the true story of the american flag john h. fow [illustration: fig. flag carried by the first city troop of philadelphia in escorting washington across the jerseys on his way to take command at cambridge] the true story of the american flag by john h. fow philadelphia william j. campbell copyright, by john h. fow * * * * * introduction i was induced to make this research by the late william h. egle, librarian of the state library at harrisburg, whose knowledge of the early history of pennsylvania was of valuable assistance to me in preparing the data for a history of the country along the delaware river prior to (yet unfinished). mr. egle agreed with me that the claim of mr. canby that betsy ross designed and made the first flag was legendary and without that foundation which is so necessary to uphold claims of this character. statements of such a character, when allowed to go unrefuted, do harm to the history of any people, inasmuch as they encourage others to build "air castles" and purchase old portraits to be palmed off on others as _our_ "grandfather" who "fit" in the revolution, or _our_ "grandmother" who carried supplies to the troops at valley forge. history is the best incentive to make men love their country; it encourages that patriotism which never falters, even at the cannon's mouth. the sight of a flag or the music of a band merely enthuses as long as one is in sight or the other can be heard; but history and its knowledge are lasting and a source of pride. so, therefore, let it be true in all its details, no matter who may fall from the high pedestals upon which they have been placed by vain-glorious descendants. john h. fow. the american flag "it will probably never be known who designed our union of stars, the records of congress being silent upon the subject, and there being no mention or suggestion of it in any of the voluminous correspondence or diaries of the time, public or private, which have been published."--_rear-admiral preble_. so far as regards the adoption of the combination of stars and stripes, the same assertion can be safely made. as to the origin of each this research, it is hoped, will prove conclusively, first, that colored stripes representing a combination for a common purpose were used nearly two hundred years before the declaration of independence; second, that stars were used in the union of a flag in november, , on a flag raised on a massachusetts privateer commanded by captain manley (see fig. ), and that they were also used in the design of the book plate of the washington family along with three stripes. there can be no doubt that the stripes were made thirteen as a mere matter of sentiment to represent the colonies engaged in the revolutionary struggle. as a matter of fact, the number thirteen appeared in a large number of instances during the revolution, and was apparently used as an object lesson to remind the colonists that they were united in a common cause. the colors of the stripes have no special meaning or significance, except that which anyone may apply who desires to make use of his imagination, or who may become sentimental upon the subject. many have written and commented upon it; some have said that the red stripes mean courage, others war, daring, determination, and so on, and that the white stripes mean purity, peace, justice, or equity. "thy stars have lit the welkin dome, and all thy hues were born in heaven." as a matter of fact, the idea of stripes in a flag to represent a combination for a common purpose originated in in the netherlands, and symbolized the union of the dutch republic in its struggles against the power of philip and the persecutions of alva. in a paper read before the new jersey historical society by a mr. haven in january, , he suggested "that the combination of our flag, the stars and stripes, were favored as a compliment to washington, because they were upon the book plate of the general's family." he further stated "that the stars on the book plate were of roman origin," and in support quoted from virgil "redire ad astra," meaning and inferring that a return to the stars meant a future home of peace and happiness for the human race, and that is what this nation would eventually become. assertions and statements similar to the above may be quoted by the score, wherein reasons are given based upon theory and imagination as to the origin of the devices which compose our national banner. the claim that has been made about betsy ross, who worked at upholstering and as a seamstress during the revolution, who is said to have lived in a house either no. or arch street, philadelphia, now said to be no. arch street, as having some time in june, , made and designed the first american flag as we now worship it, cannot be corroborated by historical research. the claim is one of that legendary type that the rabbins of old handed down for centuries, and which were believed to be true, until modern investigation proved their falsity, or like the imagination of artists who attempt to paint historical events without consulting details, historical, and geographical. the two most notorious in our history are leutze's painting of washington crossing the delaware, and benjamin west's painting of william penn treating with the indians. as to the first, i write from authority, having been designated to represent the legislature of pennsylvania as one of a committee of three to act in conjunction with the trenton battle monument committee to select an historical subject for the medallion to be placed upon one of the four sides of a monument, erected at trenton, to represent pennsylvania's part in that memorable event, we chose as the subject "washington crossing the delaware," and the result of our labor, and investigation in conjunction with the monument committee can be seen to-day on the west side of the monument. the bronze tablet placed there by the commonwealth of pennsylvania truthfully delineates that notable event. the late general stryker, of new jersey, aided us, and furnished us books, and documents to obtain part of the data. the tablet represents a small rowboat, with general knox sitting in the bow of the boat, and washington in the stern, the man rowing the boat was a mr. cadwalader. he lived at mckonkey's ferry, on the pennsylvania side of the river. leutze in his painting has washington standing alongside of a horse in a large scow, such as were used in those days on the upper delaware to take produce to the philadelphia markets. a number of others are in the same boat, one holding aloft a flag containing a blue union with thirteen white stars--a flag that did not come into existence until six months after the battle was fought. [illustration: flag carried in the revolution by count pulaski's legion: unita virtus forcior.] as to west's picture, one need only look at it, and then read the facts as related in any history of pennsylvania, and it will be found how historically untrue it is. one instance alone would be sufficient; that is, in the painting, the vessel in which penn came over is anchored out in the river, when, as a matter of fact, she never came up to philadelphia. she was quarantined below chester because of the smallpox, and penn was rowed up the river from chester in a small boat, and landed near the residence of the swensons, two swedes, who lived at wicaco, and from whom he bought the land comprising old philadelphia. again, the elm tree is in full leaf, yet the "pow-wow" that penn held with the indians took place