventricle . it is constituted chiefly of two lateral parts , on each side making a globe as it were . it hath two processes or excrescences , termed vermiformis or worm-like , because they are variously orbiculated , and consist of many transverse portions , coupled with a thin membrane . their extremity being thin and convex , is as big as a small ●a●e . and they are situate at the seat of the noble cavity , one before , the other behind . about the hinder-part of the trunk of the spinal marrow , in the circumference of the noble ventricle , out of the same brainlet there proceed two other globous processes , somtimes two of each side , somtimes three . those are greatest which are seated by the vermiformis , the rest are smaller . varolius calls it the bridg of the brainlet . the use of all the processes is to hinder the noble ventricle from being obstructed , by pressure of the brainlet . laurentius saies they help the motion of the ventricles like a valve , because the vermiformis being shortned opens the way , which goes from the third to the fourth ventricle ; when it is extended it shuts the chink , least the spirits should go back into the upper cavities . riolanus dissents but little from him , for he will have it to open and shut the entrance of the fourth ventricle . but it is not moved of it self , because , as the brain , so is it void of any proper motion , unless you assign it to the vessels or pia mater , which are very small , or at least to the neighbouring animal spirits . now i believe the use of the bridg is , to combine and keep in compass the circles of the brain , and as a bulwark to defend the noble ventricle . and therfore it would more properly be called a sconce or fence , then a bridg . the use of the brainlet is the same with that of the brain . but galen would have it to be the original of the hard nerves ; which is false . for no nerves have their original from it . chap. vi. of the rest of the parts observed in the brain ; viz. the rete mirabile , glandula pituitaria , infundibulum , ventricles of the brain , corpus callosum , fornix , plexus , choroides , glandula pinealis . the precedent parts being considered , we must come now to those things , which are presently visible , about the conjunction of the optick nerves , such as are ; the rete mirable , glandula pituitaria , and the infundibulum . the rete mirable or wonderful net , which some call plexus retiformis , is so called by reason of its artificial and wonderful structure , for it shews like many nets heaped together . now it hath another structure in calves and oxen , in which creatures it is also more manifestly discernable then in mankind , though we must not say that it is not in men as vesalius doth , though hard to discern . i remember nevertheles that it hath been wanting . this net lies under the basis of the brain , encompasses the glandula , at the sides of the cavity of os sphaenoides . it consists ( not of the nerves of the third conjugation as volcherus would have it , but ) of the carotick and cervical arteries , carried up from the heart , to the basis of the brain , which convey blood and spirit in to this net. riolanus places the rete mirabile at the same basis of the brain , viz. the off-spring of the plexus choroides , which creeps through the former ventricles . the use of this net is , that therein the blood and vital spirit may be a very long time detained , that the first preparation towards the generation of annimal spirits may there be made . also waloeus hath observed that this net doth consist of smal twigs of the jugular veins ; that they may doubtless carry back such blood as is superfluous after the preparation of the animal spirits . the glandula pituitaria or rheumkernel , is so called from its use , because it receives the excrements of the brain out of the ventricles through the funnel . and therefore it is placed at the end of the funnel in the saddle of the sphaenoides . galen calls it barely glandula . on the upper-side it is hollow , beneath bossie or bunching . it s substance is harder and more compact then that of other kernels . it is cloathed with the pia mater . it s use is the same , with that of other kernels , viz. by its drinking spungy flesh to receive grosser excrements ( for the thin vapor out at the sutures ) collected in the ventricles of the brain , many times in great quantities . for the brain being of great bulk , did need much aliment , and therefore it breeds many excrements , especially when it is in any measure disordered . these excrements the kernel doth somtimes cast into the palate of the mouth , and somtimes suffers them to drain away by the holes in the basis of the skull . others suppose the use of this kernel to be , to shut the funnel , least the animal spirits should go forth . for just over the glandula pituitaria or rheum-kernel , is infundibulum or funnel , so called from its shape , for above the head thereof is large , the lower part is a long and strait pipe . others call it pelvis the basin , which words doth more properly belong to the head , or beginning of the funnel then to the whole body thereof . the funnel therefore is an orbicular cavity ( somtimes triangular with sharp or blunt angels ) made of the pia mater , where it ingirts the basis of the brain . it s beginning is large , at the hole of the third ventricle , as they call it ; through which the excrements are packt away out of the ventricles into this funnel . riolanus informs us that it hath four little pipes , which distil rheum or phlegmatick serum through the four holes resting upon the sellae sphenoideae . it s of a dark colour , and if you open it you shall find it full of thick flegm . the v. table . the figure explained . the fornix being removed the glandula pinealis is here to be seen as also the third ventricle of the brain , which is in the middle between the two foremore ventricles . aa . the brain cut smooth off through the middle . b. the fornix took away and turned back . cc. its expansions or binder thighs . dddd . the bottom of the right and left ventricles , wherein the vessels appear before . ee . their walls or sides . f. the foremore hole of the third ventricle , which some call vulva . g. a chink denoting the third ventricle . hh . bunchings of the brain called nates , the buttocks . ii. the protuberances or bunchings called testes the stones . k. the glandula pinealis or pine-kernel-●●●p'd glan-dulae . page two little whiteish kernels or portuberancies of the brain are placed before this passage , which are to be seen , the brain being turned upside down , there where the funnel receives wheyish e●c●●men●●●●● of the ventricles . these things being thus handled , the original of the nerves follows in course the section to be observed , which every where arise from the marrow ; of which i shall speak in our manual of the nerves . the ventricles or cavities of the brain do follow . these according to the common manner of section , beginning from above , are thought to be three : two foremore and uppermore as they call them , and one in the middle , to which some add a fourth , of which we spoke before . but if dissection be made after the new manner , beginning from beneath ; there appear only two , so that the third is common , being a portion of the other two . i conceive that there is but one ventricle of the brain , which is in the middle , but the beginning thereof is divided into two ; or there are two processes , which receiving the excrements , carry them into the middle it self , which they call the third . for there is one continued cavity of the brain , and the two ventricles so called , do end into a common cavity . mean while , because this and that part of the cavity seem diversly formed , some distinction may be allowed for doctrins sake . those two ventricles which are ill termed the foremore and uppermore ( because they consist also in the hinder and lower part of the brain , perhaps they might better be called the lateral ventricles , and with vesalius the right and left ) are the largest of all , crooked , full of windings , semicircular , and cloathed with the pia mater . they are commonly and not unfitly liken'd to the moon when she is in the wane ; although they are hardly ever demonstrated to be such in dissection . but seeing they are both oblong , and very large in their hinder part , they may also be likened to horse-shoes . this round form of the ventricles was first discovered by the most accurate fr. sylvius , and after him i have often demonstrated the same . but if you would find the true figure , you must cut the brain deep towards the skul , or the temples , on each side , because it is deeply sunk into the corpus callosum . for that part of the ventricles towards the septum lucidum is higher , and that which is towards the lateral part of the skull is lower . the foremore and deeper parts , are near to the mammillary processes , and if we believe piccolhomineus , bauhinus , riolanus , they are in some manner transpassable , especially in elderly persons . moreover they run out in their hinder part by a straight course , where they form a cavity which is somwhat round , not unlike the finger of a glove ; this i remember hath been somtimes wanting . moreover it is to be noted , that these ventricles do environ the lateral and hind parts of the roots of the spinal marrow , which also , under the plexus choroides , a part of the brain being wreathed and attenuated inwards , and upwards making the concameration of the ventricles , doth embrace with a selvidge as it were and a fringe or lace , which the praise worthy sylvius wont so to call for likeness sake , it being knit to the was foresaid roots by exceeding thin threds . if gently lifting up the plexus , you shall remove this lace from the root , you shall find little arteries creeping through the lower surface of the ventricle , continued to the ne●-like coronet of little arteries investing the root ; by help of which , this lace seems to stick more close to the root . but here you shall observe , that there is an easie outgate for the humors contained in the said ventricles , which may descend down along the spinal marrow . they are therefore formed , not in the brain , but in the marrow , where they call it corpus callosum , because the substance is there harder like a callus , where the ventricles seem to rest upon the two foremore extuberancies . the conformation of the ventricles of the brain , which all cannot easily discerne , i have by anatomical inspection and the guidance of sylvius , learnt to be thus . two roots of the spinal morrow do penetrate a good depth into the substance of the brain ; to the upper and former whereof , especially where it looks inward , the brain being continued ( now i mean the whiteish and ash-coloured part by the term brain ) it spreads it self every way , especially outwards and backwards and by little and little wreathes and contracts its lower extremities inward and upwards , till at last being attenuated , it doth on all sides embrace the root of the spinal marrow with a lace , a little below the place where it springs therefrom , as was said before ; and so forms the lateral ventricles . but in the foremore and inner part , and whiteish substance ascending from each root , and making one body cal'd corpus callosum , it is carried back ; and covering the middle distance between the roots , which is the third ventricle , and the wide mouths of the lateral ventricles opened thereinto ▪ framed by it self , it makes the fornix , arch or vault ; and is continued to the hinder and inner part of the limbus or edge of each ventricle . regius adds many pores in the ventricles ; looking into the fiberkies of the substance of the brain , in which the animal spirit is bred . but those pores and fiberkies are invisible to the eyes of anatomists . they are distinguished by a loose and wrinkeld partition-skin : which if it be stretched out and held against the light , it shines because of its transparency , and is therefore cal'd septum lucidum : which some will have to spring from a most thin portion of the brain it self , others from the pia mater doubled . but the former opinion is truer , which you may perceive , if after the manner of sylvius having removed the brain and sickle of the other side , you shall search the ventricle of the opposite part , and shall lift up that part of the brain which is continued with the corpus callosum , at the orifice of the third ventricle ; for then it may easily be seen , and discerned to be a smal portion of the brain . the lower , whiteish part , where the ventricles are joyned , is termed fornix the arch , or testudo the belly of a li●e , being of a triangular figure , consisting of three shanks , one before and two behind . in the common method of dissection , this body is supposed to be spred out over the third ventricle , and to lie beneath the corpus callosum . under the fornix according to the observation of sylvius the cheroides plexus of both sides , is immediately carryed , tending towards the glandula pinealis ; under which plexus , in its upper part , the two roots of the spinal marrow grow together ; so that here the testudo , is not seated immediately under the third ventricle . the vi. table . the figure explained . this figure presents the left ventricle of the brain , being bent back , as it is represented in the fift figure . a. the right ear. b. the left ear. cccc . the bone of the forehead . dd . part of the skin of the head hanging down on either side . eeeeeee . the dura mater of both sides hanging down . fffffff . the brain according to the passage of the left ventricle , divided from that part which lies over the root of the spinal marrow , and turned backwards . ggg . part of the brain resting upon the spinal marrow . hh . a great chink of the brain going over the root . iiiiiii . the inner face and form of the left ventricle resembling the sharp corner'd moon . k. the cavity of the ventricle like a gloves-finger . l. an orifice going into the third ventricle . mmm . the lace sticking to the root of the spinal marrow nn . the lace removed from the said root . ooo . the plexus choroides . ppp . the root of the spinal marrow raised up . qqq . vessels creeping up and down the inner surface of the ventricle , and springing for a great part , from the smal arteries which compass the root . r. the septum lucidum . page the third ventricle commonly so called , or the long chink , is the meeting together of the ventricles aforesaid , which is formed in the centre , as it were of the marrow of the brain , by reason of the conjuction of two round trunks proceeding out of the brain . it hath in it two passages , the first foremore , going downwards to the glandula pituitaria , that it may there void its excrements : the other is hindermore , cloathed with a membrane ; which hole some call anus , the fundament ; it goes beneath the buttocks to the noble ventricle , that the prepared matter of the animal spirits , may pass into the place and womb as it were of their generation . this hole is nothing else but a space arising upon the mutuall contact of the four trunks of the spinal marrow , now the nates or buttocks , and the testes or stones are four orbicular prominences , which they say are in the brain , which is falf . they call the two portions of the roots of the medulla oblongata , which arise from the brainlet , nates ; and those two little ones of the roots from the brain , they call testes . and these parts are lower , the other upper . these differences , as fr. sylvius notes , between the testes and the nates , have place in brutes rather then in men ; for the men they are commonly equal , and many times the testes are the bigger . but it is a trifling peice of business to impose such names as these ; as also when they call the glandula pinealis , penis , and a certain long ditch between the eminences they term vulva . between the fore-more ventricles so called , and the seat of the testudo , there is , the plexus choroidis or reticularis so called , being a contexture of very smal veins and arteries , sent partly from the arteries , partly from the vessels of the dura mater in the fourth ventricle . there is a glandulous substance interwoven within this plexus , and a portion of the pia mater . the plexus choroides being truly glandulous , does receive a little branch of the carotick artery , which pierces into the lower part of the brain , which ends about the glandula pinealis , where it branches up and down through the lower surface of the ventricle . the use hereof is the same with that of the rete mirabile . at the beginning of that hole , which passes from the middle ventricle into the noble ventricle , there is placed a certain glandule or kernel , termed pinealia the pine-kernel glandule , because it is fashioned like the kernel of a pine-apple . the greeks call it conarion or som● cono●ides , some term it the yard of the brain ▪ it is of an hard substance , of a yellowish and somtimes dark colour , and is covered with a thin membrane . in creatures newly kil'd t is large , in old karcasses , being melted it is scarce apparent , or is very small , as also in men , whose brains cannot be opened whil'st they are warm . and therefore they say it spends like camphire exposed to the air , being also partly melted , as salt is in a moist place . according to the observation of sylvius a nervous little string does fasten this kernel as it stands betwixt the testes . who also observed more then once certain granes of sand in this kernel , and somtimes also a little stone as big as the fourth part of a pease , and somwhat round . the use of this pine-kernel is like that of other kernels , and especially to help the distribution of vessels through the brain . some will have it placed like a valve before the hole which passes into the fourth ventricle . des cartes and his followers meyssonerius , regius , hogelandius , do conceive that this kernel being placed in the middle of the ventricles , which when a man is awake are distended with spirits perpetually , does . receive the motions of all objects . . that the soul in this part done by these motions , does apprehend all external sensible objects , and all the ideas proceeding from the five senses , as in a centre , and discern the same , and does afterward by help thereof send spirits into all parts ; as in a smal sphaerical glass , all things are received in the same order in which they are either in a field or chamber . for this cause meyssonerius will have it to be of a conick figure , because individuals require more space then sorts or kinds of things . and that these idea's are diversly moved by the motion of the animal spirit , but are alwaies found joyned by the verb est , and according to their equality or inequality , truth or falshood is compounded , being compared together like two lines . and that for this cause infants do not presently speak nor reason , because the slappiness of their brain gives not passage to the idea's . and that the overgreat and confused motion of these idea's in the pine-shap'd kernel , makes ravenings , as in persons drunk , phrentick , &c. but many things there are which will not suffer me to embrace this new and witty opinion . for . it is too small and obscure a body , to be able to represent clearly the species of all things . . the species of all senses do not come hither , because the nerves do not touch the kernel . . it is placed in the quarter of excrements , whether they are purged out , by the third , and two foremore ventricles , where the species or representations of things would be defiled . . the species of things are perceived rather there whereto they are carried . but every sensory nerve each in its place carries the species to the beginning of the spinal marrow , and therefore each in their place are judged and received by the soul , in the beginning of the spinal marrow . moreover this marrow is big enough , globous , hard , and of a brighter colour . . several idea's would be confounded in this little body . the eye indeed being likewise very small , receives the species or representations of things without consusion , but they are only the visible species ; whereas in this kernel the divers species of different senses are to be received . . there is hence no open or known passage to the nerves , as from the beginning of the marrow , nor any communion with some nerves of the external senses . the use of the cavities or ventricles of the brain is , to be the receptacles of excrements , which is apparent . . from their structure : for an hole goes from the cavities to the glandula pituitaria . . the surface of the ventricles is continually moistned with a watry humor . . they are often found topful of flegm and watry moisture . howbeit in this new section after the neck of the funnel is shewed with the glandula : the marrow being lifted up , first of all the nates and the testes are seen , and then the hole into the noble ventricle ; afterwards divers nerves , the , ventricles of the brain with the hole into the funnel the corpus callosum , the fornix , the plexus choroides , and the glandula pinealis . but in the old and common way of dissection , these parts of the brain are shewed in order : the corpus callosum , the septum tenue , the two extuberances , upon which the ventricles rest ; the two ventricles , commonly called the foremore ; the fornix , the plexus choroidis , the third ventricle , it s two holes , the glandula pinealis ; and the brainlet being a little removed , the nates and testes the brainlet , the worm-fashion'd processes , the noble ventricle , the pelvis , glandula pituitaria , and rete mirabile . but if you will use the middle way of dissection , familiar to fr. sylvius , thus you shall proceed . take off the skull as deep as conveniently you can . then suffering the left side of the brain to remain untoucht , with its membrane ; begin your dissection on the right side , first of all cutting asunder and removing the dura mater ; then take away some particles of the brain with the pia mater , til you come to the cavity of the ventricle , and then follow both its upper and lower passage with your dissection , as you see it done in the second table . separate the limbus if you please , with a blunt probe , from the root of the spinal marrow , and shew it ; though that may be more conveniently done in the opposite side of the brain . the greatest part of the right side of the brain being thus taken away , the upper and lower cavities of the sickle are to be shewn , as also the greater right side lateral cavity , and the oblique descend of the upper cavity thereinto , all which you have expressed in the foresaid table . these things being thus done , go to the left side , and therein first cut asunder the dura mater , and remove it with the falx or sickle ; then gently remove the left side of the brain , into the place of the right side newly removed ; and as you are doing this observe from tab. . the vessels going into the lateral cavity , and how they rise up about the optick nerves , and are distributed into very many branches , creeping every where up and down the inner substance of the brain , and especially the winding surface thereof , til at last they end into the carotick arteries . then search out that same notable chink or clift , between the windings , which is figured out in the table aforesaid ; and having cut the pia mater , open the sides thereof a lit-little with a spa●●er , that the branches of the carotides may better appear , which are carried through the bottom of the turnings , with the rudiments of new windings . but if , before you shall begin to shew the brain , you shall free the carotick arteries and the jugular veins from the parts adjacent in the neck , and bind them distinctly ; and then by a wound made in an artery shall put in a crooked hollow probe and blow ; the vessels disseminated through the whole brain wil swel , as being branches of the carotick arteries , until the air with the forced blood shall at length empty it self into the ventricles : if by the foresaid hollow probe , you shall in like manner blow into the ventricles , you will perceive their continuation and communion with the jugular veins , by the swelling and distention of the said veins ; and will acknowledg that the circulation of the blood , is not a little confirmed by this pleasant spectacle . hence , returning to a farther search into the fabrick of the brain , and a wary incision being made in the hinder part of the side propounded , search there for the larger cavity of the ventricle , and follow it with your dissection to both the ends ; then turn back every way the outer part of that which is dissected , the middle part being kept upright , which rests upon the root of the spinal marrow , and is continued therewith , which is excellently well expressed in table the sixt , in the explication whereof , what you see set down , weigh in order . finally , taking away the brain , observe again all the cavities and that more distinctly ; and then when you have seen the third ventricle , the funnel , the glandula pituitaria , the pares of nerves , after the usual manner ; go back again to the penis , anus , testes , nates , &c. and examine the brainlet and its parts . nor will it be unprofitable , as often as a new occasion of dissection is offered , so often to change the section in some part ; for so it will come to pass , that you will alwaies observe somwhat which was unobserved before , or neglected , or not distinctly enough considered . chap. vii . touching the forehead . the hairy part of the head being explained , the smooth part or face follows , which in man is void of hairs , otherwise then i● is in beasts , for beauties sake ; it is also called vultus because of the judgment of the wil , which is conspicuous of the face . the upper part thereof , viz. the forehead is termed frons a ferendo from carrying , as some conceive , because it carries in it tokens of the mind : the rest thereof , from the eye-brows to the chins end , is the lower part , in which are many other parts , which are hereafter to be explained in order , external and internal , the organs of the senses , muscles of the eyes , nose , lips , &c. the skin of the forehead , because it is moved , therefore it hath muscles , which platerus terms the signifiers of the affections of the mind . now the muscles of the forehead do lift up the eye-brows , and are thickest at the said eye-brows . they arise from the skull , near the coronal suture , and are knit at the sides to the temporal muscles , but in the middle they are distinguished a little above , but beneath they are so nearly associated , that they seem to be one muscle , and end at the eye-brows . yet i have observed in a large nosed person , that an appendix of the said muscles did reach to the gristles of the nose . they have straight fibres . surgeons therefore must not cut them athwart , least they destroy the lifting up of the eye-brows ; but upwards , according to their length . hosman after aquapendent stands for oblique fibres , on the right side from the right hand to the left , on the left side from the left hand to the right . but this they do against experience , ocular inspection , and reason . for the skin of the forehead is by a straight course , either elevated or depressed by help of right fibres , which are the cause of straight motion . in the point of right fibres , we have the consent of great anatomists vesalius , laurentius , bauhinus , platerus , veslingus , &c. and because the skin of the forehead grows close to these muscles , therefore both the forehead and the eye-brows are moved . howbeit there are somtimes also two muscles in the binder part of the head , which move the skin thereof , short , thin and broad , with straight fibres , ending above into a broad tendon , and touching the hindermore muscles of the ears , in their sides . some men that are furnished with these muscles , can draw the skin of their heads backwards . chap. viii . of the eyes . the eyes are termed oculi ab occultando or occludendo from shutting or hiding , because they are hid under the eye-lids ; they are the instruments of sight made of humors , membranes , muscles , vessels , and other parts . they are seated in an eminent place like watch-men , in boney sockets covered with the periostium for better safeguards sake . they are in number two , for the perfection of sight , and that one being defective , the other may supply its place and office . howbeit both-eyes see but one object , at one and the same time , and not a double one , whether because the knowing and judging faculty is one , as aquapendent conceives , or because the axle-tree of the two visual pyramides , do pass along upon the same surface of a plane as galen expounds the matter ; or because of the exact similitude they have received from particular things from whence they came , the internal sense judging only one and the same species , as aquiloniu● does philosophize . they are in mankind very little distant one from another , both for the nobility and perfection of their action , and the reception of visible species . they are round ; but a little longish , like bulbous roots whereupon two angles or corners are made , at the socket of the eyes , which are termed canthi ; the inner and greater at the nose , the outer and lesser at the temples . in and about the eye , there are sundry parts , some without the eye , for safeguard or commodities sake , as the eye-lids with their hair and the eye-brows , also caruncles in the corners of the eyes ; other parts there are which con●… the eye it self , and they are fat , muscles , membranes and humors . palpebrae the eye-lids are parts which cover and shut the eye , which clense and putrifie the cornea tunica , and likewise by their overshadowing render the picture in the retina more illustrious , according to the opinion of averrhoes , varolius ▪ plempius . the are made up of the skin , the membrana carnosa , muscles , a coat , the tarsi and hairs : and therefore their substance is soft , the eye-lid , is either the lower which if we believe galen , is of it self immovable , save in some birds . yet bauhin and aqua-pendent do aver that they are really moved , and fallopius proves it by the example of a sea-calf , and any one may prove the same in a looking-glass , wherein he may see his lower eye-lid meet the upper . but either this motion is obscure or we must say with vesalias and sylvius that the upper part of the circular muscle doth lift up the upper part of the eye-lid , and that the lower part is drawn down , by the other part of the muscle , which notwithstanding is not true , because the straight muscle lift up ; or we must say with piccolhomineus that they follow the motion of the cheeks ; or finally , the orbicular muscles only moves the upper eye-lid , and doth but embrace the lower , and knit it is a coupler . the other is the upper , which is moved and that most swiftly . so that we compare a quick motion to the twinkling of the eye . the vii . table . the explication of the figures . this table represents the muscles of the eye in their natural situation , and the muscle of the eye-lid by it self . fig . i. aaaa . the hollow part of the skul cut off . bb. the inner and whiteish portion of the brain dissected . cc. the brainlet or cerebellum d. the meeting and union of the optick nerves . ee . the parting of the said nerves going to each eye . f. the caruncula lachrymalis drawn out of its place . gg . the first muscle of the eye called attollens . h. in the right eye , shews the second eye-muscle , or the musculus deprimens . ii. in both eyes shews the musculi recti interni or adducentes . kk . in each eye shews the recti externi or abducentes . l. the musculus quintus , or obliquus externus , is shewed in the right eye . mm. the sixt muscle or the obliquus , internus , whose tendon passes through the pully , n. o. shews the optick nerve in the right eye . p. the cornea tunica , in the midst whereof is the pupilla . fig . ii. a. the optick nerve . b. the nerves which moves the eye . c. the trochlearis musculus , whose tendon , e. goes through the pulley , d. f. g. the musculi recti , internal and external . h. the muscle proper to the upper eye-lid , contained within the socket of the eye . iii. the eye-lids cut out off . kk . the cilia , that is the ends of the eye-lids adorned with hair. page the membrana carnosa is thin in this place , together with the muscles , like another simple thin membrane ; and therefore aristotle said that the skin of the eye-lid was without flesh , and being cut off , like the fore-skin , it grows not again . they are cloathed with an inner coat springing from the pericranium , exceeding thin and soft , least they should hurt the eyes , which they touch . the extremities of the eye-lids are hard and gristley ; but soft like smal gristles , and semicircular , the greeks term them tarsous , the latins cilia whereon the hairs are fastned ( which some term cilia ) being straight because situate in an hard place , keeping all waies in a manner the same greatness hindering smal and light matters from falling into the eye , and serving to direct the fight which galen proves from such as have them fallen or pulled off , who can hardly discerne things afar off , especially if they be of a dark colour , which montaltus doth prove by the example of a youth at lisbon . the supercilia or eye-brows , are hairs growing at the bottom of the forehead , above the eyes , intercepting such things , as fall from the head that they may not light into the eyes . caruncula a smal portion of flesh , is placed at each great corner of the eye , containing humor to moisten the eye ; and it is placed over an hole bored in the nose-bone , which is called punctum lachrymale ( distinct from these two holes in the edge of the eye-lids , which galen call tremata , and are most visible in living bodies , especially of such as are inclined to weeping ) least we should continually weep . but in an oxe there is moreover a moveable membrane , which can shut the eye , though the eye-lid be open , by help whereof brutes wink and cover their eyes , when they fear any thing should fall into or hit them . in the spaces between the muscles and sundry vessels , there is fat , which heats , moistens , and so helps the motion of the eye , and makes it round and even . the muscles of mens eyes are six . because they have so many distinct motions : four straight and two circular : all are seated within the cavity of the skul , and accompany the optick nerve . all their tendons being joyned together at the tunica cornea , under the adnata , do make that coat which columbus call tunica innominata , the nameless coat , as if it had not been known to the ancients , whereas galen hath made mention thereof , in his tenth book de usu partium chap. . & . though it be not properly a coat , but only divers tendons of muscles , nor doth it compass the whole eye . yet by some it is called tunica tendinosa or tendinea , the tendinous coat . the first muscle being the upper and thicker is called attollens the lefter up or superbus , the proud muscle . the second opposite to the other , being the smaller in the lower part , is termed deprimens the depresser , and musculus humilis the lowly muscle , because it draws the eye downwards towards the cheek-balls . the third placed in the greater angle is called adducens , the drawer to , and bibitorius the drinking muscle , moving the eye inwards towards the nose . the fourth is called abducens the drawer from , drawing the eye towards the side of the face to the smal cornerward ; t is also termed indignatorius the muscle of indgnation . all these four muscles have the same beginning , the same progress and end : for the beginning of them all is acute , near the hole where the optick nerve enters into the socket of the eye , from the membrane wherof they do arise : they have all a fleshy and round belly : their end is a very smal tendon , as was said , at the cornea . by these four acting together the eye is drawn inwards , and is kept from strring , which holding is by physitians called motus tonicus . the fift is lean , round , short , oblique , seated between the eyes and the tendons of the second and third muscle , and ascending by the outer corner of the eye , to the upper part of the eye , is inserted into the cornea tunica by the region of the iris. it whirles about the eye obliquely downwards to the external angle , or corner . the sixt being the smallest of all , and having the longest tendon , wheels the eye about unto the inner corner . for arising from a common beginning with the first four , it is carried right out to the inner corner ; there it passes through the pulley , and ascends in a right angle to that place where the fift was inserted . 't is called trochlea musculus the pully-muscle , because it wheeled about as it were through a pulley which pulley is a gristle in the eye sticking out , first observed by fallopius , though riolanus do also attribute the invention thereof to rondeletius who lived at the same time with him . t is situate at the upper jaw-bone , by the inner corner of the eye , and therefore in the cure of fistula lachrymalis , the surgeons ought to have a great care , least they wrong this pully , these two last are termed amatorij , love muscles , and circumactores , rowling muscles the upper and lower . for by the help of these muscles lovers cast sheeps-eyes one at another . there is yet a seventh muscle in brutes , which may be divided into two , three , or four . this is a short muscle , compassing the optick nerve , fat coming between , and being fleshy it is inserted into an hard coat . it s use is ; to hold up the eyes of brutes which look down towards the ground , and to enwrap the soft optick nerve . an eigth membranous muscle may be added , wherewith brutes do wink . some animals have no muscles . scaliger proved it by dissection in cats , yet casserius pictures out the muscle of a cats eye . a chameleon indeed hath no muscles , and yet moves his eyes every way , and either of them backwards , and that by a wrinkled membrane furnisht with fibres , as panarolus does aver . vessels are sent to the eye , a vein from the jugulars , an artery from the caroticks , disseminated through the muscles , fat , and membrane . the eyes have the two first pare of nerves , as they are commonly reckoned : the first is the optick or seeing pare being thick and porous , carrying from the brain the faculty of seeing with the spirit , or carrying the visible representations of things to the brain . it is inserted behind , into the centre of the tunica cornea , to which from the hard tunicle or external membrane it communicates a coat , and passes more inward to the centre of the retina , into which its marrowy substance is spred abroad ; and somtimes a portion of the vitrea tunica , sticks to the inner part of the marrow . in brutes it is inserted obliquely , and not into the centre of the cornea tunica , but into the side . the second is the moving pare , which goes into the membranes , and sends a little branch into every muscle . ●ut touching these nerves i shal discourse more largely in my manual of the nerves . the membranes besides the external and the conjunctive ( which is common ) are but three and the humors three . and as in a nerve , there is a threefold substance which enters the eye : so these three substances do make the three coats of the eye . for the first coat arises from the dura mater ; the second from the pia mater ; the third from the marrowy substance in the brain . the tunica adnata alba or conjunctiva is smooth and thin , arising from the pericraneum . some will have it arise from the periosteum , and end at the circle of the iris , after it hath communicated a coat to the eye-lid . it is the outmost coat of all , next the bone . hippocrates calls it the white of the eye . it fastens the eye to the socket and inner bones like a ligament . it is of exquisite sense . it is sprinkled about with very many little veins and arteries , not appearing save when there is an afflux of humors , for then they swell and are very red as in the opththalmia or blearey'd soreness , which disease is seated in the part. this adnata being removed , the first that offers it self , is the sclirotica or dura so called , which arises from the dura mater , and it is thick , stretched , equal , and dark on the back part . the forepart of this they call tunica cornea , because it is polished and transparent like an horn : for it may be scaled into four plates , over which the epidermis is placed , and involves the whol forepart of the eye . it is next the sclirotica or dura , firmly cleaving in the hinder part of the choroides , yet joyned with the chrystalline in the middle , that it may separate the watry and glassie humors . the second is called choroides , because it is like the chorion , and vessels are sprinkled up and down . it arises from pia mater , being from the first original blackish , especially within , that the idea's received in a dark place , might be the more illustrious . in brutes it is of several colours , somtimes watchet , &c. under the transparent cornea it is in men somtimes skie-colour'd , somtimes blew , or grey , which colours are seen through the cornea . this in its forepart is termed uvea , by reason it is of the colour of a grape , in which part it is thick and doubled : it is moveable and according to the diversity of the object or light , it is contracted and dilated , as we may very well discern in cats . this forepart is also perforated in the middle , to let in the species or representations of visible objects , where the pupilla or sight of the eye is formed , which in mankind is round : in some brutes of an oblong shape , or long and round . riolanus hath observed the compass of this hole or the crown thereof , being drawn with the point of a pen-knife , to have been cut off orbicularly , which may better be seen in an ox eye boyled , which makes him think this circumference to be a distinct membrane from the uvea , since it hath peculiar fibres . but this is confuted by plempius , and because the verge of the uvea tunica hath divers colours , hence arises the iris or circle , which galen , casserius , riolanus reckon to be sixfold , and plempius but threefold : a double narrow one at the white of the eye , a third at the sight true and larger , illustrated with a constant colour . this circle is seen variously coloured , and where it makes the iris , it is somtimes skie-coloured , otherwhiles fierie , grey , black , &c. from the circumference of the uvea , where it s duplicated membrane bends it self back to the chrystalline , there arises a ligament or interstitium ciliare so called , which are certain then filaments produced out of the uvea representing the black lines of the eye-lids , like hairs , and they compass the chrystalline humor , which by help of these is knit to the neighboring parts : it is moved with the uvea being moveable . cartesius will have its use to be to move the chrystalline , that the situation thereof may be changed , according to the various necessity of sight . the third is the retina or amphiblestroides as the greeks call it , that is the netfashion'd coat , made of the inner substance of the brain or of some nerve spred out as it were , the pia mater withal accompanying in the same , if we believe galen and casserius . therefore this soft , and as it were snotty matter may be gathered together , compassing the vitreous humor and its vitreous coat like a net. it is an exceeding thin coat , but more dark then lightsom , mixt with an obscure redness , because the species received , are here stopped and represented ; yet is it a little snotty , with which snot is somtimes white , for the illustration of the species received . in my judgment , it is the sliminess of the marrowy substance . it s figure is semicircular , like a mitre , and its sides are near the chrystalline , for the distinct representation of the species . platerus saies it hath no vessels ; contrary to galen , casserius , sylvius and others , and experience it self : for the hinder part of the choroides and the sclirotica tunica , have vessels manifestly apparent in this coat , and there they ought to be , that it may be nourished with its contents . this compassing yet farther becomes the aranea or chrystalloides , the proper tunicle of the chrystalline humor , cloathing the fore and hinder part thereof , white , most thin and transparent , so that it is cal'd the looking-glass . the viii . table . the explication of the figure . the table shews the muscles of the eye , the tunicles and the humors . fig . i. a. the horney tunicle with the pupilla or sight to be seen through it . b. the right muscle that lifteth up the eye . c. the internal right muscle or the muscle drawing to , or shutting . d. the right internal muscle or the drawing from , or opening . e. the right external or opening muscle . f. the internal crooked muscle called trochlearis . g. the external oblique muscle below . fig . ii. shews the muscles in a sheeps eye . a. the optick nerves . bb. the seventh muscle that is about the optick nerve proper to beasts . cccc . the straight muscles . d. the trochlear muscle . e. the lowest oblique muscle . fig . iii. aa . the adnata tunicle in its place . bb . the cornea or horney tunicle . cc. the uvea tunicle . dd . the tunicle sclorotis . ee . the hard membrane of the optick nerve . ff . the tunicle choroides . gg . the thin membrane of the optick nerve . hh . the net-tunicle called retina ii . the marrowy substance of the optick nerve . l. the inward marrow affixed to the vitrea . mm. the chrystal tunicle . nn . the pupilla . oo . the shineing part of the cornea . a. the watry humor . b. the chrystalline humor . c. the glassie humor . fig . iv. the adnata tunicle separated from its place , with many veins and arteries . fig . v. a. the nerve optick taken from the dura mater . bb. the dura mater going about the optick nerve . cc the sclerotis opened , through which the uvea is seen . fig . vi. a. the optick nerve covered only with the pia mater . bb. the choroides taken from the sclerotis . cccc . the veins of the sclerotis . dd the sclerotis turned inside out . ee . the rupture of the sclerotis . fig . vii . a. the nerve optick . bb. the uvea unfolded and separated in part from the retina . cc. part of the retina laid bare from the uvea , made too obscure . fig . viii . a. the retina laid bare . bb. the white of the eye or tunica conjunctiva . c. the cornea . d. the pupilla . fig . ix . the glassie tunicles with the hairs of the eye-lids . fig . x. the watry humor thickned in the middle of which there is a hollow to receive the forepart of the chrystalline . fig . xi . the glassie humor with the christalline in the middle . fig . xii . the chrystalline tunicle . fig . xiii . the chrystalline humor in its proportion . page i add the tunica vitrea , which covers the vitreous or glassie humor on all sides , that it run not about , and separates it from the chrystalline humor . it is of exceeding smoothness and thinness , shed about the humor like a thin skin , not only in the convex part of the said humor , but also in its concave part , where it receives the chrystalline , where indeed it cleaves close to the chrystalline coat , but is different from it . it is furnished with many , but very little veins , and the inner portion of the marrowy substance of the optick nerve , cleaves to the centre thereof . the form is such as that of the glassie humor , large and convex behind , and concave before . the humors of the eyes are three , the watry , the glassie , and the chrystalline : of which the last is the most noble , and by some termed the soul and centre of the eyes . the watry because thin and fluxive like water , occupies the whole space between the tunica cornea , and the fore part of the chrystalline . riolanus also proves that it is poured round about the vitreous humor , and that all of it is contained within the whole uvea tunica ; because the eye being cut in the hinder part , water flows out as much as if it were cut before . but if the vitrea tunica be also cut with a large wound , no wonder if water flow from thence , which plempius also notes ; not to say how easily the inner parts are broken , when they are rudely fingred . in the humor suffusions are made . this humor is no animated part , but seems only to be an excrement remaining after the nutrition of the chrystalline humor : for it is both consumed in diseases , and lost in wounds of the eyes ; the other two humors are animated parts , seeing they have their proper circumscription , are nourished with blood brought veinlets , when perished they are not restored , and are bred in the womb : and the chrystalline of the most pure lightful part of the seed . the use of the watry humor is to defend the bordering parts from driness : others add , that as a medium it serves to break the brightness continually flowing in , and to greaten the representations of the objects , being straitned in the pupilla or sight . the vitreous or glassie humor is seen behind , like molten glass , softer then the chrystalline , then which it is nevertheless five times bigger , and twice as big as the watry humor . it is round in its hinder part , plane before , but being concave in the middle , it makes an hollowness wherein the chrystalline humor is placed as in a pillow . it s use is not barely to nourish the chrystalline , as galen conceived , but to prepare and communicate nourishment thereto . according to aquapendent from whom riolanus had the notion , that the light carried beyond the chrystalline may not return defiled by dark and other coloured tinctures , and so disturb the sight . platerus more rightly , that the splendid vitreous humor might fill up a necessary space between the chrystalline and the retina , which others explain more clearly , that the glassie . humor may give a passage to the species to the retina , and may refract them from perpendiculars . the chrystalline ( which some call the icie because of its firmness ) is so called from its exceeding bright and shineing colour , which it hath , being free from all other colours , that it may receive all colours , it is shineing , indifferently ●●rd round behind , with some longness , flat on the foreside : howbeit according to the sundry affections of the eye , this form is variously changed . it s use is , to be the chief medium of sight , as a glass held before the hole , receives the external species into a dark closet , even so the chrystalline humor , both receives and collects the species or representations of things . and because the humor is transparent , the species are no● stopped therein , nor colours perceived , which most anatomists have beleived after galen ; for otherwise there were no reason why they should not be as well perceived in the cornea , and vitreous humor , both transparent and animated . therefore the sight is not primarily made in this humor , but the species are discerned in the retina tunica , because there they are stopped by a dark body , as we seen on the wall of a chamber , when the windows are shut . scheinerus conceives , that the species which did represent all things the bottom upwards , are corrected and refracted in the chrystalline humor , so as to represent all things in their due posture . but according to the observation of job . walaeus , fr. sylvius , and fr. vander schagen , the choroides , the sclirotica , and retina tunica , being taken away from behind , all things are seen by the eye , and represented with the bottom upwards ; very small in an oxes eye , somwhat greater in a mans. plempius proves the same by an experiment of a glass instrument filled with the three humors , placed before the hole of the window , where all things appear on the wall with the wrong side upwards . and doubtless the species must needs be represented with the bottom upwards in the retina , otherwise we should see all things the wrong end upwards , and not right , which keplerus hereby demonstrates , because in passion the patients must be just opposite against the agents . others will have it , that our judgment corrects the depraved figure , which discerns the just magnitude of things by very small species received . others alledg the common sense , which seeing the inverted species , behind and above the cavity of the retina , apprehends them in their true posture . finally others say that a true judgment is therefore made , because it is made by a right line . chap. ix . concerning the ears . the organ of hearing , viz. the ears are either external or internal . the external which are by some termed auriculae the earlets , are in mankind of a semicircular figure , convex without , concave within . the outer ear is divided into the upper and lower part . the upper is broader , and by some called pinna , by others ala. the lower is soft and hanging down , termed fibra , auricula infima , lobus . the outer circumference of the ear is called helix , also capreolus , because of its wreathed formed . the inner part opposite to the former , is termed scapha or anthelix . in the middle hereof is a large cavity , the principal part of the external ear , called concha . but the cavity near the meatus auditorius or hearing-passage , where ear-wax is collected , is cal'd alvearium . towards the temples there grows a certain eminency like a covering , which either receives or hinders things that would go into the eare , and is termed hircus the goat , because hairs grow thereon . the parts whereof the external ear is composed , are either common , as the skarf-skin , the skin , a nervous membrane , flesh , and a little fat in the lobe : or proper , as muscles , vessels , and a gristle . the skin is exceeding thin , cleaving to a little flesh with a firm gristle ; and as in the palms of the hands a nervous membrane is firmly fasten'd thereto ; by the sense whereof it happens that cold water sprinkled on the lap or lobe of the ear doth cool the whole body . in the lobe it is so mingled with flesh , that it becomes thereby fattish , fleshy and spungy : hence the lobe is soft and flexible , so that it may be bored with no great trouble , and therefore some hang jewels and ear-rings thereon . as to vessels : it hath veins from the jugulars . arteries from the carotides . little nerves , two from behind , and two from the sides , arising from the second pair termed cervicale . muscles rightly conspicuous in such as move their ears , are common or proper . which it was my luck once to see , and such justinian must have had , whose ears could move as procopius describes him . but in most people the ears are unmoveable , both because of the smalness of the muscles , and because there was little need of their motion , because a man can do that with his hands which beasts do with their ears , wherewith they drive away flies . the first muscle is common to the ear and each lip ; and it is a part of the first muscle which moves the cheeks , and the skin of the face , and it is termed quadratus , the square muscle , sufficiently thin and broad . it is implanted into the root of the ear under the lobe , that it may draw the ear to one side downwards . the second is proper and seated more foreward , leaning upon the temporal muscle , from the end of the muscle of the forehead ( from which it differs by the carriage of the fibres ) arising somtimes with a round , otherwhiles with a corner'd beginning , and being tendinous , it is implanted into the upper part of the ear , where it is narrower , that it may move the ear upwards and forewards . the third and hinder more arises above the processus mammillaris , from the hind-part of the head and its muscle , with a narrow beginning ; afterward growing broader and divided as it were into three parts , it goes hindlongs to the ear , that it may draw it , somwhat backwards and upwards . the fourth arising from the processus mammillaris , being broad , grows narrower by little and little , till at last it ends in a tendon . this muscle is rather threefold , because it hath three insertions , yet all spring confused from one place . some of these are somtimes wanting , otherwhiles they are all found ; somtimes there are more , nature variously sporting her self in the muscles of the ear. the ears gristle , is a substance tied to the os petrosum , by a strong ligament springing from the pericranium . certain kernels there are outwardly about the ears , thick and large , which are termed parotides , though this word do also signifie the swellings of the said kernels . they are not only behind the ears , as is commonly imagined , but on both sides and under the ear , but not above . these kernels by the ears are called the emunctories of the brain , because they receive the excrements thereof . there are also many other kernels in the whole space which is under the lower jaw , in which many diseases are bred , and swellings called scophulae in some creatures , as wild swine . the common people count these kernels a dainty dish and cal them sweet-breads . their use is , to moisten the parts , and to assist in the divisions of the vessels . the use of the external ear is , i. for ornament , and therefore the english , dutch and other nations punish male-factors by cutting of their ears . ii. to saveguard the brain , that it may not be hurt by the air suddenly rushing in . iii. to be the organ of hearing , not principal , but assistant . the true organ lies within , as doth that of the swelling . and as the nose being cut off a man can smel though imperfectly ; so if the ears be quite cut off close to a mans head , he can hear , but dully , confusedly , with a m●●mering noise , so that articulate words will seem as the noise of water-streams , or the screekings of grass-hoppers , as they know who have lost their ears . yea , and the hearing of that ear which is not cut off , is dammaged , unless the cut ear be stopped . the use therefore of the external ear , is more readily and rightly to receive sounds ; and to gather them when they are scattered in the air into the cavity of the ear , that they may come unto the drum without violence , being first moderated and allayed in the hollow and winding passages . hence , least sounds which are diven towards the ears , should slip beside , beasts turn their ears this way and that way to sounds . hence also the emperor hadrianus ; that he might heat more distinctly , would hold the hollow of his hand before his ears , which also deaf persons frequently practise . hence some scythians , whose earlets ar mortified and rottted of with cold , doth apply a fish-shell to their ears , that the air being detained in the cavity thereof , may be more easily received , that so they may hear the better . hence , they hear most exactly , whose ears stick furthest out from their heads , and if our ears were not too much pressed down , what by long lying upon them . what by the binding of nurses , we should hear better then we do . the internal ear hath also sundry parts contained in the os petrosum , and besides the parts and little cavernes of the bones , there are : the drum , two muscles , the vessels and inbred air. in the auditory passage cloathed with skin , through which sounds are carryed , is found a cholerick clammy humor , which the ancients cal'd cerumen . ear-wax , being purged from the brain ▪ but intrinsically it is obliquely placed before this hole or passage of hearing . there is a certain partition , or little orbicular menbrane , compassed with a boney circle , which some call myrinx , others sextum membraneum and mediastinum , others tympanum , but some rightly mympani membranula . for it is stretched before the internal cavity containing the congenit air , as the parchment or velam on a drum head. casserius conceives that it arises from the pericranium , but veslingius believe that it is an expansion of the periosteum , who hath also observed it to be double , and also frequently crusted over by thickned excrements . it is exceeding dry , that it may sound the better , for dry bodies are fittest for sound . it is transparent thin and subtile , that the sounds may more easily pass through to the implanted air : for those that have it thick from their birth , have an incurable deafness , as those also who have a thick coat growing over the same without , the cure whereof is nevertheless taught by paulus ; and if this happen from the birth , such persons continue for the most part dumb , because they can neither conceive in their mind nor utter with their tongue such words as they have never hard . but if a snotty matter cleave thereto within , or a thick humor flow thereto , a thickness of hearing or a deafness incurbale is thereby caused . if a thin humor flow thereto , there arise tinklings and noises in the ears . finally it is nervous , of so exquisite a sense that , it can neither bear the putting in of a probe , nor sharp humors ; yet is it strong so as to endure against external injuries ; for being hurt or corroded it causes thickness of hearing or deafness , as they find by experience , who have it hurt by the noise of great guns or bells , or in whom it is broken by swimming . for the safeguard therefore hereof , there are three little bones added within ( of which , the hammer sticks fast to the drum , and is seen through the same ) and two muscles . the use thereof is , to shut the passage of hearing , and to separate the innate air from that which is external , and to keep it within . also to save it from dust , water , creeping things , &c. within the membrane of the tympanum , thereis an internal cavity in the bone , containing a certain air , which some term the inbred , congenit and complanted air , because it is placed in the ears at the first formation , being pure , subtile and immoveable : which some count the internal medium of hearing , others the organ it self of that sense . there are two muscles of the inner ear according to anatomists . they call the first the internal , seated in the os petreum , with a double tendon : the one being fixed to the higher process of the hammer , the other to its neck . it s use is to draw the head of the hammer obliquely inwards , and to carry it inwards from the anvil , and the process of the hammer being bowed back , to drive the little membrane inwards . the second is external , found out by casserius , though aquapendent doth likewise attribute to himself the invention thereof ; it is exceeding smal , fleshy , and consisting in the upper region of the auditory passage , with its tendon implanted into the centre of the membrane , there where the hammer is inwardly joyned to the said membrane . so that parisanus labours in vain by denying this membrane in contradiction to casserius . it s use is to draw the membrane with the hammer outwards . a certain smal gristly passage is to be observed , which goes from the concha of the ear near the sides of the pterygoidean process , to the palate . fallopius saies it is a conveighance of water , furnished with a smal valve , riolanus in the mean while , an old master of anatomy , denying that there is any such valve to be found . the use hereof is , . to purge the inbred air , for this way excrements pass from the ear into the mouth , but , not back again , because there is a valve to hinder . and this is the reason that masticatories are very helpful in diseases of the ears . ii. to let in sound in deaf and stopped ears . varro writes and pliny with archelaus , that goats draw in breath at their ears , which aristotle reports of alcmeon . and such as are somwhat thick of hearing , do perceive words more distinctly when they gape , and when our ears are stopped , we can hear our own speech though weakly . such as have the venereal disease , are hurt not only with cold air , but with any other uneven noise , passing through their mouth into their ears , as tulpius observes , who also hath observed that two persons troubled with the orthopnaea , were saved from choaking , by voiding their breath out at their ears , by means of this passage . those do abuse this passage , who render the smoak of tobacco which they take , through their ears . finally , we meet with the nervous auditories or hearing nerve , which proceeds from the fift pair of the brain , entring the ear through the hole of os petrosum . it touches the cochlea and the labyrinth with a double branch that it may in both places perfect the hearing . to which a branch is added to move the muscles , proceeding from the fourth pair , and cleft in two . chap. x. of the nose . another organ of sense follows , viz. the nose the instrument of smelling , given to men and fourfooted beast that bring fourth living creatures . now it is divided , as the ear , into the external and internal nose . the internal hath bones and nerves , with the mammillary processes , of which in their place . the external is extrinsecally divided into the upper and lower part . the upper part which is boney and immoveable , is termed the back of the nose , and it s acuminated part , spina . the lower part is gristley and moveable , the utmost end wherof is termed globulus and orbiculus , by the only feeling whereof michael scotus pretends to tel whether a maiden have lost her virginity . the lateral or side parts are termed pterugia alae , pinnae ; that is wings or pinnacles , that fleshy part which sticks out in the middle near the lips , is called columna the pillar . the nose is divided within , by a partition wall , into two holes or cavities which they call nares the nostrils : that one hole being stopped , we may draw in and pass out the air by the other . and when both are stopped , the mouth supplies the office of the nostrils . now each hole is again divided about the middle of the nose into two parts : the one ascends upwards , to the os spongiosum ; the other goes above the palate into the throat and upper part of the mouth . hence drink somtimes comes out at the nostrils : and things put into the nostrils , the nose being shut , are wont to slip into the mouth . hence also the thicker excrements also of the brain , while they are carryed downward to the nostrils , may slide into the mouth , or be brought thither by hawking , and so purged out at the mouth . it is situate in an high place , viz. between the eyes . . for comelyness sake . . because all smels mount upwards . the magnitude varies , as also the figure , for some have great noses , others little noses , some hawkenoses and roman-noses , and others saddle-noses &c. touching which physiognomists discourse . it s substance consists of the scarf●-skin , skin , muscles , bones , gristles , vessels , and tunicles . it s skin is thin , and void of fat , that it may not grow too much ; under the partion in the colomme it is thick and spungy ; so that it is like a gristle and is compast with hairs termed vibrissae . there are eight muscles of the nose , especially in large nosed people , but they are smal because the motion of the nose is little . four serve to widen the nose , while the alae or wings being drawn upwards , they open the holes of the nostrils . and there are four more which straiten the nose . the two first widners being fleshy , do arise from the cheek-bone , near the muscle of the lips , which they make a third . they are inserted partly into a part of the upper lip , partly into the lower wing . casserius found them resembling the leaves of myrtle . the ix . table . the figure explained . this table represents the muscles of the forehead , eye-lids , nose , cheeks , lips , lower jaw and ear-let . a. the pericranium . b. the periosteum . c. the hairy skin or scalpe . d. the skull made bare . e. the temporal muscle . f. the upper muscle of the ear. g. the muscle of the hind-part of the head , stretched out to the hinder muscles of the ears . h. the muscle of the fore-head . i. a frontal appendix spred out upon the back of the nose . kkk . the orbicular muscle of the eye . l. the triangular muscle of the nostrils . m. the common muscle of the lips , which lefts up . n. the first proper muscle of the upper lip. o. the second proper muscle of the upper lip. p. the trumpeters muscle . q. the chewing muscle . r. the common muscle depressing the lips. s . the proper muscle of the lower lip , caled mentalis deprimens . tt . the third commmon orbicular muscle of the lips. u. the circular muscle of the nose . xxx . the part of the earlet termed helix . y. the opposite part cal'd anthelix . z. the part of the ear-let cal'd tragus . a. the antitragus . v. the lobe or lap of the earlet . page the other two which are commonly triangular , and like the greek letter Δ on each side one , with a sharp and fleshy beginning , do grow from the suture of the forehead by the foramen lachrymale or tear-hole , and are implanted into the spina or the pinnae of the nose . i have somtimes observed an appendix thereof to have descended to the upper lip , viz , in such as cannot lift up their nose without their lips. casserius against the mind of all anatomists , draws its original from the pinnae of the nose ; but they are moveable . the two first str●itners , which are little do arise fleshy , about the root of the pinnae , are carried along transversly , and inserted into the corners of the alae . casserius did first of all observe a portion thereof and describe it , which is not alwaies found ; for more often the circular sphincter involves the pinnae of the nose orbicularly . the use thereof is a little to shut the nostrils , depressing the pinnae . the remaining two are exceeding firm and membranous , lying hid under the coat of the nostrils , in the inner part . they arise from the extremity of the nose-bone , and are implanted into the pinnae or wings . besides these muscles of the nose aforesaid , i have found on the nose-back of a certain person , a fleshy muscle , thin , stretched right out from the frontal muscle , with a broad basis , and ending soon after , narrower about the outmost gristle of the nose . gristles do make up the substance of the lower part of the nose , and are five in number . the two uppermost being broad ones , do stick unto the bones of the nose , and the more they descend , the softer they grow , so that the end of the nose hath a substance , partly gristly and partly ligamental . the third being in the middle of the other two , make sthe partition-wall between the two nostrils . by these are placed the other two , of which the pinnae of the nose are constituted , and they are tied together by membranous ligaments . as to vessels . it hath veins from the jugulars . arteries from the carotides . nerves from the third pare , on each side one , which goes through the holes common to the nose and eyes , at the greater corner into the coat of the nose , and the muscles , and the palate . the coat which cloaths the nostrils is from the dura mater , and common to the mouth , palate , tongue , larynx , gullet and stomach ; but in the nostrils it is thinner and of exquisite sense ; for being vexed it causes sneezing : it is bred with many little holes which go into the os cribrosum . riolanus informs us that within the cavities of the nostrils , there are spungy parcels of flesh to be seen , of a reddish colour , wherewith the spungy bones of the nose are filled , of which being swelled , the disease in the nostrils , called polypus , is bred , touching the pulling out and cure whereof , read tulpius . the use of the outer nose is . that through it air may enter into the brain for the needs of the animal spirits . . that by it air may enter into the lungs , for the cooling of the heart , and to breed vital spirits . . that by the nostrils odours may be carried to the mammillary processes , which lie concealed above the os cribrosum . and therefore they whose nose is cut off at the roots , cannot smell at all , or badly . . that the excrements of the brain may flow down there through , as by a channel . which is but a secondary use of the nose , because jo. walaeus , jo. dom. sala my masters and my self , have known some persons that never voided any excrements at their nose . it is also somtimes assistant to the voice . . it adds an ornament to the face . it is storied in the chronicles of england , how a company of honest maidens of that country , in the time of the daneish war , did cut off their own noses , that they might preserve their maidenheads from the violence of the daneish soldiers , by this deformity . this was the punishment of adulterers in aegypt , which also jebovah threatens to the inhabitants of hierusalem , by the prophet ezekiel . in our historiographer saxo , we read how hialto deformed a curtezan by cutting off her nose , when she asked him who should be her next lover . and therefore because it makes much for the ornament of the face , the chirurgia curtorum was invented , teaching how to supply a nose in the room of that which is cut off , of which see tagliacotius . chap. xi . of the mouth , cheeks and lips. the last organ of sense remains , viz. the tongue the organ of tasting , which before i explain , i must propound the external parts about the mouth , and the internal parts in the mouth . the external parts about the mouth are sundry . the upper part under the eyes , between the nose and the ears , by reason of its usual redness , and the unusual by reason of blushing , is called pudoris sedes the seat of shamefastness , maium or pomum the apple , also circulus faciei , the circle of the face . the lower and looser part which may be blown up , as we see in trumpeters , is termed bucca the cheek , the upper part of the lip is called mystax . the cavity imprinted therein and dividing the same , is called philtrum , from its loveliness . now the lips are two , the upper and the lower , and the chink between both , is termed os the mouth . the outer parts of the lips which hang over , are called prolabia . the lower part under the lower lip is called mentum the chin ; the fleshy part under the chin is termed buccula . now the mouth consists of parts , partly boney , as the upper and lower jaw with the teeth ; partly fleshy , as the lips , lip-muscles , cheek-muscles , and lower jaw-muscles . the whole inner capacity of the mouth is cloarhed with a thick coat , which goes also about the gums and lips , and is thought to be doubled when it constitutes the uvula . the uses of the mouth are : . to receive in meat and drink , and to prepare the same , or begin chylification the beginning , of which is performed in the mouth . . to receive in and let out the air. . to speak and frame the voice . . to give passage to the excrements of the lungs , the head and stomach , by hawking , spitting , and vomiting . two pare of muscles there are , common to the cheeks and lips , on each side two muscles . the first is that same broad and square muscle lying under the skin of the neck , which the ancients did not distinguish from the skin . it arises about the channel-bones , and the hinder-part of the neck ; and with oblique fibres ( which a surgeon must diligently observe , least he cut them freely and athwart , and so make the cheeks to be pulled away to one side ) it is implanted into the chin , the lips and root of the nose , and sometimes of the ears : which parts also it moves to the part , and this is first cramped in the spasmus cynicus . the second lies under this , which makes the cheeks with its bulk , and therefore is termed buccinator the trumpetting muscle , which is most conspicuous in trumpetters . t is round like a circle , thin and membranous ; interwoven with sundry fibres , inseparably clothed with the coat of the mouth . in the centre hereof casserius hath observed a certain strong band , breeding from without , and creeping to the cheek-bone , where it is terminated into a certain small and lean muscle , directly opposite to the bucca . this muscle arises from the upper cheek-bone , is inserted into the lower , at the roo●s of the gums . it s use is to move the cheeks and lips : and it is to the teeth instead of an hand , while it thrusts the meat this way and that way to the teeth , that it may be more exactly chewed . the lips consist of undigested spungy flesh ( fallopius reckons it for the ninth pare of muscles which move the lips ) whose skin is so mingled with muscles , that it seems to be a musculous skin , or a skinny muscle . they are covered with a coat common to the mouth and stomath : and thence it is that in such as are ready to vomit , the lower lip trembles . the parts of the lips which touch one another are red , because of the afflux of blood . their use is , . to shut in the mouth and teeth , and to defend the inner parts from cold and external injuries . . for the conveniency of eating and drinking . . for the voice and speech . . to cast out the spittle , and therefore that servants might not spit nor speak , they were bound with skins , as ammianus marcellinus informs us . . for ornament . there are some proper muscles of the lips besides the common ones aforesaid , which nevertheless may vary in respect of number . some reckon fewer , and others more : for some are by some authors counted simple , which others reckon to be manifold . the proper muscles which move the upper lip , are on each side two . three there are which move both lips. the lower lip is moved only by one proper pare . the first pare proper to the upper lip , is a remarkable pare described by fallopius , which slipping down from the corner betwixt the eyes and nose , is straight way sunk into the substance of the upper lip. the other pare , arising from the upper jaw-bone , just in the cavity of the cheeks under the socket of the eye , thin but broad , fleshy , sunk into store of fat , is carried down wards right on , to the upper lip , which moves it directly upwards with the first pare . sometimes also it is obliquely inserted into the confines of both the lips , wherefore some do make two pare therof . the first pare common to both lips , is long , fleshy , broad at the beginning ; arises outwardly from the jugal process , and descending obliquely through the cheeks , it is terminated in the space between the two lips. sometimes i have seen it from the beginning drawn out as a rope to the first proper pare . it s use is ; to draw both the lips obliquely upwards towards the temples . the second common pare of the lips , from the lower jaw-bone to the sides of the chin , fleshy , arises with a broad beginning , and sometimes stretched out to the middle of the chin , grows by little and little narrower ' till it is obliquely inserted into the same confine of each lip , but lower , which draws away the lips obliquely downwards and outwards , in such as grin and gern for anger . the third muscle common to the two lips is circular like a sphincter encompassing and constituting the whole mouth , spungy , and firmly sticking to the ruddy skin , it draws the mouth together , when people simper as virgins are wont to do . the proper pare of the lower lip is called par mentale , the chin-pare ; arising from the middle of the chin with a broad beginning , and aseends directly to the middle of the lower lip , which it moves downwards . now all the muscles of the lips , are so mixed with the skin , that the fibres do cross one another mutually , and therefore the motions of the lips are very divers . to cause that exquisite sense which is in the lips , branches of nerves are sent thither , and veins and arteries from the neighbouring places : from whence that same ruddy splendor of the lips proceeds , a note of beauty and of health . the muscles of the lower jaw ( for it is moved ) the upper being immoveable ) some reckon eight , others ten , called masticatorij , mansorij , molares , chewers , eaters , grinders , because they serve for the chewing or grinding of the meat . one only pare depresses the jaw , because it is apt to go downwards of it self : the other pares setch it up , which are exceeding strong ones . hence it is that some can take heavy weights from the ground with their teeth , and so carry them . hence phrantick and otherwise distracted persons do shut their mouths with so much stubbornness and strength , that they can hardly be opened with great force and iron instruments . contrariwise , the stubbornest person in the world may be compelled without much ado , to shut his or her mouth . the first muscle is termed crotaphites , the temporal muscle from its scituation , because it possesses the cavity of the temples . this is the greatest of them all , firm and strong , yet firmer and stronger in some beasts , as lyons , wolves , dogs , swine , &c. which were naturally to bite hard ▪ forth end of the temporal muscle , is in the begining of the lower jaw , which it moves and draws upwards , and so shuts the mouth ; and it is terminated in a sharp process , with a tendinous nerve short and strong . now it arises from the temples wich a beginning broad , fleshy , and semicircular , and by little and little grows narrower as it descends . three nerves are on each side inserted thereinto , two from the third pare , another from the fift pare . and therefore this muscle being wounded or bruised , there is great danger of convulsion and of death in conclusion ; especially if the lower part be hurt which is most nervous . and because of the distention hereof , hypocrates did pronounce the luxation of the lower jaw-bone to be deadly ; unless it were put presently in joynt again . for safeguard sake , nature hath given it , . a membrane thick and hard , and black and blew in color , wherewith it is covered , and shines with a neat color ; the pericraneum , so that the inner part of the muscle being all fleshy , doth there stick to the bone without the pericranium . . the os jugale over the lower part tendinous and nervous . . she hath fenced the tendon with flesh above and beneath . the second muscle is the mansorius primus , first chewer , called masseter , molitor , and mandibularis , or lateralis , seated in the cheeks . it arises from a double head : the one fleshy , the other nervous , from the os jugale , and the first bone of the upper jaw . it is implanted into the lower part of the jaw-bone ( by a connexion sufficiently broad and strong ) which it turns this way and that way , in such as are eating . for the fibres of the head do so interfere and cross one another , that they move the jaw both forwards and backwards and side-wayes . the third pair is the pterygoides or alare externum , the outward wing-muscle , the finding whereof we owe to fallopius ; but vesalius accounts it a part of the temporal muscle . 