in november, and elm trees do not have leaves on them in this latitude in november. but why digress from the subject about which i started to write, merely to show that artists and those seeking for family distinction are not to be relied upon as truthful delineators of history. the ross claim is based upon the assertions set forth in a paper read in by mr. william canby before the members of the historical society of pennsylvania. it was claimed in the paper or essay that from traditions existing in the ross family, betsy ross, the grandmother of mr. canby on his mother's side, was the maker and designer of the first american flag, and that she lived on arch street. a research shows that a betsy ross did live on arch street; but the exact location is doubtful, and that her maiden name was griscom. she was married three times, first to john ross, second to ashburn, and lastly to john claypoole. [illustration: flag carried in the revolution by count pulaski's legion: non aliusregit.] it was asserted in the paper read that a committee of congress, along with general washington, in june, , called at her house, and engaged her to make a flag from a rough drawing, which, not suiting her, was at her suggestion, redrawn by washington. from other traditional resources it was also claimed, that mrs. ross changed the stars from six-pointed to five-pointed. the whole claim is based upon tales told from memory by relatives, no other proofs have ever been found, and a careful and thorough research fails to discover any. in a pamphlet was issued from the printing office of the state printer at harrisburg, pennsylvania, written by a mr. reigart, based upon the above claim, and calling mrs. ross "the immortal heroine that originated the first flag of the union." the book had an alleged portrait of betsy ross making the first flag; but it was afterwards discovered that it was really the portrait of an old quaker lady who was living in lancaster at the time the book was written. the book was so unreliable that it made the ross claim appear ridiculous in the eyes of the public. if mrs. ross made a flag in an arch street house, as claimed, it was made after a design that had been conceived and born somewhere else, and her contribution was no more than her labor in sewing on some stars, the same labor that is given by any girl or woman who works in a flag manufactory. even according to the paper which was read before the society in it is admitted that a design made by someone else was taken to her, but that she made certain changes in it. now, that is all there is in the betsy ross claim; yet the growing youths of the nation are being misled and taught an historical untruth when it is asserted that mrs. ross designed, originated and made the first american flag, and a lithograph has been issued showing that historical untruth, which has not as good a foundation, in fact, as the two paintings to which i have referred, because the events sought to be depicted in those two cases did happen. all the sentiment exhibited over the betsy ross story is lost upon those who have looked the matter up, and are conversant with the history and growth of our national emblem, which i will now take up. those seeking for more elaborate details are referred to bancroft's history of the united states; lossing's field book of the revolution; philadelphia times, april , ; the american, the colonial and the pennsylvania archives; journals of congress, vols. and ; preble's history of the flag; cooper's naval history; life of john adams; hamilton and sarmiento's histories of our flag; sparks' and washington irving's lives of washington; washington's own letters, diaries and other writings, and william cullen bryant's history of the united states, in which pages and of the third volume he devotes to a history of the flag, but nowhere does he mention the ross claim. he evidently, like myself, could not find any authority for it, yet his history was published in --nine years after the ross claim was made. there are many other authorities, but not one of them gives her the credit claimed, and all of them except those written since the claim was made, leaving out the bryant history, do not even mention her name. a claim similar to the one made by mr. canby on behalf of betsy ross, was made by a woman named elizabeth montgomery, daughter of captain montgomery, of the armed brig _nancy_. she claimed that a flag, "stars and stripes," was made early in july, , by a young man on her father's brig while it was in port at st. thomas; see "reminiscences of wilmington, ancient and new," printed in , on pages to ; but her claim it proved to be absolutely false, as a reference to the american archives, vol. vi, page , fourth series, will show that the brig _nancy_, captain montgomery, was destroyed at cape may, june , , to keep her from being captured by the british. at the outbreak of our revolutionary struggle the different colonies had flags of their own design, which, if grouped together, would have reminded one of joseph's coat, embellished with latin and other mottoes. at the battle of bunker hill the americans fought without a flag, although botta in his history of the american revolution says that there was one with the words "an appeal to heaven" on one side, and the latin inscription "qui transtulit sustinet" upon the other (see fig. ). in lossing's field book of the american revolution, vol. , page , he states that an old lady named manning informed him that the americans did have a flag at the battle, of which the field was blue and the union white, having in it the red cross of st. george and a green pine tree (see fig. ); but this cannot be considered an authority any more than trumbull's picture of the battle in the rotunda of the capital at washington. he depicts the american flag carried in that battle as something which no one ever saw or even heard of, to wit: a red flag with a white union, having in it a green pine tree (see fig. ). [illustration: figs. - ] frothingham in his history of the siege of boston says that there was a flag over prescott's redoubt having upon it the words "come if you dare;" but there is no authority given for the statement. as a matter of fact, it might have been, for at that period flags were used as ensigns, with different sentences upon them, such as "liberty and union," "an appeal to heaven," "liberty or death," "an appeal to god." several such flags were captured by the british and mentioned in the english journals of that period (see figs. , , and ). also in powell's picture of the battle of lake erie in the national capital perry is seen in a boat with a flag of thirteen stripes and thirteen stars; yet when the battle was fought the american flag consisted of fifteen stripes and fifteen stars, and had been so constituted since , because under an act of congress there was to be a stripe and a star added for the two states admitted after the thirteen colonies became states, to wit: kentucky and vermont. so congress on the th day of january, , passed an act fixing the number of stripes and stars at fifteen, and such was the star-spangled banner that key saw at fort mchenry in the "dim morning's light" when he wrote the words of our national hymn, as a matter of fact, the war of was fought under a flag of fifteen stripes and fifteen stars. in , at a fair in boston, the flag of the united states brig "enterprise," that fought the english brig "boxer" on september , , was exhibited. it had fifteen stripes and fifteen stars. it belongs to a mr. quincy, of portland, maine. it was not until the th day of april, , that congress passed the act fixing the number of stripes, alternating red and white, at thirteen, to represent the thirteen original colonies, and a blue union with a white star for every state then in the federal union, and for those that would be admitted an extra star to be added on the th day of july after the admission of the state. now, by a late act, the state is not admitted until the th day of july after the passage of the act admitting her to statehood. the act reads as follows: "an act to establish the flag of the united states. sec. . be it enacted, etc., that from and after the fourth day of july next the flag of the united states be thirteen stripes alternate red and white; that the union have twenty stars white in a blue field. "sec. . and be it further enacted that, on the admission of every new state into the union, one star be added to the union of the flag; and that such addition shall take effect on the fourth of july next succeeding such admission. "approved april , ." the use of stars by the colonies on their flags was first suggested by a little piece of poetry in a newspaper called the "massachusetts spy," published in boston on march the th, . it was as follows: "a ray of bright glory now beams from afar; the american ensign now sparkles a star." [illustration: figs. , , and ] this piece of poetry was the cause of a flag being made in by a patriotic vessel owner of massachusetts having thirteen white stars on it in a blue union, the body of the flag being white, with an anchor upon it having over the top the word "hope" (see fig. ), already mentioned. it was hoisted on the armed schooner lee, captain john manley (see also rhode island colonial records, vol. x, p. . a similar flag is now in the office of the secretary of state. it was carried by a rhode island regiment during the revolution). either this or the stars on the washington book plate, in the absence of any record, may be taken as reasons for the adoption of the stars in the union in place of the crosses of st. andrew and st. george. i have also referred to the claim that the combination of the stars and stripes was probably adopted out of love and respect for washington. if this claim is true, then we would have, according to the ross claim the spectacle of washington complimenting and honoring himself, when, as a matter of fact, his whole life disproves such conduct on his part. now, let us see if this argument as to the origin of the combination is born out by facts. we find in a book printed in london in by j. beaumont that the english east india company had a flag of thirteen red and white stripes alternating (see fig. ) the same as ours, only it had the red cross of st. george in a white union. in they reduced the stripes to ten; but in another work on ship-building, published in , by carl allard in amsterdam, we find that he fixes the number of stripes at nine. also in a book published by le haye in we find that the number of striped flags in existence in europe were as follows: bremen, nine stripes, red and white, with a union of four squares, same colors; rotterdam, eleven stripes, red and green; north holland, thirteen stripes, red and yellow; east india company, thirteen stripes, red and white, with a white union and st. george cross, already mentioned. but no matter as to the number of stripes, it is thus conclusively shown that thirteen red and white stripes were in use seventy years before they were adopted by the american colonies. in october, , while the english troops were besieged in boston by the troops under washington, it became apparent that we should have some sort of a flag to represent the colonies in the aggregate, and show thereby that they were acting in concert; so a committee was appointed, of which benjamin franklin was the chairman. it was determined that the flag should be called the grand union flag, and that it should have thirteen red and white stripes alternating to represent the thirteen colonies, and the crosses of st. george and st. andrew in the union to attest their loyalty to the crown (see fig. ), as at that period national sovereignty was not contemplated. the quarrel as claimed was simply over the right to be represented in the taxing body of the british nation. preble in his history of the flag says, on page , as to the stripes being used at the instance of washington: "without further seeking for the origin for the stripes upon our flag, it is possible that the stripes on his own escutcheon suggested them. they were also on the flag of the philadelphia light-horse that escorted him on the road to cambridge from philadelphia as far as new york in " (see fig. ). this latter flag is in philadelphia, and is the property of the philadelphia first city troop. the philadelphia sunday dispatch in gave a very interesting history of it. messrs. lynch and harrison were franklin's colleagues on the committee. in november, , they met at cambridge in washington's headquarters, and, after carefully considering all the facts, adopted the grand union flag above described. "the union jack" was called "the king's colors" because of the crosses to which allusion has been made. the first flag that was made, there being no record of the name of the maker, was hoisted over washington's headquarters at cambridge on the second day of january, . in a letter to mr. reed, dated the th day of january, washington wrote that "the saluting of this flag by cannon and musketry fire gave rise to a ridiculous idea on the part of the british in boston, who, that day having received copies of the king's speech to parliament, supposed that the colonial troops had also received copies, and that the salute was in honor of the king, and that the rebellious colonists had submitted." so, first, as early as the d day of january, , the flag we all love except the blue union and white stars, was in existence. second. we have the names of the men who designed it. third. that it was raised at cambridge. fourth. the reasons why the combination was adopted; and fifth, that its first raising was an official act.... so therefore we now have to deal only with the change of the union from the crosses to the stars; and this is best arrived at by following the history of the navy of that time: the navy of the colonies in consisted of armed vessels, either maintained by private enterprise, by the councils, boards of war, or navy boards of the different colonies, the general congress making no provisions for the establishment of a colonial navy until october , , when, after a general debate based upon the report of a committee, the following resolution was adopted (see journal of congress, vol. , p. ): "_resolved_, that a swift sailing vessel to carry the carriage guns and a proportionate number of swivels, with eighty men, be fitted with all possible dispatch for a cruise of three months." after discussion it was further "_resolved_, that another vessel be fitted for the same purpose, and that a marine committee, consisting of messrs. dean, langdon and gadsden, report their opinion of a proper vessel and also an estimate of the expense." two days later, october , , washington wrote a letter suggesting to the congress that a flag be adopted, so that "the vessels may know one another." this idea was a flag with a white ground, a tree in the middle, and the sentence: "an appeal to heaven" on it (see fig. , already mentioned). four days