't is seated under the temporal . it arises from the os sphaenoideum and the external processus alaris , with a beginning partly nervous and partly fleshy . 't is implanted into the neck of the lower jaw-bone , and the inner seat of the head thereof . it s use is to move forwards and thrust out . the fourth is termed mansorius alter , the other chewer , or alaris internus , being thick and short . it arises nervous from the productions of os sphaenoideum called alatae internae ; and is inserted into the inner and hinder part of the jaw , with a broad and strong tendon . it s use is to draw the jaw upward and backward , to assist the temporal muscle . the fift is termed graphyoides , because it arises from the appendix styloides , membranou , s and broad , and soon becoming round and fleshy , t is inserted into the chin. hence it is seen to have a double belly , and therefore 't is also termed digastricus , twi-belly . 't is fastned to a ligament least it should go too far back . for , its use is to draw the jaw downwards and so to open the mouth . others do reckon for another pair , part of the musculus quadratus , fixed in the middle of the chin. which broadest muscle , arising from the upper part of the brest-bone , the channel bone and the shoulder tip , and covering the neck and the whole face , after galen , sylvius , and theophilus , riolanus describes in this place . i spoke thereof , in the beginning of the chapter . chap. . of the parts contained in the mouth , viz. the gums , palate , uvula , fauces , and throat-bone . parts contained in the mouth besides the teeth : are the gums , palate , uvula , fauces , tongue-bone , tongue , almonds or tonsillae , larrnx , and beginning of the gullet . of the three later i spoke in my second book , because of the connexion of parts . of the five former , we will treat in this chapter and of the tongue in the chapter following . gingiva the gum , is an hard flesh compassing the teeth like a rampart , and in such as have lost their teeth , serving in some measure to chew their meat : which being either eaten away , or too much relaxed , or overdryed , the teeth become loose , or fall out . palatum the palate , is the upper part of the mouth moderately hollow , like the roof of an house , whence it is called the heaven of the mouth , and is the basis or foundation on which the brain rests , being made of the os sphaenoideum . 't is invested with a thick coat arising from the dura mater , which covers the cheeks and whole mouth on their insides , and is common to the gullet and stomach , and therefore there is also a consent between these parts . nor can we purge the head with masticatories , unless we purge also the stomach by the palate . 't is furnished with small nerves for sense . the uvula hangs from the palate further into the mouth near the passages of the nostrils , over the chink of the larynx among the almonds or kernels so called . some call it gargareon , from the noise it makes when we gargle any liquor ; 't is also called gurgulio and columna . it is a process made of a glandulous , spungy and red substance , which columbus doth suppose to be made of the coat of the palate reduplicated in that place . riolanus rather believes that it is flesh , arising from the extremity of the muscles , which are carried to the body . it is roundel ' long , thicker above , and ends in an acute figure obtusely . it is suspended and held up by two little muscles , an internal and an external pair , either to stir the uvula forward and backward in the time of swallowing , or when it is relaxed with humors and falls down , to draw it up again . riolanus , from aretaeus , the author of anatomia vivorum , abensina and carpus , describes two broad ligaments fastening the uvula on both sides , like to wings spred abroad , which the arabians term galsamach of which he is worthy to be consulted . sometimes by reason of humors too much flowing in , it hangs two much down , which is called casus uvulae the falling down of the palate of the mouth . which if it cannot be restored to its place by medicaments nor manual operation , s it is wont to be burnt and cut by skilful chirurgeo●u . the x. table . the figures explained . in this table are shewn os hyoides , uvula , and certain muscles of the tongue . fig . i. a. the gargareon or uvula , in english the palate of the mouth . bb. an outward pair of muscles . cc. its tendon . dd. an inner pair of muscles , a little compressed . e. part of the roof of the mouto , at which the uvula bangs . fig . ii. & iii. aa . the basis of os hyoides . bbbb . the sides or borns of the said bone. cc. two gristly appendixes . fig . iv. a. the first muscle of the tongue , arising from the external face of the styloides . b. the second muscle of the tongue . c. a muscle of the third pair called genio-glossum . dd. the fift pair cerato-glossum , scituate without . ee . the tasting nerves . ff . the tongue moving nerves . g. a muscle of os hyoides . h. the processus styl formis . ii. the os hyoidis . k. the cartilago scutiformis . ll. two muscles proper to the larynz . page it s use is to moderate , the coldness of the air , that it may not suddenly rush into the lungs : and therefore those that have lost the palate of their mouths dye of a consumption . some think it helps to modulate the voice , and therefore they call it plectrum vocis , the striking quil of the voice . but though it be wounded or quite cut off , yet is not the voice hurt , unless some neighbouring parts , which assist the voice are also damaged : for then by the roughness of those parts , caused by those catarrhes , which have eaten the uvula , the voice becomes hoarse . a second use is , to hinder drink from passing out of the mouth into the nostrils . and therefore salmuth tels of the son of a man called john , who being born without any uvula or almonds , voided the milk which he suckt , out of his nose , and did not live long . by fauces sometimes we understand the whole wideness of the mouth : but more strictly it is meant of the hinder and lower part , which cannot be seen , but when the mouth is wide open and the tongue held down , the greeks term it pharynx , howbeit that word in hypocrates doth oftentimes signifie the diseases of this part , as inflammation , &c. galen calls it isthmus because of the narrowness of the place . in the fauces is that bone which from the shape of the greek letter v is called hyoides , hypsiloides , also from resemblance to the letter Λ lambdoides , that is the upsilon or lambda-shaped bone. 't is also called os gutturis , the throat-bone , and os linguae , the tongue-bone , of which i must treat in this place , and not in the history of the bones , because it is not fastned to the other parts of the skeleton . now the bone is the basis and foundation of the tongue , upon which it is placed and moved : and it is set before the larynx . it consists of sundry little bones , three at least , sometimes of five , seven , nine . the middle bone is the greatest , bunching without , hollow within , under which sticks the epiglottis ; it hath processes termed cornua , borns two in number , consisting of bones more or fewer , greater or lesser . four gristles are added , two are somewhat great , long and round , in the belly of os hyoides , two also besides the horns , which in some persons become bony . its processes are fastened to the ligaments and ends of the styloides , also with the cartilago guttalis . this bone is moved , but not except the tongue be moved ; and therefore it hath four pair of muscles common to the tongue , nor can the muscles of the tongue be shewed till they are removed . the first pair lies concealed in the fore-part , under the skin , resting upon the wesand and the cartilago scutalis . it arises with a broad and fleshy beginning , from the higher and inner region of the breast-bone ; and therefore this pair is called sterno-hyoides . it s end is fleshy , in the basis of os hyoides . and in the middle according to their leng●h , these muscles are divided with a line . their use is to draw right down . the second being under the chin and the fift pair of the lower jaw ; is large , short and all fleshy . it arises from the inner part of the lower jaw , with a various carriage of fibres : it is ended in the middle seat of the hyoides . some call it genio-hyoides . it s use is to draw right upwards and a little forwards . the third is lean and round , seated under the chin , arising from the root of the appendix of styloides ; it ends into the horns of the hyoides . somtimes they are bored through the middle , for the muscle which opens the jaw . the use is , to move sidewayes , and a little obliquely upwards . 't is called stylo-cerato-hyoides . the fourth being lean and long , lies concealed under that muscle of the scapula which they count the fourth , moving downwards and obliquely side-wayes . it arises from the upper side of the scapula , near the processus coracoides , and therefore 't is called coraco-hyoides : it is carryed upwards obliquely to the sides of the os hyoides , under that muscle of the head which is counted the seventh . and this pair is long , hath two bellies , and is extenuated in the middle like a tendon , like that which draws down the lower jaw . some add to these a fift pair , which is indeed proper to the tongue , riolanus indeed the mylo-glossum and therefore he terms it mylo-hyoideum ; but vestingus the genio-glossum , and therefore he calls it the geniohyoides internum : which arising inwardly from the chin under the par genio-hyoideum , is inserted into the basis of the hyoides , which it draws straight upwards . the use of this os hyoides , is i. to be the basis of the tongue , and yet but obscurely moveable : least as walaeus conceives , it should perpetually hang in the throat , and hinder the swallowing of meat ; but it moves forward in swallowing , and so makes the orifice of the guller more wide . ii. that from it many muscles might arise of the tongue and larynx . chap. . of the tongue . the tongue called lingua a lingendo from licking . is placed in mankind , in the mouth under the palate thereof : is in number one , in sea-calfes two , in serpents divided into three parts , in lizards and snakes divided into two parts . in man 't is long , broad and thick , and thicker at the root , thinner and sharper at the end. it s size is moderate answerable to the mouth , which if it be too great , so that it cannot move readily , it makes a man lispe and stutter ; and if it be oversoft and moist as in young children , they cannot speak plainly . galen , carnerarius , zacutus lusitanus and m. donatus , have observed the tongue grown to so monstrous a greatness , that it could not be contained within the mouth . as to the connexion , in fishes the whole tongue cleaves to their mouth ; in mankind , it is in its hinder part fastned to the larynx , and the os hyoides , also to the fauces and tonsillae . beneath in the middle of its body 't is fastned with a strong membranous ligament for strength and stabilities sake ; also for the insertion of its proper muscles , whose extremity is termed fraenulum ; nor can any other string be found different from this . this in many new born children , doth so tie the whole tongue , that it is wont to be torn by the nail of the midwife ( which is nevertheless a pernitious course and not to be allowed ) or the small knife of a chirurgeon , that it may not hinder the childs sucking or future speaking , and that it may freely turn and move it self . howbeit for want of skill , they cut it in all infants indifferently , whereas not one of a thousand , when it is let alone , doth stammer . 't is cloathed with a coat ( hard in such as use to swallow very hot liquors ) ordinarily thin , soft , and porous , that tasts may easily peirce into the tongues fleshy substance , which is a peculiar kind of flesh , such as is not in the body besides ( and it is the organ of tast , not the coat , as galen would have it , nor the nervus gustatorius , as some from columbus ) soft , loose , rare and spungy , to drink in the tasts brought to it with some humidity . in fishes and some other animals 't is bony . it is rather of a kernelly then a musculous substance , especially about the basis thereof . for the tongue is no muscle , seeing it hath no fibres , nor moves any other part , but is moved by its muscles . others add this reason , because then motion would be made towards the end of a muscle , and the tail of a muscle should be moveable ▪ the head immoveable . but this reason is false . for the beginning of the tongue is near the larynx , and arises as it were from the os hyoides . as to vessels . two remarkable veins are to be seen under the tongue , which are wont to be opened in quinzies and diseases of the fauces , termed raninae from their color , arising from the external jugulars , these two pretty big arteries do accompany , from the carotides . nerves are inserted into the tongue , both those of motion , and those of sense : a thicker pair creeping through the inner parts , from the seventh conjugation , which being obstructed or not reaching to the tongue , the tast is lost according to the observation of columbus . a thinner pair runs through the outer parts of the tongues coat , arising from the fourth conjugation , or as some say , from the third . the tongue is distinguished in the middle of its surface , into the right and left part , by a certain white line , which hippocrates terms mediana . the muscles proper to the tongue , ending in its substance , are by some anatomists reckoned to be six , by others nine , by some ten , by others eleven , which move the tongue , upwards and downwards ; forewards and backwards ; to the right hand and to the left . the first pair , which in oxen is double fleshy and thick , arises from the out side of the appendix styloides , being maigre in mankind : it ends with transverse fibres , into both sides of the tongue , about the middle thereof . it s use is to move the tongue inwards . but by reason of the fibres interwoven , they lift the tongue upwards if they act both together ; but upwards only to one side , if only one of them act . this pair is called styloglossum . the second pair is called myloglossum , arising from the sides of the lower jaw , at the roots of the grinding teeth . t is inserted under the basis of the tongue , into the tongues ligament . riolanus will have it belong to the os hyoides , because it touches not the tongue . but it suffices to move the tongue , if it be affixed to the ligament thereof . it s use ; when one acts , the tongue is moved obliquely upwards ; when both act , it moves with its point right to the palate and upper teeth . the xi . table . the figure explained . this table expresses the muscles of os hyoides and of the tongue . aaa . the body of the lower jaw . bb. the body of os hyoides . cc. the first pair of muscles called sternohyoides . d. one muscle of the second pair in its situation , the other removed therefrom . ee . the third pair bored in the middle . ff . the fourth pair coraco-hyoides . g. a muscle of the fourth pair of the muscles of the tongue . hh . the parenchyma of the tongue into which the nerves are inserted . i. a muscle of the fift pair of tongue muscles . kk . a muscle of the first pair of tongue muscles . ll. the common muscles of the larynx , cal'd sternothyroidei . mm. other common muscles of the larynx , hyothyroidei . nn. the gristles of the aspera arteria . oo . a muscle of the lower jaw cal'd digastricus , twibelly . pp . portions of the processus styloides . page the third pair arises inwardly at the middle of the chin , whence t is called geneo-glossum ; it ends , well-near into the middle of the tongue inwardly . veslingius will have it fastned into the basis of the os hyoides , and therefore he reckons it amongst the muscles thereof . and by reason of the diversity of its fibres , it seems to perform contrary actions : for the greatest part of the fibres , which is towards the root of the tongue , being drawn towards the original , the tongue is thrust without the lips ; but the smallest part of the fibres acting , t is drawn inwards . this pair hath inscriptions as if it were many muscles . the fourth pair arises fleshy out of the upper and middle region of the os hyoides , and is terminated in the middle , after it is drawn out according to the length of the tongue . it is somtimes obscurely divided , as if it were many muscles . it s use is , to draw the tongue right in , and so to depress the same . and it is called basioglossum , or hypsiloglossum . the fift pair is called cerato-glossum , because it arises from the upper horns of the hyoides , and is obliquely inserted into the sides of the tongue , near the root thereof . its arises somtimes from the lower horns , viz. when the higher are wanting , especially in women . and this pair is double in oxen. it s use is , to move the tongue directly downwards towards the inner parts , when both act ; but if only one be contracted , it moves it to the right or left side . by others an eleventh muscle is added , which yet is no muscle , because it consists not of fleshy fibres ; but it is a parcel of flesh , consisting of very many kernels and far , situate at the root of the tongue , and appearing when the foresaid muscles are taken away . it s use is , that the tongue may be moistened by this plenty of kernels . the use of the tongue is : i. to be the instrument of tast . ii. of speech . iii. to further the chewing of meat , by turning it this way and that way . iv. to lick with . by all which it appears , that the tongue is not necessary to the very being of life , but to the well being : for the part thereof may be cut off without danger of life or health , zacutus , walaeus and others after galen , have found by experience . abenzoar , joubertus , forestus , have observed that stones have bred under the tongue , hindring speech , till they were cut out ; and i remember that long since such stones were taken out at padua . the fourth book of the limbs . by limbs we understand those members which grow as it were out from the trunk of the body , viz. the armes above , the legs beneath . in which are chiefly considered the muscles , veins , arteries , nerves and bones . of the four last i shall treat , in the four following manuals : but of the muscles of the limbs in this book , as also of the neighboring parts , viz. the head , neck , chest , back , &c. their muscles ; not because they appertain to the limbs , but because in the order of dissection , an anatomist cannot shew them before the muscles of the limbs . chap. i. of the arm and hand in general with the nails . aristotle calls the arm with its hand , organon organón , the instrument of instruments , wherewith man otherwise naked and unarmed is guifted , that he may not be inferior to the brute-beasts and conquered by them ; but may overcome them , making for himself weapons , and other necessary instruments . man therefore hath received reason and hands , which beasts have not ; and the hand is his servant and instrument . now the old writers hippocrates and galen by hand did understand that part of the body , from the top of the shoulder to the ends of the fingers , and this is termed summa manus . and it is divided into the arm and hand strictly so called , or the extrema manus . and the arm is divided again , into the shoulder and cubit , the shoulder is the part of the arm from the shoulder-tip to the bending of the elbow . the cubit is that part from the bending of the elbow unto the wrist . the manus extrema or hand properly so called , is divided into the brachiale or wrist , which is the part between the elbow and palm ; into the postbrachiale or metacarpum , after-wrist , which is the part between the wrist and beginning of the fingers , and into the fingers . the postbrachial part internal is called the palm of the hand , the external part is called the back of the hand . there are many fingers , that the action of the hand might be the better performed , which is laying hold : also that we might be able to take up the smallest matters , which we do by two fingers , and other things of many-shaped figures : and because all things could not be comprehended with one hand , two were made that meeting together , the one might help the other . the right hand is more active commonly and more ready for motion , not for those causes which others childishly cite , but . because in a mans right side is the vena sine pari so called , which peradventure is double in such as can use both hands alike . . because the bones are more heavy in the shoulder , shoulder-blade and whol arm , then on the other side , as some men know for certain ; which may proceed from an impression of more plentiful heat in the mothers womb , the right part wherof is hotter then the other . hence aristotle teaches , that naturally the right hand excels the left ; and in another place , he tells us the first endeavor of motion is on the right side ; so that when a man is about to walk , first moves his right leg ; a bird about to flie , moves first its right wing . . because the trunk of the subclavian artery is greater on the right side then the left , as they know that have diligently considered the matter in opposition to riolanus , though the difference is not , neither needed to be very great . plato conceives that all men are naturally ambidexters , viz. that they can use both hands alike , and that it is mens unskilfulness and ignorance that makes them right handed only or left handed . but aristotle is of opinion , that from our first formation , the right sides of our bodies , are alwaies in a manner hotter and stronger then the left , unless any man by much custom , and much exercise , do draw much heat and spirit to his left hand that he may become ambidexter , and able to use it as his right . now the fingers for perfection of action are made five in number , differing in length and thickness . t is besides nature , if either the fingers be quite wanting , which i have seen at malta and at florence ; or if in place of true fingers there appear only certain soft marks as big as peason , which i lately observed here at hafnia . the first is cal'd pollex a pollendo because of its strength , and it alone is opposed to the whole four , when any thing is to be taken up , and therefore it is thick . the second is cal'd index and demonstrator , the shewer , or pointer : because therewith we point at any thing . the third is the longest and middlemost , cal'd impudicus the shameless , because physitians use it in filthy and stinking places ; not is it wont to be adorned with rings . the fourth is termed medicus , also annularis , the ring-finger , because it is adorned with a gold ring before any of the rest , by reason of a common bu● false opinion repugnant to anatomy , viz. that a vein should come from the heart to this finger above all the rest ; now the heart is comforted with gold. the fift cal'd auricularis the ear-finger , because fittest to pick the ears , is smallest , and by us cal'd the little finger . the cause therefore of laying hold , which is the action of the hand , or as others speak less accurately , its chiefest use , is the apt composition of the whole hand . yet the chief organ of this motion is a muscle : the strength is in the bones , which are three in every finger , the lower of which as the sustainer is alwaies greater then that which is above it and stronger , and in the joynts they are furnished on each fide with a gristle , on which an oyly moisture is poured out for hummectations sake , and to facilitate the motion . a secondary use of the arms and hands as kyperus learnedly discourses , is the better to help our going by their weight and ballancing ; yea and to speed our going ; and therefore dancers on the ropes , whose foot is broader then that which they tread on , do bear themselves up with long poles , and when they dance a pace , they ballance themselves with their hands , which they move this way and that way . the nails are placed externally on the tops of the fingers , as also of the toes : whose upmost part being white , is called the root of the nailes , the white half moon , and the little skin which grows to the root . their matter is not alimentary humors ; as aemilius , parisanus and plempius would have it , and others , but thick excrements , not which ascend from the heart , as rosa anglicana conceives ; or from the arteries , but from the bones and gristles , as the great hippocrates doth affirm . the efficient is that heat which the soul directs to this rather then any other part of the body . but the nailes are not made by the soul , as parisanus and plempius contend , because in cacochymick and phlegmatick persons they grow more abundantly , in such as have been twenty five years dead , according to the observation of pareus . nor are we moved when they say that there is a great variety of colours in horns and shels of fishes , for they no more prove the action of the soul in such things , then in party coloured and speckled marble . their end and use is , i. to fence the ends of the fingers and toes which are exceeding soft , and to saveguard them by their hardness , so that they may more easily take up any thing . so in the feet , that they may be able to resist the hardness of the ground and stand firm . and therefore it was ill said by him of old , that the gods had erred in their placeing the nails . ii. for ornament : and therefore we cover our fingers when the nails are impaired . iii. to rub , scrarch and defend , which is a secondary use . iv. to free the body from superfluous humors and steams fuliginous . v. to afford physiognomists and physitians tokens of life and health , which may be seen in divers authors . and achmetes ch . . . interprets dreams concerning them , according to the tradition of the indians , persians and aegyptians . their form we gather from the accidents . their figure is somwhat convex , that they may apply themselves to the fingers . they have a substance indifferently hard that they may resist , but yet flexible , that they may yeild a little and not break . they are transparent and therefore variously coloured : for according to the flesh beneath them , they are red , blewish , &c. and therefore physitians are wont to observe the colour of the nails ; for the nails , for examples sake , grow pale when the heat of the heart is deficient ; in such as are at deaths door they are livid and brown . those same white spots which in yong people somtimes appear in their nails , spring from a vigorous heat , which drives hidden excrements to the nails , and separates them from others of a different nature . they are knit about the root with a ligament , and skin grows about them without ; and flesh grows under them , or rather the tendons of muscles , there dilated : there is therefore in that place an exquisite sense , and great pain when they are hurt . and so much may suffice to have spoken of the nails , briefly , and by way of compendium . chap. ii. of the muscles of the humerus , or of the brachium , peculiarly so called . the common containing parts being removed , viz. the scarf-skin , the skin , the fat , the membrana carnosa , &c. the muscles shew themselves , by which the motion is made , of which i am to treat in this whole book ; in a convenient place , though hofman think otherwise , especially because the doctrin of the muscles is useful and necessary , by reason of issues , wounds , &c. and in the other parts they could not be treated off . now touching the action of the muscles of the arm in general , it is to be noted , that the inner muscles do mostly serve to bend , and the outer to extend . and in the whole arm the internal muscles are more and stronger then the external , because bending is more worthy then the extension . the humerus is variously moved , and therefore it hath sundry muscles , partly lying upon the chest , and partly growing to the scapulae or shoulder-blades , &c. some reckon them seven , others the figure explained . this table represents all the muscles of the body described by the authour , which are to be seen before . aa . the muscles of the neck , called musculi long . b. the muscles scalenus . c. the muscle mastoides which bends the head. dd . the vertebra's of the neck . e. the levator scapulae , lifter of the shoulder . ff . the claviculae or chanel bones . g. the breast-bone , call'd sternum . h. the acromon or shoulder-tip . ii . the musculus subclavius . k. the pectoral muscle . l. the muscles deltoides . mm. the muscle biceps . n. the musculus perforatus , or bored muscle . o. the serratus minor , or smaller-saw-muscle . pp . the greater saw-muscle , or serratus ma●or . qqqq . the intercostal or rib between muscles . rrrr . the branchiaeus on each arm , conspicuous from each part of the biceps . ss . the first arm extender , or the longus . tt . the musculus radij pronator rotundus . v. radij pronator quadratus . w. supinator radij primus . x. carpi flexor primus or externus . y. musculus palmaris . z. carpi flexor alter , or the internus . 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 . the os radij . 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 . the os cubiti . 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 . the ligament which fastens the cubitus to the radi●● ? 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 . the digitorum flexor sublimus or perforatus . 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 . the profundus or perforans , under the former . 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 . the musculi lumbricales . 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 . the flexor pollicis or thumb-bender . 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 . the muscles which draw the thumb towards the hand . the following characters serve to point out those muscles , which run out from the region of the loyns to the end of the feet , in the forepart of the body . a. the muscle ps●as or lumbaris . b. the muscle iliacus . c. the obturator internus . dddd . the musculus triceps , or tripple-headed muscle . ee . the musculus lividus . ff . the rectus in its scituation , but on the right leg hanging by its end. gg . the vastus internus . h. the vastus externus , which on the right leg hangs separated . h. the musculus membranosus , or the fascia lata . kk . the musculus crureus . ll. the musculus longus , fascialis or sartorius . mm. the musculus gracilis . nn. the musculus tabiaeus anticus . o. the musculus peroneus biceps . pp . the muscle which extends the four toes of the foot. q. the muscle which extends the great toe . r. the musculus gastroenemius . rrrr . the musculi interossei . s. the transverse ligament of the foot. t. the tibia . v. the fibula . x. the patella . eight and casserius nine . for the arm is said to be lift up by two muscles , deltoides and supra-spinatus ; and downwards by two , the ani scalptor and rotundus major : forewards by one alone , viz. the pectoralis ; backwards by three , the infra-spinatus and sub-scapularis , and the transversus brevior . but they conceive the circular motion thereof is caused by all of them acting one after another : but others will have the arm to be wheeled about by the infra-spinatus , supraspinatus , and sub-scapularis . but i shall in recounting them follow the order of dissection . the first is termed pectoralis , because it takes up the breast or forepart of the chest being great and fleshy ; which galen conceived might be divided into three or four . it arises from wellnigh the whole brest-bone , and the gristles thereto annexed ; where it is a little tendinous in part of the clavicula , and the fift , sixt and seventh true ribs . 't is implanted with a short , broad nervous and strong tendon , into the os humeri , between the deltoides and the biceps . it s use is , to move the arm to the brest , and as the fibres are contracted more to the upper or lower part or right forward , so doth the arm incline this way or that way . this is the muscle which suffers in that torment which the italians call tratta de corda , the strappado . for it is very much haled and drawn a sunder , when the arms are pulled forcibly backwards . the second is called deltoides , from its likeness to the greek letter Δ also triangularis humeralis , which is fleshy and so abides , and is spread upon the head of the shoulder . it arises from the middle of the clavicula , looking towards the scapula , and from the top of the humerus , with a fleshy end indeed , but yet a strong tendon lies concealed therein . it s use is to lift up the arm. in the middle hereof the ancients were wont to make fontanels or issues ; but others in the external part of the said muscles : but an issue is better made in the space between the deltoides and the biceps , as i shew in my treatise of issues , because . there is the cephalick or head vein . . it is between two muscles . . it may be very well seen and dressed by the patient . now the place is exactly found below the shoulder joynt , four or five fingers bredth , where when you bend the arm you may feel the space between the two muscles , and the arm being lift up , it is circumscribed in fat persons with a small cavity , as claudinus , solenander and others observe . ferrara measures four fingers bredth from the elbow upwards . see also glandorpius . the third is broadest of all , and with its fellow covers almost the whole back . 't is called ani scalptor , clawbreech , because it draws the arm backwards and downwards . it arises with a membranous and very broad beginning , from the points of the vertebra's of the back bone , from the os sacrum and ilium , as far as to the six : vertebra of the chest . it is inserted between the pectoral and the round muscle , with a strong , short and broad tendon . it s shape is triangular . fallopius out of galen against vesalius , doth teach that this muscle is furnished with a new , but very smal beginning , while from the lower corner of the shoulder-blades , it receives very many fleshy fibres . this muscle because it hath a large beginning , and therefore divers fibres ; according as they are variously contracted , so the shoulder is either drawn more upwards or depressed more downwards . and because it also passes through the lower corner of the shoulder blade therefore it lightly draws the same also away with the shoulder . the fourth is called rotundus major , and it is obliquely seated behind , under the axilla , being fleshy , thick , and rounder then the rest . it arises fleshy from the rib of the lower scapula , and ascending a little with its tendon , short , broad , and strong , it is implanted with the pectoral , into the upper and lower part of the humerus . it s use is , to draw the arm downwards and backwards , and to work contrary to the deltoides . the first is short and round , quite fleshy , which arises with a sharp beginning out of the lowest corner of the scapula ; after it grows thicker and thicker to the middle of its belly , and thence growing smaller by little and little , it terminates with an acute end into that ligament , wherewith the head of the shoulder is involved . it hath an oblique scituation , and some call it transversus musculus brevior , others rotundus minor . and it is the eighth in fallopius his account : which muscle others suppose to be a certain portion of the fourth . the sixt is called infra-spinatus , also superscapularis inferior , because it covers the whole external bunching part of the scapula , whose form also it bears ; but becoming more narrow , it is with a broad and short ligament inserted into the shoulder . it is thought to wheel the arm backwards and outwards . the seventh is the supraspinatus , also superscapularis superior , also rotundus minor ; it is fleshy and somewhat longish , over the armpit ; it fills the cavity between the upper rib of the scapula , and the spina thereof , out of which it grows . now it is inserted with a broad and strong tendon , into the neck of the humerus , at the ligament of the joynt , being carryed above the first joynt . the use of this is thought to be the same with that of the former . others conceive it moves upwards with the deltois . the eighth is termed subscapularis or immersus ; being very fleshy , it quarters betwixt the scapula and the ribs , and takes up the inner part of the scapula ; but it is inserted with a broad tendon , internally , into the second ligament of the humerus . it s use is to bring about the arm inwards . the ninth muscle was first observed by arantius and placentinus , being in the former part of the arm and called perforatus . it arises from the coracoides processus of the scapula ( and is therefore by riolanus called coracordeus , or coracobrachiaeus ) it is inserted into the inner part of the shoulder about the middle , by the tendon of the deltoides . it hath a beginning nervous and short , a long round belly sufficiently corpulent , and a strong tendon . it s belly hath an hole bored in it , and gives passage to the nerves , which are distributed to the muscles of the cubit . this muscle others have only termed a musculous portion of the biceps . 't is useful to draw the arm to the process of the scapula ; or draw it forward upon the breast . chap. . of the muscles of the scapula or shoulder-blade . because the scapula is moved forward and backward ; upward , and downward ; therefore it hath received four muscles . to which nevertheless others add two more , viz. the serratus major and the digastricus , but they do not well . for the later is proper to the oshyoides , the former to the chest . i. the first is called serratus minor , and it is spred under the musculus pectoralis . it arises from the four upper ribs , excepting the first and ascending obliquely upwards , with an end partly fleshy , and partly tendinous , it is inserted into the scapula by the proceslus ancoriformis . it s use is to draw forward into the breast . ii. the second is by galen called trapezius , others term it cucullaris , because it resembles a friars cowl . but that this muscle was given our first parents , as the badge of a religious life , as riolanus conjectures , i do not believe , because others are religious that wear no cowles , and many are irreligious that wear them , whether you look at their profession or manners . however this name was given this muscle by christian physitians , because of its likeness to a monks cowl . it arises fleshy and thin from the hinder-part of the head. from whence it descends to the eighth vertebra of the chest , and from thence as also from the hinder part of the head growing small by little and little , it is inserted into the back-bone , the scapula , the top of the shoulder and the clavicula . but because of its various original and various fibres , it variously moves the scapula , upwards , obliquely , by reason of fibres obliquely descending from the hind-part of the head to the omoplata , which riolanus denies in vain ; downwards , by reason of the carriage of fibres , ascending from the eighth vertebra of the back ; and right out to the back , by reason of right fibres in the middle of the muscle , stretched out to the scapula . iii. the third is the rhomboides from its figure like a diamond , scituate under the cucullaris , thin and broad . it arises from the three lower vertebra's of the neck and the three upper vertebra's of the chest , and with , the same latitude is inserted into the basis of the scapula . it s use is to draw back a little obliquely upwards . iv. is the levator , which others call the muscle of patience ; because those whose affairs go cross , are wont to lift up their shoulders : it is above the clavicula . it arises from the five transverse processes of the vertebra's of the neck , with sundry beginnings ( which makes it seem divers muscles ) which soon grow into one : and its insertion is in the higher and lower corner of the scapula , with a broad and fleshy tendon . it s use is , to draw forward and lift up the scapula and the humerus . with these muscles the scapula is moved directly or of it self , and the brachium per accidens , accidentally ; as the scapula is accidentally moved by the muscles of the brachium . chap. . of the muscles of the chest , or which serve for respiration . very many muscles serve for respiration ; as the midriff , all the intercostal muscles , some of the belly ( of which i have treated in the first and second book ) and some proper to the chest , which are reckoned on each side six ; to which nevertheless fallopius adds three in the neck ; which in vesalius are parts of muscles possessing the breast and back . the proper muscles of the chest do grow thereto : two in the forepart , subclavius and triangularis ; serratus major possesses the sides ; the rest are in the hinder-part , viz. the two serrati postici and the sacrolumbus . i. the subclavius , because 't is seated under the clavicula , fills the place between it and the first rib. platerus reckons it amongst the intercostals . it arises fleshy from the inner and lower part of the clavicula : it is inserted fleshy into the upper part of the first rib , which it draws upwards and outwards . and this is the first muscle which dilates or distends the chest . to this spigelius assigns a contrary use , viz. to draw the clavicula downwards ▪ which nevertheless is of it self immoveable , and therefore he ascribes thereunto a rise and an insertion contrary to it . ii. the serratus major , is a great , broad , and every way fleshy muscle , with the oblique descendent of the abdomen , it makes a saw-like combination . it arises fleshy , from the internal basis of the scapula . riolanus hath observed an higher original thereof , from the two upper ribs , as far as to the clavicula , which two ribs seem immoveable . it is carried by its tendon , with five unequal ends , to the five true ribs , and sometimes to two bastard ribs ; which it lifts up . spigelius also and veslingus do ascribe a contrary use hereunto , and consequently a contrary original , and insertion , iii. serratus posticus superior minor , does quarter under the rhomboides in the back , between the two shoulder-blades . it arises membranous from the lower spines of the neck , and the first of the back : it is inserted into the three intervals of the four upper ribs , being tripartite : and it draws those ribs upwards . iv. serratus posticus inferior major , is membranons and broad almost in the middle of the back , under the musculus latissimus or ani scalptor arising from the spines or sharp points of the lower vertebra's of the back . it is inserted into the intervals of the four lower ribs , being parted as it were into fingers . it s use to widen the lower part of the chest . v. is spred under the former , and by others supposed to be common to the back and chest . 't is called sacrolumbus , because it arises from the lower part of os sacrum , and the sharp points of the vertebra's of the loins . it is fleshy within , nervous without . it is inserted into the lower ribs , with a double tendon , one external which is strongest , the other internal . it is not easily separated from the lowest muscle of the back , so that it seems to be a parcel thereof . it s use according to veslingus , to contract the chest . spigelius conceives as i do , that because it grows out of one beginning with the musculus longissimus of the back , that therefore it extends and raises up the chest . vi. is the triangularis , small and subtile , in lean persons scarce fleshy , it lies inwardly concealed under the breast-bone , out of the lower part whereof , it hath its original . and therefore it may conveniently be called the muscle of the breast-bone . it s obliquely inserted into the lower gristles , which it draws to , and straitens the chest . chap. v. of the muscles of the head. the head is moved , either secondarily by the muscles of the neck , according to the motion thereof ; or primarily upon the first vertebra , to which it is immediately and closely joyned , bein bent forward and backward . it is turned round upon the tooth-fashioned process of the second vertebra ( on which the hind-part of the head rests , and to which it is firmly fastned ) as it were upon an axle-tree ; which motion is performed by nine pare of muscles . the first pare is long and thick , by some called splenium , spred out on each side upon the vertebrae . it arises from a double beginning , one from the spinae of the upper vertebra's of the chest , another from the five lower spinae of the vertebra's of the neck , from which it is carried to the middle of the occiput . it s use is , to draw the head directly backwards . but if only one do act , the motion is thought to be made circularly to one side . the second is implicated and complicated , and therefore termed complexum . it seems to consist as it were of three muscles . it hath divers beginnings , at the seventh vertebra of the neck , at the first , third and fourth of the chest , and it is after a different manner implanted into the occiput . riolanus observes touching the fibres of the splenium and the complexus , that they are cross-wayes intersected , and disposed for the strength of both the muscles . the third pare is scituate under the second , small and thick , which vesalius would have to be the fourth part of the former muscle . it is inserted into the hindermore root of the processus mammillaris its use is , lightly to bring the head backwards ; and if but one act , to bring it backwards to one side . the fourth pare is called rectum majus , being small , fleshy and lean . it arises from the second vertebra of the neck ; ends into the middle of the occiput . the fift pare called rectum minus , lies concealed under the former pare . it s rise is from the first vertebra of the neck , its insertion and use is as of the third and fourth . the sixt is the obliquum superius , which lies also beneath . it rises according to some , out of the middle of the occiput , and descending is inserted athwart , into the points of the processes of the neck . but others among whom veslingus do rightly think it arises from the process of the first vertebra , and ends into the occiput ▪ by the outward side of the recti . the seventh called obliquum inferius , arises from the second vertebra of the neck , and is inserted into the transverse process of the first vertebra . the use of the two oblique muscles , is to bring the head about to the sides . the eighth called mastoides , arises long and round in the forepart of the neck , for the most part double , from the upper part of the brest-bone and the clavicula : it is inserted with a fleshy and thick end , into the mammillary process , which it embraces . it s use is to turn the head. a ninth pare is added by fallopius , under the throat , in the forepart of the neck , lying near the first pare of the neck . it arises nervous from the ligaments of the vertebra's of the neck ; and is inserted into the basis of the head , which it turns in like manner with the former . chap. . of the muscles of the neck ▪ the muscles of the neck are on each side four . the two first extend , the two others do bend the same . i. the two long ones lye hid under the oesophagus or gullet , arising from the first vertebra of the chest , with a beginning fleshy and sharp , they ascend into the extuberant process of the first vertebra , with an acute tendon , and sometimes are inserted into the occiput , near its great hole . it s use is , to bend the neck right forwards and the head withal : and if but one act , it turns it on the one side . the scaleni so called , which some count muscles of the chest , have a peculiar hole , through which veins and arteries enter into the arms. they arise fleshy , at the side of the neck , from the first rib ; they are inserted inwardly into all the vertebra's for the most part of the neck , and especially into their transverse processes . iii. the transversales duo , seated in the back , do rise from the six vertebra's of the chest which are uppermost and outmost : they are inserted externally into all the transverse processes of the vertebra's of the neck . and between these nerves go out . their use is , to extend or to bend backwards , but if one act alone , to move obliquely . iv. the two spinati possess the whole neck between the spinae , and are long and large . they arise from five spines of the vertebra's of the neck , and seven of the chest . they are strongly implanted into the whole lower part of the spine of the second vertebra . their use is the same as of the third pare . chap. . of the muscles of the back and loins . the spine of the back or back-bone is moved forward , backward , to the right and to the left , and circularly . yea , and in tumblers we may see infinite motions of the back . for tendons are brought to all the vertebra's , as though the muscles were many and infinite ; which tendons nevertheless many anatomists do refer to some one great muscle , and say that one muscle hath many tendons . but commonly , they make four pare of muscles of the back : where it is to be observed , if only one act , the back-bone is moved side-wayes , if the pare acts , it is either bended or extended . the figure explained . this table presents certain muscles which do first offer themselves to sight , in the hinder-part of the body . aa . the muscles of the head called complexi . bb. the muscles called splenij . cc. the two levators scapulae . d. the trapezius or cucullaris out of its place . e. the supra-spinatus . f. the infra-spinatus . g. the rotundus major . h. the rotundus minor . ii. the rhomboides . kk . the dorsi latissimus . l. the serratus posticus superior . m. the serratus posticus inferior . nn. the dorsi longissimus . oo . the sacrolumbus . p. the quadratus . q. the sacer dorsi musculus . r. the musculus longus which extends the arm. s. the musculus brevis , the other arm-extender . tt . the supinator brachij alter , according to our author , see the first pare in the next table . v. the extensor carpi primus , which some term bicornis here hanging down ▪ w. the extensor carpi secundus . xxxx . the two extensores digitorum . z. the external apophysis of the shoulder . 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 . the deltoides . t. the brachieus . these following characters demonstrate the muscles of the lower limbs . a. the glutaeus major out of its place . b. the glutaeus medius in its place . c. the pyriformis musculus . d. the ob●uratus internus or marsupialis . ee . the biceps which bends the leg. ●g . the seminervosus . hh . the gracilis . iii. the triceps of the left side . k. the vastus externus . 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 . the triceps of the right side . ll. the popliteus . mm. the two castro●nemij , which on the left side are ●● their proper scituation , on the right side out of the same . nn. the musculus soleus . o. the musculus plantaris . between and the second being called longissimum , arises with an acute and strong tendon , without tendinous , within fleshy , from the end of os sacrum , the vertebra's of the loins , and the os ilij ; having the same beginning with the sacrolumbus , wherewith it is in a manner confounded , til in the progress it is separated the refrom , by the lowest vertebra of the back . and it is joyned afterward to each transverse process of the vertebra's of the loins and back , unto which it affords tendons like claspes , and at length ends somtimes into the first vertebra of the chest , somtimes at the mammillary processes , near the temples-bone . it s use is , to extend the chest , loins , and their vertebra's . the third under this , is that which is called sacrum , because it arises from the os sacrum behind , being fleshy , and ends into the spina of the twelfth vertebra of the chest ( or as others say , into the spines also , and oblique processes of the vertebra's of the loins ) with sundry tendons . the use is as of the former . the fourth the semispinatum , arising where the former ends , and embracing all the spines of the vertebra's of the chest , and giving them tendons ; and it ends into the spine of the first vertebra of the chest . it s use is to rear up the chest . if all eight act , they hold the back straight , and do as it were sustain a man. nor are there any muscles of the loins , save these , and what have been explained before , which i have omitted , as riolanus objects , or whereof i have been ignorant . chap. . of the muscles of the cubitus and radius . the muscles of the cubit , according to the arbitrary method of dissection follow . yet i do advise the dissector , that the muscles of the radius are not to be shewed immediately after those , but last of all ; but after the muscles of the cubit , those of the fingers , thumb and wrist ; because the muscles of these parts being shewn and removed , the insertions of the muscles of the radius , are more couveniently discerned . otherwise the brachium may follow next after the demonstration of the muscles of the cubitus and radius , by an order free for any one to follow . the muscles of the cubit are four , and of the radius as many . there are two benders of the cubit , as the biceps and brachiaeus : two extenders , viz. the longus and the brevis . there are two pronators of the radius , the rotundus and the quadratus , and two supinators , the longior and brevior . for the proper motion of the cubit is flexion and extension . but the radius makes the whole arm prone or supine . the first of the cubit is termed biceps ; because of its double distinct beginning , which is from the scapula , the one tendinous and round , from the upper lie of the acerabulum , the other broader and less tendinous , from the processus ancoriformis . and it is inserted with the head of the radius , and possesses the inner part of the arm with its body . the tendon of this muscle ought in blood-letting to be taken heed of . the second lying under this , and spred out upon the bone it self , being short , is called brachiaeus ; 't is all fleshy , less then the former ; artses from the middle bone of the brachium , and is before inserted into the common beginning of the cubitus and radius , and the ligament of the joynt . the third is the extendens primus and longus , it arises with a double beginning , from the lower rib of the scapula , is ended being fleshy in the olecranum . the fourth is the extendens secundus and brevis ; it arises from the neck of the humerus , is behind mixed with the precedent , and occupies the os humeri ; and it ends into the part of the olecranum on which we lean . casserius adds a fift called tertius extendens , which others count a portion of the fourth muscle ; but he counts it a distinct muscle , as later anatomists riolanus and veslingus do , which they term anconeus . but he would have it to be a portion of his brachiaeus , because it sticks sometimes close to the fleshy extremity thereof , and to answer to the poplitaeus , that an equality may be maintained between the foot and the hand . it springs out of the hinder extremity of the shoulder , by the end of the fourth and third muscle , and passing beyond the joynt of the cubir , it is also inserted by its hinder and lateral part , yet not above a fingers bredth beyond the olecranum , into the os cubiti . moreover galen seems to add a sixt , which is the fourth extender , viz. a fleshy lump hudled up of the two former , which riolanus calls brachiaeus externus , to difference it from the brachiaeus intern is flectens , because being spred out upon the outside of the brachium , it is placed under the two former . the first muscle of the radius is termed rotundus , or teres ; from the inner apophysis of the arm by a strong and fleshy beginning , it ends obliquely very near into the middle of the radius , with a fleshy end , and likewise a membranous tendon , which spigelius writes , does go again to the middle of the radius , and is knit to the outward side of the said radius . the second quadratus , reaching from the lowest part of the cubita , into the lowest of the radiu●s , wholly fleshy , every where two fingers broad ; it goes above that ligament common to the radius and cubitus . these are the manus pr●natores . the third is the supinator primus , from the lower part of the brachium growing sharp , till it reach into the lower part of the radius , fleshy , where it is inserted with a tendinous end. the fourth is the supinator alter , growing from the outward apophysis of the arm , fleshy , membranous without , fleshy within , and is inserted into the middle wel-near of the radius . among the muscles of the radius casserius once found two little ones , and very small , about the joynt cubit , and proceeding in an opposite fashion , and moving the radius prone and supine like a pulley . howbeit , i found them not as yet . i have somtimes seen in their place , in a musculous man , one triangular muscle , arising from the top of the shoulder , and ending about the middle of the same , with a fleshy and narrow end , nor was it the portion of any muscle , all which we had before diligently separated . chap . of the muscles of the wrist and fingers . to the muscles of the wrist and the hollow of the hand , is the musculus palmaris referred , arising from the inner apophysis of the arm , with a round and tendinous beginning , spred almost over all the muscles of the hand , it is stretched out over the hollow of the hand , and cleaves exceeding fast to the skin : where under the skin in the hollow of the hand is a broad tendon ; whence proceeds that exquisite sense which is in that part : and it ends into the first intervals between the joynts of the fingers : it seems to have been made , that the hand might take the better hold , when the skin of the palm is wrinkled . to this they add the membrana carnosa which they will have to open the palm of the hand when it is contracted ; also a four squa e parcel of flesh growing out of that membrane , resembling certain muscles ; either to extend the palm when the hand is open , as spigelius conceives , or to make it hollow , which riolanus would have . the muscles of the wrist or carpus are four ; two benders which are internal ; two extenders , which are external . the first bender ( which riolanus calls cubiteus internus , to whom we are beholden for these names ) arising from the internal apophysis of the arm , and being stretched over the elbow , it is implanted with a thick tendon , into the fourth bone of the wrist . the other , radius internus because it is drawn along the radius , arising from the same beginning , ends into the first bone of the metacarpium , under the fore-finger . the explication of the figure . this table shews the rest of the muscles , which are visible in the hinder-part of the body , those which lay by them or over them being removed . aa . the muscles of the head called recti minores . bb . the recti majores so called . cc. the obliqui superiores . dd . the obliqui inferiores . 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 . the levator scapulae . 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 . the rotundus minor . 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 . the serratus major . ee . the musculi transversales belonging to the neck . ffff . the spinari duo . gg . the sacrolumbus . hh . the dorsi longissimus in its proper scituation . ii. the same out of its place , that it may be seen . k. the semispinatus of the back . ll. the sacer musculus of the back . mm. the musculi quadrati of the back . n. the first supinator brachij , o. the first extensor carpi , or the bicornis out of its proper place . p. the other extensor carpi . qq . the two extensores digitorum out of their place . r. the extensor indicis . ss . the two pollicem extendentes . these following characters design the muscles of the lower limbs . a. the glutaeus medius out of its place . b. the glutoeus minimus in its place . cc. the same out of its place . dd. the pyriformis on both sides . e. the marsupialis , or obturator internus . f. the same in the left side out of its place . g. the marsupium neatly expressed . hh . the obturator externus . k. the fourth of the quadragemini , by the author called quadratus . ll. the biceps which bends the leg. mm. the semimembranosus . nn. the seminervosus . oo . the gracilis . 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 . the musculus triceps . ● . the crureus . pp . the tibieus posticus . qq . the flexor digitorum pedis , magn●● or perforans . r. the flexor minor or perforatus . sss . the flexor pollicis , t. the pollicis adductor . u. the pollicis abductor . x. the abductor minimi . z. the fleshy mass in the sole of the foot. the other , cubiteus externus , from the same beginning , through the length of the cubit , goes with one tendon into the fourth bone of the metacarpe under the little finger . the fingers are bended , extended , drawn to , and drawn away . bended by the muscles sublimis and profundus . the former from the inner apophysis of the arm , before it comes to the wrist , is divided into four tendons , inclosed in a ligament , as it were in a ring : they are inserted into the second joynting of the fingers , a cleft being first made , which the tendons of the following muscle do pass through , whence it is termed perforatus , the bored muscle . the later spred out under the former and like unto it , is inserted through the clifts of the former tendons , into the joynting . and therefore it is called perforans , the borer . concerning these ligaments of the fingers , it is to be observed . . that by an elegant workmanship of nature , a long slit is made in each of them , that the ligaments of the third joynting may pass through them as through an arch. . that the membranous sheath does straitly embrace and keep in the said tendons , least in the bending of the hand ; they should be removed out of their place . . that a strong membranous ring does in the wrist bind together all the tendons internal and external , which being cut asunder , they are easily removed out of their places . iacobus silvius reckons the extensores for one muscle ; and calls it tensor digitorum , whereas both their originals and insertions do vary . they are two and arise commonly from the external apophyfis of the arm , and the ring-fashioned ligament , and with their bored ligaments , being first collected , they are then inserted confusedly into the second and third joynt . the fingers are drawn to by four muscles called lumbricales or vermiculares worm-fashioned muscles , from their shape and smallness . they arise from the tendons of the musculus profundus , and being drawn out along the sides of the fingers , they are obliquely carried unto the third joynting . spigelius and vestingus will have them to be inserted by a round tendon only into the first joynting , whom i have somtimes found to be in the right , their tendon being mixed with the membranes of the interjuncture . the abductores interossei are six , in the spaces of the metacarp , three external and three internal , which joyning with the vermiculary do go along the outsides and insides of the fingers , and stretch their tendons to the three inter-joyntings . they serve in some measure for extension . the external rest upon the palm , the internal upon the hollow of the hand , between the bones of the metacarp . the muscles which bend the thumb are two . the first arising from the upper part of the radius is inserted into one of the joynts . the other arising from the wrist bone , under the thumb , is inserted into the middle of the said thumb . it lies wholly under the former . there are two extendentes or stretchers out , which arise from the cubit . the first reaches unto the third interjuncture , the other unto the second , and the rest , with many tendons ; sometimes one , sometimes two , and otherwhiles three . the abducentes are three ; two arising from the metacarpium , and the third from the bone of the metacarp , which looks towards the forefinger : which riolanus calls autithenar , as the other the former of the bringers to , hypothenar pollicis . the abducentes or drawers away are three nameless muscles , save that the said riolanus calls one of them thenar . the forefinger has two proper muscles , which some confound , the first is the abductor , arising from the first interjoynting of the thumb , and terminated into the bones of the forefinger , wherewith the said fore-finger is drawn from the rest of the fingers , towards the thumb . the other is the indicis extensor the stretcher of the forefinger which riolanus calls indicatorem the pointer , as also veslingus , though he confound it with the abductor . it arises from the middle and external part of the cubit , and ends with a double tendon , into the second interjointure of the forefinger . there are also two muscles proper to the smallest finger , the abductor and extensor . the former may be parted into many : it arises in the hollow of the hand ▪ from the third and fourth wrist bones of the second rank , and ends externally into the side of the first joint of the said finger . aquapendent and others that have since followed him , do hold that it draws the little finger outwardly , from the rest . extensor proprius , which riolanus exactly seperates from the great one , arising from the upper part of the radius , and carryed along cubitus and the radius , is externally inserted into the finger , with a double tendon , chap . of the legg and thigh in generall . pes the leg and thigh , is all between the buttocks and the toes of the feet : others call it magnus pes , the great foot , and crus . it is divided into its parts , as the arm , in a manner not unlike , viz. into the fem● , tibia , and parous pes. again the parous pes is divided into pedium , metapedium , and digiti . the use of the leg and thigh , is to be the instrument of walking : which is performed by stirring and sitting . for one leg being firmly set upon the ground , we move and bring about the other , and our foot being firmly fixt , keeps us from falling : and so we come to walk . the setting therefore of our leg is the motion of the whole body , but the motion proceeds from the leg , which the length or shortness of the leg does either help or hinder ; and therefore birds because they were to flie , that their bulk might not hinder them , they have a short thigh and long feet , which makes the going be slow . but men go slower then dogs , bcause the successive putting on of their foot from the heel to the toes , slackens their motion ; whereas dogs with one motion of their little feet do pass along . some do conceive that the length of a womans leg helps to generation . now there i● an incision made into our knees and heel , that we might not go leaping . this motion is variously made by the muscles of the thigh , leg and foot. we are therefore now to treat of the muscles of the whole leg. chap . of the muscles of the thigh . the thigh is bended by two muscles . the first is in the belly , and is termed psoa or the musculus lumbaris it arises with a fleshy beginning from the upper vertebraes of the loins , and is inserted into the forepart of the small trochanter , with a round and strong tendon . the other muscle called psoas minor i found in a strong fleshy body at hafnia , . differing from that which riolanus brags to have seen . for the greater part i●●ay under , but outwardly inclined more to the sides . the beginning was fleshy , and the whole muscle was three fingers broad . it was inserted fleshy , into the upper brim of os ilij backwards , where the iliacus internus arises . i conceived that its use was to spread as a pillow under the greater muscle , because the os ilij is of it self immoveable , or to hold the os ilij upright , that it might not burthen a man too much when he stands . michael lyserus a most expert anatomist can witness the same with me . the ilia us secundus is inserted in the same place , with a tendon which grows to the tendon of the precedent muscle , arising from the whole internal cavity of the os ilij , by a small and fleshy beginning . the thigh is extended by three muscles of the buttocks termed glutaei . i. is the major , externus & amplissimus , beginning at the crupper , the spina of os ilij , and the os sacrum ; and ends into the os femoris , under the great trochanter . ii. the other is the medius or middlemost in scituation and magnitude . it arises from the inner side of the spina of os ilij , ending into this great trochanter with a broad and strong tendon . iii. the third called minimus the smallest , lies concealed under the middlemost ; it arises from the back of os ilij near the acetabulum with a broad and strong tendon , and ends into the great trochanter . these three do make up the fleshy substance of the buttocks . the thigh is drawn to , and wheeled about inwards by three muscles , which many do reckon for one , and call it triceps triple headed , because of its threefold beginning . . is from the upper joynting of the os pubis . . is from the lowest joynting of os pubis . . is from the middle part of the said bone . they are inserted first of all into the inner head of the thigh bone , near the ham , with a round tendon or into the rough line of the thigh . . to the upper , partly . . partly to the lower , at the rorator minor . riolanus has other insertions : for he will have the first to be inserted into the middle of the thigh , the second to be produced with a very strong tendon as far as to the end of the thigh , the third below the neck of the thigh-bone . to these spigelius and veslingus do add one which they call lividus arising at the joyning of os pubis , near the gristle , and implanted with a short tendon , into the inner side of the thigh : but they grant that this is a portion of the triceps . but they do ill to reckon it among the bending muscles . but riolanus calls it pectineus and reckons it for a bender , yet acknowledges that it is the uppermost and fourth portion of the triceps , which with fallopius he divides into four muscles , and indeed it seems to have so many parts . it is drawn away and turned about outwards by six muscles ▪ the quadrigemini and the two obturatores . the quadrigemini are in a manner one like another , and little , placed as it were athwart , arising from the lower and outer part of the os sacrum , the bunch of os ischij , and the appendix of the hip-bone . they are inserted into that space which is between the two trochanters . the first quadrigeminus is called pyriformis pear-fashioned , because of its shape , and iliaeus externus from its scituation ; the rest want names , save the fourth , which is called quadratus . the obturatores stoppers , take up the wide hole between the os pubis and os isehij . and they are external or internal , the former arising from the outer circle of the hole of the share : the latter from the inner and they are inserted into the great trochanter : the inner may be termed bursalis or purse-fashioned because it hides the fourfold tendons in a fleshy purse as it were , nearly shaped by the third and fourth quadrigeminal muscles . chap. . of the muscles of the legg . the leg is bent by the four musculi postici . one of them has two heads , termed bioeps , the first from the joyning of the os pubis , the second from the outer part of the thigh , and both of them are inserted with one tendon , the fleshy substance being first increased in the middle , into the hinder part of the leg. the second called semimembranosus arises from the swelling of the ischium , and is inserted into the inner side of the leg , backwards . the third is the seminervosus , and has the same beginning and the same end with the former , save that in the hinder parts it is carried little forward obliquely , before it terminates at the inside of the leg. the fourth is the gracilis , which is inserted into the same place , and arises from the joyning of the share-bone . four muscles extend the leg. the first is the rectus , arising with an acute tendon from the outer and lower spine of the ilium . the second and third are the two vasti , the external arising from the whole root , the great trochanters , and the bone of the thigh which lies under : the inner from the small trochanter : they are terminated on each hand at the side of the rectus . the fourth is the crureus , fixed to the thigh bone , as the brachiaeus is to the brachium . these four muscles , are terminated into one tendon , which embracing the substance of the flesh into it self , it is inserted before into the beginning of the leg , and is there instead of a ligament for it . two muscles , pul it to , inwards . the first is the longus , fascialis or sartorius which spigelius and veslingus reckon among the benders , on which tailors or borchers rest themselves when they sit cross-leg'd . it is well nigh the longest of all muscles , arising from the former spina of os ilij , and descending obliquely unto the inner and fore-part of the leg. the other is the popliteus arising from the lower and outer extuberancy of the thigh , and being inserted four-square into the inner and upper part of the leg obliquely . the abductor is one , which is called membranosus and fascia lata . it arises fleshy from the spina of os ilij , and is carried obliquely , into the outer part of the leg , and with its most broad and long tendon , invests well-near all the muscles of the thigh . chap. . of the muscles of the feet . the foot is bended and extended . two muscles bend it forwards . the first is termed tibiaeus anticus , affixed to the leg arising from the upper process thereof , it is inserted into the os pedij , before the great toe , with a tendon which at the end is divided into two . the other is peroneus biceps , which others count for two muscles , one head arising from the upper epiphisis of the fibula , the other from the middle of the perone . it has a double tendon the lesser carried into the bone of the little toe ; and the greater going obliquely under the sole of the foot , is inserted into the os pedij just against the great toe . 