afterwards the committee made a report, but it was not accepted, and the above resolution was recommitted. on the th of october the committee made a report recommending more vessels, and four more members were added to the committee--mr. hopkins, mr. hewes, r. h. lee and john adams. at a session of congress on the th of november, , a resolution was passed authorizing the creation of two battalions of marines. they were to be composed only of those acquainted with seamanship. this same committee on the d of november reported certain rules for the government of the navy, which were adopted on the th (see journal of congress , page ). on the d of december the committee was authorized to prepare a commission for the captains of armed vessels in colonial service. on december th the pay of naval officers, marines and seamen was adopted, and on december th a committee was appointed of one from each colony as a committee of ways and means on naval affairs. this committee reported on the th that a number of vessels could be prepared for sea by march, , and that it would cost over eight hundred thousand dollars to purchase them and fit them out. this report was adopted, and the same committee was ordered to go ahead and prepare the vessels for sea, which was accordingly done, and the following vessels were made ready for service: alfred, dorea, columbus, lexington, fly, hornet, wasp, cabot, randolph, franklin, providence, dolphin and lynch. in april, , the council of the massachusetts colony adopted a device for a flag for privateers, and its own armed vessels a white flag with a green pine tree on it (see fig. ); but the general congress made no provision whatever for a naval flag distinct from the grand union flag hoisted in january at cambridge, as stated. in july, , john jay complained in a letter that congress had fixed upon no device "concerning continental colors, and that captains of the armed vessels had followed their own fancies." in the latter part of , m. turgot, the french premier of louis xvi received a report from an agent of his kept in the colonies that "they have given up the english flag, and have taken as their devices a rattlesnake with thirteen rattles, or a mailed arm holding thirteen arrows." the reason given for the maintenance of an agent by the french government was to assure the colonists that they were esteemed and respected by the french people. the ulterior purpose, however, of vergennes and turgot was to recover back if they could the canadian provinces they had lost in their war with the british. many such flags were in use, and some were embellished with mottoes the principal one being "don't tread on me." such a motto was upon the flag of proctor's westmoreland county battalion of pennsylvania (see fig. ). this flag was displayed at the centennial of westmoreland county, pennsylvania, at greensburg, held in the year . a splendid cut of the above flag is in vol. xiv of the archives of pennsylvania. others had upon them a rattlesnake broken into thirteen pieces with the mottoes of "unite or die," or "join or die." these devices were first used to stimulate the colonies into concerted action against the french and indians, and afterwards were revived to unite them in the revolutionary struggle. in bradford's pennsylvania journal of december , , there appeared the following article, which is very interesting and logical: "messrs. printers: i observed on one of the drums belonging to the marines, now raising, there was painted a rattlesnake, with this modest motto under it, "don't tread on me!" as i know it is the custom to have some device on the arms of every country, i supposed this might be intended for the arms of north america. as i have nothing to do with public affairs, and as my time is perfectly my own, in order to divert an idle hour i sat down to guess what might have been intended by this uncommon device. i took care, however, to consult on this occasion a person acquainted with heraldry, from whom i learned that it is a rule among the learned in that science that the worthy properties of an animal in a crest shall be considered, and that the base one cannot be intended. he likewise informed me that the ancients considered the serpent as an emblem of wisdom, and, in a certain attitude, of endless duration; both of which circumstances, i suppose, may have been in view. having gained this intelligence, and recollecting that countries are sometimes represented by animals peculiar to them, it occurred to me that the rattlesnake is found in no other quarter of the globe than american, and it may therefore have been chosen on that account to represent her. but then the worthy properties of a snake, i judged, would be hard to point out. this rather raised than suppressed my curiosity, and having frequently seen the rattlesnake, i ran over in my mind every property for which she was distinguished, not only from other animals, but from those of the same genus or class, endeavoring to fix some meaning to each not wholly inconsistent with common sense. i recollected that her eyes exceeded in brightness that of any other animal, and that she had no eyelids. she may therefore be esteemed an emblem of vigilance. she never begins an attack, nor, when once engaged, ever surrenders. she is therefore an emblem of magnanimity and true courage. as if anxious to prevent all pretensions of quarreling with the weapons with which nature favored her, she conceals them in the roof of her mouth, so that, to those who are unacquainted with her, she appears most defenceless; and even when those weapons are shown and extended for defence, they appear weak and contemptible; but their wounds, however small, are decisive and fatal. conscious of this, she never wounds until she has generously given notice even to her enemy, and cautioned him against the danger of treading on her. was i wrong, sirs, in thinking this a strong picture of the temper and conduct of america? [illustration: fig. flag carried in the revolution by proctor's westmoreland (penna.) battalion] the poison of her teeth is the necessary means of digesting her food, and, at the same time, is the certain destruction of her enemies. this may be understood to intimate that those things which are destructive to our enemies may be to us not only harmless, but absolutely necessary to our existence. i confess i was totally at a loss what to make of the rattles until i counted them, and found them just thirteen--exactly the number of colonies united in america; and i recollected, too, that this was the only part of the snake which increased in numbers. perhaps it may have only been my fancy, but i conceited the painter had shown a half-formed additional rattle, which, i suppose, may have been intended to represent the province of canada. 'tis curious and amazing to observe how distinct and independent of each other the rattles of this animal are, and yet how firmly they are united together, so as to be never separated except by breaking them to pieces. one of these rattles singly is incapable of producing sound; but the ringing of thirteen together is sufficient to alarm the boldest man living. the rattlesnake is solitary, and associates with her kind only when it is necessary for her preservation. in winter the warmth of a number together will preserve their lives, whilst singly they would probably perish. the power of fascination attributed to her by a generous construction may be understood to mean that those who consider the liberty and blessings which america affords, and once come over to her, never afterwards leave her, but spend their lives with her. she strongly resembles america in this: that she is beautiful in youth, and her beauty increases with age; her tongue also is blue, and forked as lightning, and her abode is among impenetrable rocks. having pleased myself with reflections of this kind, i communicated my sentiments to a neighbor of mine, who has a surprising readiness at guessing any thing which relates to public affairs; and, indeed, i should be jealous of his reputation in that way, were it not that the event constantly shows that he has guessed wrong. he instantly declared it his sentiment that congress meant to allude to lord north's declaration in the house of commons that he never would relax his measures until he had brought america to his feet, and to intimate to his lordship that, if she was brought to his feet, it would be dangerous treading on her. but i am positive he has guessed wrong; for i am sure congress would not, at this time of day, condescend to take the least notice of his lordship in that or any other way. in which opinion i am determined to remain your humble servant." on the th day of february, , one of the committee on naval affairs, mr. gadsden, who represented south carolina in the general congress, presented that body with a flag that was made of yellow silk with a rattlesnake upon it (see drayton's american revolution, vol. ii, page ; see fig. ). no one can tell what became of this flag, yet it was placed in the hall of congress in a conspicuous place near the seat of john hancock. some claim that it was this flag that paul jones hoisted on his ship, and others that it was taken south to fort moultrie. so therefore we have, as late as april, , a navy of seventeen vessels, proper committees of congress to look after them, a commander-in-chief, to wit: esek hopkins, who was named for that position december , ; but no national flag had been made nor one even adopted in july, (see jay's letter to the committee), nor in october (see richard's letter, dated october , ), both written months after the date fixed upon in the ross claim; but the supposition is that, so far as the navy is concerned, it either flew the grand union or a flag similar to the gadsden device, and this is borne out by the records. as to who was the first naval officer to raise the first american flag to the peak of his vessel and capture the first prize, we only have to quote ex-president john adams, who wrote from quincy in to vice-president gerry as follows: "philadelphia is now boasting that paul jones has asserted in his journal that his hand first hoisted the first american flag, and captain barry has asserted that the first british flag was struck to him. now, i assert that the first american flag was hoisted by captain john manley and the first british flag was struck to him on the th day of november, ." as captain barry did not go to sea in the lexington until february, , therefore this claim of president john adams is undeniably true so far as regards barry, for the records show that manley, in a schooner called the lee, captured the british vessel nancy, bound to boston, loaded with munitions of war for the use of the british troops besieged there, and among the articles captured was a mortar, which afterwards was used on dorchester heights by washington's troops in shelling the british in boston. this same captain on the th of december, , captured two more british transports loaded with provisions. the paul jones claim rests upon not that his was the first vessel to hoist an american flag, but that the alfred was the first commissioned united states war vessel to hoist the grand union flag; but there is no record anywhere of the date, and as no naval commission was issued to jones until december , , the manley claim made by adams stands alone as regards the first american flag distinct from the english standard as changed by the colonists; and it is also corroborated by a letter sent by general howe on december , , while he was besieged in boston to lord davenport, complaining about manley's capture of the nancy with four thousand stands of arms. now, i claim that adams could not have meant the grand union flag, as it was not agreed upon until december, , but the one i have described as having a blue union with white stars, a white ground with an anchor and the word "hope" over the anchor (see fig. ). the lee was an armed privateer. in a letter to robert morris, october, , jones, in speaking of the flag, made the claim that "the flag of america" was displayed on a war vessel for the first time by him, he then being a lieutenant on the alfred; but there is no record as to whether it was a continental or grand union flag, or some other device; yet there are reasons to suppose it was the grand union flag--first, because the alfred was in the port of philadelphia, and we find from the record (american archives, vol. iv, page ) that the day signal of the fleets on february , , at the capes of the delaware were to be made by using the "grand union flag at the mizzen peak," which was to be lowered or hoisted according to the information intended to be given under the code of signals furnished. in the _ladies' magazine_, published in london, may , , the writer states that the colors of the american navy were "first a flag with a union and thirteen stripes, and the commander's flag a yellow flag with a rattlesnake upon it." [illustration: figs. , , and ] in the pennsylvania _evening post_ of june , , was published a letter stating that the british cruiser roebuck had captured two prizes in delaware bay "which she decoyed by hoisting a continental union flag." there is no doubt that from july , , until june , , we had as a national ensign simply a flag with thirteen stripes, as we had declared ourselves free from the government represented by the crosses of st. george and st. andrew which we had hitherto on our flag, but having upon it a snake with the motto already so often mentioned of "don't tread on me," and this design was used, but without any official action being taken thereon by the general congress (see fig. ); yet from may, , or june, , the date fixed upon in the ross claim, until may, , the american troops fought the following battles: june , , fort moultrie. the flag in that engagement was a blue flag with a crescent and the word "liberty" upon it (see fig. ). battle of long island, august , , the british captured a flag of red damask with the word "liberty" on it; september th, harlem plains, no flag being mentioned; october th, the battle of white plains, the flag carried by the americans was a white flag with two cross-swords on it and the words "liberty or death;" november th, surrender of fort washington, no mention of a flag; december th, battle of trenton, the flags in this battle were state flags; all other claims are the imagination of artists who apparently knew nothing of the history of the flag; january d, princeton, the same as at trenton; january th, tryon's attack on danbury; and yet in all these engagements that took place after we had declared ourselves a free and independent people there is no record in existence, public or private, that the flag claimed to have been designed by mrs. ross in may or june, , was carried. the first time the stars and stripes was carried by american troops of which we have any positive record was at the battle of the brandywine, in september, . it soon became apparent in that