't is extended backwards by the four postici , duo gemelli , the internal and the external , called gastrocnemij , because they constitute the ankle , and arise from the inner and outer head of the thigh under the ham. the third being cal'd soleus is added to these beneath , arising from the hindermore appendix of the fibula . these three muscles are terminated into a most thick and strong tendon , to be inserted into the beginning of the heel and pterna , by which beasts being killed , are usually hung up . hypocrates did term it chorda : where by reason of the fracture of the heel , he sayes that hiccuping and convulsive feavers do follow . the last is called plantaris and answers to the palmaris in the hand ; it is lean and meagre , and degenerates into a long tendon , and covering the whole sole of the foot , it arises from the outward head of the thigh bone , under the ham : and is inserted into the five toes , and has the same use here which it has in the hand : though the comparison of one to the other holds not out very exact . veslingus has observed that this muscle has sometimes been wanting . the tibiaeus posticus must be added to these , which spigelius reckons amongst the oblique movers , and riolanus among the extenders . chap. . of the muscles of the toes . the toes of the foot are moved by muscles , as well as the fingers of the hand . two muscles bend the toes , the magnus which answers to the profundus , arising from the upper epiphisis of the tibia , under the sole is divided into four tendons , which boreing through the minor , they are implanted into the third articulation of the four toes . the minor answering to the sublimis , is the midst of the sole of the foot , arising from the lower part of the pterna or heel bone , it is carried into the second articulation of the four toes , to which before it comes it is bored thorough , that it may transmit the tendons of the foremost muscle : and therefore this is called perforatus , the other perforans . one muscle extends the four toes of the foot , which is by some divided into two ; arising from the upper and outer part of the tibia , and having four tendons , which are inserted into the second and third interjuncture . the four wormfashioned muscles do draw them to , answering to those in the hand , some flesh being intersprinkled from the heel : they are fastned by so many tendons to the first interjoynting . the ten interossei do draw them away , arising from the bones of the pedium , and falling the void spaces of the metapedium , they are external or internal , the former with a broad tendon do arise by the sides , to the first interjoynting of the toes by the sides ; the latter at the second interjoynting : but the ninth serves for the drawing-to of the great toe , the tenth for the drawing to of the little toe . the great toe has peculiar muscles . it is bent by one only , proceeding from the upper part of the fibula , and inserted into the third interjointing ( riolanus sayes the first ) of the great toe . it is extended by another , arising from the middle of the fibula ( or as some say from the outside of the tibia , where it recedes from the fibula ) which is oftentimes divided into two tendons . it is brought to , with one , inwardly fastned to the greatest bone of the pedium . it is drawn away by one arising fleshy from the inner part of the heel , and entring extrinsecally into the first bone of the great toe . now there is a new muscle found out above the interosseans , the first inventor whereof is casserius ; who calls it tranversalis , because of its situation . veslingus call it the adductor pollicis minor , which use nature seems to have intended . it arises nervous and broad , from the ligament of the first interjuncture of the little toe , and sometime from one of the toes next the little toe ; and by and by becoming fleshy and so continuing , it is carried athwart over the first joints of the fingers , and with a short and broad tendon , it is implanted into the first joynt of the great-toe , a little inwards . the use hereof is , to secure our walking , when we pass through rough wayes , full of round flints , or over any other small , slippery , or rowling passage . for by help of this muscle , the foot does accommodate it self , to the figure of the bodies we tread on , and layes hold thereon as it were , that it might make its passage more stead-fast . the abductor of the little toe , sticking in the outside of the foot broad and vast , arising from the same part of the heel , is inserted into the outside of the first interjuncture . i have observed a peculiar bender of the little toe , long , round , arising from the head of the tibia , and divided with two tendons about the insertion of the toe . finally a fleshy mass is to be observed in the sole of the foot , as well as in the palm of the hand , wherewith our footing is fastened as with a cushion , and the tendons of the muscles do lie hidden , in a soft pillow . the first manual concerning the veins , answering to the first book of the lower belly . above , in the proaem of this anatomical work , i promised four books , and four little books or manuals . four books touching the three cavities and the limbs ; four manuals , viz. touching the veins , arteries , nerves and bones . now every manual answers to its book . because from the lower cavity , namely , the principal part thereof , the liver arise the veins ; from the heart in the middle cavity the arteries ; from the marrow in the third cavity the nerves , and to the limbs the bones do answer . and even as the bones joyned together do make a peculiar fabrick or skeleton , representing the form of the whol animal ; so also do the veins , arteries and nerves . and gulielmus fabricius hildanus a famous chyrurgeon hath such a frame of all the veins of the body artificially separated ; and at padua by the instruction of ad. spigelius , and john veslingius , and john leonicenus such frames of the veins arteries and nerves seperated from the body , are commonly to be seen at padua ; and the like is to be seen here at hafnia acurately made , and explained in four very great tables , in the custody of the renowned d. d. henricus fuiren my cosin germane . the veins , arteries and nerves are organs or common vessels of the body , through which some spirit , with or without blood , is carried from some principal member , into sundry parts of the body . chap. . of a vein in general . avein is a common organ , round , long , hollow like a channel or conduit pipe , fit to carry or bring back blood and natural spirit . the term vein was by the ancients given both to veins and arteries ; but they cal'd the arteries pulsing veins , and the veins not pulsing veins , and some called vein , the greater vein , and an artery the lesser vein and the aorta . the efficient of a vein , is the proper vein-making power or faculty . the matter according to hippocrates is a clammy and cold portion of the seed . and this is the principle of a veins original . but the principle of dispensation from whence the veins arise , is the liver ( not to speak of some ancient triflers , who would derive the veins from the brain ) and not the heart , as aristotle would have it . for , . blood is made in the liver . and therefore 't is like the original and rise of the veins is there ▪ and that the first sanguisication is not made in the heart is apparent , because there are no passages to conveigh the chylus to the heart ; again there are no receptacles for the excrements of the first concoction placed by the heart . but all these requisites are found in the liver . . blood is carried from the liver to the heart , but not from the heart immediately to the liver . for blood cannot go out of the heart into the liver , because of the valves ; though mediately when it runs back out of the arteries , it may be carried thither . . fishes have no right ventricle in their hearts , in which they would have blood to be made ; and out of which they would have the veins to arise , and the fishes have both veins and blood. . the vena portae touches not the heart but the liver , which the cava also touches : which two veins are the greatest in the whole body . but according to aristotle all veins ought to be continued with the heart . you wil say ; the vena arteriosa does not touch the liver . i answer , neither ought if so to do : because it hath the substance of an artery , and therefore arises from the heart . but arteria venosa , is a vein in substance and use , and in the child in the womb , was continued with the cava . . in the child in the womb , the navil-vein with blood goes into the liver , not into the heart . . if the veins should arise from the heart , they would pulse as the arteries do , for the whole heart pulses . . sanguification is never hurt , but when the liver is hurt , as in a dropsie , &c. these are the chief reasons for this opinion : but many other reasons of other men against aristot●● i reject as weak and easily refuted , as also many weak reasons of the peripateticks , against this opinion which we assert , which any one may easily answer , if he be at least but lightly skilled in anatomy . the end and vse of a vein is , i. according to the opinion of the ancient● to carry blood and natural spirit with the natural faculty , from the liver into all parts of the body to nourish the same . but nature hath revealed otherwise to their posterity : for neither do the veins carry any thing from the liver to nourish the parts with , nor is the venal blood useful for nutrition . but they bring ▪ back all the blood , only to the heart by circulation , either mediately by the ●iver , as the mesaraick veins , or immediately , as the cava ; and that either from the whole body , from the smallest branches to the greatest , by the upper and lower branch ; or from the liver whether it be there generated , or is derived from the mesaraicks and arteries . and that they bring the blood to the heart as to the centre , and that they bring it from the smallest parts as from the circumference , is evidently provided by ocular inspection , experiments , and reason . . in blood-letting , the arm being bound above the elbow , beyond the ligature , the vein swels not , nor if you should open a vein would the blood flow out ( which is to be observed in opposition to the authority of scribonius largu● ) unless very little , or if there were some anastomosis of a vein , with an artery in some parts above . but on this side the ligature under the elbow , both the veins of the arm swel , and being opened they void as much blood as you wil , yea all that is in the body . likewise if with your finger you press the vein below the orifice , the blood stops , if you take away your finger it runs again : whence we gather that the blood runs from the outmost small veins of the body upwards unto the great veins and the heart ; and not from the upper and greater veins into the lower , smaller , and more remote . . without blood-letting , the veins being pressed with the finger shew as much : for if in an arm either hot , or whose veins naturally swell , you force the blood downwards with your finger towards the fingers , there follows no blood in the upper part of the vein , but it appears empty . contrariwise , if you force the blood from the fingers-ward upwards , you shall presently see the veins full , more blood following that which you forced up . . if you shall plunge your arms and legs into cold water or snow , being first bound , when you unbind the same , you shal perceive your heart offended and made cold , by the cold blood ascending thereunto ; and it will be warmed if you put your legs or arms as aforesaid into hot water . nor is it any other way by which cordiall epithems applied to the wrists and privities do good . . in persons that are hanged , their heads and faces become red , the veins being distended , because the recourse of the blood into the heart i● hindred ▪ as in opening of the veins of the head , the upper parts in the head swell , the other parts towards the heart being empty . but the halter being loosed from the dead body , the swelling and redness of the face does fall by little and little , unless the blood which is forced into the smallest veins cannot run back again because of the coldness of the parts . . in dissections of live-animals , the matter is most evident . for in what part of the body soever you bind a vein , it appears lank and empty on that side of the ligature next the heart , and on the other side it swels where it is furthest from the heart , and neerest the extream parts of the body . . in a living anatomy , if you lift up a vein and open it being tied , beyond the ligature plenty of blood flows out , on this side nothing at all , which you shall find true in the crural and jugular veins of any creature whatsoever , though you cut the veins quite in sunder , as i have often experimented with the great walaeus , and harvey was not ignorant thereof . , the valves of the veins do conspire to this end , which are so contrived , that they stand all wide open towards the heart , and afford an easie passage from the smallest veins to the greatest , and from thence to the heart . but from the heart and great veins , being shut they suffer nothing to go back , no not water driven by force , or a probe , unless being hurt they gape . . the liver sends only to the heart ; the heart only to the lungs , and all the arteries ; as hath been already demonstrated concerning the heart . seeing therefore the blood by continual pulsation is sent in so great quantity in all parts , and yet cannot be repaired by diet , nor can return back to the heart by reason of the miter-fashioned valves of the aorta , nor abide stil in the arteries which are continually driving the same , nor finally is there so much spent by the parts to be nourished ; it follows , that what remains over and above is brought back again to the heart , and enters the veins by circulation . whereof although some dark footsteps are extant in the writings of the ancients , as i have proved in my book de luce animalium , and walaeus and riolanus do afterward declare the same at large ; yet it hath been more ●●●erly manifested in this age of ours to that most ingenious venetian paul sarpias fulgentius as relates from his papers , and soon after to harvey an englishman , to whom the commendations and praise of first publishing the same to the world and proving i● by many arguments and experiments , are justly due , finally to walaeus and others approving the same . the primary end therefore of the veins is to carry and recarry blood unto the heart the secondary ends may be these following . ii. a little to prepare the said blood , as do the rami lactei , or to finish and perfect the same , as a small portion of vena cavae between the liver and the heart . iii. to perserve the blood , as the proper place preserves that which is placed therein , as much as may be in a speedy passage , and to retain it within its bounds . for extravenated blood , or blood out of its natural place , viz. veins and arteries , curdles and putrefies . also in the veins themselves , when they are ill affected , and the course of the blood is ▪ stopped , somtimes the blood is found congealed , witness fernelius : somtimes a fatty substance is found instead of blood , as in the nerves , which bontius saw among the indians . iv. some would have the red veins to make blood , and the milkie veins to make chyle , but they are quite mistaken . the form of the veins is taken from sundry accidents . it s figure is that of a conduit pipe . it s magnitude varies . for the veins are great in the livet , as in their original ; in the lungs because they are hot , soft , and in perpepetual motion , and theresote they need much nourishment , because much of their substance spends ; but especially because all the blood in the body passes this way , out of the right into the left venrricle of the heart , as hath been proved already . in the heart by reason of its heat , and because it is to furnish the whole body with arterial blood , received in and sent out by continual pulsings . also the emulgent veins are great , by reason of plenty of blood and serosities , which is brought back from the kidnies to the vena cava . but where the substance of a part is lasting , and is not easily dissipated , by reason of the smal quantity of heat , the veins are lesser as in the brain , where the veins do not alwaies easily appear , and in the bones , where they never manifestly appear , though the animal be great . in all parts towards the ends they are very small , and are divided into capillary veins , sprinkled into , & commonly confounded with the flesh , that the superfluous blood may be better received into them ; which is one way , by which the arterial blood is mediately passed through the porous flesh to the veins , which way also blood made of chyle in the liver , is infused into the little branches of the venae cava . the other is , by the arteries immediately . for , the connexion is such with the arteries , that every vein is for the most part attended with an artery , over which it lies and which it touches . gale● tels us a a vein is seldom found without arteries ; but no artery is ever found without a vein . but there is in the body a mutual anastomosis of veins and arteries : that they may conspire together , and the veins receive out of the arteries spirit & blood ; which is apparent from reason , because , . if the veins be quite emptied , the arteries are empty also . moreover out of a vein opened in the arm or hand , all the blood in the body may be let out , which , because it cannot be contained or generated in the hand , it must necessarily come out of the arteries beneath and round about , by means of the anastomoses : whereof this also is a token , that if the vein and artery of the arm be tied very hard , the blood ceases running and the pulse stops it beating , til the band be slackned . . they are necessary in respect of the circular motion of the blood , seeing the pores of the flesh are not sufficient , save in a slow course , and subtile blood. moreover they may be demonstrated in many places to the eye-sight , where the conjunctions of the veins with the arteries are visible , viz. in the brain , in the plexus chorides , the cavities , in the lungs of the vena arteriosa . and the arteria venosa , with the branches of the aspera arteria or wesand . of the thoracick branches descending , with the intercostal veins . also the hypogastrick veins and arteries , with the mammary vessels are joyned mouth to mouth under the musculi recti in the abdomen . but the anastomoses or mutual conjunction of the mouths of the cava and portae in the liver , and of the veins and arteries in the spleen , are in a special manner manifest ; so in the veins of the womb , the seminary vessels , the navil-strings , and the extemities of the hands and feet . though the anastomoses or conjunctions of vessels , are in reason necessary , and manifest to the eye-sight , yet are they not all manifestly discernable by the sight .. i made experiment in the liver of an ox and of a man , diligently separating all the substance from the vessels ; yet could i not either with a probe , or a knife , or a pair of bellows find the anastomoses of vena cavae and vena porta open , but all blind , in dead bodies , though it is not to be doubted , but that they are open in in living bodies , where all the passages are inlarged by heat . this table presents the anast●mases of vena cava and porta in the liver . table i. the explication of the figure . a the descending trunk of vena cava and porta in the liver . bb. the vena porta . c. the gall-badder . dddddd . the greater branches of vena cavae dissemina●●d through the liver . ●●● . the branches of vena porta . ffff . the first paral●l anastomosis of the vena cava with the vena portae . gg . the second anastomosis of trunk wi●h trunk . hh . the third cross anastomosis . ii . the fourth anastomosis mixt . kk . the fif● anastomosis , which is oblique or angular . page i found them to be of divers kinds . the first paralel when the utmost twigs are joyned one to another in right lines . the second is of trunk with trunk , a transverse vessel going between . the third is cross-fashion'd , when either the branches go over the trunk , or the trunk go over the branches cross-wise , or the branches over the branches in the same manner . the fourth is mixt of the cross-fashion'd and the oblique . the fist is oblique or angular , when the branches are mutually inserted obliquely . i have before explained the anastomoses of the navil-vessels . now the anastomoses between the veins and arteries , are either in the trunks or the capillary vessels . the veins are somtimes invested with a common membrane , or some external thick one , borrowed from the neighboring parts , when either they are suspended and carried a long way , and are without the bowels and muscles ; or when they rest upon hard bodies . this happens in the lowest belly , to the veins and arteries from the peritoneum , and in the chest from the pleura . but where a vein is inserted either into some bowell or a muscle , it needs not this common coat , because . it is otherwise sufficiently susteined . . otherwise the ready sweating through of the blood would be hindred . . and the laying down of the excrements of the vein . . it would not so soon be sensible of the force of the substance of any bowell . . it would more hardly imbibe the blood which is superfluous after the nourishment of the parts . now the veins being so compassed with membranes do not feel ( unless they have nerves neer them ) of themselves and by their own nature , neither the acrimony of the humors contained , nor cutting or burning . and therefore aristotle saies in his third book de historia animalium chap. . a nerve cannot endure the fire , but a vein can . and galen in his sixt de usu partium chap ▪ ●● . saies that if veins and arteries be cut , burnt , or tied , they feel it not at all . chap. ii. of the substance of the veins and of the valves . the substance of the veins is membranous , that they may more easily stretch and shrink in again . they have only one coat , which is proper to them ( the arteries have two ) being thin and rare ; because through it the blood is to be received after the parts are nourished . it carries not back such stirring and hot blood as the arteries carry ; because it is grown cold and returns quietly to the heart without any beating of the pulse that it may be there again perfected . some conceive that a vein is interwoven with a triple kind of fibres : but they ad , that those fibres are there obscurely , and only potentially , nor can be moved out of their place , by reason of the most strait contexture . but i rather conceive with vesalius , that others imagin fibres to be there , which are no more there than in leather . for when we pull the substance of the reins all in pieces , no fibres are there to be seen . but some authors attribute fibres to the veins , because they have praeconceived this opinion , that attraction , expulsion and retention are performed by sundry sorts of fibres , whenas the fibres if they have any are to strengthen them . harvey and w●… do suspect that the blood in the veins is driven to the heart , by the fibres , which nevertheless i conceive to be done , by the motion and contraction of the muscles , with which the veins are mingled , they not resisting . yea , and it may be driven by the blood continually following , from the parts and arteries moved by the pulse . but others alleadge attraction to be made by heat , without the fibres . within the veins are found certain valves or little folding gates , which bauhine saies are mentioned by avicenna , under the name of cells . aquapendens saies himself was the finder of them in the year . to whom paulus servita or sarpi the venetian gave the first hint though it seems apparent by his isagoge , that jacobus silvius had also some knowledg of them . but after him or with him mention was made of these valves by salomon albertus , axc●●ng●l●s pi●holhomineus , and casper●● bauhinus ; laurentius doth hardly once speak of them . the occasion of aquapendents finding of them was this : he observed that if he prest the veins , or by rubbing endeavored to force the blood downwards , its course did seem to be stopped . also in the arms of persons bound to be let blood , certain knots apper to swell by reason of the valves ; and in some persons , as porters and plough-men , they are seen to swel in their thighs like the varices . and here seems to consist the cause of the varices ; because thick blood and by its heaviness unapt to move upwards , being long retained in the valves , makes a dilatation of the said valves : for without the valves the veins would swel uniformly and all of an equal bigness , and not in the manner of varices . and because this doctrine of the valves in the veins , is known to few , i shall propound the same more exactly , according to my manner of handling rare subjects . these valves are most , thin little membranes ( thicker in the orifices of of the veins of the heart ) in the inner cavity of the veins ; and certain particles as it were of the coat of the veins ; because there the body of the veins is most thin , where th●se membranes do go from it . they are seated in the cavity of the veins , but especially in the veins of the limbs , viz. of the arms and legs , after the kernels of the arm-pits and and groyns . beginning presently after the rise of the branches , not in the rises themselves . now there are two found in the inner orifice of the jugular vein , looking from above downwards ; the rest look from below upwards , as many in the cephalica , the basilica , and in the veins of the legs and thighs . table ii. the figure explained . this table in fig. . shews the valves of the veins in a bound arm , in fig. . and . the crural veins the inside outward , with their valves . a. a branch of the vena cephalica . bf . a part of the vena basilica . d. the vena mediana . e. a branch of vena cephalica , to which the mediana was joyned . hhhh . represent the knots in the veins , caused by the valves there placed . ik . one crural vein . lm . the other crural vein . nnnn . the valves of the veins fil'd with cotton-wool . ooo . the said valves of the veins empty . fig . v. shews the single valves of the vena basilica looking upwards . fig . vi. in the crural vein opened double valves are seen . page ● now the valves are so situate , that they have their orifices upwards towards the roots of the veins , and are shut beneath , and alwaies look towards the heart . and the workmanship of nature is remarkable in their situation , in that they have their postures looking the same way one following another , as knots in the branches and stalks of plants . that is to say , they are not in a right line one against another , or placed on the same side , least the whole blood should flow streight in through the free part of the vessel . so the lower valves do stop , what the upper have let slip : and if all the doors of the valves had been disposed in one right line , there had been little or no delay made in the regress . moreover they are situate at distances , according to the length of the vessel , sometimes two , three , four , or five fingers distance ; that if the blood by some default should be compelled to flow backwards , and should pass the upper valves , falling on upon the other valves following , it might be stopped and hindered . as to their magnitude they are greater where by reason of the plenty of blood the recourse is most vehement , and therefore greater inconvenience was to be feared to happen , either to the parts which would be too much oppressed , or to the heart least it should be destitute of blood ; as we see in the basilica and in the crar●● vein at the groyns . the number of all the valves varies , as also their distances ; for there are more valves in those ▪ . who abound with melancholly blood , or contrarily with very cholerick and thin blood ; because both those humors do not only easily resist the driver , but when they are driven , by their weight and tenuity , they easily flow back . . in great or more fleshy bodies and consequently having more veins . . in such as have the broadest vessels . . in such who have long and streight veins ; for in such as are oblique , the crookedness of the vessels gives some stop to the running back of the blood. moreover , the number of valves in one and the same place doth not exceed two . for they are seated at distances , somtimes one , otherwhiles two at most ; not a● any time three , as we find in the vessels of the heartt ▪ because in the heart a greater orifice is to be shut , and the ventricle underneath is larger , yea and the greate● violence of the blood in the hot heart , did require more stops , but in the progress of the veins , their branching diminishes their magnitude , and the blood is slower in motion . therefore where the veins are yet pretty big , and there is danger from the plenty of blood , there are two doors , but otherwise but only one . it s figure likens the nail on a mans finger or the horned moon , such as you see in the sigma-shap'd valves of the heart . it s substance is exceeding thin , but withall very compact , lest they should break by a strong incourse of the blood . and this is apparent from the varices , where they can contein the blood a very long time . the vse is i. to strengthen the veins , whereas the arteries are otherwise made strong by the doubleness of their coats . ii. the chief use according to aquapendent and most anatomists following him , is to stop the motion of heavy and fluid blood , which runs violently into the arms and thighs , and legs , because of their downward position ; but especially in most vehement motion and exercise , where through the power of exceeding heat , the blood would rush impetuously into the limbs , and so . the inner and more noble parts would be defrauded of their nutriment . . the veins of the limbs would be too much stretched , and in danger of breaking , and consequently the arms and legs would be alwaies swelled . but this use is rejected by harvey , because . in the jugulars they look downwards . . in the emulgent and mesenterick branches , they look towards the porta and cavae . . there are none ●o the arteries . . dogs and oxen have the same , in the division of the crural veins , in whom because of their going downwards , there is no such thing as aforesaid to be feared . . the blood of its own accord is slowly enough driven , out of the greater veins into the lesser branches , and out of hotter into colder places . and therefore according to his principles , and the principles of circulation , the use of the valves is , iii. lest the blood should move out of the great veins into the little ones and so tear them ; or from the centre of the body into the outmost parts , but rather from the extremities to the centre . and therefore they do the same thing in the veins , which the sigma and mitershap'd valves do in the heart . but in the orifice of the jugular vein internal they perform the same office , least in the bowing back of the head , the blood should return into the brain , and like a flood oppress the same , disturb the animal functions , and breed a sanguine apoplexy . chap. . of the division of the veins of the body , and of the vena portae and the venae lacteae . all the veins of the whole body are referred unto two as their mothers ; viz. the vena portae and the vena cava , to which is joyned a third kind of vessels found out by asellius viz , the milky veins , of which we shal speak by and by . the ven● portae its original and root is the vena umbilicalis , of which i spake in the first book , the first of all the veins , arising from the seed . now it is termed vena portae , or quae ad portas est , the gate-vein , and vein at the gates , and vena ostiaria , the door-vein ; because through the roots thereof , or , as others wil have it , its branches , viz. the mesaraick veins , the chyle being su●t out of the stomach and guts was anciently thought to be carried , as it were by gates into the liver . the arabians cal'd it vena lactea , because they thought it drew the chyle , white like milk. this is the greatest vein in the body next the cava , and is commonly said to arise out of the hollow part of the liver . and it is not so compact as the cava , but more loose and soft . it is divided into the trunk and branches . the branches are upper and lower : and some call the former roots , others the latter . they call the former roots ▪ because this vein is said to have its original out of the liver : the latter , because as roots suck matter out of the earth , and carry it into the trunk of the tree : even so also the venae mes●raicae , which are the lower branches of portae , do suck chyle like roots ( according to the ancients , but according to out late opinion blood out of the mesentery ) and carry it to the liver by the trunk and upper branches ; and therefore the meseraick veins are termed the livers hands . we may therefore call them all , both branches and roots , in a different respect . the upper branches , four or five of them are spred up and down the hollow part of the liver , which afterwards , beneath and without the liver , grow into one trunk . touching these and their anastomoses , see above , in the chap. of the liver , book the . the trunk before it is divided into lower branches , sends two small veins to the gall-bladder which are termed cysticae gemellae ; another vein to the stomach , which is therefore cal'd gastrica dextra . afterward the trunk inclining to the left hand , it is divided into two remarkable lower branches : the one higher and lesser , going towards the left side ; the other lower and larger on the right side . the former is called splenicus , because it goes into the spleen , & before it is divided it spreads from it self two upper branches to the stomach , the gastrica minor and gastrica major , the largest of all the stomach veins , which afterwards constitutes the the coronaria . then it sends lower branches to the call and one to the pancreas . these being thus constituted , the truncus splenicus is divided , into the upper and lower branch . the ●o mer produces the vas breve and other little branches carried into the spleen . the latter produces two veins for the call and stomach which are termed epiplois sinistra and gastroepiplois sinistra . finally , the rest of its small branches , are spent up and down in the spleen . the ramus dexter of the vena portae , before it is divided , produces two veins , . to the right side of the stomach and call. . to the guts , viz. the middle of duodenum , and the beginning of the jejunum : whence certain capillary twigs go through the pancreas and call upwards . afterwards an whole large branch goes into the mesentery , and being carried between the two coats thereof , it is distributed into three notable branches , called rami mesenterici , the mesenteric branches . the right-hand mesenteric branch is two-fold , which spends it self into fourteen nameless branches , and these again into innumerable off-springs of veins termed the mesaraick veins in the guts , iejunum , ileon and caecum and part of colon. whos 's table iii ▪ the figure explained . this table shews the branchings of the vena portae within and without the liver . aaa . the trunk of the vena port● going out of the liver . bbbbb . its branchings in the liver . c. the umbilical or navil-vein . d. the venae cystica . ● . the implantation of the coronary vein of the stomach . ff . the right branch of the venae portae . g. the left splenick branch therof . h. the rise of the coronaria of the stomach , which after it hath bestowed many branches upon the stomach it self , being turned back towards the pylorus , it is implanted into the trunk of the venae portae it self , where the letter ● stands . iii little branches of the vena splenica , distributed through the pancreas . kkkk . the manifold ingress of the said ven● splenica into the spleen . l. the vas breve so called . m. the gastroepiploica sinistra , which runs out upon the bottom of the stomach , and affords many branches both to to the stomach it self , and to the call. n. the vena epiploica sinistra . ooo . little branches disseminated through the bottom of the stomach . ppp . branches which run out through the call. q. another epiploica superior to the precedent , for it runs before it , through the lower part of the call , which comes neerest the loyns . r. the rise of the internal haemorrhoidal vein , which sss . diffuses branches through the mesentery , and at last where this mark stands it sends forth the haemorrhoid veins so called . v. the gastro-epiploica dextra , from which many branches arise that are disseminated through the call and stomach . page harvey to refute the milkie veins , and withall to maintain his circulation in the mesentery , does suppose that as the navil-veins draw in alimentary juyce from the liquors of the egg , and carry it to nourish and increase the chick●… even so the mesaraick veins do suck chyle out of the guts , and carry it into the liver , even in a grown person . but then they should carry chyle and blood together , and so divers juyces would be jumbled together , such as were digested with those that are indigested . and what need is there to confound vessels that nature hath distinguished . and every one knows , that the use of the navil-vessels , is different in a child in the womb and , grown person . . according to the same antients , to prepare the said chyle in some measure , and to give it the rudiments of blood. which would be true if the hypothesis were true . table iv. the explication of the figure . this table represents the milkie veins in the fish cal'd orbis , or the lump-fish . aa . the stomach . bb. appendixes of the stomach in which the venae lacteae or milkie veins are evident . cccc . the guts drawn to one side . d. the intestinum rectum or arse-gut . e. the liver . f. the third lobe of the liver , into which the milkie veins are inserted . g. a white kernell of the mesentery swelling with chyle , out of which veins are carried unto third the lobe . hhh . the milkie veins . iii. the branches of the mesaraick veins . k. the trunck of the vena portae . lll . the mesentery . m. the gall-blidder . page according to others and my father bartholinus amongst the rest , to carry thick blood made in the spleen from thence to the guts to nourish them . which were true did not the circulation teach otherwise , which hath been found out since his time . and that same blood would be more fit to nourish , by reason of the abundance of arteries in the spleen . the vessels being changed , this opinion would be absolutely true . . asellius , who rightly assigns the milkie veins to carry chyle to the liver , hath shewn that these common mesaraick veins do serve to no other intent , then to bring blood out of the liver to nourish the guts . which use , being before refuted , he is therein to be excused , who was likewise ignorant of the true motion of the blood . . their true use is to bring the blood back after the the nutriment of the guts , into the liver , which had bin carried to the guts , by the mesaraick arteries . this is apparent by ligatures in living creatures , which walaeus practised , in which they swell towards the liver , but are empty towards the guts . the valves shew as much , which were by harvey found out in the mesaraick veins , looking towards the cava and the venae portae , which columbus also observed , and which hinder the blood of vena portae from passing into the guts . nor does the conflux of humors out of the body about the guts hinder , whither the humors flow thither of their own accord or provoked by medicaments ; because this passage of the humors is certainly through the mesenterick arteries which neither spigelius denies , nor those that maintaine the circulation of the blood. the left mesenterick branch is spread abroad into the left and middlemost part of the mesenterie , and part of the colon from the left side of the stomach , and to the iniestinum rectum . hence arises the vena haemorrhoidalis interna so called , of which in the following and proper chapter . this age of ours being clearer sighted then the former , has found out the milkie veins in the mesentery so called , from the white colour of the chyle in them , which besides the mesaraicks , make a fourth kind of vessels , through which the chylus is carried into the liver . erasistratus in galen had a glimpse of these veins , but after him , the first that discovered them was caspar asellius an anatomist of ticinum , in the dissection of a living dog well fed , on the twenty third of july in , the yeer . in whose footsteps accurate anatomists treading , who prised nothing more then truth , have found by testimony of their eyes , that those same vessels full of a milkie juyce , are peculiar passages different from the mesaraicks . for in living creatures they are allwayes to be seen , if they be dissected about four hours after they have been well fed , viz. when the chylus is distributed : for after that time they are not to be seen , howbeit , though empty , they alwaies appear like little fibres which have deceived some , making them to take these vessels for nervs : but they are out , because nervs neither have such a chyle as this , nor valves nor any cavity . nor are the mesentery and guts so sensible , although they have a few nervs from the sixt conjugation . some have conceived these vessels to be arteries , but contrary to sense , which acknowledges here a simple coat , and no motion . only the not knowing of their trunk , does keep some learned men as yet in suspense , which if it could be demonstrated to be in the liver , they would be of out mind . but although their trunk and original be unknown yet no man should doubt of the existency of these veins any more then the inhabitants about nilus doubt of the existency of that river , whose head is unknown . and others account it no impossible thing , that they may by their twigs be implanted into the liver without any trunk . yea and it seems not improbable to the renowned kyperus and regius , that the milkie veins being confounded with the mesaraicks in the pancreas or great kernel , do there empty their chyle into the vena portae , and so it is carried by the veins into the liver , that it may be mixed with the fermentum brought from the spleen , and so receive the rudiments of blood. but i shal by and by shew that the milkie veins have branches which reach into the liver , where they are inserted . but i will briefly relate the history of these milkie veins , following the guidance of asellius and others , and mine own experience , who have diligently viewed them , in live animals , and men newly hanged and choaked . these vessels are termed lactes or lactea vasa also venae lacteae either from lacio a word out of date , signifying allicio , i draw , or a lacte from milk , which they resemble in whiteness , softness and fatness ; even as the ancients and later writers have given the same name , to the small guts , the mesaraick veins , and the mesentery , for the same cause , though the agreement and verity be not the like . they were quite unknown to the ancients , if you except erasistratus , who in kids that had lately sukt , saw certain obscure arteries which were soon filled with milk , yet most ancients were ignorant , that there were one sort of vessels to carry the chyle , and others to carry the blood. but they may be easily excused , by indifferent censurers , because they commonly dissected animals that had been strangled , in which bodies , unless they ●e tied , they suddenly disappear . galen who had made more than six hundred live anatomies , did without doubt take them for nerves . their situation is in the lower belly , where they are for the most part accompanied with fat , which cherishes that heat which is necessary for the attraction and preparation of the chylus . they are carried through the mesenterium , from the guts , by an oblique passage , between its two coats , partly separate from the other vessels , partly together with them , somtimes streight along , otherwhiles going over the same , and cutting them crosswise as it were , through many kernels , placed chiefly at the parting of the branches ; they are carried , i say as far as to the pancreas . in the pancreas or great kernel of the mesentery , which asellius after fallopius calls pancreas , they are wreathed and wrought together like a lattice , this way and that way , into very many and those inexplicable wreathings and labyrinths . from thence again , having sent greater branches by the sides of vena portae , and somtimes also twigs to the vena cava , they enter with small branches into the cavity of the liver . from thence , being carried to the liver it self , and split into very small fibres , they are so long spred up and down into the flesh thereof , every way , til they are at length quite obliterated . but into what part of the liver , either the trunk or branches are inserted , i have not found by any as yet determined , by reason of the sudden efflux of the humors . i , in the dissection of the fish cal'd orbis , by our country-men steenbud , by g●s●er sea-hare , by clusius the frog-mouth'd orbis , by the islanders roemaffue from the color of its belly ; both male and female here at hasnia frequently repeated , in the presence of the most learned wormius , sperlingerus , simon pauli , fuerinus , and others , have found and demonstrated not only many daies after , great plenty of milkie veins , full of the white milkie humor , but also the true place of their insertion . which was the third lobe of the liver , that same little soft one described by spigelius , into which there entred a milkey branch sufficiently great , from the large kernel seated not far off , and swelling with the milkey humor , unto which kernel , the most of the milky veins out of the mesentery , and the appurtenances of the stomach , had their course . nor is it to be doubted , but that the same betides in men and other creatures nature so sharing the business , that to each lobe its trunk may be assigned . now from this they go further , with the branches of vena portae , inwardly to the rest of the lobes , and their parenchyma . and it is to be observed , that about this third lobe , where the milkey veins are inserted , the gall-bladder is placed , either to assist concoction which begins there , or to receive the cholerick excrement , which in the concoction of the chylus is separated therefrom . now they are inserted into all the guts , vea even the duodenum , but especially into the smaller guts , not so many into thick ones , nor are any of them carried to the stomach or the spleen . and least the chylus once received should slip back again into the guts , they are furnished with valves which look from within outward , which wil not admit the chyle though driven back with violence . it s substance is of a vein , which it resembles in structure and all things else , excepting the milkie juyce . of which there are th●●● compounding parts , fibres , a membrane , and flesh . they have but one single membrane , wherein they differ from arteries , neither are they here cloathed with so thick a coat , no more than in other remote parts , though in the mesentery they receive from it another external coat . asellius doth attribute to them all kinds of fibres , right , transverse , oblique , for drawing , retaining , and expelling ; though walaeus by ligature do teach , that the chyle is rather thrust in them to the liver , by the guts contracted and driving the same ; and others conceive that it is drawn by the liver it self . the flesh which grows to the membrane , fils up the spaces between the fibres , whose use besides is , to prepare the chyle before it comes to the liver . as for quantity they grow continually one to another , being all of one trunk though their magnitude be not equal , some being greater others lesser . now they are small , least the thick and unprofitable parts of the chyle , should go into them together , and least distribution should be made too suddenly and tumultuously , which frambesarius observes . they are infinite in number , dispersed through the liver , guts , mesentery and pancreas , and so much more in number than the vulgar mesenterick veins , that their plenty may make amends for their smallness . as to the first active qualities , they are colder than ordinary veins , because the chyle which they carry is colder than blood. in respect of the passive qualities , they are dry , yet moister than the common veins . table v ▪ the explication of the figure . this table represents the milkie veins , or venae lacteae . aa . &c. the mesaraick branches of the venae portae , and the branches of the arteria coeliaca , which accompany the same . bb. &c. the venae lacteae or milkie veins , which being bound in the lower parts do discocover the valves . cc. the nerves running up and down through the mesentery . d. the bottom of the stomach . e. the pylorus . f. the gut duodenum . g. the gut iejunum . h the gut ileum . i. a vein and artery creeping through the bottom of the stomach . k. pa t of the call. l. the great kernel in the rise of the mesentery which asellius cals the pancreas . page their action and proper use is . to deliver up the chylus to the liver , not by the mesaraicks as hath been hitherto believed , by which neither the chylus ascends to the liver , nor the blood descends to the guts , as was said be●ore . nor let the abundance of the said mesaraicks trouble us , which the cold and bloodless guts do not need ; because doubtless they need ●ore of heat and much nourishment , administred by the abundance of mesaraick arteries , and therefore plenty of veins ought to answer the plenty of arteries , that they might carry back the superfluous blood to the liver . ii to render the chyle more fit to receive the form of blood in the liver . but they are deceived who do assigne to them the blood-makeing faculty , for the chylus is not at all changed in colour till it come unto the liver , where it begins by little and little to grow reddish or paleish . iii they much conduce to facilitate the art of physick . for they discover a ready way for distribution of the chylus , which has hitherto bin very much controverted , without any fear of a contrary motion or confu●●on . they shew that the blood is made in the liver and its flesh , and not in the veins . that the sucking of the veins is no cause of hunger , because none are carried to the stomach . iv they declare the causes of some diseases of the body which were before obscure , viz. of the chylous flux of the guts ; of pineing away of the body , for want of n●… , by reason of the kernels of the mesentery 〈…〉 with ●…s swellings , of intermitting agues ●…d in the mesar●um , hypocondriacal melancholy &c. v the learned gassendus conceives that by the milkie veins the white juyce contained in them is carried over the whole body , to breed fat ; and that the true chylus is brought the neerest way by the porus biliarius , out of the stomach unto the liver ; but neither of these may be granted . not the former , because of the reasons brought before , book the against folius , touching the matter of fat which riolanus approves and commends ; nor the latter , because the chyle would be infected by meeting with bitter choler , though that renowned man allows in case of necessity , the jejunum being obstructed , it may so be done . and so much may suffice touching the history so the venae lacteae , to which there is hardly any thing remainning to be added , unless the cause of their sudden disappearing , which is sufficiently controverted ▪ which is not to be imputed to the spiritual disposition of the chylus which suddenly vanishes away , as asellius did at first beleive , because the chylus being drawn out of the veins does keep its colour a very long time , not vanishing away , but becoming waterish . but to that which did afterward seem probable to asellius viz. the strong drawing of the liver , in so great anxiety of the ainmal , all this may be attributed , by which the spirits being consumed , they need new blood and chyle speedily to be digested . and hence a reason may be rendred , why the venae lacteae in a man hang'd at amsterdam cut up by dr. tulpiu● , remained visible many daies after ; such as have bin divers times s●en by veslingius at padua , and folius at venice : for by reason of the pains broke off by choaking , there could be no drawing of the liver . for whereas in a girle ten months old , veslingus found these veins swelling : i ascribe that to a like weakness of the liver , or the thickness of the milkie humor . i also saw at hafnia the last yeer , the milkey veins in sueno olai of vardberg ( who was immediately choak'd with a peice of neats-tongue , having before eaten and drank plentifully ) visible in the mesentery , because respiration being hindred by the bit of tongue , and his heart being suffocated , there was no necessity for the liver to draw any chylus . but p. laurembergius as a man ignorant of this anatomy does vainly imagine with himselfe , that these veins do disappear , because of the recourse of the chylus to the guts , the valves being loose and flaggie : for , do all you can , you shall never bring the chylus back , in dead bodies into the guts . if a vein be tied in the middle , so that a passage is left open on both sides , both towards the liver and the guts : where it looks to the liver it is emptie , but it swells exceedingly towards the guts , and if it be left in that posture for some daies together the chyle will not slip back into the guts . chap. iv. of the haemorrhoid veins . the haemorrhoidal veins are those which are in the fundament , or intestinum rectum , and are also extrinsecally visible , which in some men at set times do open of their own accord , and void forth dreggie blood , which evacuation does much conduce to health . these veins are not of one kind , as the ancients and many later writers have imagined : but some are termed internal , which arise from the vena portae , others external , from the cava , with which the haemorrhoidal arteries are associated , through which the humors to be evacuated , are carryed . the ancients knew only the internal ones , as being commended in melancholick and spleenetick diseases : and they may be opened about the fundament , or leeches may be applied to them , whereas otherwise no branches of the vena portae which lies concealed within , do go out to the skin , which can be opened . the internal and external haemorrhoid veins differ one from another . i in their original . for the internal arises as was said before , from the vena portae , and descends along the end of the colon , under the right gut , the end whereof or fundament , it circularly embraces with certain smal twigs . it arises sometimes from the ramus splenicus , from whence is the vas breve . but seldome which casserius once observed , from the spleen it self . veslingus observed it twice or thrice , and therefore robert flud is out , who condemns the opening of the haemorrhoid veins , because they void not from the spleen ▪ but rather from the mesenterie , to the great dammage of the guts and stomach . but the external haemorrhoides arise from the hypogastri●k branch of the cava . ii by their insertion for the internal is inserted into the substance of the intestinum rectum , which is membranous , and required thick blood made in the spleen , and communicated by the arteria coeliaca or splenica . the external are inserted into the musculous substance of the fundament , which required purer blood , elaborated in the heart , and brought hither by the branches of the arteries . iii in number , the internal is one in number , the external is threefold . iv in the quality of the blood contained . the blood of the inner is thick and black , the blood of the outer is thinner and redder . v in their use the internal empty the vena port● successively , but first the spleenick arteries , and help the obstructions of the spleen : the external empty the vena cava , the liver by accident , but primarily the great arterie , and the heart ; yea their evacuation cures diseases springing from blood , of the head , chest , &c. which hippocrates hints in his aphorismes , and therefore the internal are said to cure the cacochymia , or badness of humors , the external the ple●horia or fullness of good blood. vi in the plentiful profusion of blood. the flux of the internal ones is not so plentiful ; that of the external is sometimes so large , that men die by the extremity thereof , or fal into greivous diseases . vii in the evacuation of the external ones , there is no paine nor gripeing of the eelly ; and some times also no paine in the fundament ; but in the flux of the inner haemorrhoides , there is greivous paine . viii the internal do alone descend , unaccompanyed with the arteries , howbeit either the arteries are hidden , or they depend of arteries in the upper-more . the external descend with the arteries to the muscles of the fundament , manifestly ; and therefore the external are more properly called vasa haemorrhoidalia , to include the arteries with the veins . chap. v. of the ascending trunk of vena cava , especially of the vena sine pari . vena cava called also vena magna and maxima , the great vein and the greatest vein , by the ancients , because of its exceeding largness , and by aurelianus , venae crassa the thick vein , is the largest vein in our whole body , and the mother of all other veins which do not proceed from the vena portae ; coming out of the bunching or convex side of the liver , and therefore by hippocrates termed the liver vein , haveing spread many veins through the upper part of the liver , which about the top are collected into one trunk it is presently divided into the upper or ascendent , and the lower and descendent trunks . the ascendent trunk peirces the midrif , is spread about through the chest , neck , head and arms. now it is carried undivided , as far as to the jugulum . mean while four branches arise there from . phreni●●s or the midrif vein , on each side one , whence also branches are sent to the pericardium and mediastinum . that quittor in such as have the empyema , is carried by this vein to the kidnies and bladder m. a. severinus ingeniously proves , because . the quittor must needs rest at the bottom of the midriff . . by the motion of the septum it is easily made thin . . by the same motion the mouths of the vessels are opened . which may more truly be said of the arteries , which carry blood to the kidnies by their emulgent branches , and with the blood sundry excrements , as quittor , serum &c. afterwards the vena cavae ascends by the septum , and boring its passage through the pericardium , it goes a little towards the left hand , and infinuates it self into the right ventricle of the heart , with a large hole , where it is joyned on all sides to the left ear-let : and there is made , the vena coronaria , which is somtimes double , compassing the basis of the heart , at the rise whereof a little valve is placed , not suffering the blood to return into the trunk . for it is joyned with a continued passage to the artery , that it may therefrom receive blood , which is to return to the cavae . afterwards the ascendent trunk does at last , bore its way through the pericardium , and taking the former shape , it had under the heart , but smaller , thorugh the middle division of the lungs ( no more upon the vertebra's of the chest , where now the gullet and wesand rest ) it ascends to the jugulum . mean while there is bred . a remarkable vein above the heart called ayzgos , sine pari , the vein without a fellow , because in a man and a dog , it is commonly but one , quartering on the one side , without another on the other side . but there are two in some creatures which chew the cud , as goats , and in swine &c. and in the body of man i have often seen two , once i found none at all , instead whereof on each side there descended a branch from the vena subclavia . it arises from the hinder part of the cava but more towards the right hand , and descends through the right cavity of the chest : but in sheep contrariwise , it arises from the left side of the cavae , and descends through the left . in a man after its beginning , which is between the fourth and fist vertebra of the chest , it bends a little back towards the right side and outwardly , unto the eighth or ninth vertebra of the chest ; where it begins to possess the very middle space . howbeit , i have observed it presently after its rise , to descend right forward , above the middle of the back-bone , and to send out branches on each side . this truncus sine pari , for the space of eight lower ribs , sends out on each hand intercostal branches , which are somtimes here and there joyned by way of anastomosis , with the branches of the thoracica inferior which arises from the basilica , and with the intercostal arteries . and therefore a vein is not alwaies to be opened in a pleurisie of the right side , as vesalius would have it . neer the eighth rib , it is divided into two branches . the one being somtimes the greater , ascends under the diaphragma to the left side , and is inserted somtimes into the cavae above or beneath the emulgents , somtimes into the emulgent it self . this way , according to the vulgar doctrine , pleuritick persous , are many times critically purged by urine , and void out that way abundance of quittor : which matter may more truly be said to be purged out by the emulgent arteries , by mediation of the heart . the other on the right hand , goes to the cavae and is joyned thereto , seldom to the emulgent , somtimes bove , the emulgent . often times it is implanted into the last somtimes into the first lumbal vessel ; for which cause , in the beginning of a pleurisie , the ham-vein may be opened , to draw away the blood , which would otherwise ascend out of the arteries and small veins , into this vein . and whereas hollerius and amatus dream that this vein hath valves in its beginning , it is false . and therefore false it is , that the cavae being evacuated , the vena sine pari is not evacuated , because the regurgitation is hindred by the valves . fallopius denies them , because he saw both wind and blood regurgitate from thence . . the intercostalis superior , on each side one , which is sent to the intervals of the four upper ribs , when the azygos hath not sent branches to all the intervals of the ribs . chap. . of the vena subclavia and its branches , and the jugulars . the branches aforesaid being constituted , the cavae ascends to the claviculae , underpropped with the thymus , where it is commonly thought to be divided , and in many anatomical tables is so represented , into four parts , on either side into an upper part and a lower . whence a common error of practitioners arises who scrupulously open the basilica vein , in parts affected beneath the neck ; the cephalica in diseases of the head. but at the claviculae ● channel-bones the truncus vena cavae is divided not into four branches but two only , on each side one , the right and left , which are termed subclavij and by some axillares . wherefore it matters not in diseases below the neck , whether you open the basilica or cephalick vein : for the trunk of vena cavae is alike emptied , for the cephalica and basilica proceed from one root . the chyrurgeon ought to cut that which of the two is most apparent . howbeit in diseases of the head ( if the circulation did not perswade the contrary ) the opening of the cephalick vein would help a little more , because there is a branch inserted thereinto proceeding from the external jugular ; which i have observed more than once in divers bodies . but the case is all one , because the carotick arteries exclude all this difference . from the subclavian veins there arise both upper and lower veins ; and the lower both before and after division : before the division , four . . the mammaria ( whose original doth notwithstanding many times vary ) on each side one , somtimes without a fellow , descending into the duggs , of which i have made frequent mention . this by way of anastomosis , is somtimes joyned to the epigastrica under the right muscles of the abdomen . . the mediastina which comes to the mediastinum and the thymus . . cervicalis for the muscles which lie upon the vertebra's and for the marrow of the neck . . muscula inferior , for the lower muscles of the neck and the upper of the breast . and this also arises somtimes , from the external jugular . the figure explained . this table propounds the chief distribution of vena cavae through the whole body . a. the trunk of vena cavae below the heart . b. its trunk above the heart . c. an hole whereby it gapes into the heart . dd. the subclavian branches . ee . the mammary veins . f. the vena mediastina . gg . the venae cervicales . hh . the venae vertebrales . iiii . the jugulares externae . kkkk . the jugulares internae . lllll. the vena azygos or sine pari. mm. the intercostalis superior . nn . the rami phrenici . ooooo . the branches of cava through the liver . p. the scapularis intern● . q. the scapularis extern● . r. the thoracica superior . s. the thoracica inferior . t. the cephalica . v. it s external branch . x. it s internal branch which in part constitutes the mediana . zz . the basilica vein . 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 . its first bough . 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 . the external branch of the second bough . 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 . the internal branch of the second bough . 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 . the third bough constituting the other part of the mediana . 