we were fighting for more than mere parliamentary representation, and when the culmination was reached by the adoption of the declaration of independence on the th day of july, , the conclusion was also reached that we could not consistently fight under a standard containing in its union the crosses of st. andrew and st. george, devices that belonged to the enemy, but which we had used, to express our loyalty to the king up to that time while fighting for a principle. the want of a change in our emblem as originally adopted can be best appreciated by the contents of a letter dated october , , sent by william richards to the committee of safety, published in the pennsylvania archives, vol. , page , wherein, _inter alia_, he said: "the commodore was with me this morning, and says that the fleet has no colors to hoist if they should be called on duty. _it is not in my power to get them until there is a design fixed on to make the colors by._" yet this letter was written four months after the time fixed in the alleged betsy ross claim. thus it is shown conclusively by the record that we had dropped the old grand union or continental flag, to wit: the crosses and the stripes, but had not yet, october, , adopted a new design, and it was not until june , , one year after the time fixed as to the ross claim, that a new design was adopted, and a resolution was passed wherein congress said "that the flag of the thirteen united states be thirteen stripes alternate red and white, that the union be thirteen stars white on a blue field, representing a new constellation." in the rough journal of congress the word "of" occurs before the words "thirteen stripes;" in the record it appears to have been changed, thus corroborating the former use of the thirteen stripes. there is no record as to how this resolution got before congress--whether a member introduced it, or whether it was the outcome of the report of a committee. no official proclamation of this resolution was made until september, ; but it was printed in the papers previous to that time as an item of news; so, therefore, from june to september, , private enterprise may have made many of them. the ross claim is ridiculous when it contends that washington, col. ross and robert morris, in june, , one month before the declaration of independence had been adopted, called on betsy ross, and that washington drew with a pencil a rough drawing of the present american flag, she making the stars five-pointed. the statement is without any documentary or record proof. as a matter of fact the six-pointed star was not adopted because of its use in english heraldry, while in holland and france, our allies, five-pointed stars were used. now, as to the claim that "old glory" was thus made in by betsy ross, what became of it? preble says of canby: "i cannot agree with his claim, and neither does the record support it" ... and besides it is practically charging washington and the rest of the committee with seeking to establish and set up a national ensign before we had even declared ourselves a free people with an independent national government, and without any delegated authority to do so, the record of congress being silent on the subject; so therefore we have: _first._ on october , , the letter of william richards to the committee of safety already quoted _shows that the ross claim cannot be true_. in fact, at the time the letter was written we had no colors nor was any designed. _second._ that at the time it is alleged the committee called on mrs. ross we had no national existence. we were still simply revolting colonies, not yet having declared our independence. _third._ as a climax i have found in the pennsylvania archives, d series, vol. , page , the following extract from the pennsylvania (not the colonies) navy board's minutes, may , , being the first bill for colors for the fleet on record: "present: william bradford, joseph marsh, joseph blewer, paul cox. "an order on william webb to elizabeth ross for fourteen pounds, twelve shillings and two pence for making ships' colors, etc., put into william richards' store, £ . . ." _fourth._ also in may, , the state of massachusetts knew nothing of a national ensign of the ross description, as seen by the following bill paid by the board of war of that state to joseph webb: "to mending an ensign and sewing in pine tree, _s._" also: "may , state of mass., pay to jos. webb, dr. , . to making a suit of colors, _s._; thread, _s._; painting pine trees, etc., _s._--£ . . . "john conston. "armed brig freedom." [illustration: flag carried in the revolution by the first regiment of the pennsylvania line] _fifth._ if washington and the others had agreed on a design in june, , as mr. canby claims, washington would have had it officially adopted, because he above all men knew the necessity of a national emblem, and more especially would he have done so immediately after the adoption of the declaration of independence in july following, and he would not then have fought at trenton and princeton in december, , under the state ensigns, or at long island or white plains under the flags mentioned. _sixth._ the first official record of the stars and stripes being carried in battle was at the brandywine in september, , although it is claimed that at oriskany, fought on the d day of august, , when fort stanwix was invested by the british, an american flag was made by using white shirts, a red petticoat and captain abraham swartout's blue coat (see lossing's field book of the american revolution, vol. , page ; also preble's origin of the flag, page ). _seventh._ in view of the above-recorded facts, the betsy ross story fails to convince the student and searcher after historical facts as to its authenticity. it is "the imagination of the artist" told in story. he says: "i fix the date because washington at that time was in philadelphia;" but no one else fixes the date of the betsy ross incident, not even the relatives from whom it is claimed the story was obtained. and further in the same statement it says: "washington came to confer upon the affairs of the army, the flag being no doubt one of these affairs." mere guess-work. and if a true guess, then the argument already used by preble as to what became of the design and the flag from that time, june, , to june, , holds good. it was further claimed that stars and stripes were in general use a year before congress adopted them; but it fails _to show one instance to sustain the assertion_; besides, the richards letter of october, , _it being official, completely upsets the claim_. washington irving in his life of washington says that the general, accompanied by mrs. washington, left new york on the st day of may, , and that they were the guests of john hancock while in philadelphia; but neither irving, sparks, nor any other writers of washington's life mention anything whatever of the ross incident. if it happened, it surely would have been mentioned by someone. even washington himself fails to say anything about it in any of the letters he has written, his diaries, or statements made, nor are there any allusions to the subject in the published correspondence of his contemporaries. so therefore the ross claim simply rests on the statements claimed to have been obtained from relatives, while against it are the various facts above given and hundreds of others not mentioned in this article. our flag is the representative of national unity, equal and exact justice to all men. it stands for no sentimental characteristic. it is a practical exhibition in itself of the result of concerted action, and has been from its origin until to-day worshipped as no other ensign designed by man has ever been. it is loved and respected by all who love liberty. it represents the government. it represents our honor. to love it is to love one's country, a duty more sacred than any other, except love and respect for god. "oh, glorious flag! red, white and blue, bright emblem of the pure and true! oh, glorious group of clustering stars, ye lines of light, ye crimson bars." our flag upon the ocean has been the theme for many a song and story, and in the early days of the republic the achievements of our naval heroes were looked upon as more essential for the attainment of our liberties than victories on shore, as every vessel captured or destroyed meant the loss of stores and munitions of war to the british troops, hence early in the struggle, as before stated, private enterprise took the first steps in creating a navy, then the colonies took it up separately, and then, as stated, the general congress. the delaware river was the scene of more activity in that direction than any other port of the colonies, a reputation which it still enjoys. a large number of vessels were fitted out, and here it was the first fleet of american war vessels gathered, and from the delaware sailed the first commissioned war vessel to cruise on the ocean, the lexington, commodore john barry. of course, there had been many, as i have stated, private and colonial vessels that had been at sea since the lee, captain john manley (_ad supra_), in the autumn of , sailed from a massachusetts port, and i have no doubt that many of these private and colonial vessels flew the grand union flag after it had been adopted. so therefore it is fair to presume from the records that lieutenant paul jones was the first commissioned officer to raise it to the peak of a _commissioned american war vessel_, the alfred; that captain john barry was the first to take it to sea on the lexington, and that the first to exhibit it to other countries was captain wickes, of the brig reprisal, who arrived at st. eustatia on july , (see american archives, th series, vol. , page ). the flag he displayed had thirteen stripes and a union of yellow or white; but whether it had on it crosses, pine trees or rattlesnakes no one can tell, as no record can be found; but it is supposed to have been a yellow union with a rattlesnake on it (see fig. ), as the naval flag had been a yellow flag with a rattlesnake on it, with thirteen rattles and one budding, and the motto "don't tread on me." it was also claimed to have been displayed in the same port on november , , and to have received its first salute from a foreign power. in looking the matter up it was discovered that the american brig andrew dorea was in the port named on that day, she having sailed from philadelphia in september, . on her arrival she saluted the fort, and the dutch commander returned it, and he was afterwards dismissed by his government for doing so. so, therefore, it is fair to infer that both claims are made upon a foundation of facts that are corroborated by the records. but the reprisal's flag must have been the grand union or continental flag, as she left port before the adoption of the declaration of independence, while the dorea must have had some other design for a flag, as she did not sail until september, two months after the declaration was adopted. besides, in a letter from st. eustatia, published in the american archives, vol. , th series, page , it said: "all american vessels here now wear the congress colors." as the crosses of st. andrew and st. george had been dropped, the congress colors must have been simply an ensign of thirteen red and white stripes, with an emblem of a rattlesnake on it (see fig. ). the second salute from a foreign power to our flag of which we have any record was given at brest by the french commander in august, , to the general mifflin, captain mcneill. it must have been the congress flag, as the news of the passage of the act of june th creating the stars and stripes could not have been known by those on the mifflin, as in those days we had no merchant marine or other means except through armed vessels of communicating with other countries. the galleys on the delaware were in charge of the pennsylvania committee of safety. they had no colors to hoist in august, , as can be seen by the following letter of mr. richards, dated the th of that month. it was directed to the committee, and said: "i hope you have agreed what sort of colors i am to have made for the galleys, as they are much wanted." and this was two months after the alleged date of the ross claim. the following letter will give a description of the sailing of the first fleet of war vessels this government ever owned: "newbern, n. c., feb. , . "by a gentleman from philadelphia, we have received the pleasing account of the actual sailing from that place of the first american fleet that ever swelled their sails on the western ocean in defense of the rights and liberties of the people of these colonies, now suffering under the persecuting rod of the british ministry, and their more than brutish tyrants in america. this fleet consists of five sail, fitted out from philadelphia, which are to be joined at the capes of virginia by two ships more from maryland, and is commanded by admiral hopkins, a most experienced and venerable sea captain. the admiral's ship is called the columbus, after christopher columbus, thirty-six guns, and -pounders, on two decks, forty swivels and five hundred men. the second ship is called the cabot, after sebastian cabot, who completed the discoveries of america made by columbus, and mounts thirty-two guns. the others are smaller vessels, from twenty-four to fourteen guns. they sailed from philadelphia amidst the acclamations of many thousands assembled on the joyful occasion, under the display of a union flag with thirteen stripes in a field, emblematical of the thirteen united colonies; but, unhappily for us, the ice in the river delaware as yet obstructs the passage down; but the time will now soon arrive when this fleet must come to action. their destination is a secret, but generally supposed to be against the ministerial governors, those little petty tyrants that have lately spread fire and sword throughout the southern colonies. for the happy success of this little fleet three millions of people offer their most earnest supplications to heaven." see american archives, th series, vol. iv, page ; also cooper's naval history as to who named the vessels. john adams claimed that honor. see american archives, th series, vol. iv, p. . the fleet made a descent upon new providence, and, after capturing the place and taking away a large quantity of munitions of war and stores, it left and coasted along the coast from cape cod to cape charles, making many captures. on the th of april, , occurred the first engagement between an english war vessel and a commissioned american war vessel. the english vessel was the brig edward, mounting sixteen four-pounders, and, by a strange coincidence, the american vessel was the lexington, captain barry. it was at lexington on land in april, , the first shot was fired by americans, and it was from the lexington at sea that the first broadside was delivered at the "wooden walls" of old england. the fight resulted in the capture of the british vessel. no one can tell in the