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 . the salvatella . these following characters design the lower veins . aa . the emulgent veins . bbbb . the spermatick veins . ccc . the veins of the kidney-kernels . dddd . the lumbal veins . ee . the rami iliaci . ff . the muscula superior . gg . the sacra . hh . the ramus iliacus externus . ii. the ramus iliacus internus . kk . the muscula media . ll. the venae epigastricae . mmmm . the hypogastricae venae . nn . the muscula inferior . oo . the vena pudenda . pp . the crural branch . qqqq. the venae saphaena . rr . the ischias minor . ssss . the muscula . ttt . the poplitaea . uu . the suralis . xx . the ischias major . page basilica , as shal be said in the following chapter touching veins of the head. from the axillary after its division from the trunk of the basilica arise two veins . . thoracica superior spent into the muscles spred upon the chest , and into womens dugs . . inferior which somtimes grows out of the superior creeping all over the side of the chest , whose branches are joyned by way of anastomosis with the branches of vena sine pari which proceed out of the chest . from the upper part of the subclavian trunk , there first arises muscula superior , spread out near the jugularis externa , into the skin , and muscles of the hinder-part of the neck . and afterwards , the jugular veins , so called , because they ascend in the jugulum at the sides of the neck ; and they are internal or external . external , which sometimes , either in its original , or in the middle of its passage , is twofold , creeping upwards under the skin , and provides for the external parts of the head , face , neck , and fauces . for under the root of the ear , it is divided into the internal and external branch . the internal goes unto the muscles of the mouth , fauces , hyoides , &c. the exterior being under the ear propped with kernels , is divided into two parts ; one part is caried into the fore-parts of the face , the nose and cheeks , and in the middle of the forehead being joyned with a branch of the other side , it makes the vein of the forehead which is usually opened . the other is carried through the sides , the temples , and the occiput . this the wise severinus opens with very great successe , in the head-ach , hoarsness , shortness of breath , pleurisie , pain of the spleen , tetters , squinzy , and which i was present and saw , in varices of the face . mean while these branches are variously mingled in the head and the crown of the head. the internal jugular in men is the greater , because of their abundance of brains , but in beasts it is contrarywise t is called apaplecta , and does ascend to the side of the trachea , to which it sends branches . reaching to the basis of the skull in its hinder-part , it is divided into two branches . the one which is the greater , is carryed backwards with the lesser branch of the carotick arterie , through the hole of the os occipitis , which is made for the sixt pare of nerves , and enters into the cavity of the dura mater . the other being lesser , entring at the hole of the third and fourth pare , is spent into the dura mater . chap. . of the veins of the arms and hands . the axillary vein as we have observed in the foregoing chapter , is divided at the beginning of the arm , into two remarkeable branches : the upper and lesser , or the vena cephalica , and the lower and greater or easilica . the upper is called vena humeraria cubiti inferior , cephalica or capitalis , the head-vein , because it is wont to be opened in diseases of the head , by the ancients , and by later surgeons also either out of ignorance or superstition . in brutes it arises from the external jugular , in men allwaies from the axillary , yet so that from the external jugular a short twig may be inserted into the cephalica . it is carried in the surface of the body , between the fleshy membrane and coat of the muscles . it s external branch termed funis brachii , at the middle of the wrist , in the lower part , is joyned to a branch of the basilica , and afterwards arising into the outer side of the wrist , passing along between the ring finger and the little finger , it is called salvatella , which is that which the arabians term siele , who as others at this day , commend the opening thereof in the left hand , against melancholick diseases , acute fevers , and tertian agues , but in vain , and upon no ground at all . as joh. bap● . sylvaticus has proved in a distinct treatise , and severinus lately , whatever spigelius may dispute touching anastomoses of the arteries , in the extream parts , wherewith the spleen abounds : for the spleen is more remote , and any other part may be as wel opened for there are anastomoses in a manner every where . they make that the inner branch of the cephalica which constitutes the mediana . basilica by some call'd cubiti interior , epatica , jecoraria , &c. the liver vein , because in diseases of the liver it is usually opened : but in the left side t is termed lienaris the spleen vein because the opening thereof is commended in diseases of the spleen , upon no ground at all . but let surgeons take heed when they open this vein , least they wound a nerve of the third and fourth pare , which lies neer the same , whence follows great pain , a feaver , convulsion , and death . also arteries lie beneath the same , which being hurt , causes au aueurisma and effusion of blood. this vein is divided into more boughes then the head vein . under the tendon of the pectoral muscle it is divided into three branches . i the first goes along with that nerve of the arme , which they cal the fourth . ii the next is termed medius and profundus , beneath the elboe joynt divided into an external and an internal branch , separated but a little way one from another . the former provides for the thumb , forefinger , and middlefinger ; as also for the external muscles of the hand . the latter being stretched along the middle bone of the cubit , servs the middlefinger , the rinfinger , and the little finger , as also the internal muscles of the hand . iii the subcutaneus is divided at the inner swelling of the arm , is divided into a foremore and hindermore branch : the latter descends under the ulna by the little finger , where it is joyned to a branch of the cephalica . the former as it passes along the cubit , produces another remarkeable vein , which proceeds sometimes directly , otherwhiles with various turnings unto the wrist . and then as it is carried along the cubit , with the inner branch of the cephalica , it makes a common vein which is called mediana by avicen nigra , t is cald the mediana or middle vein because of its sitnation in the midst of the arm. it is frequently opened without danger , because there is no nerve beneath it , but only the tendon of a muscle . from this or rather from that part of the basilica , whence this arises , a branch is sent forth , which being divided above the radius , produces an exteriour branch , between the thumb and the forefinger , which some cal cephalica , others occularis , and some again as mundinus , salvatella , and another more inward , betwixt the middle finger , and the ring finger , which some as rhasis count the sielc or rather seilem of avicenna . but touching the distribution of all these veins it is to be observed , that they differ in several bodies , and are seldome in one man , as they are in another ; yea the right side of the same man does rarely agree with the lest ; and in like manner they varie in magnitude , in several persons . chap. viii . of the trunk of vena cava descending as far as to the thighes . the lower trunk of vena cava proceeding out of the liver , called the descendent trunk , is more narrow then the upper or ascendent ( which servs very many parts ) and proceeds undivided accompanied with with a great arterie , as far as to the fourth vertebra of the loyns . mean while it sends forth these folowing boughes . i the vene adiposae which servs the coat of the kidneyes and their fat , the left of which , is commonly higher then the right . ii the emulgent veins , descending to the kidneyes by a short and crooked passage , sometimes with a threefold rise , bringing back the wheyish blood being purified from the kidnyes into the vena cava . . the spermatick veins of which in the first book . . the lumbaces or loyn-veins somtimes two , somtimes three , which are carried betwixt the four vertebra's of the loyns . from these some write that they have observed two veins ascending , within the vertebra's , on each hand to the side of the spinal marrow in the brain , which makes them conjecture , that a portion of the seminary matter is brought from the brain . these being thus constituted , the trunk going towards os sacrum , at the fourth vertebra of the loyns , it goes under the aorta , which before was under it , and is divided into two equal branches , termed rami ilij or iliaci , because they go over the os ilij and os pubis unto the thighes . about the division it self , there arise two veins ; the muscula superior serving the peritonaeum and the muscles of the loyns and belly , and the sacra , somtimes single , otherwhiles double , for the marrow of os sacrum . afterward the ramus iliacus is forked out on each side into the external greater , and the internal lesser . from the inner two veins sprout ; the muscula media without , serving the muscles seated on the outside of the hip , and the skin of the buttocks ; and the hypogastrica which is remarkable , somtimes double , serving very many parts of the hypogastrium , as the muscles of intestinum rectum , whence are the haemorhoides externae ; the bladder and its neck , the yard , the lower side and neck of the womb . whence are those veins by which menstrual blood is many times thought to be purged in virgins and women with child ; which nevertheless seldom happens , when the venae hypogastricae do cumulate thick blood , and send it not back unto the trunck , then they may be opened , but otherwise , they are indeed suppressed ; but they ascend unto the heart by the vena cavae , and cause palpitations and other symptomes . but when they are right , the courses are naturally voided by the arteries , which appears by their florid color , and the common office of the arteries , which is to carry unto the parts of body . walaeus proves this also by other tokens in his epistles . this branch when it is joyned with the crural branch internal , doth cease . from the outer , three : two before it goes out of the peritoneum , and one afterward : the first is the epigastricae ( which seldom arises from the crural ) to serve the peritoneum and muscles of the belly ; the chief part ascends , under the right muscles to the mammariae , to which they are often joyned about the navil . . the vena pudendae , which serves the privy parts in men and women ; it goes athwart to the middle of os pubis . . muscula inferior , going over the side of the hip-joynt , to serve the muscles and skin of that part . afterwards its branches are termed crurals . chap. . of the crural veins . the venae crurales , as also the arteries and nerves passing along , are in the bending of the thigh interwoven with frequent kernels , for firmness sake . afterwards there arise from the crural ve●● six branches . . saphaeda ( so cal'd because of its apparency more than other foot-veins ) or venae m●leoli the anckle-vein , is long and remarkable , it is carried along in the inside of the thigh , with a nerve stretched by it , between the skin and membran● carnosa to the knee , and along the inner part of the leg , it goes to the inner anckle . and it is variously distributed into the upper parts of the foot , towards the toes , especially the great toe . this is opened about the ankle , in diseases of the womb , especially when the courses are stopt , and in the gonorrhaea to evacuate or revell the blood which otherwise would ascend too plentifully unto the womb and genitals . now it must be opened where it is most apparent , whether it be on the back or side of the foot. . ischias minor is opposite to the former . for it is a short outer branch , springing from the crural : it is carried outwardly and athwart into the skin of the hip , and the muscles of that place . . muscula , arises from a trunk , which lies hid among the muscles : it is a double and remarkable branch , distributed among the muscles seated in the thigh . . poplitea the ham-vein , is made of a double crural branch mingled together , and runs streight along under the skin , behind , through the midst of the bending of the ham , as far as to the heel , somtimes to the skin of the outer ankle . this vein is commonly supposed to have been frequently open'd by the ancients , under the knee , and paulus magnus a chyrurgeon of rome , did once open it . but because it lies exceeding deep , and cannot be seen , we must suppose it cannot be opened : and perhaps this is not the venae poplitea of the ancients , especially seeing galen is exceeding various in his description thereof , and calls it somtimes the vein in the ham , somtimes about the ham , somtimes at the knee , otherwhiles under the knee ; peradventure he meant the ankle-vein , which descends to the inner bunching of the leg , and is indeed conspicuous enough under the knee . . is cal'd suralis , which is a great vein ; and is divided into the external and lesser , and the internal and greater branch , and each of them again into exterior and interior . it is distributed amongst the muscles of the calf of the leg. on the back of the foot , being mixed with the branches of the poplitea , it makes that same various texture of veins , which is apparent under the skin . . ischias major gives a part to the muscles of the calf , and then spends it self into ten branches , bestowing a couple upon each toe . touching all these it is to be noted : . that all these branches , do send divers tigs outwards to the skin , which are termed skin-veins . . that all these branches are diversly disposed in different men , as was said in the arms ; nor is there alwaies the same carriage of veins , in both the legs of the same person . . that there is also no great choyce to be made in opening the veins of the feet ; seeing they are all derived from one trunk , and the blood ascends from the extream parts and arteries . the second manual of the arteries , answering to the second book touching the middle cavity or chest . chap. . of the arteries in general . arteria an artery so called from containing and preserving air or spirit ; was by the antients hippocrates , plato and aristotle the name of the wind-pipe , which also hippocrates calls arteria magna . galen makes a distinction and cals the wind-pipe aspera arteria the rough artery , and those whereof we are now to treat arteriae leves the smooth arteries , which hippocrates cals arterias parvas , aristotle somtimes venam aortam , otherwhiles simply aorta . now an artery properly so called , is a common organ , round , long , hollow like a pipe ; consisting of a double coat , proceeding from the heart , fit to carry blood and vital spirits to all parts . the efficient is the proper artery-making faculty , which may be called artoropoietice . the matter whereof it is made , is a clammy and cold part of the seed , according to hippocrates . and this is the beginning of its generation . the beginning of its dispensation , is not the brain , as pelops galen's master would have it , but the heart by the consent of all philosophers and physitians . and indeed the arteries proceed out of the left chamber or ventricle of the heart , not the middlemost , which aristotle seigns to himself , and would have the aorta to proceed therefrom . and therefore the arteria magna proceeds from the heart , as also the venosa arteria , and the vena arteriosa , but these out of the right ventricle ; of which we have spoken already in the second book . their end or use is , . inasmuch as they are conduit-pipes , they carry the blood and vital or arterial spirit made in the heart ( for spirit alone without blood is not contained in the arteries ) to all parts of the body . . to communicate life or vital faculty , that the vital spirit implanted in the parts , and their native heat may be sustained and cherished . . that animal spirit may be bred , in the noble ventricle of the marrow . . for the nourishment of all the parts , which are nourished by these only and their blood and not by the venal blood or veins . . to carry the excrements of the body and the blood therewith mingled , either to the outer parts of the body to the kidnies , or the mesentery , or the womb , or the haemorrhoid veins , &c. ii. inasmuch as they are moved and pulse perpetually ; they afford this benefit . . that the heat of the parts is fanned , cooled and tempered , and so a symmetrie or due proportion of heat is preserved . which is caused , not so much by the airs being drawn in , when the artery is widened , to avoid vacuum , as by the arterial blood continually flowing in , impregnated with air. . that this nourishing arterial blood , may be continually poured into the smallest arteries , and from thence into the parts of the body . for in the first place , the heart by continuall pulsing , drives the blood into the greater arteries , which because they cannot let it return because of the valves , and are too strong to break , it must needs be driven to to the very smallest arteries and the parts of the body . and those parts not being nourished with all that is forced in , do send back that which is superfluous into the veins , that so it may be circulated . moreover , an arterie being bound in any part of the body , it is filled towards the heart , otherwise than the veins ; contrariwise towards the smallest arteries and the parts it is emptied . thirdly , in blood-letting , the arm being indifferently hard bound and the pulse remaining , the arm is filled , and a vein being opened below the band , blood plentifully issues , which because it cannot come out of the veins which lying higher are stopped by the ligature , it must needs be brought from the arteries beneath . fourthly , in live-creatures dissected , this tumor of the arteries is observed neer their original , and a lankness towards the extream parts of body , into which they go ; and when they are opened , there is a mighty flux of blood , on this side the band , none beyond it . lastly , the same is to be seen by an aneurisma . . least the blood of the veins to which they are joyned , should be stil , and putrifie like standing waters , and that the heart may not be destitute of blood in its continual expulsion , by the driving arteries it is continually filled again through the veins . this motion of the arteries called the pulse , is caused , either by the faculty alone , whether seated in the arteries themselves , as praxagoras would have it , or flowing from the heart by the coats of the arteries , as galen and infinite physitians after him have taught , especially by reason of a little reed put into the arteries , under which they are not mov'd , by reason of the intercepton of their coat , til it be taken away . again , because as the heart is contracted and widened , so are the arteries , as appears by laying one hand to the region of the heart , and the other to the wrist , and by wounds in the heart and arteries : or by the blood either boyling according to aristotle , or rarefied according to des cartes , or meerly distending as harvey hath proved : or from both the blood filling , and the faculty directing , which is my opinion . for that the arteries are moved and distended by the blood , i prove . . the heart by its perpetual pulsing , expels great store of blood , as i have demostrated in my chapter of the heart . . that the same blood doth fill and move the arteries , the artery it self shews , being laid bare , into which at every pulse , you shall feel with your fingers the blood driven in to flow down , with which it is dilated . . when an artery is opened , blood leaps out , at every pulse , as out of the heart . . harvey saw a portion of the descendent artery with two crural branches a span long taken out of the body of a gentleman , which was turned into a fistulous hollow bone , and nevertheless the blood which when he was living , descended through the the cavity thereof into his legs , did move the arteries beneath , by its impulse . the same hath been observed by others in the arteria aorta . in an aneurisma the flesh is manifestly seen to pulse , as formerly the artery being sound was wont to do by the afflux of blood. . the waving , worm-creeping pulse , do argue the same , in the judgment of walaeus . . harvey gives us another rare experiment , made with the guts of a dog , wolf or other creature dried , blown up and filled with water . for if we smite one end with our finger , and lay our fingers to the other end , we may cleerly perceive every stroak , and the difference of the motion . howbeit i conceive the faculty ought to be joyned hereto , communicated to the coats from the heart , by help whereof , they are contracted and widned ; because , . otherwise the flux of the blood would be inordinate , and the pulse alwaies unequal . . all the arteries are dilated or contracted in one moment , but the blood alone fils the arteries successively and moves them part after part . indeed , gloves being blown into , all the fingers are puffed up at once , which harvey objects , and in a basin the blow and motion are at once in both ends : but corporeal blood is of another nature , which cannot be moved like species or winds . . the faculties or irradiation of vital light , may run through all parts in the twinkling of an eve , like the light of the sun. see more of this in the chapter of the heart . . hence within galen his reed the artery is obscurely moved , because the swift motion of the blood ceases when the faculty is hindred . howbeit , harvey and walaeus argue differently about this difficult experiment . now all the arteries are widened when the heart is contracted , and contracted when the heart is widened , which is certain from the dissection of an artery and the heart , and from ligatures , nor was it so long ago unknown to erasistratus , and reason confirmes the same , because when the heart expels , then are the the arteries filled with its blood. yet have they not contrary pulses , as we find by laying our hand to the wrist and the region of the heart , at one and the same time , for the pulse of the heart is perceived by us in its systole , but that of the arteries in the diastole , when they are filled , because the two motions , are at one and the same time . the smallest capillary arteries are not perceived to pulse , because there is not so much force in them , and therefore we can hardly discern them from the veins . also they have thin coats , so that the blood is seen through them , as through the veins . the form is apparent from the accidents ; howbeit the form of an arterie is the substancial soul , as it is of the whole body besides . it s situation is deep , allwaies under the veins , that they might be more safe , and that not only in the external , but the internal parts also , if you except the belly , a little below the kidneies : for after that the vena cava and the aorta , descending from the diaphragma , have passed the region of the kidneies , the cava hides it self under the aorta through all that region , til they pass out of the abdomen ; for then the arterie does again side it selfe under the cava . the cause whereof plempius conceives to be this ; that otherwise there would have bin danger , least the bending of the body often happening in that place , the vena cava having but a single coat , would have resisted the said motion . it s magnitude is sufficiently great , but the descending part of the arterle is greater , the ascendent lesser , because the number of the internal parts is greater then of the external . the number of the arteries is fewer then of the veins , because the passage of the blood is quick through the arteries , slow through the veins , and therefore there are many receptacles provided for that blood which is collected by certain pulses . yet there are more arteries then we think , or can be discerned by us , because the capillary arteries are exceeding like to veins . their shape is like a pipe or channel , smooth , round , and long . as to their passages . some arteries are terminated into the guts , by which expulsion of excrements is caused ; some have their mouths terminated into the skin , through which the external air is attracted ( in transpiration which is performed also by the veins ) and sooty steams expelled . platerus denies that they are inserted into the bones , but spigelius observed at padua , in a great corruption of the o● tibiae , that the substance of the bone was bored through by an arterie . which perhaps aristotle had likewise seen , because he sayes that arteries end into a solid substance . they are compassed ( like the veins ) sometimes with a membrane thick and common , from the neighbouring parts , when they are without the b●wels and the muscles ; and such arteries as have a membran● joyned to them with nerves in it , do feel ; whence galen said the pulse was inflamed , also that an arterie did feel , and was pained , which one at padua found in his inner parts , who dying with a mighty pain in his loyns , stones like a mans nailes were found in his lumbal arteries . but other arteries are without sense . the substance of the arteries is membranous , so that they may be distended and compressed more then the veins . fallopius thought their substance to be gristly , because he observed that it did degenerate into a boney nature ; which also vestingus , saw , as well as harvey , in the great arterie above the valves , near the heart of an old man. but that many things are changed into a boney substance , which were not grisley columbus teaches in the septum cordis . now an arterie consists of two peculiar coats . the exterior is thin , soft , rare , as the coat of a vein is . the interior is compact , hard , and very thick , viz. five times thicker then the coat of the veins : and therefore herophilus said , that the arteries were six times thicker then the veins , for this cause , that they might be strong in their perpetual motion , and that their thin blood should not soon vanish and fly away , being spirituous and vaporous . and therefore in the opening of an arterie , the incision must be made deep , with a broad and sharp lancet , because of the deep situation of the arterie , and thickness of the skin . the opening of an arterie is allowed of by these ancients oribasius , aegineta , aetius , actuarius , aurelianus , abensina . with good success galen practised it , in a disease of the eyes proceeding from hot blood , ful of vapors , and in pains of the hips . panarolus at rome uses the same kind of remedie in a phrenzie , and alpinus writes that it is frequent in aegipt , which paraeus did likewise exercise in france , m. aurelius severinus at naples , and paulus moth with us , excellent physitians and surgeons , do happily open them , to the great good of their patients , especially in diseases of the head ; in which nevertheless , the opening of an arterie may seem usless , because vaporous and hot blood is as well carried by the inner carotick arteries unto the brain , from the basis to the plexus retiformis , as wel as by the external ones , which are opened . the same blood returnes through the jugular veins , according to the sure laws of circulation . but seeing it did certainly profit the patients , i conceive it was practised rather by way of preservation , then of cure. for the antecedent cause being somewhat evacuated by the outer arteries , the conjunct cause is easily extruded by the jugular veins . more over , some external vein or arterie may be obstructed , so that neither the latter can send , nor the former receive , unless they be opened . galen ads a third coat , in their inner surface , like a cobweb for thinness , appearing in great arteries about the original . chap. . of the ascendent trunk of the great arterie . the distribution of the arteries which alwaies in a manner , accompany the veins , wil be more easy and short ; because the dessemination of the veins is already understood from what has bin said before . the arteria magna or crassa , the great or thick artery the mother of the other arteries , comes out of the left ventricle of the heart with a gapeing orifice or vvide mouth ; where within the pericardium or heart-bag , it breeds from it self the arteria coronaria , compassing the basis of the heart sometimes single , sometimes double , afterward , going out of the heart-bag , t is divided into the lesser trunk ascending , and the greater trunk descending . the lesser and upper trunk resting upon the wesand , does provide for all parts quartered above the heart : and is divided into the subclavius ramus dexter , which is higher and much the larger , and the sinister , rising more low and going obliquely to the arm. afterward the whole trunk sustained by the thymus , divides it self into two carotides or sleep-arteries unequal , which go right upwards . the arteriae subclaviae before they go out of the chest ( for then they are termed axillares when they are out ) from their lower part , do produce the intercostales superiores to the intervals of three or four of the upper ribs ; from their upper part . . the mammariae . . the cervicales . . the musculae . from the axillaris before it comes to the arm , in the lower part , doth arise the thoracica superior , thoracica inferior , and scapularis : in the upper part , the humeraria . the remainder , goes from the axillary on each side to the arm. chap. iii. of the arteria carotides . the arteriae carotides do ascend upwards right to the head by the sides of the wesand , being knit unto the internal jugulars : for the internal veins do not accompany the arteries . when they come to the fauces , before they enter the skul , they give branches to the larynx and the tongue : and then a division is made into the outer and inner branch . the outer being the smaller , furnishes the cheeks and muscles of the face ; and then at the root of the ears , 't is divided into two branches ; the one is sent to the hinder parts of the ear , whence arise two branches entring the lower jaw , to furnish the lip , and the roots of all the lower teeth : the other goes to the temples , the forehead , and the muscles of the face . the inner at the saddle of os sphaenodes under the dura mater , makes the rete mirabile , and then passes through the dura mater , and sends forth two branches . . the lesser with the nerve optick to the eyes . . the greater ascending to to the side of the glandula pituitaria , and distributed through the pia maior and the substance of the brain . chap. . of the arteries of the whole hand . the axillary arterie , is carried along through the arm , descending between the muscles , with a vein and nerve of the arm which they count to be the fourth . under the bending of the elbow , it is divided into two fair branches ; the upper and the lower . the upper goes right on through the middle to the wrist , where physitions feel the pulse ; afterward proceeding under the ring-shap'd ligament , it bestows branches upon the thumb , fore-finger , and middle-finger . the lower running through the ulna to the wrist ; furnishes the mid-finger ring-finger and little finger : and so it proceeds to the wrist , whence we feel the motion of the pulse beneath , especially in lean persons , or such as have a great pulse . but we better perceive the pulsing of the former branch , because it is less obscured and hid by tendons . the figure explained . this table presents the distribution of the arteria magna or aorta , through the whole body . a. the beginning of the arteria magna arising cut of the heart . aa . it s trunk ascending , from whence arise cc. the arteriae subclaviae , and from these dd . the arteriae carotides , which afterwards produce ee . the ramus exterior and ff . the ramus interior . gg . the arteriae vertebrales or cervicales . hh . the arteriae musculae . ii . the arteriae mammariae . kk . the upper intercostal arteries . ll . the scapularis interna . mm. scapularis externa . nn . thoracica superior . oo . thoracica inferior . pp. the ramus axillaris . qq it s upper branch dispersed through the arm to the wrist . rr. it s inferior branch going also to the hand . these following characters denote the arteries which spring from the descendent trunk . b. the trunk of the artery descending . aaaa . the lower intercostal arteries . bb . the phrenicae arteriae . c. the arteria caeliaca . d. the right branch thereof . e. it s left branch or arteria splenica , sprinkled with very small twigs through the spleen . f. the arteria gastrica dextra . g. the arteria gastrepiploica . h. the arteria epiploica . kk . the arteria mesenterica superior . ll . the emulgent arteries . mm. the spermatick arteries . nnnn . the arteriae lumbares . oo . the mesenterica inferior . pp. the rami iliaci . qq. the arteria iliaca externa . rr. the iliaca interna . s. the arteria sacra . tt . arteriae hypogastricae going to the arse-gu ▪ and the privities . uu . the hypogastricae which go to the womb. xx. the umbilical arteries . zz . the arteria epigastricae . 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 the arteria cruralis . 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 the arteria pudenda . 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 the muscula inferior . 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 the arteria muscula , cruralis , external 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 the muscula cruralis interna . 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 the poplitaeus ramus . 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 the ramus suralis . 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 branches spent upon the foot and its to●s ▪ page chap. v. of the descending trunk of the great arterie . the trunk of the aorta or great arterie descending is greater , because it sends out branches from it self , into the middle and lower belly , as also into the thighes . in the chest or middle bellie , two arteries proceed from the greater trunk . i the intercostales inferiores which go unto the intervalls of eight ribs , and the neighbouring muscles . for it seldom happens , that the vein sine pari , has to accompany it an arterie sine pari , ariseing from the trunk . by these intercostals if we beleive spigelius , quittor and water collected in the chest , are received into the great arterie , and thence by the ▪ emulgent veins carried into the bladder , which has also reason to back it , because the congested matter is more easily hurried through the arteries , and the way is shorter . i add that quittor more readily follows the natural motion of the arterial blood then of the venal . ii. the phrenica to serve the midriff and pericardium , or heart-bag . the rest of the trunk peirces through the clift of the septum , and spreads branches through the lower belly , some of which accompany the branches of vena portae , others the branches of vena cava . those which accompany the branches of vena portae are three ; coeliaca arteria , mesenterica superior & inferior . the caeliaca , so called because it sends many branches unto the stomach , proceeds foreward from the aorta , being under propped by the call , and is divided into the ramus dexter which is the smaller , and the sinister ramus which is the larger , which under the hinder region of the stomach , are knit to the vena portae in the pancreas . the dexter ascending to the cavity of the liver , and proceeding a little forwards , on the higher side produces gastrica dextra , and the cysticae gemellae ; from its lower part , epiploe dextra , intestinalis , and gastroepiploïs dextra , in imitation of the vena portae . therefore let what was said there , be here repeated . the remainder from the ramus dexter goes into the hollow surface of the liver . the sinister or arteria splenica , is greater than the dexter , least it should be easily obstructed by thick juyces , and that it may pour sufficient vital blood , into the spleen . this artery drawn out into the vena splenica , by a bending and crooked course goes to the spleen , and then spreads branches after the same manner as the vena splenica . the mesenterica superior is distributed welnigh into the whole mesentery , and constitutes the arteriae mesaraicae , in the gut jejunum , ileon and part of colon : whose use is , . to communicate native heat into the neighbouring parts , and those whereinto they are inserted . . in a sickly state to receive the excrement - of the whole body , as the mesaraick veins do , to empty them into the guts , which use was first found out by spigelius . . some conceive the mesaraick arteries draw chyle . . because of their carriage . . because of their ends. . of their contents . . the authority of galen in his . de usu partium and in his treatise an in arteria sit sanguis ch . . whom hofman follows . but they cannot draw chyle , because chyle was never seen in them , and the arteries receive nothing from the parts , but communicate somewhat to those parts whereinto they are inserted . nor do they draw to the heart , as varolus would have it , for the valves hinder : and the chyle is not natural to the heart . nor to the liver or spleen , as others suppose , because only the splenick arteries do carry vital blood to the spleen , and there is only one little artery implanted in the liver . nor is it returned out of the arteries into the veins , as spigelius imagins , for so there would be labour in vain ; nor do they carry this chyle to the caeliaca : because nothing ascends by the arteries , but all descends by them to the parts . therefore . the true use of the mesaraick arteries according to the principles of walaeus is , to carry arterial blood to the guts , for their nutriment . which motion of the humors , ligatures do shew in live-anatomies . for the mesaraick arteries being bound , do swell towards the trunk and the heart , and are empty towards the guts , which suck in the blood , and send back what is superfluous , through the mesaraick veins to the liver . for the blood is also circularly moved in the abdomen , out of the coeliac and mesenterick arteries , into the vena portae , notwithstanding riolanus his denying the same , by his motion through the trunks , because . there is the same necessity which is in the heart and other parts , the same profit and the same urgency . . seeing there is an impulse of blood without intermission , into the meseraic and coeliack arteries , of necessity , they must either break , or tumors and other diseases must arise in the mesentery , or it must run back again to the branches of the portae . ligatures demonstrate the same here , as in other places . . the valves observed by harvey in the ramus splenicus , permit the blood to run back by the vena portae . as to the contrary reasons it is to be observed . . that the blood of the vena portae is not so impure , if it be compared with that of the cava , but that it is somtimes purer than it ; and though it be more dreggy , there is the more need for it to run back , to be made more pure by the liver and heart . . that there are in the liver anastomoses either of the vena portae and vena cava ( though they are not so apparent in a dead body ) or such as open into the parenchyma of the liver . . somtimes there is a remarkable palpitation of the arteria coeliaca in hypochondriacal disorders , which also mercatus and fernelius have observed , without any mutation of the pulse , viz. the hypochondrium being ill affected with wind , or with some distemper , whereby the same blood coming from the heart , may be changed in this region : but that by the palpitation of the lower parts , the heart is many times changed , tulpius hath an example . see also other arguments , learnedly resuted by slegelius . the mesenterica inferior , is distributed into the lower part of the mesentery , and the left side of colon. but the other arteries which accompany the branches of cava , are these following , excepting the mesenterica inferior . for in this order the branches break forth from the arteria magna , in the lower belly . . caeliaca . . mesenterica superior . . the emulgent . . the spermatick . . the mesenterica inferior . . the lumbares ; from which two arteries are thought to accompany two veins of the brain . . muscula superior . afterwards the aorta at the beginning of the ossacrum , goes above the vena cava and no longer under , least smiting against some bone in its perpetual motion , it should be hurt ; also that the fore-parts , the shops of generation , because of their need of heat , might be neer the great artery . and in this place it is called ▪ iliaca , where it is divided like the cava into the two iliac trunks , and each of them into the inner and and lesser branch , and the outer and greater which go to the thigh . but before they become crural , they send out on each side six branches . the sacra presently after the bipartition : from the inner trunk the muscula inferior , the hypogastrica and ●mbilical arteries : from the epigastrica and pudenda ; the rest of the artery is carried into the thigh ●nd makes the crural arteries . chap. . of the crural arteries . of the crural arteries , on each side , are constituted these following arteries . above the ham , for the exterior parts of the trunk , muscula curalis externa , to the foremore muscles of the thighs , from the inner , the muscula crutalis interna , to the inner muscles of the thigh ; and this is mingled at the knee , with a small branch or twig of the hypogastrica . under the ham arise three branches : . the popliteus , into the hinder muscles of the thigh . . the suralis , which is divided into the tibicus exterior , the posterior altus and posterior humilis , ●●● the muscles of the leg. . the rest is spent upon the foot and its ●oes ▪ the third manual of the nerves , answering to the third book of the head . chap. i. of the nerves in general . by the term nervus the ancients did sometimes signifie a ligament or band , hence the comaedian saies , he will come to the halter , in nervum ibit : but it properly signifies a common organ , which together with animal spirits , carries the faculty of moving and feeling , wherefore aurelianus calls the nerves seasuales vi● . a nerve therefore is a common organ long and round , to carry the animal faculty lodged in the animal spirit , into the parts of the body . the efficient is the nerve-making faculty . the matter according to hypocrates , is a clammy and cold part of the seed , heated but not burnt : and galen saies 't is a matter white , thick and roapie . and this is the beginning of its generation . the beginning of the dispensation of nerves or the part whence the nerves immediately arise , is the medulla oblongata , partly as it is within the skull , and partly as it is in the back-bone . within the skull arise those which are commonly said to arise from the brain , viz. the seven pair of nerves : and in the back-bone thirty . and this most true opinion is confirmed , not only by the similitude of the marrowie and nervie substance , but also by ocular experience . aristotle would have them arise from the heart , who is followed by alexander , averroes and apo●easis , who nevertheless say it comes by mediation of the brain . others would have the nerves to be nothing else but the veins and arteries continued , and degenerating into nerves : as praxagoras of old , in our daies cesalpinus , reusnerus , hofmannus , and martianus , but they are out ; seeing . in the brain there is no conjunction of arteries and nerves by anastomoses . . an artery being hurt or cut in the head , no convulsion follows . . the distinct rise of the nerves in the brain is apparent , as of the arteries in the heart . erasistratus did conceive they came from the dura mater . at this day many physitians conceive with galen , that some nerves arise from the brain , others from the spinal marrow : who are all confuted by ocular inspection . their end and use is , to carry the animal faculty with the animal spirit , from the brain , like conduit pipes , into the parts . . sensory , as the eyes , ears , &c. . motive , as the muscles . . all in a manner , that they may in general perceive and understand what causeth pain . and therefore the nerves inserted into the parts , do give to the said parts either sense alone , or motion alone , or both sense and motion : nor is there any voluntary motion or sense without the help of a nerve ; and therefore a nerve being cut , that part is presently deprived of sense and motion . the nerves therefore , i say , do afford to the parts either sense or motion , according as they are disseminated into such and such parts , because the nerves of themselves are not sensitive or motive . so that if they be implanted into muscles the organs of motion , they are termed motive nerves ; if into the instruments of sense , sensitive . many times also according to the nature of the parts , one pare of nerves affords both sense and motion . as the sixt pare of the nerves of the brain , commonly so called , is communicated to the bowels of the middle and lower belly to cause the sense of feeling ; and when it becomes recurrent , it bestows motion upon the muscles of the larynx . the optick pare so called , gives only sense , because implanted into the eyes only . but the other pare which is termed motorium par● , the moving pare , and arises from the marrow as well as the former , causes motion because it is implanted into the muscles of the eyes . the situation of the nerves , for securities sake , is more profound and deep than that of the arteries . the magnitude is various , according to the condition of the organs and dignity of the actions , their assiduity and magnitude . the optick nerves are great , because the action of the eyes is so ; also those nerves are most thick which are sent to remote and many parts , as the limbs ; indifferent in the sensory parts ; for because they were to be soft , they could not be very small : the nerves of the neerest parts are smallest of all , as in the muscles of the face . the nerves are commonly said to be seven and thirty pare in number ; seven pare from the brain , which i say arise not from the brain , but from the medulla oblongata within the skull , and thirty from the marrow in the back-bone . but i say that indeed & in truth , those seven pare , are ten pare , as shal be made apparent in the following chapter : and so i make forty pare of nerves : ten arising within the skull , and thirty without in the back-bone . the former were indeed by the ancients reckon'd to be only seven in number , and to arise from the brain , which they comprehended in this verse . optica prima , oculos movet altera , tertia gustat quartaque quinta audit , vaga sexta est , septima linguae . first sees , next moves the eyes ; third , fourth do tast , fist hears , sixt roams , seventh moves the tongue too fast . but the smelling pare was by them omitted , and that which they make the third pare , is double and distinct ; so the fist is double ; one pare of which duplicity , some have made to be an eighth pare , for archangelus reckon'd eight pare , columbus nine , and i ten , as stall be said hereafter . now the thirty pare of the marrow of the back are so divided , that seven are of the neck , twelve of the chest or back ( others say eleven ) five of the loyns ( sometimes four ) and six of the os sacrum . all these nerves do sprout out of both sides , and therefore they are termed pares of nerves , susug●●● conjugations or coupling of nerves . and it is necessary for a physitian to know their originals and distinctions , that he may understand to which part of the back-bone topicks are to be applied , when motion or sense , or both are impaired in the face , neck , hands , muscles of the belly , yard , fundament , womb , bladder , &c. moreover as to number , you must know that every nerve hath its mate or companion , except the last or lowest proceeding from the spinal marrow . the figure of the nerves is long , round , and smooth like conduit pipes ; but without any hollowness as the veins and arteries have : because the later with spirit were to carry blood , but the nerves carry only spirit . riolanus the father excepts the nerves of the privity manifestly hollow , which nevertheless his son excuses to have been meant of the hollow ligaments of the privity , who is better verst in anatomy than his father was , and so also laurentius spoke . severinus in his zootome , saies , the nerves of a bulls pizzle are hollow . galen also adds the optick nerves , which he will have to be hollow and perforated , sensibly and manifestly : for the discerning whereof he conceives three things are necessary , viz. that . the animal be great . . that it be cut up as soon as killed . . that the air be cleer and bright . plempius doth also require three things more , that the nerve be cut asunder with a most sharp knife , that it be not squeezed nor stretched , and that it be cut beyond the growing together of the two nerves . cornclius gemma subscribes to galen , who attributes rather a passage to be seen like a prick in the inner substance of the nerves . others conceive the porosity is better seen in the optick nerves being boiled . fallopius saies that galen thought thus , because in the bodies of apes which he dissected , all nerves are pervions . howbeit spigelius admits only certain passages in the beginnings of nerves , where they grow together , and soon after towards the eyes it vanishes . i also saw a cavity and publickly did shew the same in a dead body , after they were joyned , and before they entred into the eye . but vesalius , eustachius , and coiterus , deny these nerves to have any cavity against galen , and so do others , and produce experiments which succeed not , unless the conditions aforesaid be observed . all the rest of the nerves do want a manifest cavity , but they have pores , through which the subtile spirit● pa●s , least we should grant penetration of bodies which is impossible . these pores are double according to hogeland , lesser and greater , through the former subtil aerial bodies pass to move the parts ; by the later , bodies less subtil . neither of them is discernable to the sense . nor are there two sorts of spirits in the brain . i am rather apt to believe that according to the indigence of every part and the pleasure of the will and the imagination , sometimes more spirit passes through the greater , sometimes less through the lesser , which the more plentiful or scanty influx of the spirit doth make . moreover all the nerves do consist , none excepted , of many nervous fibres or filaments which grow mutually together by little membranes . i my self , with johannes leonicenus , a right diligent anatomist , have observed the trunk of nerves neer the hips , if it be dissected , to shew a cavity as it were , consisting of an infinite contexture of fibres , like little worms , whereas elsewhere it is one continued body , with cohaering and continued fibres . the substance of the nerves is thought to be threefold : the internal , white , and marrowish ( by which as the centre the action is performed ) from the marrow of the brain , but more compact and thickned ; and an external , being a twofold coat ; the outer harder , proceeding from the dura mater ; the inner finer , from the pia mater . which membranes do the same for the nerves , which the dura and pia mater do for the brain . howbeit this distinction of substances , is to be searcht out , rather by reason than by sense . cartefius supposes that there are valves in the nerves , which stop the spirit that it may not flow back , otherwise the parts cannot be moved . but it seems to me , the spirits may not be retained in the parts , which the soul that directed the spirit as far as to the valve , shall direct it into the very parts . for no anatomist as yet hath observed any valves . nor can subtile spirits be stopped by valves . nor would apoplexies or palsies so easily happen , if the spirits could be detained in the parts by valves . besides valves h. regius introduces likewise a circulation of the animal spirits in the nerves . for after they are distributed from the brain to the whole body , he conceives part is dissipated by insensible transpiration , and part being insinuated into the veins , is mingled with the blood , and returns with it into the heart , and thence again into the brain and nerves . he proves this by the example of a snail enclosed in a glass , in which the spirits through its transparent body , are seen to move and pass from the tail through the belly , to the head ; and from the head through the back , to return to the tayl , and from thence to the head again ▪ but some doubts with-hold me from assenting to this witty conjecture , because . walaeus searching out the motion of the animal spirits with all his diligence , could finde nothing but the motion and distention of the muscles . for the nerves being bound , do not swell , nor are distended , and being cut ●sonder , they shew no other motion , but that they are contracted into themselves . . there is no need that the spirits should run back to the veins , because being subtile they are easily consumed , and by his own confession do insensibly exhale . . new spirit is evermore supplied from the brain , which may supply the defect of that which is consumed . . the veins need none , because they possess that spirit which is proper to the blood , nor are they moved with animal motion . . the nerves themselves are not moved by systole and diastole , nor of themselves as was said , because it appears not when they are bound , and they move with a voluntary motion by the muscles , and not by the arteries because they are smaller and go not into them : finally the nerves are unfit for such a motion because of their slipperiness . . in a snail the spirit aforesaid is instead of blood , which snails have not . . i have seen those who had their senses perfect , and the motion of all their parts free to the last gasp , whose pulse did nevertheless intermit for certain daies , where there was no regress of the spirits to the veins , freely passing nevertheless from the brain to the parts of the body , as long as there was any left . it is now to be observed that all the nerves are not alike hard or soft ; whence galen reckons some nerves soft , others hard : the former he calls sensitive , the later motive . now the nerve become harder , . because of their production , as being to go a great wav● or through some hard body , or by a crooked way . and by how much they are further from the brain , by so much the harder they are . hence the short nerves , as those of the sight . taste , hearing are soft , and those of the smelling softest of all . . for use , for hard nerves are held to be fitter for motion , soft ones for sense . and therefore the organs of the senses have received soft nerves , that they might be the sooner affected by a sensible object occurring . now all parts which have voluntary motion have hard nerves , because that which is hard is fittest to act , that which is soft to suffer . the ●se therefore of all the nerves is , . to carry animal spirits to all parts for sense and motion , which appears when they are hurt . for if they are obstructed in the beginning or totally , they both perish and an apoplexy is caused : or in part , and then one part of the body is deprived of sense and motion . if they are cut asunder , the motion of that part is lost , into which they were inserted . . to diffuse animal light into the parts . for the animal spirits could not so soon be taken away , either in a ligature , or obstruction of the nerves , but that those spirits which remain in the part , might cause motion or sense . therefore the direction of the brain proceeds from some what else , which being taken away , the parts presently cease from performing their functions , even as the hammer is by the hand directed unto the anvil , and a staff is directed when it is hurled , which others endeavour to explain by some hot acci●ent beside the animal spirit . but i suppose these things are done by a light which irradiates from the brain , with the spirits , which being intercepted , the parts are immediately deprived of sense and motion , as the light of the sun is taken away by a cloud , and the light of a candle , by holding a mans hand before it . for , . no other influent cause , can slow in so suddenly , and be withdrawn so suddenly . . light is the cause of all motion wellnear in the univers● and nothing is swifter than it is . . sometimes it remains after interception , but not long , as light received into the bononian stone , and a stick by me violently darted , and broken in the middle way , does fly yet further , by the motion impressed from my hand . . the temper of the body follows the figure and temper of the nerves , and therefore jo● . damascenus in the seventh aphorisme to his son , advises , in giving of medicaments to avoid such as dissolve the force of the nerves . chap. . of the ten pare of nervs , which arise within the skull , from the medulla oblongata , and their progress . i make the first pare to be par olfactorium the smellingpare , whose processes are termed mammillares . and these processes have been sufficiently known to all : but the nerves , to which they are fastned behind , and well near continued , to none or very few . these nerves slip out of the marrow about the saddle of the sphaenoides , near the foremore ventricles , and have the carriage , colour , and use of nerves , and therefore i reckon them for nerves . for they must not therefore be robbed of the name of nerves , because they pass not without the skul , and dura mater , and are not afterward invested herewith , for then all the other nerves as long as they are within the skull , must not be called nerves , which were absurd . to these nerves are adjoyned two thick portions or processes called processus mammillares , papillares : the teat-like processes . they are in number , two , white , soft , broad , longish , in men thin and sruall , in brutes greater , especially in dogs , and other creatures that have an exquisite smell . for , the use of these processes , is to be the true organs of smelling ▪ and not the nose nor its coat . these processes are placed in the fore-part of the brain , behinde the colander-bone , and to it being covered with the dura meniax they put a face . through the colander-bone the odours ascend . the second pare , which others count the first , is the optick or seeing pare , because it carries the seeing spirits to the eyes , or the representations of visible objects to the brain , but not humours from the brain to the eye to nourish it , which is the fiction of caesalpinis . hicro●hilus calls them poros opticos or meatus , the optick pores or passages , because they are thought to be hollow . these nerves , of all the ten pare , are the greatest and thickest , but softer than the rest . they arise , not as the common opinion is , from the fore-part of the basis of the brain ; for their original must be sought further , towards the hinder part of the head , where they are carried between the brain , and the beginning of the spinal marrow , and arise out of the beginning of the first trunks of the medulla oblongata , growing out of the brain . but riolanus demonstrates , that they are turned round about those great eminencies of the brain , which g●●● c●●s thata●os nervorum opticorum , which reach unto the foremore ventricles , that they may fetch optick spirits from thence . and having proceeded a while , they are neer the middle way united above the saddle of os sphaeno●des , not by a simple touch or intersection , in mankind , but a total confusion and mingling of their substances , that they might suffer the less , in the middle of a long passage , by reason of their softness . vesalius , aquapendens and valverda have observed that they have somtimes continued divided , in their whole course . vesalius also observed that in a woman they were joyned only by mutual contact , whose right eye had been withered from a child ; because the right nerve was smaller than the left , beyond the conjunction . but in most bodies the inner substance of the nerves is confounded , as i have observed by accurate inquisition . the growing together of the optick nerves , was therfore contrived by nature , either left the sensible object being received in by both eyes should seem double , or that the visive spirit might , if need were , be all conveighed into one eye which are the conjectures of galen , or finally for strength and stability here necessary , least in concussions of the brain they might hap to be broken or distorted , or least through the softness and moistness of the brain and optick nerves , by reason of distillations and other excrements they might become flaggie , and so driven out of their right station ; which is the opinion of plempius . soon after being seperated they go out of the skull into the centre of the eyes in mankind , but much lower in beasts , because they look more sidewaies . within the skull they are cloathed only with the pia mater ; but from the holes , which pass to the eyes , they are covered with the dura mater . afterward it spreads the latter to the sclirotica tunica , the former to the tunica choroïdes , and its inner marrowy substance to the retina . the third pare , which others count the second , is the motorium oculorum , the eye-mover , next unto the former . this pare is thought by vulgar anatomists to arise from the brain , neer the original of the first pare . but it reaches to the middle of the head , goes beneath the opticks cross-wise , and arises at the inmost part of the beginning of the medulla oblongata , where in their rise , these two motive-nerves are so united as to touch one another , yea to become one continued body , which is the cause , that when one eye moves , the other is moved also . this pare is lesser and harder than the former and stretched out by the visive pare ; goes out of the skull at other holes to the muscles of the eyes and ey-lids . it sometimes though seldom sends a branch to the temporal muscle ; and that is the cause that the said muscle being hurt , the eye is hurt , and the eye being hurt that is hurt . the fourth , fift and sixt pares are much confounded by anatomists . for some make the fourth and fift pare one , and call it the third pare , consisting of two roots ; the lesser of which some do make the third pare , and they themselves do make the fift and sixt pare one , viz , the fourth pare by them so called . but those who reckon it for one , they count the fourth pare , according to my reckoning , for the lesser root of the third pares and the sixt pare for the fourth . whereas we distinguish all these pares . the fourth pare therefore , which others as bauhin● count the third ; others as fallopius the eighth pare ; others badly , the lesser root of the third pare : for it hath nothing common with the following pare , is not joyned to it , either in the beginning or the progress , and grows out of the order of other pares ● according to some from the side of the beginning of the medulla oblongata ; according to others it grows with a very small nerve , out of the lowest and hinder seat of the medulla cerebri or marrow of the brain : then it is carried forwards , and fastned to the second pare , it goes with it out at the common hole , enters the socket of the eye and sends one from it self branches into the fat of the eye , the fift muscle , and by a peculiar hole of the bone of the fore-head , it goes out to the skin of the fore-head , and the upper eye-lid . and these are furnished by its first branch . the second furnishes the muscles of the upper lip , and some of the nose , and the lip it self and gums . the third by the cavity of the nostrils serves the coat of the said nostrils . the fourth serves the inner part of the temporal muscle . all which branches fallopius doth attribute to the two following conjugations : but my distribution is propounded by vesalius , columbus , p●uerus , and bauhinus . the fift pare , which others count the thicker root of the third pare ; is commonly thought to furnish the tongue with the sense of tasting . this arises neer the following conjugation , out of the sides of the medulla oblongata , and presently after its passage through the os sphenoïdes , a writhen branch comes out like a tendrel of a vine ( which some think is done to make it harder ) and is united with two little twigs of the auditory nerve . it furnishes the muscles of the face , the temporal muscle , the chewing muscle of the cheeks , the skin of the face , the gums and teeth ( for by their means the teeth have all the sense they have ) the muscle that lies concealed in the mouth and the lower lip. the sixt pare , which some call quarta conjugatio , others the smaller root of the fourth conjugation , hath a smaller original , next the former , and somwhat harder than it . it goes through a common hole with the former , and yet it doth not therefore become one pare with the former : for the third , fourth , and seventh pare , as i reckon them , do also pass through one and the same hole . it is carried into the palate . others would have this pare also to serve the sense of tasting . the seventh pare , which others count the eighth , others the ninth , others the smaller portion of the fift pare , when as in the mean while it is a peculiar pare smaller and harder than the fift , also distinct therefrom in its original and progress : for it arises a little before the fift commonly so called , in the middest of the medulla oblongata , and going over the third pare , and cutting the same , it proceeds along between the third and fourth pare , where it is carried upwards and forewards , towards the sides . it goes out of the hole with the third and fourth pare , and is commonly quite spent upon the musculus abducen● of the eye . but that is a question , which others say , that it is carried into the temporal muscle , and into that which lies concealed in the mouth . the eighth pare which others count the fift , which is called auditorium , the hearing pare , arises close by the sides of the former , only a little below . it enters the os petrosum , and is divid●d into the greater branch , which being spred out , they wil have to make the drum , and the lesser broad below , as if it would accompany the sixt conjugation . table ▪ ● ▪ the explication of the figure . this table presents the original of the nerves to be seen in the brain turned underside upwards . aa . the smelling nerves reckoned by our author for the first pare . bb . their mammillary processes , or teat-like productions . cc. the optick nerves cut off neer the eye-holes ; the second pare . d. the glandula pituitaria . e. the inf●ndibilum or funnel . ff . two white kernels set before the passage of the brain . gg . the greater branch of the carotick artery . hh . the arteria cervicalis . iii. the beginning of the spinal marrow within the skul . kkk. the small branches of the arteries , which others call the ret● mirabile , ll. nerves of the third pare according to our author . mm. the beginnings of the nerves of the fift pare . oo . the nervi auditorij , or the eighth pare . pp . the beginnings of the ninth pare . qq . the rise of the tenth pare . ss . the cerebellum or brainlet . page it sends branches through the first and second vertebra to the proper musces of the larynx : and therefore it is that picking our ears too deep , a dry cough is caused . it is thought somtimes to send branches to the arm , with the fourth , fift and sixt of the arm ; and somtimes into the whole foot , with the nerves of the back-bone , after it hath accompanied the spinal marrow going downwards . the ninth pare which others call par sextum and vagum , the fixt and roaming or wandring pare ; because it furnishes very many parts here and there , yea and all the internal parts seated in the middle and lower bellies , which receive branches for sense , seeing they are soft bodies , nor can away with the harder sort of nerves springing from the spinal marrow . and because of the long way they go , they are cloathed with strong membranes , and are carried united to the neighboring parts . this pare arises a little beneath the foregoing , sundry fibres being presently united . it goes out through the hole of the occiput , through which the ramus major jugularis internae had ascended : and not fa● from its egress it provides for the muscles seated in the neck , especially the cucularis . then the trunk descends , and is knit with the last pare , the carotick artery , and jugular vein ; and sends branches ath●art , through the membrane and muscles of the larynx , also the muscles of the hyoides and the fauces , as also to the tongue . then descending between the carotick and jugularis , to the side of the wesand above the jugulum , it is divided on each side into the exterior and interior branch . the exterior constitutes the recurrent nerves or vocal nerves so called , because they being wounded the living creature looses ●●● voyce ; so that if one be cut asunder , half the voyce is los● ▪ if both , the animal becomes dumbe . they are also termed reversivi or recursivi , running-back ; for first they descend , and they turn afterwards back again as it were about an axle-tree on each side , the right about the arteria axillaris , the left about the descending trunk of the artery : and afterward they ascend as high as the muscles of the larynx , to which they give numerous branches ▪ which recursion was to be made , because th● muscles of the larynx have their heads , not above but beneath . and therefore the exterior dexter of the sixt pare , presently after the division , furnishes the muscles arising from the breast-bone and clavicula ; then the right recurrent being constituted for the most part of three little twigs bended back and united , it descends obliquely under the jugulum , and in its passage shoots out little branches for the coat of the lungs , the pleura , the pericardium and the heart ; and then makes the right stomachic , under the gullet joyned to the lest ; and passing through the septum , it goes into the right ventricle of the stomach to the lest branch . the exterior sinister , furnishing the parts in the same manner as the former , and constituting the left recurrent , it sends forth the stomachicus ●sinister ▪ which with its fellow compasses the orifice of the stomach and the remainder goes to the pylorus and hollow of the liver . the interior dexter first of all gives a branch of it self , at the roots of the ribs , to every intercostal nerve ; and then with the great arterie it passes through the septum , and furnishes the whole lower belly , till it reach as far as to the os sacrum . and then it goes into three branches . i. goes to the call , from whence arise other three twigs , to the colon , hence after a long colick comes hoarsness . the smallest scarsely visible , to the beginning of the guts . to the right side of the bottom of the stomach , the upper membrane of the call , the coat of the liver , and the gall-bladder . ii. the inferior to the right kidney . hence they assigne the cause of vomiting , in fits of the stone in the kidney . iii. the greatest to the mesentery , guts , and right side of the bladder . the interior sinister in its side is distributed after the same manner , save that in stead of the liver part thereof goes unto the spleen . but from both the interiors , sometimes branches are sent unto the womb. this is the distribution of the sixt pare according to the vulgar computation , the ninth according to my account . the ii. table . the figure explained ▪ this table presents the lower branchings of the sixt pare of nerves , which our author calls the ninth others the wandring or roaming pare . aa . the comeing of the said nerves out of the skull . bb . the ramus externus on both sides . cc. the ramus internus on both sides . dd . a remarkable branch spred into the tongue . ee . a branch ariseing from the same on each side , which goes to the muscles of the larynx . ff . another twig which goes with the former to the larynx . gg . twigs ariseing from the external branch , and propagated to the muscles of the neck . hh . the conjunction externi rami singularis , with nerves which arise from the plexus of the neck . ii . the recurrent nerve on each side ▪ k. the more internal branch ariseing near the first rib of the chest , which bestows the twig thus x marked upon the trunk of the wesand , and then descending ends into the pericardium or heart-bag . l. a little branch arising from the recurrent , which descending produceth another twig out of it self , and goes into the pericardium , and at last is implanted into the external branch m. the twig arising , as was said , from the same , and diffused into the pericardium . nn . two twigs arising from the external branch , the one of which is implanted into the substance of the heart , and the other tends to the beginnings of the vessells ▪ o. the aforesaid branch implanted into the pericardium . pppp . the plexus or contexture of both branches , viz. of the right and left , about the gulles , near the upper ori●●●● of the stomach . qqqq . twigs spred abroad into the lungs . rrrr . branches propagated into the upper parts , especially of the stomach . ffff . four remarkable branches , which descending into the mesentery , are spred abroad ●● the gu●●s . tt . the right and left nerve-twig of the kidneyes . u. the nerv-twig of the spleen . x. the nerve of the liver . page the tenth and last pare of nerves , arising within the skul in the hind part of the head , out of the medulla oblongata when in is ready to slide into the back-bone , is as others reckon the seventh pare . this is harder then the rest , and it springs from divers roots afterwards united , and goes out of the skul at a crooked hole propper to it self . and soon after it is with strong membranes joyned , not mixed with the precedent pare , for safe-gaurd sake . and then it is separated again , and goes the greatest part of it into the tongue , and some small part into the muscles of os hyoïdes and the larynx . chap. iii. of the nerves which proceed from the spinal marrow , and first of the nerves arising from the neck , and so of the nerves of the whole arm. and so much for those ten pare of nerves , which proceed from the medulla oblongata within the skul : the other pares do now follow , which are thirty in number , somtimes nine and twenty , from the same beginning , viz. the medulla oblongata being passed out of the skull into the back-bone : where it is termed medulla ▪ spinalis or dorsalis , the marrow of the back . now the little nerves proceed out of the holes of the back-bone , in a continued course bending themselves inward , from the uppermost to the lowermost . out of the marrow , while it is in the neck , there arise seven pare of nerves as some reckon , eight pare as others count , disseminated into the whole outward head and the neighbouring muscles . the first and second pare have this peculiar above all the rest , that they proceed not from the sides , but from the fore and hinder part , by reason of the peculiar articulation of the first and second vertebra . now the first pare arises between the hinder-part of the head and the first vertebra . joh. leonicenus of padua , a dextrous anatomist in taking out of the nerves , denied that there was any such pare as this , because he could neither see it , nor can ●● come out of the first vertebra having no hole , and sticking closely to the second vertebra and the occiput . the second pare arises between the first and second vertebra , and so of the rest in order . the first and second pare are disseminated into the muscles of the head , and to the ears . the third and fourth into the muscles of the cheeks , also those which are common to the head and neck . the fift with the branches of the fourth and sixt , do make the remarkable midrif nerves : and the fift with the foresaid , sends a part backwards , and a part forward into the muscles bowing the head ; those of the arms , shoulderblades , and the skin there . the sixt to the arms and the hollow of the shoulder-blades . the seventh is joyned with two of its neighbours , viz. the sixt of the neck and first of the chest , whose greatest part goes to the arms and as far as the hands . for there are carried into the arms five or six pare of nerves , viz. from the fift , sixt , and seventh pares of the neck , also from the first and second pares of the chest . which when they first break forth , they are all mixed and united , nor are separated without dammage , and soon after they are severally divided into the foresaid pares ; to the end haply , that by that light concourse , a collection might be made of animal spirits . hence topick medicaments , in a palsie , or convulsion of the arm , the upper part of the arm being affected must be applied on the side of the upper part of the back and the neck , from whence the nerves proceed , not directly in the middle , either of the back or neck , unless by reason of the common beginning of the nerves . the first pare , from the fift pare of the neck , goes chiefly into the deltoides muscle , and the skin of the arm , leaving a part which accompanies the vena humeraria . the second being thicker , is carried through the middle and forepart of the cubit , where it furnishes the musculus biceps , whereupon it is joyned with the third nerve , and afterwards going downwards , it salutes the supinator longior with a twig : but at the bending of the cubit , it is divided somtimes into two , otherwhites into three branches . . the upper and lesser , goes along the outside of the arm , to the outer part of the first or second interjuncture of the thumb . . the middle and thicker descends obliquely within the cubit to the wrist . . the lower , being stretched along by the inner branch of the basilica , is spent into the skin of the cubit and hand . the third is joyned with the former , under the muscle biceps , it provides for the brachiaeus and the inside of the hand . the fourth being the thickest , goes along with the vena profunda and the artery , afterwards is variously divided . now it furnishes the muscles which extend the cubit , the wrist , the thumb , the fore and the middle finger , and the muscles which stretch the fingers out . the fift stretcht along by the former , between the muscles of the cubit , which it furnishes descending through the lower and hinder part of the cubit ( where when we strike against any thing or compress the nerve , we feel a nummedness in our fingers ) in the middle thereof it is divided into two . one branch goes externally through the ulna to the middle finger , ring-finger , and little finger . on the inside of the fingers for securities sake , that they may give place in laying hold of any thing , for there wounds are more pernicious than in the middle . the other goes inwardly through the ulna betwixt the finger-bending muscles as far as the wrist , and sends branches to the same parts as the former sent to . the sixt is spent into the skin of the cubit , going betwixt the skin and the membrane . the figure explained . this figure presents the spinal marrow and the nerves derived therefrom to the limbs . a. the beginning of the spinal marrow ●e●r the skull . bbbb . the boughs orderly propagated from the medulla . ccc . the body it self of the marrrow , half included within the vertebrae , above which little veins and arteries spread themselves . dddd . branches arising from three pare of nerves of the neck , and two of the chest , to be distributed into the hand . e. the contexture and commixion of those nerves . ff . the first pare of nerves of the hands . gg . the second pare . hh . the third pare . ii . the fourth pare bigger than the rest . kk . the fift pare . l. the sixt pare which is under the skin . m. the first nerve of the thigh . n. the second nerve . ooo . the branch of the second nerve which accompanies the saphaena . pp . the third nerve of the thigh . qqq . the fourth nerve of the thigh , thickest of all . rr . the ramus externus . ss . the ramus internus . page chap. iv. of the nerves of the chest , the back and loyns . from the marrow of the back arise twelve pare , or as some reckon eleven all and every of which after thir ▪ egress are divided into the greater and lesser branches : the one of which is carried forward , the other backward , being bowed backwards . the foremore branches , are sent into all the intercostal spaces , the internal and external ones ( both which i have somtimes seen divided into two branches ) for the muscles which lie upon the chest , also for the oblique descendent of the belly . the hindermore and lesser branches go backwards to the spines of the back , betwixt the muscles which grow to the vertebrae , into which they are partly consumed , and partly into those which grow from these points of the spines , as into the rhomboides , cuculares , &c. out of the spinal marow when it is in the vertebrae of the loyns , there arise somtimes five , somtimes four pare of nerves : which pares are greater than those of the back . and each of these is divided into the foremore and hinder branches , which are disseminated , partly into the muscles of the loyns and hypogastrium , and partly into the thighes . for . this pare gives a branch to the fleshy parts of the midriff ; and then provides for the muscles of the belly and loyns . . it affords branches to some of the muscles of the thigh and leg , and as many suppose , a branch to the spermatick vessels . . it goes to the knee and its skin , and part accompanies the saphaena , and part goes to the muscles which rest upon the loyns . . among the lumbal ones , it is the greatest , proceeding to the fore muscles of the thigh and leg , as far as to the knee . . i passes through the hole , which is betwixt the hip-bone , the share and flank bones , and bestows branches upon some of the muscles of the thigh , yard , neck of the womb and bladder . but the greatest branches go from these three parts , unto the thighs as shal be said in the following chapter . chap. v. of the nerves which proceed from the marrow of os sacrum , and of the nerves of the whole foot. out of the spinal marrow contained in the os sacrum , there arises five pare of nerves , or as some reckon them six pare , out of the four , uppermost of which , and the three lowest of the loyns , arise the crural nerves , descending between the feet , which being in their rise joyned like a little net , do soon after sprinkle three branches from themselves , as shall be said by and by touching the nerves of the feet . now the first par● of nerves of os sacrum , is divided like the lumbal nerves , into a foremore and hindermore branch . but the five following pares otherwise . for before they go out , they are on each side double , and on each side one nerve goes into the fore parts , another into the hinder parts . the hindermore branches are dissminated like the hinder lumbals , viz , into the hindermore neighbouring parts . the three foremore which are uppermost , do go into the thigh , the two lower to the muscles of the fundament and bladder ; and some to the interfoemineum and scrotum . moreover , the end of the marrow of the back , doth produce only one branch out of it self which is therfore termed sine pari , without a ma●e or fellow ; yet somtimes it hath a fellow . it spends it self into the skin , between the buttocks and the fundament , and into certain muscles of the thigh . now follow the nerves which go into the thigh , which before were said to be four in number . the first and third are shorter , and reach only to the thigh , the second is longer , and goes also to the leg , the fourth is longest of all . the first being made up of the third and fourth pares of the loyns , descending to the small trochanter , spends it self into the skin and muscles of the thigh , and some of the leg , and is ended above the knee . the second arising from the same place , descends with the vein and artery to the thigh through the groyns , it goes to the foremore muscles of the thigh , and is spread about the knee . but it sends a remarkable branch inwardly with the saphaena to the ankle . the third arises in the articulation of the fourth and fift vertebra , passes through the hole of os pubis , to some upper muscles of the thigh and yard , arising out of the os pubis ; and to the skin of the thigh in the groyn . the fourth is the thickest , longest , hardest and driest in the whole body , made up of four pare of the os sacrum ; it furnishes the skin of the thigh , and certain muscles thereof , as also of the log and foot. i have somtimes observed this to have a double rise , and a double progress , the one external the other internal . but that same great trunk under the ham , is divided into an external and an internal branch . the external goes to the ham , the outside of the foot , the musculi peronaei , and the outer ankle . the internal and greater goes along the leg to the muscles of the feet and foes ; the inner ankle , the great toe and sole of the foot : and bestows two twigs upon each toe . all the nerves therefore well-neer , which go into the whole leg and foot , do arise from the only greatest crural nerve . the fourth and last manual of the bones and also of the gristles and ligaments answering the fourth book of the limbs . in the last place , i shall briefly ( as i have done other things ) explain the doctrine of the bones . in the last place , i say , because when all things else are removed and separated , then only the bones come in view , and are subject to examination . the most diligent riolanus treats in two places of his enchiridion , of the bones , once as they appear in the dead carkas , when the mūscles are cut off , and again as they are dried in a skeleton . but this ostentation is superfluous in a compendium . for by the same reason we should make a new anatomical discourse , of the veins , arteries , nerves , guts , stomach , womb , and other parts taken out , and dried , and commonly hung up for shew in the anatmoical theatres . there is no use of the latter doctrine of the bones , unless to help the memory , nor is it perfectly understood without the former . and therefore other anatomists , with the parts demonstrate the bones lying beneath them , in the dead body . i shal therefore only busie my self with the first , and therewith . joyn the doctrine of gristles and ligaments . . because of the similitude of their substance : for these three similar parts are very neer of kin , a bone , a gristle , and a ligament , so that they seem to differ only gradually in respect of more and less one from another . for a bone is the hardest , a gristle , a little softer , yet so as that it may turn to a bone , as we see in the tender bones of infants , which at first were gristy . a ligament is yet softer than a gristle , which also it self somtimes turns to a bone , as in decrepit persons . hence many attribute the same matter to a bone , a gristle , a ligament , yea and a tendon . . because of the nearness of place ; for a bone , a gristle , and a ligament do for the most part accompany one another , and are found joyned together . for the bones are tied with the ligaments , and where they are tied , they are covered about their heads , with a gristly crust or cover . chap. i. of the bones in general . the nature of the bones is easily known , if we shal but orderly propound their causes and accident● or adjuncts . the ma●●● out of which the bones are bred in the womb , according to hippocrates , is an earthy excrement , with fat and moisture added thereto . aristotle also calls it excrementum seminale , an excrement of the seed . galen saies it is the thicker and harder part of the seed dried . now some bones are perfectly generated in the womb , as those in the ear which serve the sense of hearing , being the smallest in the whole body ; others imperfectly , as the teeth and all the rest of the bones , in which at first somwhat is wanting ▪ either a process , o● an appendix , &c. ▪ moreover , all other bones save the teeth have a certain determination of their growth : but the teeth grow continually , for if one tooth be removed , that just against it grows longer : which nature therefore ordained , because they are alwaies wearing through grinding and chewing the meat . their remote nutritive matter , is thought to be the thicker and more earthy part of the blood , and that which is as it were excrementitious , flowing in through the veins into the marrow , where in the caverns of the bones it may be digested , for platerus denies that the bones have arteries , wherein spigelius contradicts him : if there be veins , there will doubtless be arteries , which are as inconspicuous to the sight as the veins are . hence it is , that in the cavities of the bones of animals newly brought forth , the marrow is as yet bloody . the immediate nutritive matter of the hollowed bones , according to hippocrates and galen , is the marrow contained in the said bones ( who are contradicted by aristotle and other peripetaticks , who will have the marrow to be rather the excrement of the bones ) as in gristles that same snotty matter which lies round about them , is their immediate nutritive matter ; and in ligaments , membranes and nerves , that same clammy humor shed in amongst them . of the solid bones not hollowed , the immediate nutritive matter , is thick blood sent in through the pores ; because . being broken they are joyned with a callus , bred of the remainders of the alimentary blood. . they are liable to imposthumation in their substance , the superfluities of the nourishment putrifying in the pores . hofman allows that they are nourished with blood contained in the marrow , and that the marrow serves the blood , by carrying the solid part . the efficient is the vis o●●ifica , or bone-making faculty , or the innate faculty , acting by the assistance of heat . the form of a bone is the soul , as of the whole , and in the next place the ratiō formalis whereby a bone is a bone and no other thing , . de gen. anim. cap. . and therefore the bones of dead persons are not properly but equivocally bones . the accidents or adjuncts of bones , are their sundry figures , solidity , strength , &c. of which hereafter . the end or use of the bones , is , . to be the foundations and supporters of the whole body , like pillars or foundations in houses . . to be as a safeguard for some parts , as the skull saveguards the brain . . to serve for going , as is apparent in the thighes and legs . and therefore serpents , worms and other creepers , which have no legs , cannot go , but are forced to crawl . . there are some private uses of divers bones , of which in the special history of bones . . certain medicinal uses there are of bones . their pouder cures a cancer , fevers , any fluxes . their oyl is good for the gout , the magistery of a mans skull is good against the falling-sickness , as also the triangular bones of the occiput , &c. the situation of the bones is deep , because they are the foundations and upholders of the body . they vary in magnitude according to the variety of their utilities . great are the bones of the leg , thigh , arm , shoulder , &c. small those of the ear serving for hearing , the sesamoidean bones , the teeth , the wrist-bones , &c. they are many in number and not one only , because of the variety of motions ; and lest that one being hurt , all should be hurt . now a monstrous thing it is for a child to be born without bones , such an one as hippocrates speaks of , being a boy , four fingers big , but not long-liv'd the like to which forestus also saw . the number of all the bones of the body , is not the same in all persons . for in children they are more , which by degrees grow together and become fewer . others may number the epiphysis by themselves as distinct bones , and so make a mighty number . others may omit the sesamoidean and other small bones , or such as are seldom found , as in the carotick arteries : and so doth archangelus who reckons but two hundred forty nine : others make commonly three hundred and four . others as many as there are daies in the year . they vary in figure some are round , others flat , some sharp , others blunt , &c. as shal be shewed when we come to speak severally of the particulars . the colour in such as are naturally constituted , is white , mixt with a very little red . they are all of them externally inclosed ( not internally ) with the periostium , excepting the teeth , sesamoidean bones , and the sides of the other bones where they are mutually joyned one to another . and the periostium is exquisitely sensible : but the bones themselves want the sense of feeling , excepting the teeth , to whom we may attribute some sense , seeing they feel exceeding cold air or water , yea with their ends : especially when the teeth are on edge , before it reach to the little membranes and nerves , by help wherof they are thought to feel . the connexion of the bones is various . but the mutual and artificial hanging together of all the bones is by the greeks cal'd skeleton , as if you would say a dried carcass from skellein to drie . being compacted partly with the natural ligaments dried with the bones , & partly with artificial ones , somtimes bolt upright , otherwhiles in the posture of sitting ; which doth not properly belong to anatomy , but the other natural osteology , framed by nature , and adorned with its own moist ligaments . and this natural cohaerence or connexion , according to galen , is made either cat ' árthron by way of joynting ; or catà sumphusin , by way of growing together . he makes arthron a joynt to be double ; viz. diarthrosis or by way of diarticulation or joynting , such as are enárthrosis , arthrodia and gigglumos : or sunarthrosis , such as he reckons suture , harmonie and gomphosis moreover symphysis or growing together , is said to be with or without a medium . but i shall thus divide the connexions of the bones . the bones are fastned together either by articulation or joynting ; or by symphysis or growing together . articulation or joynting is with motion , and that either obscure ( which others cal neuter or doubtful articulation ) as that of the ribs with the vertebrae , also of the bones of the wrist and pedium ; or evident loose and manifest , and it is called diarthrosis , of which there are three sorts : i. enarthrosis inarticulation , which is when there is a great quantity both of the cavity of the bone receiving , and of the head of the bone which is received : as in the articulation of the thigh with the huckle-bone . ii. arthrodia , is where the cavity receiving is superficial , and the head received flat : as is that of the lower jaw with the bone of the temples . iii. gigglumos , when the same bone both receives , so that contiguous bones do mutually enter one into another . and it is done three manner of waies : . when the same bone is received by one bone which receives the same again mutually ; as we see in the articulation of the shoulder-bone with the cubit . . when one bone receives and is received of another , as in the vertebrae . for the vertebra being placed in the middle , receives the upper and is received by the lower . . in manner of a wheel , as that of the second vertebra of the neck with the first ; where upon the axel-tree as it were of one vertebra , another is turned and wheeled about , by sumphusis or growing together , bones are fastned , when the connexion is without motion , and two bones do only touch one another , or approach mutually one to another , as in the former . and this growing together is either without a medium or with it . without a medium : . rhaphé a suture as in the skul . . harmonia , which is a joyning of bones by a single line , streight , oblique , or circular : as in bones of the upper jaw and the nose . and so all epiphyses in a manner are joyned . . gomphosis that is to say nailing , when one bone is fastned into another as a nail in a post , as the teeth in the jaw-bones . these three sorts galen and others following him , have comprehended under synarthrosis as the genus or kind . but they are out : because bones thus joyned have no motion ▪ yet peradventure they may some waies pertain to synarthrosis , because of the firmness they afford to the parts of the body . with a medium there is also a threefold growing together of the bones , by reason of a threefold body coming between as the medium : . a gristle and the conjunction is called sunchondrosis . as in the bones of the lower jaw , and the share-bones . . a ligament and it is termed sunneurosis , as is seen in the union of the huckle-bone with the thigh bone . . flesh or a muscle , and it is called sussarcosis , as in the os hyoides with the scapula . the substance of the bones is hard , but not with driness in an healthy state , but with a shining fattiness . to which others joyn an acid or sharp spirit and a volatil salt , in which regard they easily take fire and are burnt instead of wood , as the rogus of the romans or their funeral-fires did witness [ and our english bonefires , for anciently ( and yet in the north ) they kept their bones of beef &c. til an occasion of triumph , and then brought them out for joy to make bone-fires ] otherwise they would easily be broken , as we see in calcined bones , and in that old woman , whose members would break at the least touch , as nic. fontanus relates in his observations . and galen tels of some bones that would turn to sand and dust , like rotten wood , which is the effect of driness . the less this hardness of the bones is , the better do broken bones grow together and unite . but in persons that are come to years , they do not truly grow together , nor are regenerated , but are as it were glewed together , by the coming between of another substance like glue , which they term callus . galen cals it porus. now a callus somtimes happens beside the intent of nature , through overgreat plenty of aliment and bad nutrition : viz. when by a boney callus , the three upper vertebra's of the neck are so glewed together as they seem to be but one bone : or when the first vetebra is glewed to the skul ; and such persons cannot express their consent or dissent , by moving their head forwards or backwards as the manner is . there is a greater hardness in some bones than in others , as the thigh , &c. but other bones are softer , as of the os spongiosum , the last bones of the fingers &c. fernelius , ruellius , hollerius have found all the bones so preternaturally soft , that they might be bowed like wax , and that chiefly by the venereal pox , witness m. donatus . the cartilago insiformis proves somtimes so soft and flaggie , that it falls , of which see codronchius . the parts of the bones are solid or hollow , yet plinie tels us , that there were some that lived whose bones were solid , without any hollowness , who are by him called cornei , and that such persons are known , in that they never sweat nor thirst . which salinus avouches of one lyddanus a syracusian . but both these authors can somtimes drop leasings . the cavities are either within where the marrow is , which cavities nevertheless are not every where conspicuous ; or without at the joyntings ; which hollownesses if they are deep , they are called cotúlai or cotulides ( not co●ul●dones ) also acetabula , sawcers . cotyle was among the ancients , a measure of liquors , containing as much as their hemina ; also a kind of drinking cup , as some suppose if the cavities are shallow , they are called glênai and glenoeideîs from the form of the eyes hollowness when the eye-lids are shut . the solid parts of the bones are three . the first and principal is called os , and is the hardest part , seated commonly in the middle . the second is by the greeks called apophysis , also they term it probolen and ecph●se●in &c. the latines call it processus , productio , projectura , extuberantia &c. it is a part of a bone , not only touching as epiphusis , but continued bunching out beyond the plain surface of the bone : such as many are in the vertebra's of the back , also in the lower jaw-bone . it s chief use is for the original and insertion of parts , as muscles . the third is epiphusis , or appendix , adnascentia , additamentum ; being a bone growing upon a bone , by a simple and immediate contact , though not with so very plain a surface , but a little mutual ingress of heads and hollows , like ginglumus , though without motion . the substance of the epiphyses is rare and loose , being at first for the most part gristly ; but in persons grown to years , it is hardned , and turns to a bone : yea in elderly persons , the epiphysis is so united to the bone , as if they were but one contined bone , at the ends of the epiphysis a gristle is placed . but all bones have not these epiphuses growing to them : yet there are divers of them ; as in the scapula , on the bones of the tibia and the fibula , viz. on each side , at the tree and foot &c. also the tooth of the second vertebra , the rotator magnus , the appendices styloydes , are epiphyses . the use of eppiphyses . . in soft bones they are instead of covers , that the marrow may not run out . . they serve for firmness , for that basis is most firm which is broadest and largest . . that from them ligaments may arise . . according to pavius , that they might be as it were an intermediate matter , to be inserted betwixt a bone and ligaments , as the membranes betwixt the brain and skull . the apophysis are in some places called capita heads ; in other places , cervices necks ; in other places tubercula bunches ; in some place spina thorns ; in other places mucrones sharp points . but the parts which at the round of the cavities , stick out and hang over like lips , are called supercilia brows , and labra lips. chap. ii. of gristles in general . gristles next to bones are the hardest similar parts ▪ and almost just of the same nature with bones , for such beasts as have no bones , have gristles instead of bones according to aristotle . but they differ , because they are softer than bones , though harder than ligaments : and though very many gristles are in process of time turn'd into bones [ as cardan ▪ shews by the example of a thief of milaine , whose wesand was become boney . also many sceletons of my kinsman henry fuirenus declare , that the cartilago scutiformis , or sheid-fashion'd gristle , is changed into the hard substance of a bone , which i also have observed in dissections ] yet all gristles are not so , as the ensiformis , that of the share , of the spines of the back , of the nostrils and ears : which nevertheless somtime , in aged persons are turned into bones . moreover a gristle hath no marrow , no cavities nor caverns . the efficient is the gristl-making power or faculty . the matter according to aristotle is the same with that of the bones , from wich he wil have them to differ only gradually . according to galen it is an earthy but withall moist part of the seed , partly clammy and glewish , partly fat : but more clammy than fat . its use . is principally to render motion more easie and lasting in the joynts , whiles it anoynts the parts of the bones , least by mutual rubbing one against another , they should wear and fret . hence in some joynts are found gristles which crustover two bones joyned together . . to defend the parts from external injuries . for they are not easily bruised and broken , because they are hard and not friable , nor are they easily cut and squeezed as the soft and fleshy parts . hence the extream parts of the nose are gristly . hence gristles are joyned to the breast-bone and ribs , to defend the heart and lungs , and the gristle ensiformis , to defend the midriff and the mouth of the stomach . . to make such a connexion of the bones as is termed sunchondrosis . . to shape parts prominent or hollow ; as appears in the ears , larynx and wesand . . to fill up hollownesses , especially in the joynts , as is seen in the knee . . to serve for a cover , as in the epiglottis . . to be as an underpropper to sustain somwhat , as the gristles of the eyelids bear the hairs . their situation is various , for gristles are found in sundry parts , in the eye-lids , nose , ear , larynx , wezand , spine , chest , ear-lets , of all and every of which in their places . their magnitude also varies : so also their figure is divers , as ring-fashion'd , sheild-shap'd , sword-like , &c. as to their connexion . some gristles constitute parts of themselves , as that of the nose , xyphoidis , the coccyx : others grow to bones , which knit them together , either without any other medium , as in the share and breast-bones , or by common ligaments coming between , as in the connexion by diárthrosis . in substance , some are harder , as those which in time become boney ; others are softer , fastning the joynts , and resembling the nature in a manner of ligaments , and are therefore called chondro-syndusmoi , gristly ligaments . now though their substance be hard , yet it is flexible and tough because less cold and dry than a bone , and because compassed with a snotty matter . and this substance of theirs is void of sense ; because it hath no acquaintance with nerves nor membranes . nor was it requisite that it should feel , least in motion when the gristles rub and strike one against another , pain should be caused . in other things they agree with bones . chap. iii. of ligaments in general . ligamentum a band or tie , is by the greeks called súndesmos . the ancients , as hippocrates , aristotle and galen somwhere , call it nervum and nervum colligatum a nerve , and a twisted nerve or nerve tied together ; because in shape and colour it counterfets a nerve : and otherwise the term ligament , may in a large signification be applied to any part , which fastens divers parts together . also galen calls the beginning of a muscle ligamentum , part whereof is thought to turn to a tendon . all these are improper acceptations . i shall now decipher a ligament properly so called . it s efficient is the ligament-making power . it s matter is a clammy roaping part of the seed . it s use is , like a cord to bind together the parts of the body , especially the bones , and so to keep them together , in the head , chest , back , and limbs , that they may not be dislocated or dispointed . because of its most strong cleaving thereunto , a ligagament is said to arise ( though it be indeed made of the seed ) from the bone primarily , somtimes from a gristle , gristly bone or membrane : and it s said to be inserted into a bone , gristle , muscle , or some part . or if you would rather have it so ; ligaments grow among the bones , of in the bones . their situation . some are without among the bones , as the grisly ligaments so called , which are thick and commonly round : others are wound externally about the bones which are thin and membranous . as to figure : some are broader which anatomists term membranous ligaments , as hath been said ; others are longer , which are called nervous ligaments . and they call them so because of their resemblance , not as if a ligament were truly membranous or nervous . so they are called membranous , which being broad and thin do compass the joynts , also which are wrapt about tendons and muscles . it s substance is solid , white , bloodless , softer than a gristle , harder than nerves and membranes : for it is as it were of a middle nature betwixt a gristle and a nerve . it is without cavity , sense or motion . it was to be without sense , least it should be alwaies pained in motions ; when as the ligaments are made somtimes longer and shorter , that is to say , are contracted and extended . some nevertheless wil have membranous ligaments to feel , but they must grant it to be so , by means of membranes and not of their own proper substance . for this substance of theirs is as galen tels us divisible into fibres visible to the sight , which experience also confirms . now this substance is in some places softer and more membranous than in others , as in all ligaments wel-neer , which go round about the joynts ; and among these , it is softer about the joynt of the shoulder , than about that of the hip ; and yet softer where it goes about the inter-joyntings of the fingers . but in other places the substance is harder ▪ and as it were in part gristly , and therefore they are in such places termed gristly ligaments ; and they are such as lie concealed among the bones , as that which goes from the head of the thigh , into the hip-joynt . chap. iv. of the skull in general . we divide all the bones of the skeleton into the head , trunk , and limbs ; and them into the arms & legs . the whole structure of the bones of the head is termed cranium the skul , because it is as it were crános an helmet ; some term it calva and calvaria . it s situation and magnitude follow the brain and correspond thereunto . it s figure is natural or non-natural and depraved . it s natural figure is round , that it may hold the more , yet a little longish towards the fore and hindparts , where it branches forth , that it may contain the brain and brainlet ; on the sides it is flatted , but more towards the fore-parts ; and therefore the hind-part of the head is of greater capacity than the forepart : of which albovinus king of the longbeards or lombards made a drinking cup for festival daies , as diaconus relates in his history . the depraved and non-natural figure thereof is manifold . . when the foremore protuberancie of the head is wanting ; and such persons are counted foolish and mad , for want of brain , which ought to be most plentiful in the forepart of the head. . when the hinder protuberancy or bunching forth is wanting . . when both are wantings so that the head is round as a ball , such as the heads of the turks and greenlanders are thought to be . and these three depraved figures hippocrates doth acknowledg . . the fourth figure galen adds , which he conceives may be imagined but not really found , when the length is changed into breadth . but vesalius saies he saw such an one at venice , and at bononia . . the fift way may be added also out of hippocrates , an acuminated or oval figure , when the head rises up like a sugar-loaf : which shape in some nations hippocrates tels us had a great reputation of gentility , and may be formed by midwives , when they swathe the childs head into such a shape and so preserve it ; and at last nature transfers such kind of heads from parents to children . the same hippocrates in his epidemicks , brings in two kinds of thus shap'd heads , one with the strength of the parts , the other with weakness of the said parts . and such a figure of heads , is at this day more frequent in some countries than in others . but now i wil add other figures which i have observed in many skuls , especially in italy . . when the right side branches out . . when the left side sticks out . . when the right part of that bunchiness which naturally should be before is wanting , and the left sticks out very much , in some more . others less . . when the left side of the said protuberancy is wanting , and the right sticks out more than ordinary . . when the right part of the hinder prominency is away . . when the left part of the said hinder protuberancy is away . and thus i make twelve shapes of the head in all , one natural and eleven depraved , the substance of the skul is boney , to secure the soft brain . but in children new born it is softer then ordinary , and in some places cartilaginous and membranous , especially about the sutures , and most of all in the middle and upper region of the head : and all these for the making the birth more easie , that it might give a little way when it is pressed . but the substance of the skul is . . thick , not thin , that it may more strongly resist external injuries . . rare not compact . . least it should weigh too much . . that it might contain juyce for nourishment , . that vapors may exhale . now this substance of the skul doth consist as it were of a double boord or plate . it is seldom simple and single without a meditullium or middle matter , as i found it in the dissection of a certain person , and seldomer hath it three boords , but for the most part two as hath been said . some call them diploas , the outer whereof being unhurt , the inner may be hurt . and each of these plates is commonly polished within and without , smooth and thick . hence it appears how thick the skul is , seeing it is every where in a manner double . i say in a manner or wel-neer , which others do not observe : for in some places the skul is single , thin and transparent . without any distance of plates . and therefore some chirurgeons are deceived , who in taking away the first plate do think they must so long cut and prick , til blood comes out . the external plate is somtimes eaten off by the venereal disease , and somtimes it sprouts forth gums by force of the said disease . but the rarity or light composure of the skul appears from that middle substance between each plate , which they call meditullium . this substance , i say , is rare or light , lax , and receives little veins : which also hippocrates knew , who therefore warns us that the skul is very easily inflamed , and therefore when the trepan is used , the iron must divers times be dipt in milk and water . the surface of the skul , is external or internal . the upper external is smooth and even ; the lower or basis , is rough and uneven , by reason of sundry appendices and processes . the upper internal is hollow , smooth ; save that it hath the marks of veins , and certain cavities , wherein the dura mater grows : the lower is very uneven by reason of divers protuberancies . and every where there are frequent holes in the skull , very small and placed without order , through which small veins and arteries pass , to the inner cavity of the bones , and the dura menynx . but somtimes they are not to be found . at length , that we may come to the parts of the skull , we must know that the skul doth not consist of one only bone , least by one wound the whole skul should be broken in pieces ; but of divers : which are fastned together by the sutures , of which in the following chapter . and some are bones of the skull , others of the jaw . the bones of the skull in persons grown to ripe years are eight . whereof two are common to the skul , with the upper jaw-bone , viz. the cundiforme and the spongiosum . but there are six proper bones , which make up the skul it self : one of the forehead ( in new born children two ) two of the forepart of the head , one of the hind-part ( in an infant four ) two of the temples . and there lie hid in the auditory passages , other six bones , on each side three little ones : the hammer , the anvil , and the stirrup , to which a fourth is added called orbiculare . and thus there are perpetually in the skull fourteen or sixteen bones . the use of the skul : . to be the mansion and bulwork of the brain , which of it self is soft . . that through it vapors may pass . to the former use , its thickness and hardness is subservient ; to the latter its rarity and sutures . on the skul of a man somtimes horns grow , one whiles soft , another while hard like rams horns ; sometimes fixed to the skul , otherwhiles to the skin , and they proceed from a thick , clammy and melancholick humor . there are examples hereof in paraeus , thuanus , hildanus , renodaeus , zacutus , severinus , and others ; i also saw two horns , one at padua in a nunn , another at purmeraem in holland in an old woman , which was sufficiently long and hard : i have discoursed of these horns in my new observations de unicornu , of the unicorn . chap. v. of the sutures of the skull . a suture is a sort of connexion resembling the putting together of two saws , tooth within tooth , or the making up of a garment of many torn patches . such sutures there are many in a mans head : for an head is seldom found without any suture , such as aristotle saw , and at helmstadt and the monastery of heilbrun in france such an one is shewed ( as a rarity ) and is every where to be met with . and such persons have not their heads so liable to external injuries , but very much to inward infirmities , because transpiration is thereby made more difficult . by which distinction , falopius and columbus do reconcile celsus and robertus constantinus , the former of whom wrote , that the head which had no sutures was most liable to sickness , the latter that the head without sutures was more subject . somtimes through age and driness , the sutures do so grow together in aged persons , that they are scarce to be seen ; whereas they are in the mean season , more visible in young persons . somtimes the coronal suture is only seen obliterated ; but the temporal do hardly vanish , except all the other be first defaced . the number and situation of the sutures , is the same in a woman and in a man , contrary to what aristotle thought ; nor doth it vary in respect of figures , as hippocrates and galen would have it , unless very rarely . for m. a. severinus observed between the saggiteal and lambda-fashion'd suture , another over and above of a triangular shape , and neer the end of the said sutures in another skul , a new oval suture . moreover , the sutures of the head of a certain fool , did vary in figure , which all stuck up with one hillock as it were . which i saw in three epileptick children at naples , especially in the coronal suture , which did suggest a new cause and cure of the epilepsie or falling-sickness . the sutures which knit the bones of the skul , are some of them called true and proper , others false and bastard sutures . they are termed true , which meet together like the teeth of combs , or like saws , put together , which i have somtimes seen after contusion movable , which also in most skuls that are over dried in the earth is common . they are also loose in children , and therefore they open in hydrocephalic or water-headed children , as i saw in a boy at hafnia , like to that which severinus pictures out in his treatise of imposthumes , and donatus describes . the bastard sutures are joyned like scales and tiles on an house-top , and therefore they are termed squamosae conglu●inationes , scaley-conjunctions , and may rather be termed joynings , seeing they are more like to an harmonia then a suture . there are three true ones . . is the foremore , and is called coronalis . . because the ancients wore crowns on that part of their heads . . because it hath some resemblance to a crown or circle : for from the temples it ascends on both sides , athwart , to the top of the head. the arabians call this suture arcualis and puppis . it s use is to joyn the fore-head bone with the bones of the hinder-head , and to distinguish them therefrom . the place of the coronal suture is sound out in a living person , either by carrying the hand upwards from the wrist along the nose , or by drawing a thred out from ear to ear , and another cross the same from the end of the nose . . that which is opposite to this , is behind and in the occiput or hinder-head . 't is called lamdoeidès the lamda-shap'd , from the greek letter a. some call it hupsiloïdes from the letter upsilon , also prorae sutura . this ascends obliquely , from the base of the hinder-head , to each ear , grows into an angle . somtimes when the hinder-head is large or otherwise , 't is divided by a transverse suture , simple , or double : somtimes there is a double triple suture as if a greater triangle did contain one or two lesser triangles within the same : where the bones so comprehended , are termed ossicula triangularia , the little three-cornerd bones , commended , in the falling-sickness . besides these triangular bones , olaus worm a rare man , found others in the lambda-like suture , which perforated both the boards of the skull , observed as yet by very sew . three for the most part on the right , as many on the left side , differing in magnitude , figure and situation , which also are accurately discerned and distinguished in infants . the lowest is seen at the processus mammillares , the middlemost a little higher , scarce half a fingers breadth , the third a little further distinct from the second . pavius found only two like to these , circumscribed with their little sutures or seams , which he doubts whether he should refer them to the bones of the occiput or the bregma . in shape they are various , triangular , oblong , oval . somtimes in living persons i have observed them to grow so high , that i could feel them with my fingers , as if they had been epiphysis or somewhat growing upon the bone. all are larger on the left side . but the greatest exceeds not the nail of a mans thumb . they appear more distinct on the inner & concave side of the skul , than in the outward and convex , and therefore they are all more cleerly discern'd when the skul is taken away , we are nevertheless to observe that these bones of worm do in divers skuls vary , both in number , magnitude , figure , situation ; so that somtimes there are four , somtimes two , and in a right line only , somtimes in the very juncture of the sagittal with the lambda-shap'd ; sometimes also in the scaley temporal sutures . their use , i believe , is . that the sutures being inlarged thereabouts , might afford a more free passage for excrements . . that the skul being made up of more bones , might be more safe in blows and contusions . the use of this lambda-like suture , is to distinguish the bone of the occiput or hinder-head , from the bones of the temples , and the forepart of the head. . in the middle betwixt these two is the suture ter●red sagittalis or arrow-shap'd , because it runs in a streight line all along the head , like an arrow , betwixt the coronal and lambda-shap'd sutures . somtimes it proceeds through the middle of the coronal suture and the middest of the fore-head , as far as to the nose , especially in infants : in some also it cuts part of the bone of the occiput or hinder-head . i remember it hath been somtimes wanting . this suture is termed virgata and recta . it s use is to distinguish and joyn together the two bones of the sinciput or fore-part of the head. those two suture are commonly called nendosae or bastard sutures , which are wont to be called squamosae scalie , corticales and temporales , because they circumscribe the bones of the temples . now this connexion like scales was necessary , because the temple-bones , being in the lower part very thick would have been to heavy , if they had not been made by little and little thinner in their upper part , and joyned to the bones of the sinciput atenuated by little and little like scales . now there are many spurious sutures every where in the skul , also many harmonies , where the bones are joyned together : in the palate bone a peculiar suture is seen . the use of the sutures . table i. the figure explained . a. a portion of the sagittal suture . b. the lambda-like suture . c. the skull cut with a saw. d. the first bone of worm , on the left quarter . e. the second . f. the third . g. the first of the right quarter . h. the second . i. the third . k. the great hole of the skull . ll. the mammillary productions . page ii. that by them the dura mater may be tied and held up , least it should squeez the inner parts of the brain . iii. that the said dura mater might by them send out fibres to constitute the pericraneum and the periosteum . iv. that vessels may go in and out , to nourish and in●iven the parts ; which vessels are by fallopius cal'd venae puppis . v. that one bone being broken the others might remain whole . and therfore galen , paulus , guido and fallopius , denie that there can be any contra●issure or counter-cleft , save in a solid head without sutures : hippocrates writes the contrary , and cals it a misfortune , as also celsus and others , and fallopius himself , paraeus and pavius relate examples , and before them soranus , taking a similitude from a glass bottle , which oftentimes , being struck on the one side , is crakt on the opposite part . vi. that topical medicines being outwardly applied , may more easily penetrate . chap. . of the proper bones of the skull in particular . the first bone is the os frontis , the forehead bone , which some call coronale , inverecundum , os puppis : which hath a figure imperfectly circular ; more perfect where it is circumscribed with the coronal suture , more imperfect neer the eyes . it s substance is thinner than that of the os occipitis or hinder-head bone , and thicker than the ossa sincipitis , or bones of the foremore part of the head. it is twofold in children new-born , distinguished by the sagittal suture : also framed of a twofold plate , an external and internal . at the top of the nose above the eye-brows , there are large cavities commonly two in number , between the two plates , somtimes cloathed with a green membrane and separated , containing a certain soft and marrowish body . but these cavities are not . in children til they are a year old . . in such as have a flat and saddle-face . . in such whose fore-head is divided . the said cavities have holes which end into the wide spaces of the nostrils : and another which ends into the skul , above the septum of the os spongiosum to distinguish the organs of smelling . the use of these cavities . . to make the voyce melod●●●● and sounding ; because they are not in such who have a bad speech . . some conceive they serve for the air to be elaborated in , to generate animal spirits . . that they may contain the air which is drawn into the nostrils and brings the smels of things along with it , from whence it passes leisurely to the organs of smelling , and to the brain to alter the ●ame , and reduce it to its natural state , when it is disordered . and therefore it is that many times an whole day together a smel is perceived in the top of the nostrils . . others suppose , they serve to collect excrements , not only thick but watry , which being carried to the glandula lachrymalis , do make tears . . some conceive that the marrowy matter therein contained , doth pass through the hole of the greater corner of the eye , and moisten the eye make it glib and slippery , that it may move the easier . this bone hath processes : one at the greater corner of the eye , another at the lesser , to constitute the upper pare of the eye-hole or socket . there are also two cornerd eminencies or risings on each side o●e , towards the temples , which are termed horns ; by albucasis , dionysisci the author of the definitions and heliodorus the physitian ; and if that boney tumor be only on one side ingrassias calls it dionysiscus . it hath three holes ; one more inward of which before , which ends into the skul : two outward , at the middle of the eye-brows , for the thorough-fare , of the nerves of the third conjugation to the forehead . the second and third are the two bones of the sincipu● or vertex , which some call parietalia , others arcualia , nervalia , rationis or cogitationis , of reason or thought : the greeks brég●a●os o●●â , because the most moist and sofe brain , is placed under them . in shape they are four square and unequal . their substance is more rare and infirm then of other bones , because the head in this part , wants very much evaporation : and therefore the wounds of the sinciput are deadly . table . ii. the figures explained . in this table are presented the bones and sutures of the skul , as also the parts of both the jaw-bones . fig . i. aa . the coronal suture . b. a part of the sagittal suture . cc. the scalie suture of the bones of the temples . d. the os frontis , or bone of the fore-head . ee . processes of the said bone , to the grater corner of the eye . f. another process to the lesser corner . g. an hole for the passage of nerves expressed on one side . h. os bregmatis . i. the bone of the temples . k. its appendix cal'd styloïdes . l. it s mamillary process . m. another process thereof , which makes the os jugale . n. the first bone of the lower jaw according to our author . o. the second bone. p. the hole of this bone , neer which is the caruncula lachrymalis . qq . the third bone of the upper jaw . rr. the fourth bone thereof . s. the partition of the nostrils . t. the lower jaw-bone . u. it s outer and lesser hole , the greater is to be seen within . x. the process of that jaw-bone , termed corone . z. the other blunted process called condilodes . 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 . the dent●s incisores or cutting teeth . 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 . the dog-teeth . 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 the grinders or grinding-teeth , molares . fig . ii. aaa . the coronal suture . bb. the sagittal suture . cc. the lambdoidea . d. the os frontis . ee . the bone , of the sinciput , bregma , or ●or●… of ●●● head. ff . a portion of os occipitis or hinder-head 〈◊〉 page in infants , that part which is at the conjunction of the coronal and sagittal sutures is found membranous , and soft , and among all the bones of the head , it last receives a boney hardness , then when the child begins to speak distinctly and intelligibly ▪ while it remains membranous and soft , it is not so thick as afterwards , but transparent . hence in children there is observed in that place a gap or chink , which some term fontanella and ●ons pulsatilis ; where also they are wont to make issues in desparate catarrhs . i have once observed this part in a person grown up , to have been not yet boney , but membranous as in children , viz. in a man of years of age. 〈…〉 woman of twenty six years old , found it re●… open . there are within superficial cavities , being the in ●…sions of veins , and without certain small holes . the fourth bone of the occiput which some call 〈…〉 os prorae , os memorioe , os pixidis , the g●… doth constitute almost the whole hinde●… part of the skul . which in grown persons is commonly b●… double or treble ; in children it con●… part of four seldom of five bones ▪ its figure is of a sphaetical triangle ▪ its substance is the thickest and most compact of all the rest ( because there the noble ventricle is seated , and there the nerves arise as from a fountain ) especially at the basis of the skul , save at the sides of the great hole , where it is most thin ( and therefore in this respect aristotle did well say , that this was the thinnest bone of all , which columbus taxes ) and therefore for safeties sake , there is in the middle thereof a long prominency . it hath five holes , one which is the greatest neer the first vertebra , through which the medulla oblongata passeth forth ; the rest are lesser serving for the going out of nerves and the entrance of veins and arteries . it hath nine cavities , seven within and two without . it hath before two broad processes at the basis ( in children they are epiphyses ) covered with a gristle , within more eminent , inserted into the cavities of the first vertebra , for the motion of the head. there is another small process behind , joyned to the first vertebra . in the hinder-head of dogs , there is another small bone between the brain and the brainlet , which is triangular : that it may as a prop sustain their going with their heads downwards . the fift and sixt , are the temple bones , by the ears ; some call them lapidos● , petrosa , sa●ea , squamiformia mendofa , and others parietalia and aercualia . their shape is uneven ( but rather circular than three square ) because of their manifold substance , which is like rocks and craggy clifts ; for which cause they are also called ossa petrosa the rocky bones . but in their upper part they are attenuated , so as to be transparent , where they lie under the temporal muscles , and are joyned to the bones of the sinciput , like scales . they have six holes without , two within ▪ the first external hole is large , viz. the auditory passage ; the rest are small , for vessels to pass thorough . they have two cavities . the outer is covered with a gristle ▪ , and receives the lower jaw-bone . the inner is longish , common to the os occipitis . table iii. the figures explained . this table demonstrates the inner structure of the organ of hearing , with the little auditory bones . fig . i. aa . os temporis , the temple bone. bbb . the scalie suture of the said bone. cc. the os spongiosum , or spungy-bone . d. the cavity into which the auditory nerve is inserted . e. the boney circle . ff . the greater winding of the cochlea . ggg . three boney half-circles , which form the labyrinth . h. the malleus or hammer in its situation . i. the anvil or incus . k. the stapes or stirrup . l. the external muscle of the ear. m. the internal muscle of the ear , of which see b. . chap. . fig . ii. aaa . the labyrinth . b. the cochlea . c. the oval hole where the stapes is seated . d. fallopius his aquae-ductus . e. the fenestra rotunda , round window . ff . little holes to let out veins and arteries . fig . iii. aa . the cochlea dissected . bb . an intermediate space or thing dividing the cochlea into two wreaths . c. a round hole , ending into the cavity of hearing , and the lower wreath of cochlea . ddd . the wreathings or circumvolutions of the labyrinth opened . e. the fenestra ovalis , or oval window . fig . iv. a. the round head of the malleus or hammer . b. its end whereby 't is fastned to the drum. c. the smaller process of the malleus , mallet or hammer . d. the larger and more fine process thereof , first observed by folius . e. the incus or anvil , whose upper part hath a cavity to receive the head of the hammer . f. the longer process of the anvil , to which the stirrup is fastned . h. the stapes or stirrup . i. a fourth little bone fastned to the stapes or stirrup by a ligament , first observed by fr. sylvius . fig . v. shews the boney circle in infants , to which the membrane of the drum is fastened . page it hath a certain appendix , sharp , long and small , and therefore called styloīdes , belenoïnes , graphioïdes , plectrum , &c. it is soon broke off , and therefore it is not in all skuls , especially such as are dug out of the ground . in grown persons 't is hony , in infants gristly . it is a little crooked , like a cocks spur. it hath three processes . . is external and obtuse , thick , short and cavernous , id est , having holes like a spunge in it ; it s cal'd from its shape , mammillaris , dug like . . is external also , and a portion of os jugale . for the os jugale or lygomatis , seated under the eye , is not a peculiar bone , but is made up of the processes of two bones ; the one is that newly mentioned , the other is that of the jaw , joyned by an oblique suture , making as it were a bridg : whose use is to defend the tendon of the temporal muscle , the skul being otherwise but thin in that place . . is internal with a long protuberancy , wherein there is a threefold cavity : the drum , the labyrinth , the cochlea , also the bones which serve the hearing . but if the outer passage before the membrane of the tympanum be reckoned , there wil be four cavities of the auditory passage . the ancients makes mention but of one cavern . i. the first cavity , which is the tympanum or concha , or as some call it pelvis , and by aristotle termed cochlea , is situate presently after the little membrane of the tympanum ( about which goes a boney circle , easily separable in infants , in elderly persons hardly ) wherein is the congenit or inbred air , also four little bones , a ligament and muscles , little windows and a water-passage ; and from this cavity a channel goes into the palate of the mouth . it doth not transmit the congenit air , which nature studies to retain . the fenestrae or windows , are two little holes in this cavity : the one oval , is in the middle of the cavity , more towards the fore-part , and higher , upon which the basis of the stapes or sti●rups rests , and in a great measure shuts the same : in the hinder part , it opens it self into the cochlea with a large overture , and joyns it self also to the hinder hole which is lower in mankind , lesser and narrower ? and this is divided into two channels , divided by a very thin bony scale : with the one it goes , together with the oval window unto the cochlea , with the other to the labyrinth ; and the hindermore channel is called aquae-ductus , also meatus cochlearis , tortuosus , caecus , capreolaris , by reason of the crooked winding passage , through which the greater part of the auditory nerve is carried with the artery . ii. the second being round and less than the former , is called cabyrinthus and fodina the maze and mettal-mine or cole-mine , because of its crooked manyfold turnings : behind the fenestra ovals , it joyns it self to the following cavity . from this , many waies run out ▪ which they call semicirculos osse●s excavatos , hollowed boney half-circles , or funiculos little ropes , three for the most part , large at the beginning , and then by little and little growing narrower , cloathed with a little thin membrane , that the sounds may become more acute , and being by little and little broken may so ascend unto the brain . it hath four holes besides the oval , and a fift which is terminated into the cochlea . iii. the third is termed cochlea because of its wreathed turning , others call it cavitas cochleata , buccinata , an●rum buccinosum , &c. for it hath three or four windings ( those who are thick of hearing have only one or two ) mutually receiving one another , and is cloathed with a very exceeding thin and most soft membrane , and is adorned with infinite little veins , which being twined about the wreathings of the cochlea , doth by many branches creep into the secret turnings of the labyrinth . chap. . of the bones which serve the sense of hearing . there follow eight other bones of the head , which are least of all , on each side four , being the bones subservient to the sense of hearing , called from their shapes , malleus the mallet or hammer , incus the anvil , stapes the stirrup , and the orbicular bone : all which were unknown to the ancients . the two first were found out by jacobus carpus , who was afterwards followed by massa , jacobus sylvius , and vesalius : and he being admonished by fallopius , at last made mention of the third , whose first finder out was ingrassias ; although eustachius and columbus do arrogate the invention hereof unto themselves . the fourth auditory bone , was found out and shewed to me by franciscus sylvius , being round and small , and by n. fontanus likened to the scale of a pike : annexed by a small ligament to the stirrup side , where it is joyned to the anvil ; which you shall more easily find in the boyled calves heads , in which they are bigger than in the heads of men : howbeit in a man it is visible enough . pavius found in the head of an ox a year old , one like this , of a sesamoidean shape . they are situate in the first cavity or concha . they have a substance hard and dense , hollow within , that they might be lighter , and might contain in them , marrow for their nourishment , without any periosteum about them : also that they might make the ai● drie● , and carry it along , like those ropes which are fastened to doors to make them open and shut again of themselves . they are as perfect in new-born children as in those that are grown up ; though not so hard , but more moist , for which cause infants are dull of hearing . the connexion . the hammer by its process sticks fast to the membrane of the drum , beyond the middle , like a tail turned back ; the head whereof is articulated into the cavity of of the anvil , having a small process , that the tendon of the musculus rotundus may be applied thereto ; it hath also a longer process , but smaller , first observed by caecilius folius , to which another muscle is fastened , which belongs to the external ear. it rests athwart upon the bony circle , with which perhaps it grows together in persons that are of years , for commonly in children it is only visible , in others it is easily broken because of its fineness , when the bones are taken out . the anvil resembling a grinding tooth , lies under the hammer , having beneath two processes ; the one shorter resting upon the os squamosum , the other longer , sustaining the top of the stirup or triangular bone , which rests upon the cochlea , till it is sunk into the broad basis of the fenestra ovalis , or oval window , to which it is fastned by a loose ligament , so that it may be lightly raised , but not moved upwards and downwards . these three little bones , are joyned with a very fine ligament , which is stretched over the whole membrane , as the strings over the bottom of a drum. the use of these little bones is not to make a sound , but that the species of sound being received , may pass to the lower parts , and that there may be a passage for the excrements of the ears . for the stirrup shutting the oval or upper window , is moved by the anvil ( whereupon the window is opened , that the species or representation of sounds may pass into the nerve , and the anvil being smitten by the hammer , and the hammer by the membrane of the drum , through the impulse of the external air ( which the hammer hinders from being driven too far forwards ) which while it is in doing , the membrane of the drum is droven inwards ▪ and becomes bunching out , whereby the inbred air is affected , which wandring through the cochlea causes , that the branches of the auditory nerve , do receive the species of sounds , brought in by the windows , and communicate the same to the brain . and thus the hammer is moved only inwards . but in the recourse , it is moved outwards , with the membrane of the drum , by that very little muscle found out by casserius . chap. viii . of the bones common to the head and upper jaw , viz. os cuneiforme and os spongiosum . the os sphaenoides or cuneiforme , or wedg-fashion'd bone , so called because as they say , it hath the shape of a wedg ; was by the ancients called polumorphos or many-form'd , by reason of sundry processes within and without whereby it is made rugged and uneven : others call it os paxillare , os colatorij , os palati , &c. 't is seated in the middle of the basis of the head , and is placed under the brain as a foundation , so that it touches well-neer all the bones of the head and upper jaw . it is one bone in grown persons : but it is at first made of four which are afterwards united . the processes are sundry . outwardly there are two remarkable ones , at the sides of the palate , cal'd pterigoeides , aliformes , wing-fashion'd , because they resemble the wings of batts or flittermice , and are furnished with a longish cavity . inwardly there are four little ones , on each side two , having the shape of a turkish saddle . and therefore this process is termed sella sphaenoidis , the saddle of os sphaenoïdes ; in which process being square and broad , there is a cavity to hold the glandula pituitaria . at the saddle , there is a cave full of little holes , that the inbreathed air , may be elaborated to make spirits , and that flegmatick excrements , may distill through the funnel , out of the ventricles of the brain . it hath sundry holes for the passage of the vessels this way and that . os spongoides , spongiosum or spongiforme , the spunge-like bone , being seated in the middle basis of the forehead , and filling the cavity of the nostrils , is also called ethmoeïdes , cribriforme or cribrosum , the seive-fashion'd bone : because it s inner side , where it joyns to the head , is pierced through with many holes like a sieve , winding and turning , but not streight ; and this part properly is , and ought to be called cribros● , sieve-fashion'd . it hath in its middle a sharp process , resembling a cocks comb , by which as a partition this bone is divided into two parts : and to this upper process another is opposed below , distinguishing the nostrils , where the outer part of this bone is , which is contained in the cavity of the nostrils without the skul , being light and spungie , and therefore there properly so called . it hath also another part thin , solid and smooth , where it is joyned to the socket of the eye , a small portion whereof it constitutes , but it is not a part of the upper jaw-bone , as vesalius would have it . the use of the spongie part is , to alter the air drawn in with smels . the chief use of the sieve-fashion'd part is , . to admit the air for animal spirits . . that the species of odours may with the air be carried to the mammillary processes , the organs of smelling , which end into these holes . and therefore in the disease co●yza , this bone being obstructed , the smelling is lost . a secondary use , is the purging of the brain ▪ for flegm is not only voided by the glandul● pituitaria into the palate , but it drops down also into the os cribrosum and the nostrils , if the upper ventricles of the brain so called , do abound with too much flegm . howbeit , this flux is preternatural . chap. ix . of the bones of the jaw in general . the jaw-bones are the foundations of the whole face , the upper above the mouth the lower beneath . for the upper , which celsus calls mala , is the boney part of the face , comprehending the lower and lateral parts of the eye-socket , the nostrils , the cheeks , the palate , and the whole row of the upper teeth . and this jaw-bone in mankind , is shorter and rounder than in brutes , for beauties sake , also it is immoveable as it is in beasts , saving the parrot , the phaenicopterus , and the crocodile as wel that which lives in the water , as the land-crocodile ; yet do they not move the upper jaw only , but their whole head withall being straitly fasten'd thereto , as vipers do , and the like is to be said of the parrot . but the lower jaw-bone in mankind and other creatures , is only movable , save in the crocodile , which hath it so united to the bones of the temples , that it can no waies be stirred ; but the parrot moves both . the connexion is without motion in the upper jaw , by a suture or harmonie whereby it is joyned with many bones of its own , of which it is composed , and other bones placed round about ; in the lower by way of sunchondrosis , which is in the middle of the chin. but in grown persons , the gristle is so turned into a bone , that the lower jaw seems to be one only bone , whereas before it consisted of two . in the brim or circuit of each jaw-bone , which place galen calls ph●●●●an , we meet with cavities , wherein the teeth are fasten'd , which galen terms bóthria , the latines alveolos , loculos , fossulas , praesepiola , mortariola . these holes according to the nature of the teeth in them , are somtimes single , otherwhiles threfold : somtimes they are obliterated and shut up , the teeth being fallen or pluckt out . somtimes they breed anew , by fresh teeth breaking out . in old age , frequently these holes are obliterated , the teeth being lost , and the gums become sharper and harder , so that old folks chew their meat with them instead of teeth . chap. x. of the bones proper to the upper jaw . the bones proper to the upper jaw , are eleven on each side five , and one without a fellow . the first being in a manner triangular , doth make up the lower part of the socket of the eye , the lesser eye-corner ▪ and part of the os jugale and of the cheek-bone . the second makes the greater eye-corner where there is an hole which passes into the nostrils , by which a caruncle is placed . here those imposthumes are made which they call aegilopas , which if they be unskilfully or negligently handled , they pierce to the bone , and cause the fistula lachrymalis . this is a little bone , and the least among the upper jaw-bones , thin , transparent , loosly , adhereing , so that it is easily broken and lost : and therefore 't is seldom found in skuls dug out of the earth . the third is a very great one , by which are constituted the large region of the palate , and the great lower socket containing the teeth . it hath large cavities ( and holes through which vessels pass ) on both sides remarkable , both for to make it lighter , and that it might contain marrow to nourish the bones and the upper teeth . others say to help to frame the voyce . in children they are not hollowed til after some years , and they are then cover'd with a very thin membrane . the fourth with its companion , doth constitute the upper and more eminent boney part of the nose . it is thin , hard , solid and quadrangular . and these two external bones of the nose are divided with a suture . within they are rough , that the gristles of the nose , may be the better fastened . there is another inner bone ( which is the third of the nose ) cleaving to the process of the os spongiosum , which is called septum narium because it distinguishes the nostrils . table iv. the figures explained . this table presents the lower part of the skul , to be seen within and without . fig . i. aaaa . the two boards of the skull with the marrowy substance between them . b. the cavity in the forehead bone , ending into the wideness of the nostrils . cc. the os cribrosum or sieve-like bone full of little holes . d. it s acute process resembling a cocks combe . ee . the two inmore and foremore processes of the os sphaenoides or cuneiforme . ff . the two inner and hindermore processes of the said bone. gg . the holes of the said bone for the optick nerves to pass out . h. the cavity cut in the middle of the saddle , wherein the glandula pituitaria is contained . i. another cavity where●●●● the conjunction of the optick nerves doth rest . kk . shew the holes of the os cuneiforme , for the passage of the vessels , ll. shew the holes of the os cuneiforme , for the passage of the vessels , mm. shew the holes of the os cuneiforme , for the passage of the vessels , nn. the processus petrosus of the temples-bone . oo . an hole in the said process , for the auditory nerve to pass through . pp. an additament or appendix of the os occipitis . q. the greatest hole of the os occipitis through which the spinal marrow passes . rr. the cavities of the os occipitis within the skull , in which the cerebellum or brainlet rests . fig . ii. aa . the fift bone of the upper jaw , distinguished by a suture . bb. the os jugale . cc. holes opening into the wideness of the nostrils . d. the partition of the nostril . e. the eleventh bone of the upper jaw , which columbus cals aratrum . ff . the external processes of os cuneiforme , like bats wings . gg . the cavity of these processes . hh . the cavity of the temple-bone , receiving the head of the bower jawbone . i. an additament or appendix to the os occipitis . kk . the processes of the temple-bones , cal'd styloides processus . ll. the mammillary processes . mm. two heads or processes at the basis of os occipitis , whereby it is articulated into the first vertebra . n. the greatest hole of the said bone. oo . the two sides of os occipitis , furnished with divers protuberancies . to these ten columbus ads the eleventh , like a plough , the inmost and middlemost above the palate , shutting the lower part of the nostrils , like a partition wall . chap. xi . of the lower jaw-bone . the lower jaw-bone in grown persons , consists of one bone only , in children till seven year old of two , which are joyned together by way of sunchondrosis . it s figure is that of the greek letter u or like a bow. it s substance is exceeding hard and strong , that it may hold out in biting and chewing ; within hollow , where marrow is contained to nourish it and the teeth . it hath two holes on each side , which go quite through the jaw-bone like a pipe , so that a bristle put in at one hole will come out of the other . the one is more inward , hindermore and greater , receiving in a part of those nerves which we reckon to be the fift pare , to the roots of the teeth , with a little vein and artery . the other is more outward , less round , by which a branch of the foresaid nerve received in , is sent out to the lower lip. it hath sundry asperities and cavities for the risings and insertions of muscles . also on each side two processes called horns , carried upwards . one goes out forwards broad and thin , whose point or sharp end is called corone , into which the tendon of the temporal muscle is implanted . and therefore hippocrates counts the luxation of the lower jaw-bone deadly . the other hindermore , is carried backwards ; representing a little bunch and is called condulodes , having a little head coverd with a gristly crust , under which there is a longish neck . by this process the articulation is made with the temple bones , where yet another gristle is placed between the cavity and the gristly head , to facilitate the motion . also a common membranous ligament doth cover this articulation . chap. xii . of the teeth in general . the teeth are called dentes as if you would say edentes , eaters , and by the greeks odontes as it were edôuntes eaters ; and they are bones properly so called , hard and solid , smooth and white , like other bones . they have some things peculiar which other bones have not , which nevertheless doth not exclude them from the number of bones . . they are harder than other bones , that they may bite and chew hard things ; and they are little less harder tha stones , nor can they easily be burnt in the fire , and whereas in the sarcophagus or flesh-eating stone , the whole body is consumed in forty daies , the teeth remain unimpaired ▪ and therefore tertullian writes that in them is the seed of our future resurrection . . the teeth are naked without any periosteum , least they should pain us when we chew . . yet they have a sense , but more of the first than of the second qualities , and especially rather of what is cold than what is hot contrary to the nature of flesh , according to hippocrates . and hence they are so an● to be set on edg . but the whole tooth doth not feel of it self , but the inner , softer and more marrowy part ; which is covered over with an hard external part , which is not pained , neither by fire , nor iron , as in a sword under the most hard rind of the steel , an irony marrow less hard lies within , and the skin through the sensless skars-skin doth feel , so the inner part of the tooth feels through the outmost , into which inner part being hollow , little soft nerves enter and little cloathing membranes . hereupon a certain nun at padua causing a very long tooth shee had above all the rest to be cut off to avoid the deformity thereof , shee presently fell down into a convulsion and epileptick fit . now in the part of her tooth which was cut off , there appeared the tokens of a nerve . . hence , they receive nerves into their cavity which other bones do not . . they grow longer than any other of the bones , almost all a mans life , because they are dayly worn , by biting and grinding ; as gutta cavat lapidem non vi sed saepe cadendo . the hardest stone a dropping house-eve hollows , cause drop upon drop , drop after drop still follows , but not by force . and look how much they wear away , so much are they still augmented ▪ which hence appears ; in that if any tooth fall out and grow not again , the opposite tooth grows so much the longer , as the empty space of the former tooth comes to . fallopius considering the praemises , and how new teeth are thought to breed , he collects that the formative faculty remains alive in the teeth to extream old age . helmont counts the matter of the bone not to be meerly boney , but as it were of a middle nature betwixt bone and stone ; because the teeth turn to stone whatever kind of food sticks long to them , be it bread , flesh , herbs , fish , apples , beans , or pease , &c. but there is no petrification or turning to stone , unless the things eaten be of a tartareous nature , but only a drying , the moisture being consumed by the spittle ; nor are the teeth made bigger by that addition , which somtimes is scraped off , somtimes turne to clammy filth . the teeth are bred in the womb , after the generation of the jaw-bones , twelve in each jaw , or a few more , as i shall speak hereafter touching their number , four cutters , two dog-teeth , six grinders : which lie somwhat imperfect and concealed within the jaws ( for it is rare for an infant to be born toothed ) least the child as it sucks should hurt the nipple . and therefore in an abortion , or a young infant , small teeth may be pulled out they break out of the gums sooner in brutes ( though varro be otherwise minded as touching horses ) because they are sooner capable of solid meat ; in mankind at the seventh month or later , after the child is a year old : and the upper sooner than the lower , yet in some the lowest first , and among the rest , the fore-teeth in the first place , because . they are most sharp . . they are less then the rest . . because the jaw-bone is there thinnest . . because there is most need of them both to speak with and to cut and bite the meat . and at that time when the teeth of infants shoot forth , hippocrates tels us that feavers , convulsions , fluxes of the belly arise , especially when the dog-teeeth come forth : because when the teeth make their way through the gums , they torment more than pricks in the flesh . these teeth have a substance boney , hard , and hollow where they break out , but in their hinder part they have a soft substance , covered with a thin and transparent membrane . and about the seventh and fourteenth yeer , other teeth are wont to break out ( the former falling away ) in both the jaws ten , four cutters , two dog-teeth , and four grinders . and the former fall out in the fourth , fift , and sixt year . because the holes grow wider , and therefore the teeth being at that time soft , do grow loose and fall out . nicephorus in his interpretation of dreams saies , that for a man to dream he looses a tooth another comes in the rome , betokens gain and unexpected joy. if their teeth do not shed , the latter teeth come out at new holes , the upper commonly on the outside , the lower on the inside , as there were new ranks of teeth . more frequently they spring out on the sides and augment the number . but these teeth are not bred anew without the womb : for then likewise membranes , nerves , vessels and ligaments might be bred anew : but the seeds of them lie within the jaws . for eustachius and riolanus have observed some smaller teeth at the back of the rest which fall out , a very thin partition being removed which is found between the two sorts of teeth . but a rare case it is for teeth to breed again , after many years and in old age . as thuanus relates of a man that was an hundred yeer old : in our fionia a man of an hundred and forty years of age , had new teeth . helmont saw an old man and woman of sixty three yeers of age , whose teeth grew again with such pains as children have when breed they teeth , which was no token of their long living , for both of them died that yeer . sir francis bacon hath the like example touching an old man. but now let us speak of the teeth in grown persons . the teeth are seated in the compass of the two jaw-bones , in mankind , shut up within his mouth ; in a boar they stick out , as also in the whale-fish cal'd narhual in our greenland ; which sends out an exceeding long wreathed tooth , ●ut of the left side of his upper jaw , which is commonly taken for the unicorns horn , and is yet of great value among noble men and princes . in magnitude they come short of the teeth of other animals , because of the smallness of mans mouth . and in mankind some have greater , others less . they vary in figure . in man they are of a threefold figure : cutters , dog-teeth , and grinders , as shall be said in the following chapter ; save that fontanus observed in a certain man , that they were all grinders which he had . in creatures that chew the cud they are double ; cutters and grinders . in fishes they are in a manner all perfectly sharp , excepting one kind of whale , which the islanders call springwall , whose teeth are blunt , but broad . the surface is smooth and even . the colour white , and shining , unless negligence , age , or sickness hinder . the number is not the same in all men , for to let pass rarities , viz. that some men are born with one continued tooth in their upper jaw-bone ( which they relate of pyrrhus , and a certain groenlander brought hither in the kings ships ) also of a double and tripple row of teeth , such as i have seen in some fishes , and such as lewis the thirteenth king of france had , and which solinus writes of mantichora , and is known of the lamia , which hath five ranks , strangely ordered , and among them exceeding sharp teeth , resembling the stones called glossopetrae , and therefore columna took the teeth of a lamian turned to stone , to be the glossopetrae or precious stones of malta so called , of which i have spoke elswhere . in a sea-wolf , i have observed a double rank , the former of sharp teeth , the inner of grinders , close joyned together , which possess the lower part of the palate . a man hath ordinarily but one rank in each jaw-bone , and twenty eight in all , somtimes thirty , in the upper jaw sixteen , in the lower fourteen ; but for the most part thirty two , sixteen in each jaw . but this number is seldom changed , save in the grinders , which somtimes are on each side five , somtimes sour ; otherwhiles five above , four beneath , or five on the right , and four on the left side , or contrarily . a great number of teeth argues length of life , few teeth a short life , according to galen and hippocrates . and rightly . for the rarity and fewness of teeth is bad as a sign and a cause : for it argues want of matter , and the weakness of the formative faculty . as a cause : because few teeth cannot well prepare the meat , and so the first digestion is hurt , and consequently the second . but we must understand that this prediction holds for the most part , but not alwaies , as scaliger well disputes against cardan in his . exercitation . for augustus who lived seventy six years , is said to have had thin , few , and scalie teeth ; and so likewise forestus who lived above eighty years . their connexion is by way of gomphosis , for they seem to be fixed in their holes as nails in a post . also they are tied by strong bands unto their nests , which bands stick to their roots ; and then the gums compass them , of which before . the outer substance is more solid and hard , not feeling ; the inner is a little more soft , endued with sense , by reason of the neighborhood of a nerve and membrane , and hath in it a cavity , larger in children then elder persons , and compassed about till they be seven years old , with a thin scale like the combs of bees , and full of snotty matter ; in grown persons the humor being dried up , it is diminished . this cavity is cloathed with a little membrane of exquisite sense , which if it imbibes some humor flowing from the brain , extream tooth-ach follows . in this begin erosions , putrefactions , and most painful rottenness ; and herein somtimes grow the smallest sort of worms , which exceedingly torment men . vessels are carried to this cavity , by the holes of the roots of the teeth . as veins to carry back the blood after nutrition and continual augmentation . which are not seen so apparently in mankind ( as neither the veins of the adnata tunica of the eyes ) but they are manifestly seen in oxen , and are gathered from the sprinkling of blood in the cavity . little arteries to afford natural heat and blood for nutrition and alteration . and therefore upon an inflamation , a pulsative pain of the teeth is somtimes caused ▪ which galen experimented in himself . hence much lightful , shineing blood , comes somtimes from a tooth that has an hole made in it , and somtimes so as to cause death . little nerves tender and fine , are carried to them from the first pare , according as we reckon , which go through the roots into the cavity , where they are spred abroad within , and by small twigs mingled with a certain mucilaginous substance sound in the middle of the teeth . the use of the teeth in the first and chiefest place , is to chew and grinde the meat . and therefore such as have lost their teeth are fain to content themselves with suppings ; and therefore nicephorus reckons that it is bad to dream of a mans teeth falling out , and saies it signifies the loss of a friend . . they serve to form the voice ( and therefore children do not speak , till their mouths are full of teeth ) especially the fore teeth which help the framing of some certain letters . hence those that have lost their teeth , cannot pronounce some letters , as for example t. and r. in the speaking whereof , the tongue being widened , ●ought to rest upon the fore-teeth . also the loss of the grinders hurts the explication or plain expression of the words , according to galen , so that the speech becomes slower , and less clear and easie . let therefore such as have lost their teeth , procure artificial ones to be set in , and with a golden wire to be firmly fastned . . for ornament . for such as want their teeth are thereby deformed . . homer conceives the teeth are an edg to the tongue and speech , to keep in a mans words , and prevent prating . . in brutes they serve to fight withal , in which case a man uses his hands . . in the said brutes , also to shew their age. for the age of an horse is known , by looking into his mouth , where before he is four years old that tooth to be seen which they term gnomon , when he is four year old , there is another tooth seen with an hole in it that will hold a pease , which every year grows less and less , till at eight years the tooth is filled up , becomes smooth , and no hole to be seen therein . chap. xiii . of the teeth in particular . in respect of their threefold shape , their situation , and office , there are in mankind three sort of teeth : the fore-teeth , the dog-teeth , and the grinders . the fore-teeth , from their office which is to cut the meat , are termed incisores and incisorij cutters , also gelásinoi the laughing teeth , because in laughing they are first discovered . they are placed before , in the middle of the rest , in each jaw four ( some have only two in a jaw , as large as four ) broad and sharp like swords , shorter then the dog-teeth , and fixed in their sockets with single roots ; and therefore they fall the sooner out , especially the uppermore . after these follow on either side the dog-teeth , so called , because of their sharpness , hardness , and use ; for what the former cannot cut these do bruise and grind . they are commonly termed the eye-teeth , not as some think , because they do almost touch the circumference of the eye , seeing they hardly reach the lower part of the l●ps of the nostrils , but because a portion of that nerve which moves the eye , is carried unto them , and they are deeply rooted , and therefore it is counted dangerous to draw them , also when they are pained , the eye-lids do pant a little . these teeth are two in each jaw , on each side one , broad and thick in their basis , and sharp above . for a man did not need many of these kind of teeth , seeing he is a gentle creature , and hath hands to defend and offend . they are fastned with simple roots as the fore-teeth are , but they are more deeply and firmly rooted : for their roots exceed all the other teeth in depth , and they are longer then the upper teeth . the remaining hindermore teeth are called molares , both from their shape resembling mill-stones and their use , because they grind the meat after it is cut , they are rough and great , hard and broad . the germans call them the cheek-teeth . in men they are more in number then the cutters ; but the contrary holds in fierce beasts , which use their sharp also to fight with . they are commonly twenty , on each hand in both the jaws sive , although the number varies , as was said beor . the two last of these are termed dentes sapientiae , the teeth of wisedom , also the teeth of sense and understanding , because they do then first break out ( somtimes with very great pains , and otherwailes without any pain ) when men begin to be wise , about the twenty eighth or thirtieth year of their age , and somtimes when they are very old ; aristotle saw them break out in some when they were fourscore , and walaeus at the age of eighty three years . somtimes they hardly appear , and otherwhiles they are scarce created ; the latins call them genuinos . these teeth are fastned by divers roots , either two and three , as the lower jaw-teeth , or with three and four , as the upper jaw-teeth , which have more roots then the other : because , . they hang of themselves , otherwise then the lower teeth which are fastned partly by their own heaviness . . because the substance of the upper jaw is more rare and soft . and so much for the first part of the skeleton , viz. the head : now follows the second part , or trunk . chap. . of the back-bone and its vertebra's in general . in the trunk or other part of the skeleton , all the vertebrae of the back-bone are to be examined , also the ossa ischij , the ribs , the breast-bone , the chennel-bones , and the shoulder-blades . all that is termed the spina or back-bone , which reaches from the first vertebra of the neck to the os coccygis , or crupper-bone . it is called spina the thorn , because the ●inder part therof is all along sharp-pointed like a thorn branch . the parts of the spine or back-bone are termed sponduloi in greek , in latin vertebrae whirl-bones , or turningbones , because by means of them the body is turned several waies . and these bones of the spina are divided into seven vertebrae of the neck ; twelve of the back ; five of the loins , and five or fix of the os sacrum ; to which is added the crupper-bone . all the vertebrae are hollowed , to contain the spinal marrow , they were to be many , not one , both for motion which ought to be made forward and backward ; also that the hurting of one might not draw the whole spine into consent . the father of nic. fontanus saw five vertebrae or whirle-bones of the spina in a cluster like a round ball , in the body of a porter that carried burthens . and pavius hath observed that in decrepit old people these vertebrae grow together into one , the moisture being dried up , and the intermediate ligaments hardned , which he represents by a picture . tulpius saw the back-bone in a boy divided into two parts , and salmuth hath seen it broke asunder in persons that were hanged . the figure of the whole back is , that somtimes it inclines inwards , as the vertebrae of the neck , to sustain the gullet and aspera arteria ; and those of the loins , for the trunk of the aorta and the cava descending . somtimes outwards , as of the back , and a little of the os sacrum ; that there may be a larger space for the heart , lungs , bladder , fundament and womb. and these parts do bend more outwards in women , for the sake of the child in the womb. the figure of each vertebra above and beneath , is plane and broad , that luxation may not easily be caused , round within , convex and bunching out ; but in the neck broader and more even , by reason of the wezand and gullet resting thereupon . on the outer or back-point , the vertebrae are furnished with many prominencies . for there are three kind of processes in every vertebra . i. four oblique ones , two on the upper part ascending , two in the neither part descending . ii. two transverse , for the original and insertion of the muscles . and they are in the vertebrae of the neck broad and bored through ; in the back thick , solid and round , excepting the eleventh and twelfth . iii. one sharp one , in the hinder part , which is properly called the spine or thorn , and is wanting in the first vertebra . they have five appendixes . two above and beneath at their body ; as many at their transverse processes , and one at the extremity of the spine . there is a most wide hole in the middest of each vertebra for to keep the spinal marrow in . also there are other holes in the sides , which are lesser , to let the nerves out , which john leonicenus affirm to go out only at the joyntings of the vertebrae . the substance of each vertebra , is thicker and more spungie in the inside : to which grow the epiphyses and gristles . for the extream parts of the vertebrae , excepting the first of the neck , are furnished with appendixes , between which there come thick and soft gristles , that they may be more easily moved ; so that above and beneath , they have gristles , which in the os sacrum are harder and drier , because this bone is immoveable . the vertebrae are knit together by articulation in the hinder part , viz. by the way of ginglumos , but in the fore part by way of symphysis , and that by very strong ligaments or bands . now the ligaments of the vertebrae are twofold . some do knit the vertebrae above and beneath , and are shaped like the half moon , thick , strong , fibrous , and snottie . others arise from the epiphyses , as well the transverse as the sharp ones , which are membranous , by which the processes are more strongly tied . chap. xv. of the vertebroe or whirl-bones of the back in particular the vertebrae of the neck are commonly seven . in brutes for the most part six only , and busbequius relates that the hyena hath none , who is confuted by the skeleton of that beast in the custody of p. castellus . these vertebrae of the neck , have some peculiarities , whereby they differ from the rest . i. some of them have their transverse processes cleft in two . ii. also they have them bored , for the cervical veins and arteries , ascending into the brain . iii. they have a cloven spine or thorny point . the two first are joyned by ligaments to the hinder-part of the head , that they may stick most close to the head , and have somwhat peculiar to themselves , which the other five have not . i. is termed atlas , because it seems to bear the head up , which rests upon the two hollows thereof . some call it epistropheus , though more give that name to the second . it hath no spine or sharp point , least the two small muscles of the head which arise from the second vertebra , should be hurt when the head is stretched out . it hath a thinner , but more compact substance . it receives , and is not received : and therefore it hath its cavity covered with a cartilage , to receive the tooth of the following vertebra . ii. is called epistropheus from turning : for out of the middle of its body , there rises an appendix ( others call it a process ) round and oblong , like a dogs tooth , about which the head with the first vertebra is turned . hence that appendix is called a tooth ; yea and the whole vertebra is by hippoerates so called , by the luxation whereof , he conceives an incurable squinzie , is often caused . the surface of the tooth is in some sort rough , because thence proceeds the ligament , wherby it is bound to the occiput or hind-part of the head , about which also is wound a solid and round ligament , like a nerve in shape , wonderous artificially twisted , that the marrow may not be compressed and hurt . now this second vertebra is joyned with the first , by a broad ligament , turned round . the last does more agree with the vertebra's of the chest , and hath its last process not alwaies cloven . the vertebrae of the back are commonly twelve in number ; to which so many ribs on each side are articulated : seldom one is wanting ; and there is seldomer one more . they are thicker then those of the neck ; less solid , and full of little holes , for the passage of the nourishing vessels . i. is by the ancients called liphiá , because it is higher , and sticks out more then the rest . ii. is termed maschalister axillaris the arm-pit vertebra . the rest are called costales the rib-vertebrae . the eleventh is termed arrhep●s , because the spine or sharp point thereof is straight . the twelfth is called diazostér the girder . the five of the loins are the thickest and greatest , being full of little holes , whose motion is looser then that of the back , that we may more easily stoop to the ground . the transverse processes are longer , but thinner , excepting the first and fift ; but the spines are thicker and broader , to which the muscles and ligaments of the back are fastned . . is termed nephrites , from the kidneys which re● thereupon . the last , is by some called asphalites , the stablisher or underpropper . the rest agree with the others aforesaid . the os sacrum or holy bone follows , so called , because it is the biggest of the spine or back-bone , for the ancients termed that which was great , sacred . or because it lieth under the obscaene or privy parts , which nature herself covers and hides : for sacrum did also signifie execrable , as servius shews from petronius , commenting upon that expression of virgil ; auri sacra fames : the cursed thirst of gold. it is broad and immoveable , being the basis or foundation of the back . it s figure is commonly triangular . it is in its fore-part hollow , smooth and even ; behind it is bunching and rough . its vertebrae so called , not in regard of use but similitude , are five , somtimes six , in young children easily separable , in grown persons so glewed together , that they seem to be but one bone. solomon albertus and pavius have somtimes observed them to be seven in number . galen makes the os sacrum to consist of three bones ; because he comprehends the other bones of os sacrum under the crupper-bone , and calls that an epiphysis , which others call os coccygis . the holes are not in its sides , as those of the former , but in the fore-part ( which are greater , because there are greater nerves ) and the hinder-part : because at the sides in the os ilion or flank-bone . in the three upper cavities are engraven , where the ossa ilij cleave ●o it . os coccygis the cockow-bone , so called from the shape it hath of a cuckows-bill , is under the former , consisting of three or four bones , and two gristles . but i conceive there was a greater number of bones and gristles in that danish boy , who had a tail growing out at his rump . their connexion is loose , and in women looser then in men , that they may give way . . in the voidance of large excrements . . in the time of womens travel , that the cavity may be more wide . and therefore some conceive that this bone only gives way in the birth , though pinaeus be against it , and that the pains of women in travel depend upon the concourse of little nerves in that place . afterwards in sitting it comes forwards , and of its own accord returns into its place . this bone in men bends more inward to sustain the intestinum rectum ; in women outwards , because of the neck of the womb , and that the cavity might be wider . this bone being hurt or broken , exceeding great , pains are raised , as the stories related by amatus and donatus , do witness . hofman believes it is of no use , but is only the mark of a tail , as the nipples in men are only the signs or marks of duggs . but the constant doctrine of galen is , that all parts of the body are made for some use . chap. . of the nameless bone , or os innominatum . the os innominatum or nameless bone , which some term os coxae or ilium , the flank-bone , consists of three bones , ilium , pubis , and ischium joyned together by gristles , till the seventh year it appears distinguished by a threefold line , but in grown persons t is one . the os ilion so called , because it contains the gut ilium , is the first part , which is the uppermore and broadest , knit to the os sacrum , by a common membranous and most strong ligament , although a gristle also comes between . it s semicircular and uneven circumference , is termed spina ossis ilij , whose inner part hollow and broad , is termed costa , the rib ; the outer part formed with unequal lines , is termed dorsum , the back . this bone is larger in women , and its spine is drawn more out sidewaies , that the womb of a woman with child may better rest upon it . and therefore women with child do a little complain of this part , as if it were pulled asunder from the os sacrum and other neighbouring parts to which it cleaves . os pubis or pectinis , the share-bone , is the second middlemore and foremore part ; which bone is joyned to the bone of the other side , by way of sunchondrosis , that is to say , by a gristle coming between ; which in women is twice as thick and loose or wide as in men , that these bones in child-birth may be ( not dislocated or disjoynted , but ) loosned and made to gape , when the child strives to come forth . but now and then when the childs greatness , or the narrowness of the place requires , the share-bones are pulled asunder , as , besides the authority of the ancients , paraeus and riolanus have observed in the dissections of childing-women , &c. and it is largely proved in the anatomical controversies of my father bartholinus : but this is not alwaies so , namely when the child is soft and apt to bend it self and comply with the straitness of the place when the way is slippery , the bones much widened , &c. for then the loosning of the gristle does suffice . but whether the share-bones are moved is another question . joh. cajus affirms they are moved by help of the right muscle of the belly . spigelius also saies they are moved after a peculiar manner upwards , whiles the body roules in the bed , the legs being lifted upwards riolanus proves that the share-bones are moved , not alone , but with the hip-bone , by help of the same muscles , this i say he proves by the venereal embracements , in which these parts are moved ; by the going of such whose legs are cut off , and lastly by dancing . but some doubts do as yet make me scruple this motion . . because cajus himself confesses , that the share-bones ( i add the rest ) are not moved of their own nature , but by the bending of the back-bone . . these bones being joyned together by symphysis , can have no motion , which riolanus himself confesses . . i have assigned another use for the right muscles , above in book the first . . these seeming motions of the bones , are not proper to them , but are motions of the thigh or back , whose motion they follow . for in the examples alleadged , any man may experiment in himself , that both his thighs and back are moved ; also he may by his hand perceive , that both the muscles of the thigh called glutaei , and the other adjacent muscles are moved . . they ought to be immoveable , because the upper parts rest upon them as on a foundation , and we rest by sitting upon this part. in women that have been lately delivered , these bones may be separated with the back of a thin knife , which they cannot be in others . moreover , though the share-bones are joyned by a gristle , yet they have likewise two ligaments . compasses them about circularly . . is membranous , which possesses the hole . they are thin , and for highness sake furnished with very great holes , which in women are more large and capacious , because of the womb and child , for the inner and lower processes do bunch more outwards . with the os sacrum they constitute that cavity which is termed pelvis the basin or bowl , wherein are seated the bladder , the womb , and part of the guts . os ischion or the hip-bone is the third part , which is lower and more outward , wherein is a large and deep cavity , ( they call it acerabulum , the saucer , and pixis the box ) to receive the large head of the thigh-bone , which if it fall out , either by reason of some internal humore , or outward chance , a luxation or semiluxation is thereby caused . the gristley process of this cavity , is termed supercilium , the brow. the lowest parts of this bone are more distant in women then in men , and therefore their pelvis or basin is larger then that in men . this bone is knit to the os sacrum , with a double ligament , growing out of the os sacrum : the one is inserted into the sharp process of the hip , the other behind , into its appendix , that the intestinum rectum and its muscles may be thereby sustained . chap. of the ribs . as the os innominatum or nameless bone , is at the sides of the os sacrum , so at the sides of the vertebrae of the back , are the ribs . and therefore , ascending in the explication of the skeleton , these are now to be explained , as being the lateral parts of the chest . table v. the figures explained . this table presents some of the vertebrae , the os sacrum , os innominatum , the ribs and shoulder-blade peculiarly , and their particles . fig . i. aaa . the foreside of the first vertebra of the neck termed atlas . b. the hole through which the spinal marrow descends . cc. the transverse or lateral processes . dd . the lateral holes through which the arteries ascend to the brain . ee . two cavities receiving the occiput . fig . ii. aa . the back-side of the second vertebra of the nick. b. its appendix or process , like a tooth . c. its forked spine . fig . iii. aa . the hinderside of the backvertebra . b. it s upper surface , less solid and full of small holes . cc. it s transversal processes . d. it s hinder process or spina . fig . iv. aa . the foreside of the vertebra of the loins . b. it s lower surface , for the most part covered with a gristle . c. an hole for the marrow to pass through . dd. the transverse or literal processes . e. the latter process or the spina . ii. it s oblique processes . fig . v. aaaa . the hinder-side of os sacrum , conspicuous by reason of its knobs and roughness . b. the hole for the descent of the spinal marrow . cc. it s oblique processes . ddd . it s hindermore processes . eeee . it s holes for the going out of the nerves . ffff . it s hinder process which is forked . fig . vi. shews the os coccygis or crupper-bone , consisting of four little bones or gristles . fig . vii . shews the os innominatum or nameless bone. aa . os ilium one part of the nameless bone. bbb . the spine thereof . c. it s back . ddd os pubis the share-bone , another part of os innominatum . e. it s large hole . fff . the os ischion or huckle-bone , a third part of the nameless 〈◊〉 . gg . the large cavity or saucer hh . the brim thereof . i. the knob . k. the appendix of the huckle-bone . fig . viii . aaa . the vertebrae of the back . bbb . the ribs . cccc . the cavity ingraven in the lower part of the ribs . dd. the two knobs of the ribs , by help whereof they are joyned to . e. transverse process of the vertebrae . the hollowness of the vertebrae , and to the f. g. the lowest rib , having a simple knob . fig . ix . a. the clavicula or channel-bone . b. it s small head whereby t is joyned to the breast-bone . c. it s other end whereby t is joyned to the shoulder-blade . d. the scapula or shoulder-blade . e. its first process , called acromion . f. it s lesser , lower , and sharp process called coracoeides . g. it s shortest process called cervix the neck . hh . the basis of the shoulder-blade . i. it s upper corner . k. it s lower corner . page the situation of the ribs in the sides , and the greeks call them pleurai , because they form the sides . in shape they resemble a bow , or the lesser segment of a circle , that the chest might be the larger . johan . fontanus found a forked rib ; and my self at hafnia shewed the third rib of the leftside , as thick as two ribs , joyned to the breast-bone with two shanks . at their rise they are narrower and rounder , but the nearer they come to the breast , the broader they grow . in their upper part they are thicker . and the upper ribs are more crooked , and also shorter ; the middlemore are longer and broader ; the lower are cut again shorter . the external surface is rough , where they are fastned to the vertebrae , because the ligaments which tie them do thence proceed : and there they are furnished with two little knobs : . is articulated to the hollow of the vertebra . . is joyned to the transverse process of the vertebra . but the five lower are joyned by a simple knob . the inner side is smooth , because of the membrane pleura . in the lowest part there are cavities according to the length of the ribs , for the vein , artery , and nerve ; which appears the more , by how much they are nearer the vertebra's . where let chirurgeons observe in the opening of the chest , which is made between the fift and sixt rib , the section must be made from the top towards the bottome , but not contrariwaies ▪ least these vessels should be hurt . the ribs have connexions ; one with the vertebrae of the back , another with the gristles of the breast-bone . the substance of the ribs , is partly bony , and partly gristly . that the chest may more easily be contracted and distended . that a fracture may not easily happen . 't is bony in the part near the back , and the lateral part . it s gristly near the breast-bone to which they are joyned . for all the ribs in the forepart , have gristles like epiphyses , which in women ( not in men unless very old ) through tract of time , do grow hard as bones , that they may more strongly sustain the bulk of the dugs resting upon them . the gristles of the upper ribs are harder , because they are coupled with the bones of the sternon or brest-bone ; those of the lower are softer , because they are joyned to gristles . moreover in its hinder part each hath a gristle , which is articulated with a vertebra . the ribs are many in number , that the chest may be more easily moved . pa●samas in his relations of athens , tell us , that protophanes magnesius , had his ribs fastned one to anothers from his shoulders to his bastard ribs . nicholas fa●tanus saw three united and unseparable . for the most part they are on each fide twelve , both in men and women . seldome thirteen , more rarely eleven . but often there is only one superfluous . t is therefore likely that in one side of adam there were thirteen ribs , one of which jehovah took out with the musculous flesh growing thereto and turned into eve ; or he had twelve ribs on one side , and eleven on the other . the ribs are divided into true , genuine and legitimate ; and bastard , adulterate and illegitimate ribs . the true are the seven upper ones , so called , because they do more perfect the circle , and touch the brest-bone , wherewith they have a perfect articulation ; and with the vertebrae by a double knob as was said before . the two uppermore are called antistrophoi , retortae , turned backwards . the two following are termed stertai , solidae , the solid ribs . the remaining three are cal'd sternitides , the pectoral ribs . the five lowest are called bastard ribs , because they are lesser , softer , shorter , not do they reach to the breast-bone ( that dilatation may be there better made , at the beginning of the lower belly ) nor have they a perfect articulation therewith , but being knit only to the vertebrae , as if some part of them were cut off , they end into longer gristles than the true ones : which being turned back upwards , do stick one to the other , as if they were glewed together , the last excepted , which is the least , and sticks to none , and therefore t is truly spurious , that a larger space may be for the liver , spleen , and upper guts being distended . howbeit , the eleventh sometimes and the twelfth , are tied to the septum tranversum : sometimes , the last grows to the oblique descendent muscle of the belly , without the midriff ; sometimes it hath the circumscription of its proper muscle , which pulls it from . the use of the ribs is : . [ especially of the true ones ] to defend the breast and bowels therein contained , as the heart , &c. . to sustain the muscles that serve for respiration , and some others of the belly . [ . of the bastard one , ] to serve the natural parts contained in the belly . chap. xviii . of the sternon or breast-bone . the bone of the breast , which in the fore-part of the chest rests upon the ribs , and is spread thereupon ( whence they suppose t is call'd sternum ) is by hypocrates termed stethos : which word nevertheless sometimes signifies . the whole forepart of the chest . its pain . the breast-bone as in this place . the orifice of the stomach . the sword-fashion'd gristle . others call this bone os gladiale or ensisorme the sword-bone or sword-fashion'd bone , because of the shape of a sword or rather such a dagger as was used by the ancients : for it is convex , long and broad . it s substance is partly bony , but fungous and red , partly gristly . it consists of divers bones , not of one , as is commonly seen in old men , the diversity of its bones appears , when you remove its membrances . in infants it is wholly gristly , excepting its first bone . moreover , the upper bones are sooner made than the lower , and the middle parts , than the outmost : so that in conclusion , eight bones are found in the breast of a child , which after seven years grow together , and become fewer , so that in grown persons there are sometimes three , sometimes four , sometimes more bones . but the first and last remain in grown persons as in children ; but the middle ones growing together , the number of bones comes to vary in that place . these bones are distinguished by transverse lines , and are knit together by sanchondrosis ; for the gristles are interposed like ligaments . the first and uppermost bone , is large and thick , plain and uneven , of an halfmoon fashion above , representing the joyning of a dagger blade into the haft , some term it jugulum the throat-pit , others call it furculam the little fork . it hath on each side an hollowness in the upper part , to receive the heads of the claviculae or channel-bones , in which copulation gristles come between . and another hollowness within engraven in the middle , that it may give way to the descending trachea or wesand . the second is more narrow and hath many hollownesses on each side to receive the gristles of the ribs . the third is yet less , but broader than the second , and ends into the gristle which is termed kup●o idès sword-fashion'd , and mucronata pointed , because towards the end it is sharp like the point of a sword. the arabians term it , the pomegranate ; avicen calls it epiglottalis , and the common name is scutiformis shield-fashioned . this gristle is triangular and oblong , sometimes round at the end , and sometimes broad , otherwhiles cloven , whence some call it furc●lla the little fork ; 't is seldome double . sometimes 't is perforated , for the dug-veins and arteries , which are accompanied by a nerve . sometimes in aged persons , it attains a bony substance , vestingus hath found it a fingers length not without great hurt to the stomach , and trouble when a man bows himself . pavius also saw here a bony substance , in a person troubled with extream shortness of breath . this if it be too much pressed and bowed inwards , the parts beneath it are hurt , viz. the liver and stomach , and the infants perish for want of nutriment : of which see condronchius and septalius , zacutus , wilhelmus piso . this disease is by some women cal'd , the hearts compression . folius hath observed two muscles placed on the side hereof , by which this gristle is lightly moved downwards and inwards . the cavity appearing outwardly in this place , is called fovea , or scrobiculus cordis . the use of the sternum or breast-bone , . like a shield to defend the heart from external dangers . . to sustain the mediastinum . . to collect the ribs and fasten themselves one to another . chap. xix . of the channel-bones and shoulder-blades . the channel-bones are called claviculae , cle●des in greek , that is the keyes ; because they shut up the chest , and like keyes do lock the shoulder-blade to the breast-bone , or because they resemble the keyes used by the ancients , which spigelius saw in an old house at padua . celsus calls them jugula a jungendo from joyning , others call them ligulas , os furcale , furcalem superi●rem . they are seated athwart under the lower part of the neck , on the top of the breast , on each side one . they have the shape of a long latine s , that is to say , of two semicircles , set one to another contrariwise , at the throat externally they are convex , inwardly a little hollowed , that the velsels carried that way may not be compressed . but in men they are more crooked , that the motion of their arms may be less hindred , in women less , for beauties sake , seeing the hollows in that place are not so visible in women as in men , and therefore women are not so nimble to throw stones as men are . their substance is thick , but fistulous and fungous ; and therefore they are often broken . their surface is rough and uneven . they are knit to the upper process of the shoulder-blade ( by a gristle , which nevertheless grows not thereto , that it may give way a little in the motions of the shoulder-blade and arm , only it is detained by ligaments embracing the joynt ) by a broad and longish head , and with the sternon or breast-bone , it is joyned , by another little head , as was said before . it s use is to serve the sundry motions of the arm , which because it rests upon this bone as on a prop , therefore it is more easily moved upwards and backwards . and therefore it is that brutes have no channel-bones , excepting the ape , squiril , mouse , and hedge-hog or urchin . os scapulae the shoulder-blade is by the greeks termed omoplá●ē ▪ because it makes the breadth of the shoulder , those that speak barbarously calls it spatula . it is a bone broad and thin , especially in the middest , but in its processes thick , on each side one , resting upon the upper ribs , behind , like a shield . it s figure is in a manner triangular . its parts are sundry . the internal is hollow , the other part ( which hath both a corner and an upper and lower rib ) is gibbous , which is termed testudo the tortoise , also the back of the shoulder-blade . there is also a certain spine or sharp-point , looking above and beneath the cavities which are termed interscapulia . it hath three processes . i. is the extream part of the spine lately spoke of , and is called aorōmiom the shoulder-tip , or summus humerus , whereby 't is joyned to the clavicula or channel-bone . ii. is lesser , lower and sharp , and from its likeness to a crows bill , 'c is cal'd coracoeid●s ; also a●churod●s from the likeness it hath to one part of an anchor , also sigmo●idés and by this process , the shoulder bone is contained in its place . iii. the shortest is termed auchè cervix , the neck ; in the end whereof there is a superficial cavity , whereunto the head of the shoulder is inserted , which that it may not easily slip cut , the deepness of the cavity is encreased by a thick gristle , compassing the lips. and by this process and cavity , the shoulder-blade is joyned with the arm. it hath five epiphyses , three at the inside , and at the basis near the carriage of the spina . two of them produce ligaments , which joyn its head to the shoulder , and the shoulder-tip to the clavicula . but common ligaments thin and membranous , do compass the joynt of the shoulder-blade and arm. use of the scapula or shoulder-blade . . it serves to strengthen the ribs . . for the articulation of the shoulder and channel-bones , and for their security . and therefore the shoulder is seldome ( without very great violence ) dislocated or disjoynted upwards , or to one side , but for the most part downwards , where no shoulder-blade hinders . . for the implantation of muscles . . primarily for the action of laying hold according to hofman , to which they are subservient , by inarticulation partly , and partly by the explanation of certain muscles of the arm. . secondarily to cover the heart . chap. xx. of the bones of the whole arm and hand . the bones of the arm and hand , are divided into the brachium or arm peculiarly so called , cubitus the cubit , and extrema manus the hand . the os brachii or arm-bone , is a single bone , great and strong , long , round , and uneven . in its upper part it hath an appendix or great head , growing to it , which is round , covered with a gristle , and articulated with the scapula by diárthrosis . the figure explained . this table shews the skeleton of a grown body , that the contexture of the bones may be seen one with another . a. the bone of the forehead . bb . the coronal suture . c. the temple bones . d. the teat-like production or processus mammillaris . e. the os jugula . f. the upper jaw-bone . gg . the lower jaw-bone . hhh . the vertebrae of the neck , iiiiii . the ribs . kk . the sternum or breast-bone . ll. the claviculae . mm. the inner-side of each shoulder-blade . nn. the arm-bone or os humeri . oo . the head thereof joynting into the shoulder . pp . it s lower part articulated with the cubitus and radius ' where is qq . the inward knob thereof . rr . the outer knob . ss . the cubit bone called ulna . tt . the other cubit bone called radius . uu . the process of the ulna , crooked backwards , which galen calls olecranum . xx . the lesser process of the ulna . yy . the wrist consisting of eight little bones . zz . the m●tacarpus consisting of four bones . 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 the finger rows . 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 the thumb compounded of three bones . these following characters , do point to the lower bones of the skleleton . aaaaa . the five vertebrae of the loyns . bb. the innerside of os sacrum with its holes . cc. the cavity of os ilii , constituting a great part of the pelvis or basin . dd. the os coxendicis with its acetabulum or sawcer . ee . the share-bones with their holes . f. a line knitting the share-bones by help of a gristle . gg . the thigh-bone . hh . the round head of the said bone . ii . the neck thereof . kk . the external process of the neck , or the great trochanter . ll . the other process or less trochanter . mmmm . the lower heads of the thigh-bone . nn. the mola ●●atella or knee pan . oo . the tibia right and left , in which pppp . shews the two upper hollownesses , rr . shews the spina , ss . the lower process of the ankle-bone . tt . the fibula or other leg-bone so called , or the pe●one . uu . it s lower part constituting the external ankle . xx. seven bones of the tarsus . 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 the astragalus . 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 the calx , calcantum or heel-bone . 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 the os cubiforme , die-fashioned-bone . yy . the bones of the metatarsus . zz . the bones of the toes , of which two are reckoned to the great toe and to the other toes three a piece . place in here , the skeleton of a grown body . the lower part is articulated to the cubitus and radius , where there are two processes ; the external which is less and crusted with a gristle ; the internal having two hollows ; representing a pulley , whereby the cubit being joyned by way of ginglymos , may be bent to a most acute angle , but not extended beyond a right line . the boats of the cubit are two , shorter than the shoulder , and having appendixes on either side , resting mutually one upon another , and joyned one to another by a membranous ligament . the first being lower , greater and longer than the other , is termed ulna , cubitus , by the barbarous writers focile majus ; the other being upper and lesser , is termed radius , or focile minus . the ulna or ell , so called for some resemblance it hath to the drapers metwand termed an ell , in its upper part is articulated with the shoulder by ginglymos , and therefore it hath there processes , and hollows . the processes are two , longwise shaped , and as it were triangular , rough , that the ligaments might strongly close upon the joynt and compass the same fast . they are termed co●d●ai , that is beaks , bills or acorns . the foremore and uppermore is less , and goes into the hollow of the shoulder : the later is thicker and larger and ends in an obtuse angle , and goes into the hinder hollow of the shoulder . galen calls it olecranum , hippocrates ancona , the latines gibberum . in the middest of these is a great cavity or hollow , like an half circle , whence 't is called sigmocides from the letter sigma so shap'd of old by the greeks . it hath as yet another smooth external lateral cavity , for the head of the radius . in the lower part it is articulated with the wrist , both by a gristle going between , as also by an acute process therefore termed styloides , bodkin-like ; whence a ligament arises , which fastens the cubit to the wrist-joynt . the other bone cal'd radius is more oblique or crooked , and is a little distant from the other in the middle , where a thin ligament comes between : but above , the ulna receives the radius ; beneath , the radius receives it . the upper part thereof is articulated with the outward part of the brachium , by way of diarthrosis , whence proceeds the forward and backward motion . the lower is articulated with an appendix with the wrist-bone , at the greatest finger . the upper part of this , is thinner , the lower thicker ; contrary to what is in the former . the hand hath four sorts of bones : those of the carpus , brachiale or wrist ; those of the matacarpus or post brachiale , the after-wrist ; those of the fingers and the sesamus-seedbones . the carpus or wrist , which the arabians call rasetta , hath eight distinct nameless bones , very unequal , differing in shape and magnitude . at their first original they are gristles , afterwards they become spungie bones . they are covered with very strong gristly ligaments and withall so fastned together , as if they were but one bone. and these ligaments arising from the lower processes of the radius and cubitus , do serve for articulation . but there are other ligaments , which are transverse and shaped like rings , for to strengthen and safely to carry along the tendons , the internal , containing the tendons of the muscles which bend the fingers ; and the external , containing the tendons of the muscles which extend the fingers , which ligaments or bands , though they seem to be one , may be divided into many . the bones of the wrist are dispersed in a certain order : for above , there are four , articulated with the radius and the cubitus : beneath as many , knit to the four bones of the metacarpus or after-wrist . the metacarpium , after-wrist , or palm , hath four bones ( others say five , reckoning the first of the thumb amongst them ) shaped longwise and small . they are joyned to the wrist by a connexion of obscure motion , and by gristly ligaments : with the fingers by way of ginglymos . these bones are fistulous containing marrow , hollow within , bossie without . they have appendixes on each side , which neer the fingers are round and longish heads , going into the hollowness of the fingers . in the middle they gape one from another , where the muscles cal'd inner●●ss●i do lye conceal'd . the bones of the fingers are fiftee● , in each finger three . for the first of the thumb is reckon'd in this number , because it hath a looser articulation than the post-brachialia . the row of fingers on a hand the greeks call phalangas ▪ because they resemble a rank of souldiers in battle array . each of the fingers have ligaments on their insides , according to their length like channels , whereby they are fastned one to another . the bones of the finger differ in magnitude . for in every finger , the first is greates than the second , the second than the third : and they are all thicker at the joynt , where their knobs are termed ●…duloi , ●odi , kno● . without they are bunching , within hollow and plain the better to lay hold . they have processes above and beneath , besides the bones of the third interjuncture , which they did not need above where they are joyned to the nails . chap. xxi . of the bones of the whole leg , foot and thigh . the pes or leg ( taking the word in a large sence ) is divided into three pa●ts , as the arm was : viz. into femur the thigh , tibiam the shank , and e● tr●mum pedem the foot. ●emur ( the thigh ) is so termed a ferendo from bearing , because it bears and holds the creature up , it consists of one only bone , but the greatest and longest in the whole body , whose fore and external part is more bunching , the inner and hinder , more saddle-shap'd . for it descends obliquely inwards unto the knee ; which chirurgeons are to observe , lest in the fracture thereof they come to disorder this situation . the upper part hath three processes , which are rather epiphyses , and are easily sepaarated in young children . i. is a most great and round head , made of an appendix , which is inserted into the acetabulum or hollow sawcer of the coxendix , and is by a double ligament fastned to the said coxendix or hip-bone : the o●e common , broad , membranous , but thick enough , compassing the joynt round about ; the other , round , as it were a gristle ( as if it were a gristly nerve ) betwixt the head of the thigh and the depth of the cavity , least the head of the thigh fall out . the neck hereof hath a double process furnished with an appendix , which appendixes are easily pluckt asunder in infants , but not in grown persons . ii. is external , which is called magnus trochanter or rotator , the great whirler or wheeler about , having hollows , impressions , and lines . iii. is internal , cal'd parvus rotator . whose use is , for the original and insertion of those muscles by which the motions are caused ●● and therefore also it is , that they are called trochanteres , wheelers of whirlers about . the lower part is articulated or joynted with the shank by way of ginglymos . for at the knees , with a double head , the inner more thick , the outer more broad and flat , it enters the cavity of the tibia ; between which heads there is a large space , of a thumbs-breadth , through which the vessels do pass unto the thighs with a nerve of the fourth pare ; and wounds in this part are dangerous , by reason of convulsions . mola so called from its likeness to a mill-stone ; is a round and broad bone ; it is in this place put upon the joynting of the thigh and shank , where the knee is compas'd with a membranous ligament , all save the mola ; others call it rotula , patella , mola , scutum , os scutiforme , &c. the knee-pan , because it constitutes the knee . it s substance for some months in young children , is gristly , in grown persons it becomes bony . it s shap'd like a buckler , for in the middle , one part thicker than the rest , bunches out . it growe to , and is fastned by certain thick tendons , of some muscles of the thigh . it is movable , and for to make the motion more easie , inwardly at the thigh-bone , 't is cover'd with a slippery gristle . it s use is : i. to strengthen the joynt in that part , lest the thigh should slip and be dislocated inwards , and so a man shall fall , especially walking downwards , and much bending his knee . 't is reported , that in nova zembla , men bend their knees as well backwarde as forwards . ii. to defend the tendons of the muscles . tibia the shank , being that part which is between the kne● and the ankle , consists of two bones , as the cubitus or lower half of the arm. the one being inner and greater , is called by the name of the whole , tibia , c●●me ; by some focile majus , canna major , &c. in an elephant alone of all creatures ( as bonitus informs us ) there is a bending or joynting in the middle of the shanks , besides the other ordinary bendings common to all creatures . in the upper part it hath a process in the middle received by the cavity of the thigh-bone , and two cavities framed long-wise , for the heads of the thigh-bone ; the depth of whose hollows is encreased by a gristle , fastned thereto by ligaments , which is movable , soft , slippery , and smeared with an oyly moisture , thick in its circuit , th●● towards it centre , and therefore termed lunata , moonshap'd . a knob growing there , doth separate the two cavities , from the top whereof a strong ligament proceeding , it is fastned into the hollow of the thigh-bone . but from the fore and rough side come two ligaments , which encrease the moon-fashion'd gristles . it s foremore part which is sharp and long , is termed spina , where the shape of the bone is as it were triangular , and so acute that it is like the edge of a knife , and therefore if the bone of the tibia or shank be strucken on this forepart , it causeth exceeding pain , because the neighbouring skin and the periosteum are cut by this sharp bone as it were with a knife . in the lower part there is a process void of flesh , sticking out with a bunch , near the foot , and 't is cal'd malleolus internus , the inner ankle-bone ; as the process of the fibula ▪ is termed malleolus externus , the outer ankle-b●ne . fibula pe●●●e , the button , because it seems to button together and joyn the muscles of the shank ; is also cal'd sura the calf , canna minor , focile minus , &c. and it is a smaller and lanker bone , drawn along before the tibia without , as the radius before the cubit . in the upper part , its round head doth not touch the knee , but it subsists beneath : but with its lower ●●rt , it goes beneath the tibia , and therefore 't is as long a bone as the tibia is . in the middle the tibia and fibula hold a gaping distance one from another , by reason of the muscles of the feet there placed , in which space a thin broad ligament joyns these bones together , according to their longitude , 't is joyned also to the tibia , by a common ligament , above and beneath . beneath , the head becoming sharp , hath an appendix , which growing thick , begets a process called malleolus externus the outer ankle-bone which is lower than the inner ankle-bone . the bones of the foot are divided as the bones of the hand , into three parts : into the tarsus , metatarsus , and the toes . the bones of the tarsus are seven , though some number only the last four to be in the tarsus , because the three first have no bones in the hand answering to them . i. it 's cal'd astrágalos , in latine talus , and commonly os balistae the sling-bone , also quatrio , because of its four sides . 't is placed beneath the shank bones as a basis or foundation : for it is joyned with the appendix of the tibia by way of ginglumos ; wherefore they have upon a long neck , on high , round , and smooth head , covered over with a gristle , in the middle whereof is a smooth cavity : whereupon it comes to have on each side a brim or brow , like a pully or little wheel on which a rope runs . at the sides it receives on each hand the ankle-bones : it 's also joyned with the os naviculare ; also below to the heel , with a double joynt , where its lower part is uneven , twice hollowed , and thrice bunched . it receives the head of the heel-bone . in the middest of these joynts a cavity is to be observed ( to which the hollow of the heel answers ) wherein is contained fat and a slimy substance , to moisten the gristly ligaments , which knit the talus to the bone ▪ least in their motion they should be dried . hence i have observed as often as there is scarsity of this moist and fat substance or none at all , either by means of a wound in that place , or any other cause , that there is a noise in a mans foot when he walks , by the knocking of the two bones one against another , yet without pain ▪ because there is no sensitive part within , but only bones , gristles and ligaments . ii. is the greatest and thickest in the foot , as being the chiefest stability thereof ( as the talus is chief for motion ) and therefore 't is joyned by many ligaments to the talus or ankle , and other adjacent bones 't is called p●er●●●alx ; c●lcaneum , pedis cal●●● , the spur of the foot or heel-bone ▪ into which the greatest and strongest chord or tendon in the whole body is fastned , being made up of the tendons of three muscles of the foot. it s lower part is somewhat broad , where it turns backwards , that the foot may more firmly be setled and strengthned , otherwise a man would easily fall backwards . in its upper part , it hath a large head , going into that shallow cavity which receives the knob of the talus . but it is also joyned to the os cubiforme or die-fashion'd bone with its flat head . iii. is called os naviculare , scaphoeid●s from the similitude of a boat : 't is knit to the talus and the three hindermore bones iv. from the form of a die or four square solid body called a cube , is termed cubo-eides cube-fashion'd , also os t●sserae , the dice-bone , by the arabians gran li●●sum , by some others 〈◊〉 many shap'd or many-fac'd . being greates than the rest , 't is placed before the heel , joyned by an uneven surface ; with its other side 't is joyned to the fourth and fift bone of the pedium ; but within , to the seventh bone of the tarsus . the other three , anciently without names , cal'd by fallopius , calcoide● , cuneiformia , wedg-shion'd , are articulated to the naviculare or boat-fashion'd-bone : and they are a greater or middlesiz'd , and a lesser from a broad basis growing by little and little smaller and smaller . the bones of the metatarsus or sole , are five knit to the bones of the tarsus ; those of the toes are fourteen ; because the great toe is made up only of two bones , and the interjunctures are shorter than in the hand , but those of the great toe , thicker than in the hand . the other are like the bones in the hand which answer to them ; as the ligaments also commonly answer . but under the sole of the foot , the skin and fat being removed , there is a ligament broad and strong ; and from the lowest bone of the heel sesamoidean little bones are inserted into all the ranks of toes , for the greater firmness of the whole foot. chap. xxii . and last . of the sesamoidean bones . in the interjunctures of the hands and feet are found certain very little bones called sesaminis or sesamoidea because they answer in likeness to sesamus seeds and also in their smallness . they are round and a little flat . they are less in the feet th●●● in the hands , excepting in the great toe , because it is greater than the thumb is . in ancient persons they are greater and a little plane . they grow to the tendons of the muscles which move the toes , under which they lie concealed wrapt up in the ligaments , so that they come away with them in the clensing of the bones unless great care be used . sometimes they are gristly , as in children , in which they are not very conspicuous ; otherwhiles bony , covered with gristles , and inwardly spungy and porous . they are commonly twelve in number in each foot and hand , but sometimes sixteen , nineteen , twenty and more : sometimes there are only ten . they are more in number , greater and harder , in the inside of the hand than without , in which riolanus ●a●es there are none . their number therefore is uncertain : for many are so small that they are not observed : and nature herein as in a matter of small moment , sometimes abounds , and sometimes again comes short . but those two are chiefly remarkable for their greatness which are joined to the first joynt of the great toe , at the head of the bone metatarsus ; one which is the greater , placed under the nervous part of that muscle , which bends the first bone of the great toe , and the form and size thereof , is like the half of a great pease , the white skin being taken off : which little bone is by the arabians called albadara . some ancient philosophers held that a man should grow up again at length from this bone , as from a seed , which corn. agrippa from the tradition of the hebrews calls luz . but another much less , is placed under the second joynt of the great toe . and though most commonly these same very small bones are found in the interjunctures of the fingers and toes , yet are they to be seen also in other places . as sometimes in the outside of the hand , where the eighth bone of the wrist is fastned to the bone of the metatarsus which sustains the little finger ▪ there is one which fills ●n hollow place there : and after the sa●ie manner here is the like bone in the tarsus of the foot , at the outside of the articulation of the ●i●t bone of the metacarpus which sustains the little toe , with the os cubiforme , or die-fashion'd bone : also two little bones in the ham by the os fem●ri● , which grow not in the tendons , but in the beginnings of the two first feet-moving muscles , which are found in old men and in dry creatures , as deer , dogs , and hares . hereunto they refer that bony part in aged people , which is placed against the 〈◊〉 . their use is . i. to defend the tendons , and by their hardness to retain them in their motion , least they should fall from the joynt when it bunches out . ii. to strengthen the joynt and preserve it from luxation . iii. to fill up empty spaces . and while these things are performed by the said little bones , the hands do thereby lay firmer and safer hold upon any ; and the feet can stand and go more steadily , especially on rough ground . to god our creator be praise , honour and glory , who hath form'd and fashion'd us so wonderfully . finis . two epistles of johannes walaeus concerning the motion of the chyle and the blood . to thomas bartholinus the son of caspar bartholinus . the first epistle concerning the motion of the chyle and blood , to thomas bartholinus the son of caspar . the chief men in church and commonwealth have in all ages contended about primacy : but learned men have in no age more ambitiously striven who should seem most learned , then at this present time . and to attain their desire very many are not afraid to assist themselves by calumnies and other worse arts. no man can publish in print , or communicate to his friend any writing , which some account excellent , but he presently meets with a detractor who will prick , cut , and tear him most cruelly . now for a man to seek nothing else by his cares and labours , but envy and vexation of mind , is extream madnesse . these causes have ( i confess ) hindred me from satisfying your frequent request ; and besides , because i am not willing to determine of those things , which long experience of years cannot either prove , or sufficiently limit . howbeit you continue your request , and i am much ashamed , alwaies to deny you . also a certain learned man hath imposed a necessity upon me , in a manner , to discover to others my opinion concerning the motion of the blood. for certain theses having been disputed concerning the motion of the blood , my self being president of the dispute ; though the defendant truly professeth in his said theses , that they are his own , yet he hath undertaken to tax and blame them , as if they were mine . and although that young man need not be ashamed of those theses , yet i would not have another mans theses , though disputed when i was president , to be accounted mine . neither can he be ignorant of the reason , who is acquainted with my liberty in disputing , or the custome of our university . now therefore take my opinion of the motion of the blood , as follows . that some hot blood which leaps out of the great arteries being opened is thinner , more rare and of a more bright colour , than that which flows out of the veins when they are opened : yet , i will not therefore say , that the arterial blood differs formally from the venal , blood : for the arterial blood may differ as aforesaid from the venal , because it comes reaking hot as it were from the fire , and abounds with greater store of spirits , as we see boyling milk differs from it self being cooled , for the same ▪ reason : for that blood which is in the smaller arteries , and so farther from the heart , is observed to differ less from the venal blood. and when we have taken blood out of the greater arteries , yea , out of the heart it self of a living creature , and from the same creature , have taken some out of the veins , and have let then , both grow cold and congeal , we could never observe any difference betwixt them . so that we can see no other , but that the arterial blood is of the same kinde with the venal . some few will have , that the venal blood is of two kinds , one which is contained in the vena cava , another in the vena porta . but we cannot see any difference of these bloods either when they are included in their vessels , or when they are let out : and that reason doth teach as much we shall see anon . besides these , we may likewise conceive another sort of blood , which being made of chyle in the liver , hath not received any further perfection in the heart . and we are little concerned to know the nature thereof , because we see it continues such but a very little while . so that we are to enquire into the motion of only one sort of blood. now the blood may be moved either in that part of the vein or artery wherein it is contained , or out of that part into another . in one part of a vein or artery , the blood is not discerned to move up and down , like boyling water , neither when it is received into a vessel , nor when let out of a living and hot body ; nor yet in the artery it self , if it being on either hand tied , shall be opened in the upper part betwixt the two ligatures . ye● , when we have many times cut off the point of a living heart , and set it upright , we have found the blood to be hot , but never to boyl . but that the blood is moved from one part of an artery or vein into another , is a thing very manifest . for blood is contained in the veins of the furthest parts of the body , which seeing it is not bred there , it must needs come from some other place . and it is evident enough , that in living creatures , the blood flows out of the vena cava into the heart and out of the heart into the aorta . but that this same whole motion of the blood may be by us the better understood , i conceive our best way will be to begin at the very fou●tain , and original thereof . i have often seen solid meat in dogs hold the same order in the stomach , just as it was eaten by the beasts ; unless the stomach being distended with too much drink , did make the meat to float , and so to change its order and situation . the meat which the stomach receives , although it be but two ounces , it evidently imbraces the same round about ; just as we see folded purses contract themselves about a bullet or round ball within them , also the upper and lower orifice are both shut : which by making an hole near the same , and putting in your little finger , it is easie to try . but the lower orifice notwithstanding , when we finde it perfectly shut , seems rather to be fallen together , than straitly closed , that upon the smallest pressure it may let the chylus pass by . also many times when the stomach and its orifices are weak , they fail in their natural closeness , and upon searching are found looser . the meat retained in the stomach , as thoroughly moistened with the liquor of our food , drink and spittle : and it quickly becomes porous and spungie : because as is most likely the said liquor hath drawn out and suckt into it self some of the substance of the meat . a while after it is cut and torn as it were into very small particles , both that of thin and that of gross substance , yea , in dogs the very shells themselves of eggs : which doth questionless proceed from some acid sharp humour that hath in it a dissolving power . so we finde by experience that the stomach burthened with the quantity or grossness of meat , doth find it self eased , by taking a little vinegar , juice of citrons , oyl of sulphur , or vitriol . nor let any man assign the cause thereof to spittle or choler belching back into the stomach , when he shall see bread steeped some hours in hot spittle or the gall of an ox , by them not dissolved , moreover in an hundred dogs or more which i have cut up on purpose alive , i found choler flowed back into the stomachs of onely two of them , one of which had eaten nothing for three daies , and in his stomach , which was wonderful to behold , there was a cholerick froath so thick and full of bubbles , as that we see on the suds of such as wash in lye. now i conceive this acid humor comes from the spleen into the stomach , because there is no other part in the body which we can perceive to be sharp or acid : and because upon swallowing a bit of boyled spleen especially of a ●ow , heaviness of the stomach proceeding from the quantity or grossness of meats , is thereby holpen . thus the meat being mixed in its smallest particles with the liquor , in tract of time by concoction it comes to the consistence of thin barley-cream : which when it hath attained , then at last it is thrust into the guts . howbeit all meat doth net receive this change in the stomach in the same space of tim● ; it is sooner performed in the day time , with a little meat thin of substance and well chewed ; it requires a longer space in the night , where there is store of it , the meat is gross , and swallowed down in great bits : so that the meat which is well grinded with the teeth , begins to be turned into cream , when that continues yet solid , which was swallowed down in great bits . milk and broaths in the day time are perfectly digested in an hours space or sooner , and if somewhat else hinder not , they are then also distributed ; which the voiding of urin alone , after them , doth evidently shew , without any dissection : herbs are more slowly changed . bread in respect of digestion seems to be of a midling substance , we finde in the first hour and half very little changed ; in the following hour it is rare and light , just like a wet spunge ; when that hour is past , it is divided into very small particles , and mixt so with the drink , that all appears liquid , and soon after it is most of all digested , and at last as much of the braad as is digested , between the fourth and fift hour after its eating , is by the stomach forced through the pylorus , into the guts . but some of the said bread staies behind , which by little and little is pertectly digested , as also if any other meat were eaten with the bread of harder digestion than it : which meats i have observed to be digested in this order . first beans and pease , then fish , then flesh which is perfectly digested and thrust out of the stomach between the sixt and seventh hour : beef between the seventh and eighth : yea , and the membranous parts of the animals are longer in digestion , as also the shells of egs ; i have seen bones that have abode in the stomach unto the third day , during which space they were become like gristles . yea , and in the parts of these very meats , oft times great variety is seen , as of bread and flesh , though they seem whole in the stomack , yet some portion though very little , is distributed sometimes the first hour , unto the milky veins . so that whatever is digested , doth not at all expect the digestion of the rest , nor is staid by that which is undigested , but presently slips out , and is carried into the guts : yea , and you shall seldome finde a dogs stomach empty , although he have not eaten in sixteen hours before . now i could easily make all these observations in dogs , which i cut up alive , at several distances after they had eaten their meat . in the guts the chyle is of an ashcolour , and is seldome coloured by the yellowness of choler : and presently now from the duodenum it begins to enter the milky veins of asellius , nor doth this entrance cease in any of the guts as long as any chyle remains in the said guts , so that the intestinum rectum or arse-gut it self , is endued with milky veins , which are many times seen to look white by the afflux of chyle . and that we may not think that same milkie juyce comes elsewhere than from the guts , i have bound these milky veins inserted into the body of the guts , and observed that from the cavity of the guts to the ligature they are evidently full and swoln , but from the ligature towards the mesentery they wax empty and fall in . but the chyle hath never been observed to enter into any vein in the body of the stomach , nor any meseraick vein , nor yet the blood being by the binding of vena porta ( whereof the reason shall hereafter appear ) exceedingly augmented in the meseraick veins , hath ever been ●een to enter into the milky veins . so that i cannot see otherwise , but that nature hath ord●ined the milky veins only to carry chyle , and the stomach and meseraick veins only to carry blood. the chyle in the milky veins is alwaies though it proceed from ash-colour'd chyle in the guts or such as is dyed yellow by choler . by these milky veins the chyle goes upwards , after what manners , is not very easie to say . this seems to me most probable , which i observed in great and lean greyhounds ; that some of the milkie veins do go right on , to the ramus mesentericus , some into the vena porta it self , others into the hollow parts of the liver , and very few do sometimes end in the vena cava , near the emulgents . for these animals have not that single kernel in the beginning of the mesentery , which asellius hath termed pancreas , and which is wont to obseure the passage of these veins ; but they are furnished in that place with smaller kernels , for the most part five in number , which being distant by a man fest space one from another , through that space they afford free passage to some milky veins . but seeing that above these kernels , there are fewer branches of the milky veins ( and some of them greater ) than beneath , i am apt to believe , that neer those kernels , the milky veins are divided into branches , and that the said kernels serve , as elsewhere in the body , to accomodate the divarication or branching of vessels . sometimes also i have been shewed milky veins , which entred into the liver , but when in the presence of the shewers , i accurately examin'd the matter , we found them to be nerves . the chyle being carried through these milky veins is mixed with the blood in the ramus mesentericus , in the vena porta , and in the very liver also it self : for in what place soever you tie the milky veins , they alwaies swell , because they are hindred from passing the chyle to these parts , and the ligature being loosed , they manifestly infuse the same into those parts . the branches of the vena porta in the liver although in sundry places they are knit to the branches of vena cava , yet are they never opened into a great branch of vena cava , but the smallest branches of vena porta do transfuse this chyle mixt with blood into the smallest branches of the vena cava ; as is easie to observe in the liver blown up when the flesh is taken off , and it swims in water . and that the same happens to the rest of the chyle mingled with the blood , will be hereafter manifest . out of the little branches of the vena cava in the liver , the blood is in the judgement of all men poured into the vena cava : and when in live anatomies it is tied above the liver , it manifestly swels with blood flowing in . out of the vena cava it enters into the right ventricle of the heart , and either part of the vena cava being tied , either that which is seared above , or that which is below the heart , i have many times observed , especially in an eell , that it is quickly emptied towards the heart which also harvey hath observed chapter tenth of his book . out of the right ventricle of the heart , it enters manifestly enough into the vena arteriosa , and by it into the lungs . but i dare not say that any of the blood passeth out of the right ventricle of the heart , by the partition wall , 〈…〉 the left ventricle thereof , seeing i find open passages elswhere , but none in this place . purut gassendus a general scholar and of a candid spirit , in his exercitations upon fluds philosophy part . chap. ● . relates how he had seen payanus shew the partition wall of the heart to be transpassable , by sundry crooked and turning passages : and that they might be found out , if putting a probe gently into one of the pits , you shall most leafurely thrust it upwards and downwards and to one side , and still seek a further passage till you meet with the end thereof . and the truth is i have divers times found it to succeed as he saies ; but i have withall observed , that those waies and turning passages , were not at all made by nature , but by the probe or point of a penknise , while we open a way already made , and seek one farther : for the flesh of the heart is so tender and withall so consistent , that with the smallest touch of any thing that can bo●e , it is presently broken , and leaves a cavity ; so that we may also after this manner , find passages through the sides of the heart . that the blood being entred by the vena arteriosa into the lungs , doth return through the arteria venosa unto the left ventricle of the heart , i do hereby collect , in that having bound the greater branch of the arteaia venosa ( in a live anatomy ) neer the pericardium or heart-bag , we have seen it grow hard and swell towards the circumference of the lungs , that part being emptiod and falling in which looks towards the heart , and when the ligature was loosed , we saw the blood move to the left ventricle of the heart : and this is very easily observed in rabbies . now this blood , because it can come from no other place , must needs come from the vena arteriosa hither . leonardus botallus a most learned man , at the end of his book de catarrho , supposeth he hath found another way , by which the blood may continually goe , out of the right , into the left ventricle of the heart . a little above the coronal artery ( saith he ) i found a passage visible enough , nèar the right earlet , which● goes immediately and right forth into the left earlet . this passage unless it be the progress of the vena cava to the vena arteriosa , which we call foramen ovale , or another passage which i have somtimes found in a sheeps heart , as big as a wheat straw , going with a crooked passage from one earlet to another ; unless , i say , it were one of these , i know not what for a passage it was . and as for that ovale foramen eg-fashion'd-hole , it is not every where alike shut up , and oftentimes there is a very thin and transparent little membrane growing in the middle thereof , which with the smallest touch of a probe is easily broken , but it is very seldom upon any occasion found open , in grown persons . and the blood flowing through the arteria venosa out of the lungs , doth fasten the membrane placed before that hole , so that even when it doth not grow to , hardly any thing can pass that way . but that same oblique passage which i have seen in a sheeps heart , doth many times pierce deep into the substance of the earlet , but is very seldom carried into the other earlet . and i conceive it was given the earlet for its nutrition , it not being wont to receive branches from the coronaria . now from such things as seldom happen , we cannot conclude any thing touching those things that constantly come to pass : for nature frequently sports her self in the fabrick of the heart . so in the septum intermedium or partition wall of an oxes heart , in the upper part according to the length of the heart , sometimes i have found a cavity , opening at the left ventricle , about the point , which was as long and large as a mans fore-finger . the like whereunto possibly aristotle saw , when in his . de partibus chap. . he saith the greater sort of animals have three ventricles in their heart . for the greatest animals that are , have but two ventricles , as i observed in the dissection of a young whale . so that the blood cannot be thought to go ordinarily any other way , then through the lungs into the left ventricle of the heart . the blood being thus caried into the left ventricle of the heart , goes from thence to the arteria aorta , the middle and smallest arteries : for they being bound in living anatomies , do wonderfully swell towards the heart , and towards the extream parts they fall in , and the ligature being loosed , they evidently send the blood to the remoter parts of the body . the blood out of the smaller arteries may enter into the veins ; for the arteries have a way open into the veins , by the common mouths of one opened into another , . and to the intent we might be sure that blood may pass by those mouths , we have freed the vein and artery in the foot of a dead dog , from such things as are wont to hinder their being seen , and we emptied the greater crural vein , and bound it in the flank , least any blood might flow in that way , and in the knee we bound both this vein and its neighbouring artery : and then with our fingers we forced the blood in the iliack arteries , as far as to the knee , and so we emptied the crural artery , but the crural vein we saw manifestly replenished ; and seeing into the vein tied above and beneath nothing could come or a very little out of its branches and yet it was much filled , and the artery quite emptied ; we did gather that the blood wherewith the vein was filled , was driven by the little mouths out of the emptied arteries , into the said vein . and that this opinion is not new galen himself shews in his . chap. de usu pulsus . the conjunctions of the mouths of the veins and arteries are not visible to our eyes : and if you shall justly refuse to believe them as not credible enough , you may be brought by other reasons dellvered by the ancients to believe there are such things : and not a ●●l● by this plain token , that in case a man shall take any of those creatures in whom the veins and arteries are manifest , as an ox , an hog , an ass , an horse , a sheep , a bear , a libard , an ape● or a man himself , and open many large arteries in the said creature , he may draw all the blood in its body out through the said arteries . i have divers times experimented the same , and finding alwaies that the veins are emptied with the arteries , i did perswade my self that the opinion was true concerning the common mouths of the veins and arteries , and of the common passage of the blood from one to another . yea it is a received and common opinion , that the arterial blood doth naturally enter into the smallest veins , to the end that the part might be nourished with arterial and venal blood. and that indeed and in truth the blood doth naturally pass in living creatures , out of the arteries into the veins by those little mouths , these signs do cleenly witness . he that in living dissections shall consider that quantity of blood , which by the arteries is conveighed to the parts and veins , can hardly perswade himself to think , that it is all consumed in nourishing the parts : especially if he shall consider that the arterial blood is thick enough , and not a fourth part thinner than the venal blood , as i have often obs●●●ed ▪ when i have suffred both of them to grow cold and 〈…〉 whence we may justly conclude with harvey , that the blood which is communicated from the arteries to the veins and parts , does a great part of it , return back again to the large veins . moreover , when we open a vein in a bound arm , if you press that part of the swelling vein with your thumb which is neer the orifice , betwixt it and the hand , or if you make such a ligature as the former betwixt the hand and the orifice , you shall see that no blood will come forth ; whence it seems to follow , that the blood comes from the hand , which flows from the orifice . and seeing some pounds of blood are drawn away by such a blood-letting , and so much cannot be contained in the lower part of the veins of the arm , it must needs come thither from the arteries , which are not stopped by that ligature above the orifice , as their pulse remaining entire doth testifie . but that we might see the same with our eyes , we have divers times in great living dogs , freed the large vein and artery in the groyn , from such things as did hinder their sight ; which may be easily done if they lie not beneath the muscles : and we bound the said vein with a thred , and we observed that part of the vein which looked towards the vena cava to empty and fall in , and the other part towards the foot exceedingly to swel , so that in regard of its fullness , it seemed harder than the artery it self ; but the ligature being loosed , the blood presently moved upwards , and the fullness and hardness of the vein was very much abated . and the artery being bound , that part thereof did wonderfully swell , which was nearest aorta , and the other part more remote did fall in through emptiness : nor did the vein then bound evidently swell . and this we did many times and the effect was still the same . and that we might have no scruple remaining , and might observe withall , what was done within in the vein , we did lift up the vein and artery being thus made bare , and under them we firmly bound the thigh it self , that the blood might not move upwards or downwards , by any other vein ●ave that which we had lift up . the● the vein being held up , and also shut with a thred , as is expressed in this figure , we opened it above and below the thred with a small orifice . now immediately from that part of the vein which was farthest from the heart , the blood flew out violently plentifully , and in a full stream . but that part of the vein which was on the other side of the thred towards the heart , did only drop out a few drops . whence it seemed to us to be a cleer case , that the blood did not come downwards from the greater vessels , but upwards out of the smaller vessels into the greater . especially when having made another ligature upon the same vein further from the heart , betwixt the foresaid orifice and the foot of the beast , we saw no blood at all come from that orifice , whence before it issued with such violence . for we conceived those drops which sell from the orifice neer the heart , might proceed from blood which possibly was in the vein when it was opened , or which it might continually receive from some small branch of the crural vein situate above the thred ; but this cause will anon appear more evidently . it is easie to make this experiment without any opening of a vein in such persons as have the veins of their arms very conspicuous : in whom if you stop the vein near the hand with one finger , and with your other hand force the blood upwards , and the whole vein wil appear empty ● ▪ which wil soon after be filled , when you take away your lower finger , but not if you take only your upper ; as harvey also observed in the . chapter of his book . for the upper blood goes into the greater veins , and the valve hinders it from descending , which will hardly let anything pass by , unless the vein be so far widened , that a great space remain between it and the valves . seeing therefore the blood comes out of the hands and feet , and they do not breed new blood , so as to supply the whole body therewith , we doubt not but that the blood in those parts continually and naturally goes into the veins , and out of the lesser veins into the greater . table i. the explication of the figure . a. the right leg of the dog. b. the left leg of the dog. cd . the ligature made under the vein and artery , which fast binds the thigh , expressed in the right thigh , least the confusion of the lines might disturb the spectator in the left thigh . e. the crural artery . f. the crural vein . g. the string wherewith the vein is tied and born up . h. the needle through which the thred goes . i. the upper part of the vein which flags upon the binding . k. the lower part of the vein swelling after the ligature . l. the drops of blood which fall leisurely from the orifice in the upper part of the vein . m. the stream of blood continually spinning ●●● of the 〈…〉 part of the vein 〈…〉 page . nor do i fear that the arterial blood cannot be contained in the single coat of a vein , which i see contained in the smallest little arteries , and in an aneurisma , where the artery hath but one coat . and whereas the arteries neer the heart have a double coat , that might be so contrived , least by violence of the blood issuing out of the heart , the artery might be loosned ; as we see it loosened by a strong palpitation of the heart . but doth not the blood flow as out of the arteries , so out of the greatest veins into the lesser ? this that kind of blood-letting seems to argue , which is ordained for revulsion sake : for the vein of the arm being opened in a pleurisie , that blood seems to be revelled or drawn back , which flowed out of the vena cava into the azygos , and out of the azygos into the pleura . but there is no token that the blood is so revelled ; for the basilica vein being opened the blood may be drawn out of the arteries of the arm ; the arteries of the arm draw out of the axillary artery , the axillaris out of the aorta , by whose intercostal branches it had flowed into the thigh , and not by the twigs of azygos , as we shall see by and by . and doubtless , except in the pleurisie , the blood should be revelled through the arteries , there were no reason to be given why we should for revul●ions sake rather open the vein of the side affected , then that on the right side alwaies ; since the azygos arises from the right side of the vena cava , and that a vein to be opened for derivation is to be opened on that side through which the blood flows into the part affected . but what shal we say ? doth not the arm after a sort grow lean and fall away ( and so other parts ) when it is bound , as in those who have it hollowed in a fistula ? because the vein being bound , the blood cannot descend as it ought , unto the lower parts of the arm ? there is no necessity that it should be so . for all that may happen because the artery is bound . and really , this is an argument that it is so , in that many times that arm in which there is an issue , is perceived to pulse less and more faintly than the other ; the influx of the blood and spirits , being in some measure hindred , by the the binding of the issue . yet some part may peradventure fall away by binding of a vein alone ; because nature cannot plentifully infuse new blood through the artery , seeing it cannot freely go back by the veins . and though the veins and arteries do then contain store of blood , yet is it peradventure not very fit to nourish the parts as they should be , but this wil better appear hereafter . it is nevertheless manifest , that in such as have the varices so called , the blood descends from the vena cava to the greater , and out of the greater into the lesser veins . for that is easie to see in a varix of the thigh and foot , and in the haemorrhoids . but that motion of blood may happen besides nature , because the veins being weakned do not send the blood upwards , but gather the same ; and because the humors by that weight , do resist the natural motion upwards , and descend , and therefore being collected in great quantity in the lower veins , new blood still coming out of the arteries ; they cause their dilatation and consequently a varix . thus artificial fountains about those places from which they ascend , are most frequently observed to make clefts , being at last drawn asunder and torn by the heaviness of the water , which ought nevertheless according to the nature of fountains to ascend upwards . and it is altogether most likely that varices are caused after this manner : because humors in such as have varices , do not inlarge the vein , when they are violently moved in exercise , but when they have rested after exercise ; because the humors can resist a smaller motion and descend by their own weight . so that these are not tokens , that the blood goes out of the greater veins into the lesser , but they argue rather that the blood goes out of the arteries into the veins , and out of the lesser veins into the greater , and the vena cava it self . we said before that the blood goes out of the vena cava into the right ventricle of the heart . but what ! doth that very self same blood , which a little before had come out of the vena cava into the heart , and out of the heart was shed into the arteries , and from thence had returned into the veins , doth that enter again into the heart ? or doth that alone which being newly bred in the liver doth the first time enter into the vena cava , and hath never yet past through the heart ? truly both . for that may easily be done , seeing both are alike near to the heart : and it ought to be done ; seeing that which is returned out of the arteries into the cava , is more plentifull than that , which is all of it consumed in the nourishment of the vena cava , and that is not carried to the lesser veins . doubtless it is a sign that this is so , in that a vein being tied nea● the heart , is not only a little but very much emptied , and sends all the blood it hath , and not only some to the heart . also the heart seems to shed more blood into the arteria aorta , then the liver can supply it withall , at least not in some daies fasting . for i have divers times experimented that in many persons the heart pulses above three thousand times in an hour . and the heart as long as it hath any vigour left , expels somwhat at every pulsation : for the arteria aorta being bound near the heart , between the heart and the ligature , i opened the said artery , and i saw some blood come out at every pulse ; till the heart grew quite to languish , for then somwhat came away after three or four pulses only : because so little was thrust from the heart , that it could not be moved upwards till some quantity of it was collected , nor pass out at the upper orifice of the artery . also i cut off the tip of an heart and setting the same upright , i observed though the ventricles were not full , at every pulse somwhat was shed forth ; which also harvey notes in his . chapter . yea and when the heart is cut through the middle , there ceased not to come somwhat out , till either the beast died , or the blood congealed so in the upper part , as to make a kind of small skin , so that the blood could flow no more that way . and certainly somwhat must needs come out of the heart at every pulse , because there in the heart is alwaies made more strait , as shall afterward appear . now , how much comes from the heart at every pulse , we cannot determine . this i can witness , that out of the heart of a rabbit there hath come at every pulse half a dram of blood , and out of the heart of a great water-spaniel half an ounce : yet i conceive more comes out , when a live creature is diffected , than when it is in health . and if a man would determine by conjecture from what we have seen , how much may come out of the heart of a man in health at every pulse , i shall not be against them who say that out of the heart of a man at every pulse half an ounce of blood is shed into the arteria aorta . butlet us suppose it is but a scruple ; seeing the heart makes above three thousand pulses in one hour , there must above ten pound of blood pass every hour through the heart , which is more than we eat , and more than the liver can supply the heart withall . so that must needs be , that the blood which hath once past the heart , must flow thither again , and from it return again into the arteries . so that there is a circular motion of the blood , from the vena cava into the heart , from the heart into the arteries , from the arteries into the veins , out of which it returns again into the heart , and thence into the arteries . truly , i cannot sufficiently wonder , that in so many ages past , this motion of the blood hath been unknown , seeing i find sundry , and those no small intimations thereof in the ancient writers . in the volume of the works of hippocrates , the author of the first book de victus ratione , attributes three circular motions to our heat and humors , whereby they are moved inward and outward from divers parts . hippocrates in the middle of his book de ossium natura , the veins ( under which he comprehends the arteries ) being spred saith he , through the body , do cause a fluxion and motion , sending many branches from one . and this one , whence it hath its original and where it ends i cannot find . for it keeps in a circular course , so that you can find no beginning . and it will appear plainly to him that examins the place , that he understands this circle to be chiefly in the distribution of the humors . as also in the end of his book de na●ura humana . the great veins do mutually afford nourishment one to another the internal to the external , and then again to the internal . and more plainly the author of the book de alimen●● . there is one beginning of all that nourish , and one end of all ▪ and the same is the beginning and the end : and therefore a little after he subjoyns these words : the aliment 〈◊〉 into the hair and nails , and from the inner parts into the outer surface ; from the external parts the nourishment comes from the outer surface to the most inward parts : there is one conflux , one conspiration and one consent of all . and diogenes apolloni●●a seems not to have differed from this opinion , in aristotle his ▪ de historia animalium chap. . the must thick blood is sucks by the fleshy parts , and that which redounds into these places viz. the greater 〈◊〉 , becomes thin , hot , and fro●●hy . table ● . the figure explained . aaaa . the abdomen or pa●ch of a dog opened bb. the midriff . cccc . the call turned inside ●●● , towards the chest , that the inner parts there of might be more visible . ddd . three lobes or laps of the liver turned a little to the right hand . ●ee . certain little portions of the pancreas which is cut off , that the following vessels might come into sight . f. the left kidney covered with its coat . g. the upper hollow part of the spleen , together with the adjacent fat. h. the middle part of the spleen , about which vessels are inserted . i. the lowest part of the spleen . kkkk . the g●●s moved downwards , that the following vessels might be visible . llll . the mesentery . mm. the splenick artery . n. part of the vena splenica annexed to the trunk of vena porta , which falls in , upon the ligature . ooo . a portion of the vena splenica and three branches arising therefrom , which are implanted into the spleen , and do very much swell upon the ligature . pp . the left mesenterick artery . q. a portion of the vena mesenterica sinistra , next to the trunk of vena porta , falling in as empty , upon the ligature . r. the lower part of the vena mesenterica sinistra , ready to be divided into branches , swelling by means of the ligature . sss . the mesaraick veins , therefore more full and swollen , because the mesenterick vein is tied . tttt . the rest of the mesaraicks , not so swollen , because their trunk is not 〈◊〉 ▪ page yea and those things which plato in his timaeus delivers concerning the blood , are more sutable to this opinion than the common . aristotle himself may easily be drawn to this opinion . for thus saith he in his book de somno chap. . every i●ability of sense is not sleep , but that only which is caused by the v●poration of meats , for that which is rarified , must needs after a sort be lifted up , and afterward return and flow back like an euripus : for the heat of every animal , must needs naturally move upwards , and when it is come aloft , it soon after circulates and discends again . it is to be feared , that those writers which followed the former did not sufficiently study the motion of the blood , yea that they ob●cured the same , because what the former attributed to their veins , that is to say the veins and arteries , these later attributed to the veins in opposition to , and as distinct from the arteries . and seeing galen a most excellent physitian , was not able to reform all things perfectly : and the later greeks , arabians , and latines , have too close followed or transcribed him , hence i suppose it is , that this motion of the blood hath remain'd concealed till this present age. wherein that incomparable paulus servita the venetian , did acurately observe the fabrick of the valves in the veins , which observation of his that great anatomist fabritius ab aquapendente afterwards published , and out of that constitution of the valves and other experiments he collected this motion of the blood , and asserted the same in an excellent treat se , which i understand is preserved to this very day amongst the venetians . the most learned william harvey being taught by the foresaid paulus servita , did more accurately search into this motion of the blood , augmented the same with inventions of his own , proved it strongly , and publish'd it to the world in his own name . such hath been the invention and such the fate of this motion of the blood. and let us now further enquire , whether through all the veins and arteries the blood hath this motion or whether in some others it hath some other motion ? concerning which thing , that i might be more certainly informed , i contemplated the motion of the blood in many veins and arteries of liveing creatures , and i have found , besides what hath been already said of the veins and arteries of the arms and legs , that the blood is moved through the spermarick arteries to the stones ; through the veins from the stones to the left emulgent or vena cava in the right side : through the mesenterick arteries , to the guts : through the veins to the ●am●s mesentericus : through the caeliack arteries to the spleen ; through the ramus splenicus of ve●a porta forthwith to the liver : through the branches of the arteria caeliaca , which answer to the following veins to the stomach and call ; through the gastrick and epiploick veins , to the ramus splenicus : that the short arterial and venal vessels , are branches of the caeliacal artery and the vena splenica , which when they are come unto the middle space , betwixt the stomach and the spleen , are divided into two branches ▪ one of which goes to the stomach , the other to the spleen ; by this branch of the artery the blood goes to the spleen , and by the branch of the stomach to the stomach ; and by the venal branches to the trunk of vas breve , from the stomach and the spleen it is moved through the emulgent arteries to the vena cava : by the coronal artery of the heart into the vein ; out of the coronal vein of the heart , into the vena cava : by the intercostal arteries into the pleura ; out of the 〈◊〉 by the veins into the azygos , and thence into vena cava ▪ and this i found by binding the veins and arteries 〈◊〉 live anatomies ; which did swell in that part which di● look towards those parts , from which we have shewed the course of blood to come , and the other parts did not only grow empty but quite settle and fall in . and i was very careful , not to bind an artery with a vein , for then the artery swelling towards the heart , would have ra sed the vein above it , and so it would have seemed that the vein was filled on both sides the ligature . now in the head and neck i saw , and that in a live goose most easily and in an hen , that the jugular being tied , did swell from the head towards the ligature , and was emptied from the ligature towards the cava , so that it is there also man fest , that the blood returns from the head through the veins into the heart . but if it should come to the jugular veins i cannot determine , since by reason of the hardness of the skull , i could not accurately dissect the living brain , but that the beast would first die : but credible it is nevertheless , that it flows through the carotick and cervical arteries unto the four ventricles of the brain , for they have passages open to the said ventricles , for those most learned men franciscus sylvius and franc. vander shagen , have told me , that the fibrous substance being pul'd away which frequently is found congealed in the veins and arteries of dead bodies ; when it was drawn back in the carotick artery , it discovered a certain motion , as far as to the third ventricle of the brain , and veri●y , since the blood out of the ventricles , through the jugular veins , flows back into the heart , the ventricles cannot receive it elsewhere , then from the arteries . but whether the arteries do shed it immediately into the ventricles , or into the branches which arise from the ventricles , is not very easily discerned ▪ because the arteries , are hardly distinguished from those little branches , seeing the arteries also have only one coat in the brain : but i am apt to beleive , that the arteries empty their blood , into those little branches of the ventricles , rather then into the ventricles themselves ; because i have observed those vessels which are inserted into the ventricles to be greatest near the ventricles , as branches are wont to be at their original . and thus it is in grown persons ; but in the child in the womb , the circulation seems to be somewhat otherwise , and thus i conceive it is . the blood out of the mothers womb , does not go into the umbilical arteries , which according to the observation of arantius , are not joyned to the womb ; but it enters into the umbilical vein , and from thence into the liver , the vena cava , and right ventricle of the heart ; for the heart beats in the child though it be imperfect . out of the right ventricle it goes into the vena arteriosa ; but because the lungs do not breath , and therefore are not opened , they cannot receive the blood plentifully , no● send it to the arteria venosa ; and therefore it goes out of the vena arteriosa by a peculiar passage into the aorta , and likewise by a peculiar passage or hole of the vena cava getting into the arteria venosa , 't is poured into the left earlet of the heart , and into the left ventricle thereof . out of the left ventricle of the heart , just as that out of the vena arteriosa , it enters into the arteria aorta ; so that in the womb-child nature useth the two ventricles for one , least in the child in the womb , which ought to have much but no intense heat , and which must not be dry , the blood being twice boyled should be burnt , being destitute of the cooling and fanning action of the lungs . out of the art●●ia aorta the blood-goes to the umbilical arteries ; for they being bound , the part towards the child , doth pulse and swell : the other part towards the womb is void of pulsation . out of the umbilical arteries it goes to the placenta or womb-cake ; where the arteries are joyned to the veins by manifest . anastomoses , and by those anastomoses the blood entring into the vein , is again carried through all the forementioned journey . these are the vessels by which the blood flows from the heart . but from the vessel of the arteries it goes into the veins after a double manner ; first and most usually by anastomoses , by which the arteries are joyned to the veins , which anastomoses are sometimes great and in the greater vessels as about the spleen , in the bladder , in the womb , in the womb-liver . and the most accurate b●slerus observes the like anastomosis of the arteria aorta into the vena cava of the belly , but i could never yet be so happy as to finde it in the body of man or beast . and therefore they are not all in the extream parts of the body , but some in the middle parts : and therefore we see in a cripple whose limbs are cut off , the same motion of the blood continued out of the arteries into the veins . secondly it seems also possible that blood may pass out of the arteries into the veins , through the flesh it self : for we see when a vein is opened till the colour change , inflamations fall , because the blood shed out of the vessels , is drawn out of the flesh . but i conceive the passage of the blood this way is but seldome and in small quantity . so that it is now , i conceive , clear , what the motion of the blood is , and by what waies it is accomplished : it follows that we enquire , what kind of motion it is , and how it is performed . i have observed that this motion of the blood out of the heart into the veins , from the veins into the heart , is continual never cleasing , nor once stopped or interrupted for a moment of time . and the truth is , seeing the said motion is made , as we shall see anon , because the heart receives and transmits , and seeing this motion lasts perpetually all the life long , the said motion of the blood , cannot but naturally be continuall . also the motion of the blood is quick , for an artery or vein being bound compressed , it immediately swells and grows round and hard : and when the ligature and compressure are taken away , the blood is seen to be swiftly moved . but how soon the blood performs its circuit from the heart and to the heart again , i cannot precisely determine . we observe it is done sooner by an anastomosis near the heart , than by one off ; nor will i be much against him that shall say the greatest circuit from the remotest parts of the body is performed in less than a quarter of an hour ; for the blood passeth with exceeding celerity . howbeit it goeth not so swiftly , as we see it leap out when a vein or artery is opened , because then it is moved in the free and open air ; but within the body it is compressed to lift up its vessels , and to thrust on the foregoing blood . and therefore we see an artery being cut open especially if near the heart , is sooner emptied than the heart can supply it with new blood . but if this be true , why do feavers return once in a quarter of an hour , seeing the fit seems then to happen , when the corrupt matter comes to the heart ? whereas now some fits come every day , others every third , and some every fourth day . truly , i will not deny , that it may fall out , that when the corrupt matter comes to the heart , the fit may happen , as harvey hath an example thereof , in the ▪ chapter of his book . but i do not think it is necessary , for some portion may slip out of the corrupt seminary , or some sooty stream may arise , and go into the heart and so raise the feaver , as most feavers are seen to arise from the inflammation of the parts , which the imposthume being opened and the quittor removed , do cease . and as such kinde of symptomatick feavers , even so also may some intermitting feavers and agues happen , by reason of ●ome matter shut up , within or without the vessels , which by putrifying every day , every third day , or every fourth day , regurgitating or fuming into the large vessels , may bring the fit. in continual feavers i confess , whose matter is to stick to the larger vessels , it is harder to shew a reason why there should not be a fit or exacerbation at every circuit of the blood . but i conceive i may alledg the same cause which is vulgarly given , why continual feavers are not allwaies alike feirce ; because , though the matter be sufficiently near the heart , yet it doth not cause a paroxism till it have attained a certain degree of putrifaction : and that the fit lasts so long , till that putrid matter be evacuated , which touches the heart , or sends its fumes thereto . but i suppose no man , because of the reason of the return of ague-fits , which is altogether abstruse and unknown , will deny the motion of the blood to be very quick , which is a very manifest thing . besides swiftness , the blood hath vehemence in its motion , which appears from what we have said touching the hardnesse and tension or stretching , which the veins and arteries acquire when they are bound : for nothing can be distended by a liquid substance into an extream hardness especially upwards , unless it be vehemently driven thereinto or retained therein . but this vehemence , of motion is chiefly near the heart , removed from which it grows by degrees lesser and lesser , so that the little arteries in the remote parts , do not pulse , unless some impulse of blood greater than ordinary do happen , as we observe to happen in feavers , therefore it is that the veins are not seen to pulse , because the impulse of the blood is less in them than it is in the smallest arteries ; and because the veins ●oyned to the arteries by anastomosis , when they go from them , divide themselves into more little branches and twigs than the arteries do , for when rivers are divided into divers arms the force of the waters motion is abated . and therefore when some arms of a vein are shut , either by something pressing them , as in certain tumors , or somewhat which stops them , as in the varices , the blood slipping back by its own weight , the force of the bloods motion is then again observed , and the veins are seen to pulse : for i have often observed in the veins which are transparent through the skin , that most of those palpitations in the parts , which are thought to proceed from winds , are nothing else but the pussations of the veins . and because the motion is more vehement in the arteries than in the veins , it seems at first sight to be swifter also in the arteries than in the veins just as men , horses , and other animals which move themselves with great labour , and through mistake judged many times to make the greater speed . for the blood forced through the arteries cannot all pass through the anastomoses , because it comes out of a wide place into a narrow , and therefore it is accumulated in the arteries , they are dilated , in which dilation they persist a small time , wherefore in the middle of the dilation and in the whole time of the rest , that same force doth very little further the quickness of the bloods motion , which motion is in the mean time more free in the veins , because it comes out of a strait into a wide place , and is performed by more wayes . now reason doth teach us in this case , that in this motion of blood , the swiftness hereof must be alike in the arteries and the veins ; for as much blood as the liver sends to the heart made of new chyle , and as much nourishment as the arteries give to the parts , must be repayed , or the heart will at last be void of all moisture , which thing also sense confirms , for the vena cava pulses so often , in that whole tract from the liver to the jugulum , and therefore drives into the heart , as the artery is observed to pulse and therefore to receive from the heart . but we shall hereof speak more anon . howbeit in the arteries themselves , the blood is moved more aimbly when the heart drives it ; from which quickness it departs by little and little , when the heart begins to rest and is afterwards dilated . yea and in the veins themselves , the motion of blood is more vehement and quick when the heart pulses ; which as we have observed in live anatomies , so have we often noted the same , when a vein hath been opened in the arm , in which the veins were not much distended with the ligature . also the foresaid palpitations of the veins , seem to proceed from no other cause then that the veins being straitned by the blood sliding back , or by some other means , when the blood cannot by its force make it self way , it lifts the vein up , which falls again , when that forcible endeavour is abated or the vein gives a freer passage to the blood flowing through the same . but i do not conceive that the blood which is once carried , for examples sake to crural veins , is continually carried the same wayes , but that when it is returned to the heart , it is mixt with that blood which comes out of other parts , and is so promiscuously distributed to the parts of the body : for so the parts may be the better nourished , if they have alwayes new blood , out of which they may draw , that which may best serve to nourish and strengthen them : so plants do best grow , when they are transplanted into new soils . this is the whole manner of the bloods motion : and also of the motion of the vital spirits , seeing they are mingled with the blood. i have often endeavoured to search out the motion of the animal spirits , but i could not eisewhere observe it save in the muscles , which seemed to them to be distended broadwayes and deepwayes , and being cut asunder to tremble and pant . for the nerves being bound neither swell nor are they extended , and being cut in sunder they shew no other motion , save that they contract themselves . and it is a very easie matter to bind the nerves of the sixt pare , which freely wander through the chest . but the motion of the chyle through the milkie veins , is most manifest . now it is not so continual as that of the blood , because there is not alwayes a supply of chylus . and ▪ when it wanders out of the guts through the milkie veins , it goes quicker than the blood it self , and the veins being bound do swell immediately . and therefore they do not long appear in live anatomies , nor are they found in dead carcasses ; unless some obstacle do hinder the motion of the chyle . and in that being bound they do not so swell as to grow hard , it seems to be a sign that the motion of the chyle , i● not so vehement as that of the blood : peradventure because ●h● chyle is to be moved through a smaller space , the ●ike violence of motion was not requisite . but it is now time to enquire into the causes of these motions , and first of the motion of the blood. whatever the cause is , either it must be moved by ●● inbred vertue of faculty , or by some motion which must ●● referred to carrying , drawing , or thrusting . that the blood is moved in this manner by its own proper vertue , we cannot observe , either from the blood received in a basin or shed into the body , which that it should be in a moment corrupted is hard to say : nor can we see such a spontaneous motion ●● any inanimate thing . and whereas harvey relates chap. . that when the earlet was still , he observed the motion of the blood ; i likewise have observed the same , and likewise when the heart was quiet ; but withall , that motion was imparted to the blood from the vena ca●● , and that in the heart from the earlet , as we shall see anon . that the blood is here carried by the spirits cannot by any argument be proved : and they by their lightness should move the blood upwards , which we see here to be moved downwards and sidewayes . and therefore it remains that either the blood must be drawn or thrust . that the blood is thrust forwards , men of excellent wits do conceive , because the hearts heat immeasurably rarifying the same , it requires a greater place , and that therefore it dilates and lifts up the heart ; and seeing it cannot be contained in the dilated heart , it is poured with such violence into the vena anteriosa , and the arteria aorta , that it distends all the arteries and makes them pulse . and they bring this argument for their opinion , that the heart of an eel or any other animal when it leaves pulsing , if it be warmed by fire held under it , it is seen to pulse again . but whether may not that pulse happen , because the spirit being by that heat made more lusty , can better assist that cause which moves the pulse in the heart ; just as , when the guts and muscles are heated in a live dissection , in which nevertheless there is no ebullition , the motion seem ▪ to be restored . for there is indeed only a certain light rarifaction proceeding from a certain warmth in the heart ; no ebullition or sudden diffusion . and truly i have often seen in strong do●s , that the blood doth n●● leap out of the heart by reason of rarifaction ; wh●●● heart the tip being cut off ; when through the efflux of blood it was not half filled , being set upright , it was nofilled by rarifaction : but the constriction following , that portion of blood which was left in the heart , was spirt●● out above four foot 's distance , so that my self and others by me ( for many were present ) were bespattered there with , whence it is manifest , that the blood is driven by the part . it is also driven because the blood being so changed , is troublesome to the heart and those parts . for if the whole hearts or the tip thereof living and dissected , or other greater particle , be pricked with a pen-knife or ●● pin ; as often as it is pricked , so often it will move it self as by natural motion , though it seem long ago to have lost all motion . and that the blood is driven by the vena cava into the right earlet of the heart , i have manifestly seen in the dissection of live creatures : for in all motions of the heart , the first beginning of motion is s● or no , because the cava was knit to the earlet and the heart , we ●ut-the heart and the ea●let quite off i● 〈…〉 d●●s , ●● the vena 〈…〉 , and we observe , that 〈…〉 the vana cava did a very little pulse , and at every time did send forth a little blood. and therefore the vena cava hath certain fleshy fibres , for the most part , about the heart , which elsewhere you shall not find in the vena cava : but they may be seen very evidently in the vena cava of a man , an o● , a dog. now the motion of the vena cava is most evident neer the heart , yet for the most part i have observed it also in live dogs , all along that passage from the liver and from the jugulum , as far as to the heart . the right earlet drives that blood which it receives , by a certain tension and constriction into the right ventricle of the heart . : for also in the earlet the motion or constriction is a little sooner than it is in the heart . and the right ventricle of the heart being cut open as far as to the earlet , at every constriction there manifestly appeared somwhat to be droven out of the earlet into the heart , which also harvey observes in his fourth chapter . so that the blood comes chiefly by pulsion , into the right ventricle of the heart . but is it not also drawn both into the earlet , and the right ventricle ? i conceive so : for with part of that blood which they receive , they ought to be nourished within : now that which must nourish , must be drawn , to the end the part may receive that blood which is most useful to it ; for by pulsion also that which is unprofitable is sent away , as galen excellently ( according to his wonted manner in other cases ) doth infer in his , , and . books de n●● . fac . now this drawing is not only of that blood which is near , but also of that which is far off , as all parts have that faculty , least they should be soon destitute of nourishment . but doth not the heart also draw , because it is widened , to avoid vacuum , as we are wont to say ? it is not likely , because in its dilatation there can be no fear of vacuum , as shall hereafter more evidently appear . as the blood comes to the right ventricle of the heart , so also it comes to the left , save that we could not observe the impulse of the blood , when the lungs fall , to be so strong out of the arteria venosa into the left earlet , as out of the vena cava ; yet there is manifestly some . but the impulse into both earlets and into both the ventricles , happens at one and the same moment of time : save in creatures ready to dye , in which we have observed , that both earlets and both ventricles do not pulse at one and the same time . but when the blood is thus driven into the ventricles of the heart ; the heart hath no motion evident to the eye , but putting our finger upon the heart , we perceive somewhat to enter into the heart , and that the heart becomes fuller , which also harvey hath observed , in his . chapter . yea , we have observed that the earlet hath pulsed seventy , sometimes an hundred pulses , before any motion of the heart followed . so that we see how the blood is moved into the heart . let us now see how it is moved into the arteries . the blood is moved into the arteries by way of pulsion or driving : for● an hole being made in the heart , we saw blood come forth , when the heart contracted it self ; also the aorta or vena arteriosa being cut off from the heart , we saw blood poured forth when the heart did straiten it self ; the tip of the heart being cut off and the heart ser upright , we saw the blood expelled and leaping out of the heart ; the heart being cut a thwart in the middle , we saw the blood expelled in the systole , but we never saw it go out in the diastole . and whereas some say they have seen in live dissections the blood come out in the diastole , i conceive they were deceived , by taking that to be a diastole , which is indeed the systole , which also that rare anatomist columbus , observed in his . book de re anatomica . for in the motion of the heart , we must exactly distinguish betwixt the constriction , quiet , and dilatation thereof . in the constriction or systole of the heart , the point of the heart draws near to the basis , and therefore it becomes a little broader . and in his animals in which the aorta is inferred not into the basis of the heart , but a little towards the middle , as in rabbits , e●ls and such like , the basis also of the heart draws towards the point . now the sides of the heart , seated against the right and left ribs , do come one nearer to another , so that if you shall cut off the tip of either side , so that it may hang , in the constriction it will return unto the sound side and as it were into its place . but the side of the heart against the breast-bone , is lifted up , and especially towards the basis : and so the whole heart is bent and stretched on all sides , and that part mea● the basis being lift up , seems most of all to smite the breast , and to make that beating which we feel ; although the point also may do it , which that great anatomist riolanus observed , in the sixth book of his anthropologia chapter , . and that i might be the better assured , that this motion of the heart now described , is the constriction thereof . i have sometimes cut off the tip of the heart , and sometimes cut it asunder athwart through the middle ; and i manifestly saw , when it made the foresaid motion , that the cavity of the ventricles became less , and my finger being put into the hole , i felt the ventricles contract themselves to ●y finger . and the self same motion which i have shewed in the heart makes externally when it contracts it self , it shews also inwardly ; save that there seems to be no motion in the septum intermedium : peradventure , least the septum to straiten the left ventricle , should come nearer the left side of the heart , it should leave the right ventricle wider . this is the ●ension and constriction of the heart , whereby the blood is forced out of the ventricles of the heart , into the vena arteriosa and the aorta . and when it is languishing , it is made only by the help of those fibres wherewith the flesh of the heart is furnished ; but to make a stronger constriction , those greater fibres concur , which are seen in the ventricles of the heart , as i have often observed , in dissecting the ventricles of the heart in live anatomies . now those fibres in the ventricles and in the substance of the heart it self , do manifestly cause the constriction , because they are on all sides distended broadwise , and therefore they are abbreviated as to length ; just as all the musculous parts of our body , do in like manner perform their motion : and therefore when we would chew ou● meat we feel our temporal muscle swell and grow hard . by reason of this swelling the cavity of the ventricles of the heart , is made more sirait . and this turor of the flesh and greater fibres begins at the basis , and proceeds gradually unto the ●ip . in regard of which motion if hypocrates in the beginning of his book de corde , cal'd the heart a strong muscle , he did truly after an elegant manner express the manner of its motion . when the heart by its constriction hath forced the blood into the arteries , it returns to its , natural state . for the point returns from the basis , as also the basis from the point , in those animals which have no passage into the aorta , in their basis ; but the left and right side of the heart , extends it self towards the ribs , and that side which looks towards the breast-bone falls in , especially there where it answers to the orifice of the aorta , and then the whol heart rests and is found loose and soft . and unless that upper side did settle and fall in , the heart would be dilated in this return hereof to its naturall state , as is easie to see and feel , when the heart is dissected . but that upper side must needs fall in , least the heart being emptied by foregoing constriction should admit a vaccuum . but when out of vena cava and the arteria venosa , new blood is forced into the heart , and the blood contained therein is rarified by heat , then the upper side rises : and the other sides , as we said before , remain extended . and so the heart is then in its dilatation ; nor is there any other dilatation of the heart save this , to be observed . in the particles of a live heart dissected and taken out of the bodie , there is no other dilatation then a remission or slackening from constriction . indeed in those particles where constriction is ceased , there remains a seeing kind of palpitation ; but that is another kind of motion proceeding from the spirit conteined in the flesh and seeking its way out ; such as may also frequently be seen in the muscles whole or dissected , in creatures dissected presently upon their death . so that the dilatation and constriction of the heart happens after the same manner as that of other parts , the stomach , gutts , bladder , womb , which are distended by what is sent into them , which when they have voided , they return to their naturall state . now we cannot better observe this motion of the heart , then in those beasts which have only one ventricle in their hearts , or if they have two , when the animals begin to languish , otherwise when the creatures are strong , the motion is hardly discerned because of its swistness ; also because the two ventricles present those motions doubled ; and because the cone of the right ventricle , seeing it is less high then the left , when it is drawn back to the basis , it makes an oblique motion . but let us return to our business , and let us see further how the blood out of the arteries near the heart , is spread through the arteries of the whol body , now it is done by a manifest impulse or driveing or any artery being bound , at the ligature it swels very much , and is stretched to an extream hardness . notwithstanding the heaviness of the blood furthers its motion downwards , and therefore the heart seems to have been placed neerer the head then the heels . it is also likely that the blood is drawn into all the arteries , to the end that they and their neighbouring parts may be nourished with convenient blood. but that the arteries should draw by being widened , there seems no necessity : for the blood may be driven forward only by impulse , and the arteries may drive the same : for an artery being broke and an aneurisma made in the flesh , the aneurisma in the flesh , is perceived to pulse after the same manner as the artery ; wherein manifestly the flesh doth not draw the blood by dilatation , but the blood is driven into the same . a miserable example whereof we latlely saw in the most expert dr. johannes elemannus , in whom an artery breaking , the aneurisma possessed a fourth part of his chest . and the like was observed by riolanus in the . book of his anshropologia chap. . and that indeed the pulse of the arteries is caused by the impulse of blood , the waving , creeping , pismire pulses seem to shew , and many others which manifestly imitate the motion of the blood in the artery . true it is indeed , in that book of galen whether blood be contained in the arteries , in the last words it is asserted ▪ that an hollow reed being thrust into the arteries , and the artery tied above the reed , the artery doth not pulse beyond the ligature , though the blood may be driven through the reed . but i suspect that place is mained and wants somwhat , because after the manner there described , the operation can very rarely and hardly succeed ▪ for a free artery is there prescribed to be opened out of which when it is open , every body knows what a world of blood leaps out , so that either the creature will die , or through its weakness , no arteries at least not those more remote can pulse . but suppose the place is perfect , and that the operation shall succeed as it is there described , it may happen that the creature quite languishing because of the flux of blood , the pulse might be felt on this side the reed , because the reed being thrust in , rendring the artery more narrow , might in part stop the blood , so that it might easily fill the artery and lift it up . so i have many times seen , arreries which shewed either a languishing or no pulse , manifestly pulsing , when they were compressed not very far from the heart . but galen observed no pulse beyond the reed , because through the reed much narrower than the artery , the artery received little blood . and that such a thing might easily happen , i have observed in a rabbit , into the aorta whereof , it being tied on each side we thrust a little reed , but because the ligature being loosed the beast died , we thought it not worth the while to bind the artery above the reed and we thought we saw some pulse as far as to the reed , but we could perceive none beyond the reed . moreover we could never make that experiment succeed , because it is not easie to find a convenient artery , and when it is found and duly opened , the creature most speedily dies , either because of bloodshed , or ( which may seem strange ) by convulsions . so that we can see no other , but that the blood being forced may pass through the arteries , and that by it also the arteries may be distended ▪ nor seems it necessary to call any other cause to make the arteries pulse , seeing the forealleadged cause may suffice . yet nature is wont frequently to call more assistances to the performance of her works then do indeed to us seem necessary , who cannot alwaies dive into her secrets . so here , some tokens are observed by galen , that besides that dilatation they receive from the impulse of the blood , the arteries do also endeavor their own dilatation . that all the arteries of the body both in sound persons and creatures , and in live anatomies , do pulse in one and the same moment : but nothing that is moved to distance , can be every where at one moment ; and therefore not at the same moment make distention every where . the guts when blown up by anatomists , or pudding-makers , are seen to be distended in the parts neer the blower first , before the remoter parts are distended . true indeed it is , that the arteries are not empts as the guts , but they are distended being partlyfilled with blood : yet , seeing that blood which comes out of the heart must thrust forward that which is next it , and that again that which is next it , and so forward untill the arteries be filled and distended every where , it doth not seem , though the motion be performed out of a wide into a narrow place , that it can be performed in one moment ▪ just as we see twenty stones which the boys set in a row , the greatest first ; when the first is beaten down , all the rest do not fall in one moment . and therefore we may suspect , that the diastole of the arteries , is caused by the impulse of blood , and by their own proper dilatation : and that both these causes contribute to the bloods motion . hence also it appears , that this same impulse of the blood is made only by the heart , nor does one part of the arteries drive it into another : for that part which drives by constriction , that cannot in the same moment be dilated , but all the arteries are dilated in a moment . and thus the blood is moved through the arteries ; and out of the arteries into the veins , out of the lesser veins into the greater and the vena cava it self , the blood is moved also by impulse . for any vein being bound in living creatures , it falls in , and growes lank towards the heart , and it is filled in that part which is more remote from the heart , and this same pulsion to the heart , seems to happen from any part of a vein , for a vein bound or compressed in a living arm it is not only sttretched in the part remoter from the heart , but also in the rest there of nearer the heart it falls in and is emptied ; which nearer part if you also tie that also will be distended beyond the ligature , and will swell . now this pulsion is caused by the fibres whereof the veins are constituted . we conceive nevertheless that the veins do also draw , least they should receive the blood without choice , and that they may draw to themselves that which is most useful : howbeit they seem to receive the blood more by pulsion then by traction or drawing , because the veins being bound , are wonderfully distended . in the vena cava there is a certain store-house of blood , wherein blood is treasured up for future uses , when it is more plentiful then that all of it need be sent unto the heart . and all these are causes of the natural motion of the blood . to which the causes of the motion of the chyle , are not unlike : for the stomach contracting it self by its fibres , squeezes out as much chyle as is digested , and by that pressure it seems also to open the pylorus : for there seems not to be any spontaneous motion in the pylorus , such as is in the stomach or the guts . the chyle staies not long in the guts , but is presently driven out by the constriction of the transverse fibres : and while many fibres , and which mutually follow one another , do act , the chyle is pressed , nor can it all slip downwards , whereupon some of the pressed chyle slips into the milkie veins ; yet least that the chylus should slip too soon to the fundament , it is stopped by the constriction of the lower transverse fibre : and being thus shut , and compressed above and beneath , it is pressed through the wrinkled coat of the gut , as it were through a strainer into the milkie veins . now this same constriction of the transverse fibres , happens in all the thin or small guts , and in all the thick or round guts , in a certain order , and at certain distances of time . that the chyle is moved through the milkie veins into the veins of the portae , into the liver , and somtimes also into the vena cava by pulse , a ligature does shew . it is also likely that chyle is drawn out of the guts and milkie veins , for it is moved more swiftly out of them , then the guts or venae lacteae do seem to drive or force the same . the chylus in the ramus mesentericus , vena partae and vena cava , being mingled with the blood , is moved by the same cause , which there as we have said , does move the blood . now the chylus is carried by peculiar veins , rather then by the mesaraicks which contain blood , because the mesaraicks being to admit blood , were to have their mouths opened into the guts , through which the blood would easily have slipt into the guts . nor could the drawing faculty prevent that inconveniency , which is here much obscurer and much weaker then the expulsive faculty . as this motion of the chylus , so also the circular motion of the blood hath its uses and conveniences , of which the principal seem to be these . that by the continual passage therof through the heart , the blood is also continually heated , and whiles som blood goes through seldomer , other blood oftner , there is found in the veins blood of all qualities : which while it is carryed into all parts , and nature unlocks , and offers all the treasure to them , they may be the better heated , and receive that nourishment , which may be most convenient to feed and strengthen them . but this motion does also contribute much to the preservation of the blood in its integrity , free from corruption or putrefaction : for vitium capiunt , ni moveantur aquae . unstirred waters easily corrupt . which is also most true of the blood , as we may daily see when the vessels are obstructed . it contributes also to the perfection of the blood , whilest by continual motion , it is rarified and attenuated . but it makes chiefly towards it perfection , in that the blood is somtimes attenuated , grows hot , and is rarisied in the heart , and somtimes again it is condensed and congeales as it were in the habit of the body . for no part in the body is horter then the heart , and none less hot then the habit of the body . and therefore there happens a certain circulation as it were , not unlike to that whereby the chymists make their spirits most subtile and perfect . for the blood which is attenuated by heat , after it is condensed by cold , is able to persist in that thinness , nor does it return to its old thickness : from which degree of thinness in tract of time it attains to a greater by means of heat , in which being again condensed by cold , it comes to continue ; and so at last it becomes most fit for the making of vital spirits . for this end the blood is moved circularly ; but hath it not therefore elsewhere another motion ? out of the smallest arteries the blood is carried right out into the flesh , that it may constitute the nameless humor , the ros , gluten , and cambium , nor does it return hither from whence it came , least the blood flowing through the least , should hinder these humors from being gleued and assimilated to the parts . it flows also somtimes chiefly , because it is driven out of the arteries into the flesh : and frequently also the chief moving cause is attraction : for the bones cannot without attraction receive the thicker part of the humor for their nourishment , and leave the remaining thinner part thereof , unfit to nourish them in the vessels . table . iii. the figure explained . aaaa . the vulgar mesaraick vein and arteries , derived from the gate-vein called porta . bbbb . the milkie veins discovered by asellius . c. the glandule or kernel in the centre of the mesentery which asellius calls the pancreas or sweetbread , to which all the branches of the milkie veins do go . dd. two milkie branches greater then the rest , ascending by the porta , and inserted into the liver by the opinion of asellius . ee . the lobes of the liver . f. the gall. gg . the empty gut called jejunum . hh . the ilium . oo . glandulous flesh in dogs , by the duodenum and the entrance of the jejunum , which may be called in dogs , the lower part of the pancreas . page ●●● some also there are who suppose , that the blood being carried out of the heart does go back , and return again by the arteries into the heart . which they are therefore moved to think , that they may be able to give a mechanick cause , why the valves of the heart in the orifice of the arteries , do fall down and are closed up . i truly have alwaies esteem that a rare design of erasistratus , to explain all things that happen in our body mechanically , but i account it a rash thing in him to measure the wisdom of god by his own wisdom . and these are to be counted engins , which evident reason , and especially sense do shew to be such . here contrariwise our senses observe , that the blood goes through the arteries from the heart not to the heart ; and in a rare and languishing pulse , that the artery does not swell last , where it is knit to the heart , as it should do if that opinion were true , but first of all . also that the valves are not shut by the blood running back , we have this sign , that in case the artery be bound two fingers from the heart , and it be so opened betwixt the ligature and the valves , that the blood may freely pass forth , and therefore go neither backwards nor forwards ; yet the valves may be divers times well sastned , the heart ordinarily moved , and so as not to s●ed forth the blood , save in its constriction . and therefore if i would here allow of any mechanical motion , i should admit the common opinion , which saies , that the shutting , as of the heart , so of the valves , is performed by contraction of the fibres . for that same contraction of the fibres in the heart , is every where obvious to the eye-sight . but we have truly no sign or ●oken that the blood is any other waies directly moved through the veins from the heart , or through the arteries to the heart . in joy , truly , the humors move outwards ; but this may be betide by the arteries alone . and in sadness , the humors may be moved inwardly through the veins alone : and they must needs do so , for seeing the pulse does not cease in sadness , and by the pulse there goes continually somwhat through the arteries outwards , hardly can any thing be moved through the arteries inwards , and to the heart . howbeit , praeternaturally the humors have another motion besides that which we have here described , whilest by their lightness or other activity , they mount upwards , or by their weight descend downwards , as is manifest in such as have the varices so called . also that way being shut up , by which they were wont to be moved , they are compelled to seek another . so in a duck i have divers times seen in the vessels of the breast , the blood parti-coloured , some whiteish , some reddish , which the artery being contracted , was moved to and from the heart , in divers sides of the artery : but that motion lasted not long , nor did the blood ever enter into the heart by that motion . and thus ( most worthy friend bartholine ) i conceive i have answered your question touching the motion of the blood. whereinto i did enquire more scrupulously , that i might better know the nature of the humors , and their deflux : from which flux of humors innumerable diseases arise . i did also believe that i might more exactly understand how good or bad blood was generated , if i knew those parts by which the humor passing along might be changed . also i conceived that i should be better able to judg , how very many diseases ought to be cured , if i knew which vein being opened , would evacuate such and such parts , and through what parts the remedy ought to pass , before it can come to the part affected ? also innumerable things came into my mind , diffused through our whole art , as the doctrine of pulses , of feavers , of inflammations , their generation and cure , and other things , which made me desire to be acquainted with this motion of blood. and the experiments whereby i was brought into this opinion , are so evident , that i doubt not to affirm , that learned and discreer physitians will henceforwards , allow of this motion of the chyle and blood. howbeit in some causes and in certain circumstances of this motion , i cannot promise the like agreement : for sundry men are naturally inclined by a disparity of their judgments , to embrace different opinions . touching the truth of these experiments , you cannot ( my bartholine ) make question , who have your self seen many of them : and there were frequently present most learned doctors of physick not unknown to you , franciscus sylvius , johannes van horn , ahasuerus schmitnerus most accurate dissecters ; and those persons of solid learning franciscus vander schagen , and antonius vockestaert : nor were they only present , but they also afforded their counsels and handiwork to help make the said experiments : to whom in that respect i am very much obliged . and so farewel most learned bartholine , and persist to love me . dated at leyden the . of the kalends of october , anno . the second letter of the motion of the blood , to the said bartholinus . such is the fate of writers , that they are comcompelled to write when they are unwilling : that so they may answer their adversaries , unless they would rather be wanting to themselves , or the cause which they defend . a certain learned man would needs extort this from me , being busied about far other matters . for those theses which he had before objected against , he hath endeavored now lately by a peculiar writing to refute . in which writing there are many witty and learned passages : but i find that fault in the author , which the ancients found in albutius the rhetoritian , who made it his business in every cause he pleaded , not to say all that should be said , but all that he was able to say . also that motion of the blood which is evident in live dissections , he hath never labored to observe : just as if the matter might better be conceived by the mind , then he could see it with his eyes . but these and other things concerning those theses , i leave to the care of roger drak who is now a doctor of physick at london , a man of an acute wit and solid learning : i shall only meddle with such things as shall seem to oppose the circular motion of blood. and in the first place , what it is that blood-letting does teach us in this case , concerning which that learned man hath observed things worthy of consideration . a surgeon being to open a vein , makes a ligature upon the arm , that the vein may swell . the vein that swells , not on this fide the ligature towards the heart , but on that side the ligature , which is furthest from the heart . now the cause of that tumor is not pain , caused by binding the part : for oftentimes little , and commonly no pain in the part bound . and when the arm is pinced or pained by burning or otherwise , it hath its veins for the most part less swollen , then upon a simple and bare ligature . nor is it more likely , that the veins swell upon the ligature , because through the veins which are straiter because they are bound , greater pienty of blood comes and with more swiftness from the liver ; as about bridges and in other places , rivers being straitned do run more swiftly . for the water of a river being gathered together in a narrow place , is manifestly lifted up into a swelling , from which when it falls , it goes the faster : but the arm being bound the contrary happens ; for they are not the veins nighest the liver , from which blood should come , but those farthest from the liver which are most distended . it remains therefore , that the veins swell beyond the ligature , because the motion of the blood running from the small veins into the heart , is stopped by the ligature , and being there gathered together , distends the vein . but to the end i might be more certain hereof , i bound the jugular and crural branch , in living creatures very strongly with a threed , so that no blood might pass by ; and i opened that part of the vein which was more remote from the heart , it bled plentifully , swiftly , vehemently , soon after i loosed the band , and cut the vein asunder through the middle , and the part thereof farthest from the heart being drawn out of the body upwards , presently and swiftly fell a bleeding : whilst in the mean time the part of the vein nearest the heart , being somewhat elevated , least the creature strugling with pain should easily force out the blood ; first it voided but little , and afterwards no blood at all . whence it seemed to me apparent , that the blood came out of the veins far from the heart , into those near the same , and not out of the greater veins into the lesser ; unless haply some neighbouring blood finding a way might slip away . any one may easily try as much in opening a vein in the arm : for if he force the blood above the ligature upwards with his finger , so that the vein appear empty , yet shall he see the blood issue out as fast as ever below the ligature ; which could not come through the upper branch being at present empty . but if the vein be thus distended with blood , which is moved from the smaller veins to the heart , how can the artery be distended upon the ligature , which divers excellent physitians relate to have been so distended , that it has been opened instead of a vein ; the truth is , the artery doth not swell upon the ligatures being made , unless where it is neer the heart , but farther off it falls in somewhat , and is diminished , as i have an hundred times and oftener experimented in the dissections of living anatomies . but i do not think it was any of the authors , meaning thar the remoter part of the artery was distended by means of the ligature , but that their meaning only was , where the vein did not appear which was to be opened , that there the place where it lay was to be sought by feeling ; and that by a pit , by motion and swelling of the blood it was to be found : and when we feel a swelling , or otherwise discover the same , we should not presently conclude that there was the vein ; for it might be an artery which by reason of the hard binding had lost its pulse , and which by reason of the thickness of the coates not quite falling in , might counterfeit a certain tumor and puffing-up as it were . but moreover if the vein swels by reason of the blood returning to the heart , why does the vein also swel and if opened , why void blood , when there is a ligature made below as well as above the place phlebotomized ? which blood cannot be thought possibly to come from the lower parts , by reason of the ligature made below the orifice . but this does not alwayes so happen , but but sometimes , only when the arm is tied at a certain distance , and then the greater veins in the place between those two ligatures do receive that blood from the smaller veins , which smaller veins receive from the smaller arteries , which are joyned to the smal veins by way of anastomosis . and that indeed the blood which flows out betwixt the two ligatures , does come by way of anastomosis out of the arteries , this is a sign and in that it flows more hotter and with more violence , and more easie and sooner a lipothymia or fainting fit follows the efflux hereof . and this ligature i am wont to make use of , when i have signs that spirituous and hot blood is in fault , and i bid the chirurgeon seek out those anastomoses , by his ligature : for if the ligature be made above the anastomosis , it stops the motion of the blood ; but beneath it does not stop it , but the blood leaps out hotter to the feeling of the patient . when a vein is opened and the blood runs out , as soon as it begins to stop or come away sparingly , or if it did so at first , we loose the ligature , that the blood might run out faster . now the ligature seems not therefore to be slacked , to the intent the blood may come from the liver through the veins . for though there be little or no blood above the ligature , yea only a pit appear in the vein , yet will the course of the blood be increased by loosening the ligature , which cannot possibly come out of an empty vein . but by the loosening of the band , the blood may the better descend by the arteries , and pass out of them into the veins ; because the arteries being compressed by the ligature , by loosening the said ligature become more free . now that the arteries are not alwayes sufficiently at liberty when the arm is bound , the patient himself can witness , who oft perceives the pulse of the arterse at the ligature , which perception the compressed arterie causes , when it smites against the flesh . and the physitian if he examine the matter , shall often find a less pulse in the bound a●m then in the free . and i can testifie that i have divers times applyed my fingers to the patients wrist , when the band was to be loosed , and observed , that when by loosing the ligature blood came in more plentifully , the pulse became greater . but if that blood which flows out when a vein is opened , comes out of the arteries into the veins , how can it be plentifully taken away ? for all the arteries pulse equally , and therefore they seem to afford blood to the veins in one and the same measure : and if so be therest of the arteries afford so much to their veins as the arteries of the arms do to theirs and is drawn out , shall not the heart be soon destitute of all blood ? there is truly no danger at all : for we have said the blood comes as fast unto the heart , as it is driven thence yet i cannot conceive the blood enters all veins alike , although the arteries seem to pulse equally ; for all liquors flow more easily and swiftly into an empty place , in which there is nothing to drive and force them , and moreover in this case the blood is more forcibly drawn by the empty veins then by the full ones . now more store of blood issues from a ▪ vein opened in the cubit , then in the hand , because all that blood , which comes to the veins through all the anastomoses of the cubit of the hand , must return through the cubit veins ; but less runs through the veins of the hand , and that only , which comes through the anastomoses of the hand . out of a wounded arterie , indeed the blood presently flowes , although it be not bound . but that happens because the blood is carryed with greater vetiemence , though the arteries then through the veins ; by which vehemency , it fills the arterie , lifts up and distends the coat , and if it be opened , necessarily flies out . our of a vein opened when blood has flowed sufficiently , we stop it by untieing the ligature , because the blood may be carried again its old way , now it is at liberty and the way free . but if it so happen , that too much blood being gathered about the ligature , the veins cannot give it a free passage ; or so large an orifice be made ▪ that the blood may now go right out that way , by which it went , when it was shut in , sometimes the band being loosened , the blood runs out in a full stream . which our chyrurgeons at this very day , that they may effectually stop , they frequently compress the vein with their thumbs a little below the orifice , and so they stop the blood ; least if they should compress it above the orifice , the blood contained therein should presently curdle , and hinder the healing up of the vein . and they that deny that the blood may thus be stopped , i know not wherein we should credit them who would abuse us in a thing obvious to the senses . and seeing the blood is stopped by compressing the lower part of the vein , it is truely manifest that the blood ascends from the lower parts . but in case it should happen , not in blood-letting , but by some other mischance , that a vein should be so wounded , that the blood could not be stopped , the vein is cut asunder in the middest : whereupon , the vein being no longer strerched out as before , the parts cut asunder are drawn upwards and downwards into the flesh , by which flesh the mouths of the veins are compressed and shut , and that so much the more easily because the blood can move its self so much the more easily through the neighboring veins which are extended and open , the former being shut up , and therefore for the very same cause a small arterie being cut asunder athwart , neither bleeding nor inflammation do follow . which things being so , i conceive it is evident to all men , that such things as happen in blood-letting , do either prove the circular motion of the blood , or at least are not against the same . but seeing other things are objected against us , we must answer them also . and first whereas they prove that the blood comes through the veins , not out of the arteries , but from the liver ; because some parts receive blood , and have tumors arising from the afflux of the blood , which parts have no arteries , amongst which they reckon the pleura . but it does not follow , if the parts have not arteries , that their veins do not receive their blood from the arteries , but from the liver ; for as we said , the blood out of the mesenterick and celiack arteries does not enter the mesenterick and splenick veins , through which it is carried to the liver : even so other veins may receive blood from the arteries , which they may carry into a part more remote from arteries . howbeit there is no part of the body of any bulk , wherein the anatomists do not rightly acknowledge arteries to be . and infinite arteries do not as yet lie concealed from their knowledge , because the smallest arteries dispersed through the flesh , have only one coat as the veins have . yea , and in the liver it self , there are so many branches of the arteria celiaca , as there are branches of the vena porta , and as many branches also there are of the ductus cholidocus , all which have bin by anatomists hitherto reckoned for branches of vena porta . because those three kinds of vessels are in the liver inclosed in a common coat . at least no man will ever deny the arteries of the pleura , that has once seen the chest of a living creature opened ; for whilst the chest is dissected , blood is wont to leap out of the arteries of the pleura . moreover they prove that blood does not come out of the arteries into the veins , because the arm being so bound , that the arteries may still pulse , the arm is not immeasurably swelled below the ligature , whereas it ought to be so swollen and distended , if by reason of the ligature nothing can flow back into the greater veins , and at every pulse , the arteries drive somewhat into the lower veins , at every contraction , of which contractions there are more then three thousand performed every hour . nevertheles , it may come to pass that the arm is not extended to such a bulk when it is bound ; because the veins are not totally shut up , and the blood may by some creeping holes pass under the ligature , and go into the greater veins : as we see a part being closely bound to repel humors , for divers months or years , is nevertheless nourished by the blood which flows through ; also it may come to pass that so little blood is forced in through the arteries of the bound arm , as that it cannot distend , or swell the same under a long time , for that blood only is forced in , the veins being stretched with fullness , which is in the arteries from the ligature unto the hand ; for that which is above the ligature , can enter more easily into the veins , by open anastomoses . yea it may come to pass , when the veins being distended , do no longer permit the blood to be forced into them by the arteries , that the pulse of the arteries is stopped , or that the blood regurgitates upwards , and enters the veins above the ligature , through the anastomoses : the like whereto i saw in a duck , as i formerly related . unless one of these things happen , the arm would presently swel after it is bound , and a suffocation of the innate heat , by the abundance of blood driven in would follow . for i have often bound mine own and others armes above the wrist , and i alwayes saw the veins distended , and the flesh to swell somewhat and grow red ; and oftentimes though not alwayes , the arteries abated by little and little of their pulse , yea and sometimes intermitted ; and afterward the red colour of the bound arm was changed into black and blew : and therefore i presently undid the ligature , being frighted with this example . a certain country-man being wounded in the inside of his arm about the cubit , when the village chirurgeon could not stop the blood , he bound the arm extream close about the wound , whence followed an exceeding inflammation of the lower part of his arm , and such a swelling , that deep pits were seen in the place of his fingers joynts , and within eighteen hours , the lower part of his arm was gangrena●ed and sphacelated , which christianus regius an expert chirurgeon did cut off , in the presence of my self , and e●aldus screvelius an excellent physitian . moreover they object , if the venal blood comes out of the arteries , how can the arterial blood differ so much from the venal ? but we must know that it differs less from the venal blood , then most men imagine , who from the violence wherewith the arterial blood leaps forth , do collect the great plenty of spirits therein , and the great rarity or thinness thereof : whereas that leaping proceeds from the force wherewith the heart drives the blood through the arteries ; for an arterie being opened below or beyond the ligature , the blood comes out only dropping . and the difference between these two bloods is caused by the greater or less quantity of heat and spirits , according as the blood is more or less remote from the heart the fountain of heat . for the blood which is near the heart differs much from that which is far off , in the smallest arteries , which you can hardly distinguish from that which is in the small veins . and the smaller veins have more thin and hot blood , then the great ones ; which any one may easily try in opening veins of the arm and foot. yea , and if the vein be opened with a double ligature on each side the orifice , as i said before , the blood will come out hotter then with a single ligature . now that the blood does not go out of the smaller veins into the greater , they endeavour to prove by womens monthly purgations , which according to their judgment , are gathered one whole month together in the veins about the womb ; and if they are carried from the womb unto the head , they conceive that they do not pass through the vena cava and the heart . howbeit , the common and true opinion is , that about the time of the usual flux , the blood begins to be moved to the womb , from which motion of the humors , pains of the sides and loines are wont to arise about that time , and i know by experience , that about the time of the menstrual flux , if the pulse of the heart and arteries can be made greater , the courses will flow the better , because the blood will through the arteries be driven more forcibly into the womb. it may nevertheless fall out , that the courses may be collected and make an obstruction in the womb , and that then the blood may not return into the greater veins , that motion being stopped : but that is besides nature . and when the menstrual blood is carried out of the womb into the head , the way is not inconvenient , through the vena cava , the heart , and the ascending branch of the arteria aorta , and that they do indeed pass through the heart , those palpitations and light faintings do seem to argue , which are wont to attend upon the courses stopped . but should we not conceive it to be a dangerous thing , if all the ill humors in our bodies must pass into and through the heart . but we must know , that our bodies are so framed , as that they may be most convenient for us when we are in health , and not when we are sick . moreover the humor which putrifies by reason of obstruction and is very bad , comes not to the heart , because its way is stopped up . nor is the heart so weak as to be corrupted by an evil humor , which stayes not long therein : for those great physitians galen , hollerius , laurentius have observed that the quittor of such as have an empyema , and other sharp and stinking humors , do critically and without any bad symptomes , pass through the left ventricle of the heart which many times makes for the good of the sick persons , in whom that bad humor passing through the heart , is often vanquished by the vigour and vertue hereof . the other objections which they make , do only respect the causes of this motion or certain circumstances , wherein men are wont more freely to dissent , yet let us breifly consider whether or no they have in them any weight , wherewith to burthen our opinion . they say that at every contraction of the heart , the blood is not driven out by half ounces , nor by drams , nor by scruples , out of the heart of a man , for three causes : first because that blood is too spirituous , but i have already shewed that it is not so spirituous as men imagine commonly : secondly because those little valves of the heart , do only gape a little , and then are close shut again , which also doth not agree with experience : for an arteric being cut off from the heart , great streams of blood do issue from the heart . thirdly that the arteries are too full then to be able to admit half an ounce , a dram , or a scruple of blood. but that is too inconsiderately avouched ; for when the heart contracts it self , all the arteries in the body are enlarged , and that on all sides , as i have divers times perceived with my hand , holding the naked arterie betwixt my fingers . and who will now say , that all the arteries of the body being dilated , cannot admit of a scruple , a dram , yea half an ounce of blood , more then they have ? also they deny that in the child in the womb , the blood out of the vena cava , does through the vessels of the heart united enter into the arteria aorta , and go from thence out of the umbilical arteries into the umbilical vein , and return back by it into the heart : because they think this great absurdity will follow , that one vein should carry the mothers blood and withal so much blood as the two umbilical arteries do bring in . as if rivers did not frequently carry as much water in one channel , as many brooks are able to bring in . and here the umbilical vein when it is but one , is much greater then the arterie . there is often but one arterie or there are two veins ; that the arteries may as much as may be answer to the veins . in brute beasts ( sayes fallopius a rare anatomist ) there are allwayes two veins and two arteries , which with the vrachus or pis-pipe do reach as far as the navil , and the veins do presently grow into one before they enter into the abdomen which does reach to the gates of the liver , as i have observed in all sheep , goats , and cows , whose young ones i have dissected , but if they speak of the child in a womans womb , i avouch that sometimes i have not seen the two umbilical arteries , but only one arterie and one vein ascending together with the vrachus to the navil : where the arterie is again divided into two , which afterwards go unto the sides of os sacrnm . and that indeed those vessels of the heart are united in a child in the womb , that the blood may pass that way out of the vena cava into the aorta , waterfowl , as the duck , goose , and such like do seem to teach us ; which because they cannot often breath under the water ▪ no● dilate their lungs , nor consequently admit the blood that way , they have those unions of the vessels of the heart , when they are grown up . which also harvey notes in his . chapter . also they deny the frequent anastomoses of the veins and arteries , for if such there were , they say tumors would not arise by fluxion and congestion of humors . as if rivers though they have outlets , receiving over-great plenty of water , may not overflow the neighbouring fields ; nor can the blood shed out of the vessels , because it congeals , easily return into them again . moreover tumors are many times caused , for as much as by reason of obstruction , the bloods passage is stopped ; and because by heat and pain it is drawn into the flesh . now those tumors seem rather to favour the doctrine of the bloods circular motion , because they happen through cold , bruising , and all stoppage of the passages of the body ; and because with aqua vitae or some such medicine , the humors and the tumors being often made fluid , it is by this motion of the blood drawn into the veins ; and the tumor by that means sooner cured then by repulsion , revulsion , concoction or dissipation . touching the cause of the bloods motion , difficulties do also present themselves unto us ; and when we deny that the blood according to the course of nature , is so suddenly and vehemently rarified in the heart , as to be able to move the heart , the blood of the whole body , and the arteries themselves ; those famous men the ring-leaders of this opinion , do suppose that they do hereby prove it , in that while we are cold , all the veins of our body are contracted , and can hardly be seen , where as afterwards when we grow hot , they do so swell , that the blood contained in them , seems to take up ten times so much space as before it did . as for me , this truly is my opinion , and thus i perswade my self , that seeing they have now divers times , so diligently endeavored in publick to perswade men to embrace this their opinion of rarifaction ; and have diffected and lookt into the hearts of living creatures , nor have yet dared to say , that they could sensibly perceive any such rarifaction of the blood in the heart ; i say , my opinion is , that they could not indeed and in truth observe any such rarifaction of the blood in the heart , and as they would in this place maintain ▪ and it will be easie for him that is a little verst in live dissections , to see that there is no such rarifaction . and therefore though it might be proved , that such a rarifaction of the blood , does sometimes happen praeternaturally , yet ought not the cause of the natural motion of the heart , blood and arteries be therefore attributed thereunto . yet in the example which they propound , i do not see what certainty there is that the blood by reason of its rarifaction does possess ten times more space then before . for might not that same tumor of the external veins easily arise , because whereas before the veins were contracted and straitned through cold , they could not receive much blood , and therefore they could not swell : which cold and straitning of the vessels being afterwards taken away , and the veins being loosned by heat , they might admit much blood , which is driven into them by the heart , and so appear full and swelling . that this is not the least cause of the tumor of the veins , persons that are feauerish seem to teach us , who if they thrust their arms into the cold , have not their veins so swelling , but if they keep them warm under the cloaths , they have them very full and swole , which tumor if it came from rarifaction , it ought to be in both cases alike , seeing that in them , the bloods rarifaction proceeds from an internal cause . nor do i conceive that it is also void of question and undoubted , that when we are first cold , and afterwards grow hot , the inner veins as well as the outer do swell . for it is much to be suspected , that the inner parts do possess less blood and heat before ; because by that cold wherewith before they were not hurt , if when we are so heated we drink cold drink , they are wonderfully weakened . doubtless as the inner veins are oftentimes the treasury of the blood , wherein the blood is stored up for future uses , so may the external ▪ veins be the like treasury , and they appear to be when they so swell as aforesaid . these men themselves when they observed that this also was much against their opinion , that we asserted that the blood was manifestly poured out , at the constriction of the heart ; they avouch that that is not the constriction , but the dilatation of the heart which we mean. but that we were deluded by a certain appearance , because in our constriction , there was a constriction only at the basis , but about the tip a true dilatation ; which invention when others saw that it could not hold , least they also should seem to desert their cause , they invented that there is a constriction indeed , in the cavity of the whole ventricle , but in the pits and passages of the sides , especially in dogs , there is a certain kind of extension and true dilatation . but truly , the upper part of the heart is not seen to be dilated , when the lower is contracted ; save when the creature is dying , and that the waving motion of the heart is caused by the impulse of the blood . nor can we observe one dilatation or constriction of the pits , another of the ●avity of the ventricles . only a certain progressive motion is observed in a large heart , because the dilatation or constriction doth evidently begin at the basis , and sensibly proceeds to the tip , although 't is performed all welnear in a moment . and that i might be perfectly assured , that the heart was contracted within likewise , on all sides , having cut off the tip of each ventricle , ● put my thumb and fore-finger into the living heart of a dog and a rabbit ; and i manifestly felt the sides of the heart to press my fingers to the middle partition , equally in the middle , tip and basis ; and that the pits in greater beasts , became to sense , not bigger but lesser . and soon after the constriction abating , that the sides of the heart above , beneath and in the middle were loosned , and the pits did feel evidently larger . but in the septum or partition wall it self , no motion is felt , save that the spirits seeking egress make a kind of palpitation , when in creatures at the last gaspe , the motion of the right ventricle ceases , the septum follows the motion of the right ventricle . now they would have it nevertheless that naturally the blood is poured out in the widening of the heart , and not in the constriction or straitning thereof , because in the wounded heart of living creatures , the blood is seen to come out when the heart is dilated . and this is sometimes true ; but that which they thence collect , our very senses teach us to be untrue . for either the dog or other creature is placed with its head and breast elevated , and the belly low , and so the wound is inflicted into the heart , in which case , seeing the blood which enters through the vena cava and arteria venosa into the heart , is higher then any wound of the heart , it , as soon as it is entred , which is at the beginning of the dilatation , flows out , not because of the pulse , but of its own heaviness , and therefore it is not by any force made to flie out to some distance , as it happens in the pulse of the arteries . but if as it ought to be , the dog be laid on his back , his head and belly resting on the same plane , and the wounded heart be raised with a mans fingers , as long as there is any strength in the heart , it sooner by constriction casts out the blood it hath received , at a distance , then the whole heart is filled or widened . but when the strength of the heart decayes , and that it seldom straitens it self or not at all , because the earlets are more strong , and do still continue pulsing , even when the heart quite gives over ; the blood being driven by the earlets enters the heart , is there collected , and when more is come in then the heart can contain , it goe out at the wound , not with violence , as it must do to cause pulsation , but with a gentle motion , drop after drop . so that our sense can perceive no strong motion of the blood , save in the hearts constriction . now they will have the blood to return through the veins into the heart , only because the blood being forcibly driven to the parts , as water poured into an horn , does regurgitate or abound back upwards , and so is carried back unto the heart . but i have already shewed tokens , that the blood is either drawn , or driven by all the parts of the veins : besides which i have also these following : in that the heart being taken out of the body , the motion of the blood , and that swift enough , is still seen in the veins . and if a vein , yea a milkie one , be tied in two places , that same ligature being only loosned , which is nearest the heart , while the parts are yet hot , the chvle will still be moved to the liver , the blood unto the heart , which could neither by any step be driven from the heart through the arteries , nor from the guts through the venae lacteae ; nor would it by its own fluidity more rather upwards then downwards . but let us answer the remaining objections : they suppose , if the blood should be moved so swiftly , that the veins and arteries could not conveniently be nourished . but a dog can quench his thirst , drinking at the river nilus and running as he drinks ; but here the parts stay at the brook side : and whatever they have drawn from the blood , they treasure up in their own substance , least it should be washed away , by the running by of the humor . also they conceit this motion is not useful for the blood . seeing it may sufficiently be conserved ( since it abounds with native heat ) by respiration and transpiration . yet most certain it is , that the blood is yet more ventilated , if it be speedily moved , and its smallest particles also agitated with this motion . so the water of a lake or standing pool , though it be gently moved and fanned on the surface , yet is it corrupted ; when in the mean while rivers that are totally and in all parts agitated , are found to continue most uncorrupt and wholsom . these are the things ( most excellent bartholine ) which i thought fit to joyn to the former , that i might satisfie those who cannot receive a new opinion , wherin they observe any difficulty or obscurity ; who many times have neither mind nor time to enquire exactly into the bowels thereof . but in my judgment , we ought not to deny things manifest , although we cannot resolve such as are difficult . but i never was disposed to contend and quarrel with any man about words . there are very many excellent things about which time may be spent ; which many times also is not sufficient for our necessary occasions . also from a scoffer that seeks after her , knowledge does hide her self away , but to him that is studious of the truth , she comes to meet , and presents her self to his view . farewel most learned bartholine . from the university of leyden in holland , the kalends of december . finis . notes, typically marginal, from the original text notes for div a -e the subject of anatomy . why anatomy treats chiefly of the body of man. the dissection of other animals is useful to an anatomist and why ? the division of the whol body of man. ● what a part is ? what is the proper acceptation of the wor● part. what is ment by the action of a part. what by the ●●● . which part of the body is first generated . why the vessels were to be made before the bowels . division of the parts . in respect of their end. ▪ the principal parts . the beginning or principle of radication . the original of dispensation . parts subservient or ministring . in respect of their matter . a similar part what it is , and how manifold . how many sorts of flesh there are ? the number of the similar parts . what a spermatical part is ? what a sanguine part. what a dissimilar part is ? organical parts . con●… a vision ●● this whole work divided into four books and four petty books or manuals . the division of the body according to the regions . notes for div a -e the reason of the order . why dissection is begun in the lower belly . what the lower belly is . the parts of the lower belly , and their names . all the parts which a●e to be examined in this book . the scarf-skin . what it is . whether the scarf-skin be made of seed ? or of blood ? or of the excrement of concoction . laurentius and archangelus confuted . the true matter of the scarf-skin . the efficient cause thereof . vse . the color of the scarf-skin . it s number . it s connexion . what the skin is ? piccolhomine ●s refuted . galens opinion touching ▪ the matter of the skin . aristotles opinion . the opinion of others . the true matter of the skin . ascar , what it is ? the efficient cause of the skin . the action of the skin . it s vse . it s connexion . its vessels . what fat is ? the difference between pinguedo and adeps . fat is not a part of the body . what parts have fat , and what not . it is not made of chyle . but of blood. that blood is aiery and oyly fat is colder then blood , yet moderately hot . the efficient cause of fat. how fat is bred ? t is proved that fat is generated by cold . how fat is bred in th●… call ? and about the heart ? and the kidneys ? an opinion that fat is caused by heat . an opinion that it is made by compactness . refuted . an opinion that it is caused by dryness . it hath ●…ing whi●… th●r . by a peculiar form. the form of fat. its vessels . it s kernels . it s uses . whether it may turn to nourishment ? the fleshy membrane , its situation . the difference between a membrane and a coat , and meninx . what a membrane is ? it s use . the difference of membranes . the fleshy membrane what for a thing it is ? it s use . connexion . original . the membrane of the muscles ▪ what ? 〈…〉 use . what a muscle is ? a muscle is an organical part . the connexion of the muscles of the whole body . the parts of a muscle only two . the tendinous part how many fold . what the tendon of a muscle is ? it s beginning . why called tendo ? the beginning and head of a muscle . both the beginning and end of a muscle may be called a tendon . two things observable touching the beginning of a muscle . galens rule . disliked by walaeus ; and why ? the objection of riolanus answered . the middle of a muscle . the end of a muscle how known by galen and other anatomists ? whether the head of a muscle be void of sense ? if it have motion ? whether the end be thicker then the head. whether the nerves go into the tendon . the action of a muscle is motion . and that voluntary . the use . which muscles do move more strongly ? the original of the oblique descending muscle . it s end. what the white line is ? the error of aquapendent and laurentius , touching the original of the oblique-descending muscle . their first reason refuted . their second reason answered . t is proved that these muscles arise from above , not from beneath . the original of the obliquely ascendent muscles . their double end. the original of the right muscles . that there are divers right muscles . the veins . the arteries and nerves . the pyramidal muscles . their original . their use . the transverse muscles . the action of the muscles of the belly . why there are divers muscles of the belly ? a praeoccupation . a secondary action of the muscles of the belly . peritonaeum , how so called ? what it is ? the shape of the peritonaeum . it s surface . original . connexion . it is double . the error of fernelius . how many holes there are ? its productions . the cause of a rupture . its vessels . it s use . it is the mother of the coats in the lower belly . the etymologie of the call. it s situation it s connexion . the cause of barrenness . it s situation in persons strangled . in infants . it s origina . its parts . riolanus refuted . it s figure . it s magnitude . its vessels . ● it s use . the stomach , why called ventriculus ? it s situation . the number of stomachs in feathered fowle . in beasts that chew the cud. its orifices . the symptoms of the stomachs , mouth , and why like heart-passions ? whether the soul be seated in the orifice of the stomach ? the right orifice , called pylorus . it is opened in the distribution of chylus . it is shut somtimes , and opened in vomiting . it is somtimes exceedingly widened . whether the pylorus have any rube over the inferior parts ? the fibres of the stomach and their use . their number . the surface . the membranes . the crustiness in the stomach whence it proceeds ? it s connexion . shape . it s magnitude . vessels . whether blood cast out of the spleen help appetite and concoction . its nerves . the stomachs fermentation . three things requisite to concoction , concoction is the stomachs act. how it is made . the use of the stomach . the guts . why called intestina . their greatness the use of the turnings and windings of the guts . the●r situation . their substance . their coats . their crust . their fibres . their vessels . difference of the guts . whether the thin guts may be right said to be uppermost ? the thick guts . their use . the gut duodenum . the holes of the said gut. the gut jejunum . the gut ileon . rupture of the guts . the passio iliaca . the thick guts . the gut caecum , or the blind gut. the intestinum caecum , or blind gut of the ancients . the gut colon. it s situation and progress . a valve in the gut colon. how it is found out ? the intestinum rectum , or the straight gut. touching the fundament . the sphincter muscle . the muscles cald ani levatores , or arse-lifters . mesentery why so called . it s division . it s figure . it s magnitude . it s rise . its vessels . it s kernels . the use of the kernels . the use of the mesenterie . and of its membranes . the substance of the pancreas . it s situation ▪ original . its vessels . it s use . the use of the pancreas . why the liver is the original of the veins ? it s number . it s situation . it s figure . its magnitude . it s membrane . it s connexion . it s substance . it s color . its vessels . their anastomoses . the original of the veins . the authors opinion how the blood is made . see fig. iii. table . the shape of the gal-bladder . division . bottom . neck . its veins and arteries . it s use . porus biliarius . ductus communis , naturalis , the common passage natural , pre●ernatural . scituation of the spleen , see table xv. it s number . whether the spleen may be taken out of the body . why a man hath a large spleen . it s shape . it s color . connexion . it s coat . substance . its veins . its arteries . its anastomoses . whether the spleen receive melancholy from the liver ? the argument of rondeletius invalid . whether the spleen make blood ? for what parts the spleen makes blood ? whether any portion of chyle be carried to the spleen , and what way ? what creatures have no spleen whether the spleen be an organ of the sensitive soul ? the opinion of walaeus touching the use of the spleen . how the spleen may be said to be the seat of laughter . * t is called lover in the north of england , & possibly that is the etymology of the word . how its thick . the threefold excrement of the blood. their situation . which kidney is the highest ? their bigness . surface . their colour . shape . connexion . membranes . what it is to search the reins ? their bellies . the caruncles . the emulgent veins and arteries . a valve in the vein . venae adiposae . their nerves . why such as have a stone in their kidney are subject to vomit ? the structure of a dogs kidney . the cribrum benedictum of the ancients . the error of vesalius . aristoles error touching the use of the kidneys . how the urin is made ? whether the kidneys prepare seed ? this opinion reconciled with the doctrine of circulation . whether the kidneys make blood ? their first finder out . their number . their magnitude . their cavity . their shape and substance . their connexion . their vessels . the ureters . their number . their situation . the original of the ureters . their middle . their connexion . their end. why the urin cannot go out into the emulgents . their magnitude . figure . membranes . vessels . use . the error of asclepiades and paracelsus . the situation of the piss-bladder . it s magnitude . its connexion . it s substance . membranes . the crust of the bladder . the expulsive muscle of the bladder . it s holes . it s neck . the sphincter muscle . its vessels . it s use . the spermatick vessels and their original . their magnitude . their passage . their use . the stones . their number . why placed without in men ? their greatness . their figure . whether the left stone be colder then the right . the error of aristotle . whether nature alwaies intends to beget boys . their coats . common . the cod. why void of fat. porper . the substance of the stones . vessels . muscles . the efficiens cause of the seed . without the stones there is no generation . the sympathy of the stones with the whole body , the parastatae . names . their substance . their rise . their use . see fig. iii. tab. xxi . whether a bull may ingender after he is guel whether seed is contained in the bladderkies . whether in the prostatae ? see tab. xxii . let. qq . whether the prostatae do make seed . the seat of the gonorrhaea . the prostatae do not help to make seed . its names . situation . figure . magnitude . why the yard is void of fat , the first opinion . laurentius his error . it s substance . the four parts of the yard . urethra . the nut of the yard . ● the nervous bodies . whence the hardness and erection of the yard proceeds . the muscles of the yard . copulation . conception . the genitals in women quite different from those in men . the similitude of the yard and of the womb ridiculous . the praeparatory vessels in women . how they differ from those in men. how the stones of women differ from those of men. why womens stones are placed within their bodies . why the womb is placed in the hypogastrium . it s magnitude . the true figure of the womb. the ligaments of the womb. the upper ligaments of the womb. the falling down of the womb. the lower . it s substance . its membranes . its vessels . why the left veins of the womb are joyned to the right anastomoses in the womb . the largeness of the uterine vessels . a child conceived in a womans stomach . the wombs motion . why sweet smelling things do hurt some women . see tab. xxvii . the short neck of the womb . some cause of barrenness . the bottom . no cavities or cells in the womb of a woman . why horns are said to be in the wombs of women . the inner orifice of the womb . some causes of barrenness . the use of the orifice of the womb when the mouth of the womb is opened . see tab. xxvii . wrinkles in the neck of the womb . the orifice of the bladder . see fig. iv. and v. of ta● . xxviii . that there is some true sign of virginity . why virgins are pained in their first carnal copulation . an exception . what is the token of virginity . the i. opinion of the arabians . the ii. opinion . the iii. opinion . the iv. opinion . the v. opinion strengthned by many authors . the confutation of such as deny it to be alwaies found in virgins . the vi. opinion . the hole in the middle of the hymen , is of several fashions . a question touching the shedding of blood in the first copulation . whether conception may be made without hurting the hymen . parts of the privitie . see fig. ii. and iii. of the xxviii . tab. see. fig. iv. of tab. xxviii . see tab. xxviii . it s substance . its muscles . tentigo . its vessels . it s use . see fig . iii. and iv. of the tab. xxviii . the lips and venus hillocks . wher●●n the child in the womb differs from a grown person whether the heat of the womb only ●e the efficient cause of the membranes . sundry opinions concerning the matter of the said membranes . their number . what the secondine is , and why so called ? whence the liquor proceeds that is in the amnios . what the cotyledons are . what the navil is , and of what parts it consists . the vena umbilicalis . it s insertion . it s use . the knots . arteries . anastomoses of the umbilical vessels . their twisting . the length of the rope . it s thickness . the binding of the navil . the dignity of the navil is not much . urachus . the urachus is not hollow in mankind . the error of laurentius . notes for div a -e the middle venter what it is . hypocrates and aristotle . it s figure . magnitude . substance . it s use . its parts . common . the use of the hair under the arm-pits . why there is little fat in the chest . the proper parts . see tab. xxv . lib. i. why the dugs in mankind are seated in the breast . number of the dugs magnitude . the difference of the dugs in men and women . their shape . their parts . how the nipples come to have so exquisite sense . the dug . the venae mammariae . why milk is bred after the child is born . their arteries . the matter of milk is not blood as martianus holds . but arises from the stomach & the chyle . the said opinion refuced . and the argument of martianus and others are answered ▪ their nerves . their pipes . the use of the dugs . the efficient cause of milk. milk may breed in virgins , men , women not with child , &c. see the figure of the following chapter . their number . the error of others . their use . it s situation . it s figure . it s number . magnitude . an head and tail in the midriff . it s substance . it s membrane . it s holes . vessels . sardonian laughter ▪ use . how the motion of the diaphragma is performed . what the pleura is , and its original . it s thickness . the place of the matter which causes a pleurisie . it s holes . it s substance . vessels . the use of the mediastinum the pericardium . see tab. . of book . it s original . it s holes . situation . it s connexion . it s surface . it s substance . its vessels . it s use . whether all live-wights have this wherish liquor in their heart-bags . why more plentiful in dead bodies . whence the liquor in the heart-bag proceeds ? the first opinion . it s use . why the heart ●● in the middest of the body . a vulgar error that the heart is in the left side . why the point of the heart enclines to the left side . who have the greatest hearts . connexion . why the substance of the heart is so thick . it s coat . whether fat is found about the heart ? the coronary vein of the heart . an error of fallopius . whether the heart be a muscle ? the error of averroes . an hairy breast what it signifies ? an hairy heart what it signifie● ? whether the heart doe perfect the blood. what things are requisite to perfect the blood ? in which ventricle the blood is perfected . what the pulse is . its parts . the heart takes in blood in the diastole . the quantity of blood in the heart . the form of the heart in the systole . the shape of the heart in the diastole . the next efficient cause of the motion of the heart . whether there be a pulsifick faculty . remote causes of the motion of the heart . the earlets of the heart why so called ? what pulses first in an eg. their situation . number . substance . their surface . see tab. iv. of book ii. their motion . their use . the ventricles of the heart . aristotles error . fleshy pillars in the ventricles of the heart . things preternatural found in the heart . a bone in the heart . the right ventricle . the left ventricle . manifest pores in the septum of the heart . whether the blood pass through the partition of the heart ? vessels of the heart . vena cava . it s treble pointed valves . the vena arteriosa , why called a vein ? why call'd an artery ? it s original and progress . it s use . the sigma-fashioned valves . the arteria venosa , why an arterie ? why a vein . whether air enters into the heart ? the mitre-shap'd valves . the arteria magna . it s use . its valves . in the child in the womb. the union of the vessels of the heart . it s various uses . the use of the little membrane . 't is shut after the birth . by a chanel or pipe. which is dried up . it s use . the reason of their name . their situation . division . into lobes . their figure . their colour . connexion . a certain cause of long lasting short-windedness . the substance . membrane . the vessels . why the lungs ●at● so great vessels ? see tab. . of book . how circulation is caused in the lungs . contrary objections answered . why ulcers of the lungs are without pain . whence the motion of the lungs proceeds . aristotles error . the opinion of falcoburgius . the motion of the lungs is proved to arise from the chest . an observation in live anatomies . it s use . all kind of air is not a friend to mans spirit . our heat doth want a cooler . why fishes need no lungs . the lungs of children in the womb move not . the wesand . why call'd trachea or aspera arteria ? whether any part of our drink doth pass into the wesand and lungs . it s situation in man-kind . in a swan . its membranes . the voice hurt . why the wefand is in part gristly ? why in part ligamental . the use of the wesand . the larynx . it s situation . number . shape . magnitude . how the voice becomes shril , or big ? what the causes are of a great voice ? how the voice comes to change . its muscles . the common . the proper . the proper . its gristles . adams apple is more bunching out in men then in women . the glottis . epiglottis . vessels kernels . spittle how the voice is made ? sig●ing . what is properly a voice ? the differences of voices , or speeches . parts of voice or speech . it s scituation . its vessels . connexion . when the gullet is diseased , medicaments are applied to the back . it s kernels . substance . muscles . whether swallowing be a natural or animal action ? why somtimes solid meats are more easily swallowed then liquid . the neck . why call'd collum . it s magnitude . its parts . it s use . notes for div a -e why the head is placed so high . it s figure . greatness . substance . division . calva . the face . what creatures have hair. whether hair & nails grow of good nutriment . the remote matter of hair. where hair b●eede . why crusted animals have no hairs . requisites to the generation of hair . cause of baldness . hairs bred in the womb . use of hair. why a man hath plenty of hair ? the beard adorns . their form. magnitude . figure . the cause of the colour of the hair . the cause of grey hairs . why they are soonest grey-hair'd that go with their heads cover'd ? why men are soonest grey about their temples ? the pericraneum . periostium . crassa meninx . the brain moves . the sickle . see tab. . the upper cavities . the third . see tab. ii. the lower cavities . see tab. ii. the use . pia mater . what is properly the brain . the marrow what ? how they differ ? parts of the marrow . the head of the marrow , what ? a new opinion concerning the place where the animal spirits are made . the magnitude of the brain . who have most brains . why the brain hath windings . the winding clift of the brain see tab. . the colour . it s temperament . why the substance of the brain is moderately soft ? there are veins in the brain . the use of the brain . of the brains motion . the matter of the animal spirits . a new opinion of the author , touching the use of the brain and the marrow . the right dissection of the head must begin at the lower part. see the figure of the section in the manual of nerves . the beginning of the spinal marrow . an objection . the answer . a new opinion of the author , that the marrow is the original of the brain . a proof hereof . the spinal marrow divided . another division . another division . the coats of the marrow . a noble ventricle in the marrow . the cover of the noble ventricle is from the brainlet . the true place where animal spirits are generated according to our author . a proof . the preparation of the animal spirits where it is ? this marrow the beginning of all nerves . the brainlet what it is ? it s structure . see tab. . fig. . the use . rete mirabile vesalius his error . glandula pituitaria . it s seat. it s figure . it s substance . it s use . the brain ful of excrements . infundibulum . the authors opinion that there is but one ventricle of the brain . the foremore ventricle described . corpus callosum . the conformation of the ventricles of the brain . septum lucidum . fornix . the third ventricle . the anus , what it is ? the nates and testes . penis . vulva . the plexus choroidis , what ? glandula pinealis . that the ventricles of the brain serve to receive excrements . the order of the parts to be shewn in the new way of dissection . the order of the parts in the old dissection . the order in the middle way of dissection . the dissection of the right side . the dissection of the left side . an excellent argument for the circulation of the blood. why mens face , is void of hair ? frons why so called ? it s skin . muscles . the eyes why called oculi ? their situation . their number . their shape . its parts . the eye-lids . whether the lower eye-lid be moved ? the membranes . the cilia , what ? the use of the eye-brow . punctum lachrmyale the use of fat in the eye . the eye muscles . columbus his error . the first muscle of the eye . the second the third . the fourth . the fift . the sixt or pulley muscle . a seventh muscle in brutes . vessels of the eye . the nerves . the membranes of the eyes but three . adnata tunica . it s use . the seat of the ophthalmia or blearey'dness . . tunicle of the eye . cornea . . tunicle of the eye . the pupilla . iris. ligamentum ciliare . the third coat . aranea . vitrea . humors of the eyes . the watry humor . the watry humor is no animated part , the other humors are . the vitreous of glassie bumor . the chrystalline . names of the parts of the outer ear. it s skin . it vessels . the muscles . why few move their ears ? the use of the first the use of the second muscle . the use of the third muscle . the use of the fourth , the ear gristle . the kernels cal●d parotides . their situation . the s●at of kings-evil swellings . the external organ of hearing . the internal ear. tympanum . a cause of deafness . a cause of thickness of hearing . the cavity of the drum. muscles of the inner ear. why masticatories help in diseases of the ears ? the names of the parts of the nose . the parts of the nose . the skin . muscles of the nose . the gristles of the nose . its vessels . the coat of the nostrils . the cause of sneezing . the use of the nose . the names of the outward parts about the mouth . the use of the mouth . two pare of muscles common to the cheeks and lips. spasmus cynicus . the figure of the muscle buccinator . the lips. trembling of the lip in such as are ready to cast , how caused ? four pare of muscles moving the upper lip. muscles common to both lips. muscles of the lower lip. muscles of the lower jaw . temporalis . the use of the temporal● muscle . why t is dangerous to hurt the temporal muscle . mansorius primus . alaris . mansorius alter . graphyoides . gingiva . palatum . the uvula how seated . its muscles . the falling o● the uvula . vulgar error . names of the os hyoides . it s construction . its muscles . the use of os hyoides . the tongue . it s scituation . number . figure . magnitude . it s connexion . a pernitious practice of midwives . it s coat . substance . whether the tongue be a muscle . its vessels . the line of the tongue . its muscles the use of the tongue . notes for div a -e the limbs what ? why the muscles also of the head , neck , back &c. are handled in this book ? the use of the hand . manus what ? why many fingers on the hand ? why the right hand is more active then the left ? the number of the fingers . laying hold . how the hand is compounded ? of the nails . colour of the nails and signs from thence . whence the sense of the nails proceeds the muscles of the humerus how many ? the place of an issue in the arm. it s use . the error of other anatomists . an order in dissection . pes what ? notes for div a -e what a vein is ? 't is proved against aristotle that the liver , not the heart is the original of the veins . blood is not made in the heart . the vse of the veins . according to the ancients . according ●o later authors the primary vse . their secondary vse . figure . magnitude . connexion . anastomosis of veins and arteries . anastomoses of the veins in the liver . of sundry kinds . why the veins are in some places invested with coats , in others not . whether the veins have fibres . who first observed the valves in the veins . how the valves of the veins were found . the cause of the varices . the valves of the veins what ? where they are not found at the original of the veins ? their magnitude . in what persons there are most valves . it s figure . substance . vse . according to harvey . the vena portae , why so called . the branches of the portae in the liver , termed roots . the spleen-veins of the stomach . call. pancreas . spleen . call. stomach . of the stomach . call. guts . of the mesentery . the meseraick veins . according ●o harvey . the history of the milkie veins . the history of the vena lacteae . their name . their situation . their insertion in the liver . it s substance . their quantity . number . their use . the haemorrhoid veins what ? the error of other anatomists . the differences between the internal and external haemorrhoides . the vena cava what ? it s division into great trunks . the ascendent trunk what ? the vein of the midrif pericardium and mediastinum . anastomosis . the error of vesalius . how pleuritick persons are purged by urine . why the ham-vein is profitably opened in a pleurisie . the error of amatus lusitanus and hollerius touching valves . the error of other anatomists . an error of practitioners in blood-letting . the most apparent vein is to be opened . anastomos●s . jugular veins why so called . a caution in opening the basilica or liver vein . the variation of the veins of the arm. notes for div a -e the name artery . what an artery is . the end of the arteries . why the arteries pulse . the pulse how caused . whether the arteries are dilated together with the heart or no. it s magnitude . whether the arteries do feel . their substance . how many coats an arterie hath . whether an artery may be opened , and how . whether the blood of the belly be circulated . notes for div a -e the significations of the term nervus . a nerve what . the beginning of the nerves . the error of aristotle . whether the moving nerves and the sensitive differ . a new opinion of the author touching the number of the nerves . the use of this doctrine in physick . the nervus sine pari . why the nerves are not hollow . whether the optick nerves are hollow . nerves hard or soft . why the moving nerves are hardest . whether there be any smelting nerves . a praeocupation ▪ processus mammillares . the organ of smelling . the error of others about the rise of the optick nerves . the union of the optick nerves and the true cause thereof . the error of others about the rise of the eye-movers . why one eye being moved , the other moves also . why somtimes when the temporal muscle is hurt , the eye is hurt likewise . whether the sixt pare be the same with the fift . why we cough when the earp●cker goes far into our ear. the recurrent nerves . how hoars-ness comes after the cholick . why vomiting in the stone of the kidney . the nerves of the whole arm. the nerve sine par● . notes for div a -e the reason of the authors method . why he treats last of the bones . why he treats of the gristles and ligaments with the bones . whether the ▪ marrow be the nutriment of the bones . why creeping things cannot go . why many bones in a living creature . the periostium feels , but not the bones . the sense of the teeth . a bonefire properly what . the division of the skeleton . depraved shapes of the head eleven in number . other shapes of the head observed by the author . the error of chirurgeons an head without sutures . the error of aristotle . the coronal suture why so called . the triangular bones of the skul . why some sutures are like scales . a great number of sutures . see tab. . fig. . why the wounds of the sinciput are deadly . the triangular bone in dogs . the cavities in the ossa petrosa . how the teeth do differ from other bones . which part of the tooth feels . the teeth are bred in the womb. why children are sick of teeth-breeding . why and when young ones loose their teeth . whether new teeth are bred out of the womb ? many teeth argue long life . the diseases and pains of the teeth , how caused ? speech him . why men have few dog teeth . why the upper grinders have more roots then the lower ? a transition . what the spina is ? why the first vertebra has no spine ? an incurable squinzie by luxation of the tooth . the os sacrum why so called . os sacrum properly hath no vertebrae . the os coccygis may be loosned . why the os ilium is larger in women ? the share-bones are loosned in child-birth . why there are great holes in the sharebones . the share-bones larger in women . an admonition for chirurgeons . the gristles of the ribs . why the ribs are many is number ? how many ribs adam had . how many true ribs there are . the bastard ribs . the cartilago ensiformis . an ●●llow●e ● about the channel●●nt . what the scapula is . a memento for chyrurgions . their shape . magnitude . situation . notes for div a -e to paris . the occasion of this writing what blood it is which is moved ? that it is only one kinde of blood . it is not moved up and down in the vessels like boiled water . but it is moved o●e of one part into another . which motion perfectly to understan● , the motion of the chylus must be sought into . that meat which is first eaten hath the first place in the stomach . the stomach closely embraces the same . it is moistned with the moisture of the stomach . it is cut and minced by an acid humour . which comes from the spleer . afterward it is changed into cream . tom. se● . ● , s●●nt ●●t●r . how soon or late it is concoctèd and distributed . all at once or by piecemeal . being digested it is distributed into the guts and milky veins . see the figure of the milky veins , pag. . not through the meseraick veins alwaies white . by one continued passage of the milky veins . not to the spleen . but to the liver . gut of the liver into the vena cava . out of the vena cava into the heart . out of the right ventricle of the heart into vena arteriosa . but not through the sep●●●● inter●…tium or partition of the heart o●● of the vena arteriosa into the arteria venosa and the left ventricle of the heart . but not through the foramen ovale . and thence into the heart , the arteria aorta , and the rest of small arteries . out of the arteries the blood by commen mouths . known to the ancients . goes into the veins . as the store of blood sent into the parts doth sh●● . the pressing a vein below the orifice in blood-letting . the ligature of a vein in living anatomies . dissection of a vein in living creatures . the emptying of the veins appearing in the skin . but the blood doth not come out of the greater veins into the lesser . sevulsory blood-letting doth not argue it . nor the arms falling away occasioned by a ligature . nor the varices . but it flows ●●● of the smaller vessels into the vena cava . out of the vena cava to the heart again . yea that blood which hath already past the heart . because the meat affords not so much blood as the heart passeth through . viz. about half an ounce at every pulse . so that the blood 〈◊〉 circularly . which motion of the blood was not unknown to the ancients . to hippocrates in foëtins edi●●on pag. . pag. . pag. . to diogi●●● apolloniata . to plato . to aristotle . but in this age found out ●…sh by paulus servita . publish'd in print by william harvey . now this motion is made through all the arteries and veins of the body . yea of the head. yea in the child in the womb. it goes out of the arteries into the veins . by anastomoses . and through the flesh . and that motion of the blood. is continual . quick. so that the whole circuit or round is performed in less than a quarter of an hour . nor do the fits of agues argue any other . nor the exacerbations of feavers . this motion is also vehement . not of like vehemence in the arteries and veins . yet the same quickness in both . yet of greater quickness when the heart beats . one portion of blood doth not allwayes go the same way . the vital spirits are moved with the blood. the animal spirits motion through the nerves cannot be observed . but the motion of the chylus easily through the milkie veins . what kind of motion that i● . the cause of the bloods motion . is not an i●b●●● power thereof . nor is the blood carried by the spirits . nor is it voided by reason of rar●faction only . put it is drive : by the vena cava into the earl●t . out of it into the heart . yet is it drawn also ? the cause of the motion into the left ventricle , is the same . a●d ▪ happens in both places at one moment . the blood is driven out of the heart into the arteries when the heart is contracted . the cause , of the constriction of the heart . which is performed by help of the fibres . the heart after its constriction returns to its natural state . and then it is dilated . the blood is driven out of the greater into the lesser arteries . yet it is drawn withall . not necessarily by dilatation of the artery . nor doth galens experiment shew any other thing . yet galen hath certain tokens that the dilatation of the arteries helps their motion . de usu puls . cap. . an sanguis in art. c. . but the impulse i here caused only by the hart. out of the arteries into the veins , out of the smaller veins into the greater it is driven . by every particle of the vein . and drawn . so also by pulsion the chyle is moved out of the stomach . through the guts . by the milkie veins . and also drawn . why not through the mesaraick veins . the motion of the blood serves for the utility of the parts . and that it may be preserved . and to perfect the blood. the blood which is carried to nourish the part , is not moved circularly . nor is there any other motion of the blood , whereby the valves of the heart are shut . nor in passion● of the mind . yet there is another praeternatural motion thereof . the occasion of this second letter . answer to the objections . that in blood letting the vein does swest at the binding . not through pain . not by straining the vein ; but because the motion of the blood is stopped . nor doe the arteries swel because of the ligature . but the veins swel also with two ligatures , and wherefore . why in blood-letting they unbind the arm , when the blood does not run apace . why much blood may be taken away . and more out of the arm then out of the hand . why it flows out of a wounded arterie not bound . the ligature being loosed , the blood stops , and sometimes it runs , and why ? but is stopped by holding the finger in the vein below the orifice . also when the vein is cut asunder in the middle and wherefore , no parts receive blood by the veins excepting the liver . how and why the venal blood differs from the arterial . how menstrual blood is collected about the womb . how they are carried out of the womb into the head. how it comes that the humors passing through the heart , do not cause great inconveniences . the objections against circumstances . nothing hinders , but that half an ounce of blood may be forced out of the heart , at every pulse . nothing hinders but that the blood may be circularly moved in the child in the womb. a sign that it is so indeed . though there be anastomoses of the veins & arteries ▪ yet tumors may arise . not by rarifaction . but by constriction of the heart the blood is driven in the arteries . not in the dilatation , though sometimes blood go out therein . and being driven by all parts of the veins , it returns to the heart . by this motion the veins and arteries may be nourished . and the blood ventilitated better .