absence of a record the name of the vessel to first fly the stars and stripes. paul jones claimed it for the alliance; but in cooper's life of paul jones, page , occurs the following. speaking of jones' claim, he says: "he may have been mistaken. he always claimed to have been the first man to hoist the flag of (the grand union) in a national ship, and the first man to show the present ensign (the stars and stripes) on board of a man-of-war. this may be true or not. there was a weakness about the character of the man that rendered him a little liable to self-delusions of this nature; and while it is probable he was right as to the flag which was shown before philadelphia on the alfred (the grand union) the place where congress was sitting, it is by no means as reasonable to suppose that the first of the permanent flags (stars and stripes) was shown at a place as distant as portsmouth. the circumstances are of no moment, except as they serve to betray a want of simplicity of character, that was rather a failing with the man, and his avidity for personal distinction of every sort." to corroborate cooper i have only to state that jones' claim is absurd when, as a matter of fact, the alliance was not launched until , and jones did not command her until , when, as a matter of course, she must have carried the stars and stripes (see mackensie's life of jones, vol. , pages and ). much to our regret, as lovers of our country, we must admit that the first american flag (the grand union) displayed on any of the lakes was by that arch traitor, benedict arnold, on the royal savage. he had command of the fleet on lake champlain in the winter of -- a man who died without a flag, without a country, without love, without respect. the first british man-of-war to enter an american port after the revolution was the alligator, capt. isaac coffin. he entered the harbor of boston on the d day of may, . he saluted the american flag on the fort by firing thirteen guns, which was returned. a full report of this occurrence is to be found in the _columbian sentinel_ of may d, . the first ship to enter a british port after peace had been declared flying the american flag was the ship bedford, of nantucket, capt. william mooers. she entered the thames in february, , and proceeded up to london. she was loaded with whale oil. the first publication of the terms of the treaty of peace was on the th day of january, , the treaty itself having been made in november, . the first time the american flag was ever displayed over conquered territory outside of the united states was on the th day of april, , during the war between this country and tripoli, when, after the capture of the tripolitan fortress at derne, it was hoisted by lieutenant bannon and a mr. mann. this flag has fifteen stripes and fifteen stars, and was exhibited at a celebration on the th of july, , at brumfield, massachusetts. for ten years prior to the declaration of independence men, in defiance of the government, protesting against the oppressive stamp duty act and other causes, held public demonstrations, at which a liberty pole would be raised, and flags with devices and sentences upon them would be carried. associations calling themselves "sons of liberty" were formed, and so tense became the feeling that the people looked with contempt both upon king and parliament. so pronounced did it become that the obnoxious act was repealed in , after having been in operation only four months. but these associations of "liberty boys," formed in in every community from boston to charleston, continued in existence, and formed the nucleus of the army of the revolution, and the very devices and sentences used in were afterwards adopted and put upon their flags in and prior to the adoption of the grand union flag and the present ensign. i have in the foregoing pages endeavored to collate truly all the documentary and other tangible evidence that is in existence to fully, absolutely, and without fear of contradiction, sustain the contention that the betsy ross claim exists only because of a statement made by a relative who did not produce one scintilla of documentary or recorded evidence to sustain the claim. the records of the time refute it, and the dates are so at variance with facts that are known that it is a surprise that any credence whatever has been given to the story. this is god's land, overflowing with promises to the oppressed of all nations. our shields have been dented in honorable warfare to establish individual liberty and religious freedom, and in all the coming years may our government reign supreme over all this fair land, and everywhere from ocean to ocean may our flag, like the bow of promise, be a sign to all the people of the earth that, being heaven-born, it is a covenant that liberty will and shall be maintained as long as love of country exists in the breast of man. * * * * * transcriber's notes: the following errata were noted in the original text. these have been corrected in the above text. page , line . page should be page . page , line . should be . fig. should be the flag of the westmoreland battalion, page , and not the flag carried by the first regiment of the pennsylvania line, at page . how the flag became old glory [illustration: united states] e·l·scott how the flag became old glory [illustration] the macmillan company new york · boston · chicago · dallas atlanta · san francisco macmillan & co., limited london · bombay · calcutta melbourne the macmillan co. of canada, ltd. toronto [illustration: red, white and blue--it tells its own story-- but spring, who made it and named it old glory?-- _john trotwood moore._] how the flag became old glory by emma look scott with illustrations by a. c. valentine _new york_ the macmillan company _all rights reserved_ copyright, , by emma look scott. copyright, , by the macmillan company. set up and electrotyped. published september, . _norwood press_ j. s. cushing co.--berwick & smith co. norwood, mass., u.s.a. acknowledgments the author acknowledges her indebtedness to the following authors and publishers for their courtesy in allowing the use of copyright material: to mr. wallace rice for "wheeler's brigade at santiago"; to mr. charles francis adams for "pine and palm"; to mr. will allen dromgoole for "soldiers"; to mr. john howard jewett for a selection from "rebel flags"; to mr. john trotwood moore for "old glory at shiloh"; to mr. henry holcomb bennett for "the flag goes by"; to mr. clinton scollard for "on the eve of bunker hill"; to p. j. kenedy and sons for "the conquered banner" by rev. abram joseph ryan; to david mackay for "death of grant" by walt whitman; to j. b. lippincott company for "the cruise of the monitor" by george h. boker; to b. f. johnson publishing company, publishers of timrod's memorial volume, for "charleston" by henry timrod; to the century company for "farragut" by william tuckey meredith; to mr. harry l. flash and the neale publishing company for "stonewall jackson" by henry lynden flash; to mr. will henry thompson and g. p. putnam's sons for "the high tide at gettysburg"; to mr. isaac r. sherwood and g. p. putnam's sons for "albert sidney johnston" by kate brownlee sherwood; to mrs. benjamin sledd and g. p. putnam's sons for "united" by benjamin sledd. an extract from "home folks" by james whitcomb riley, copyright, , is used by permission of the publishers, the bobbs-merrill company. the poems, "lexington" by oliver wendell holmes, "the building of the ship" and "the cumberland" by henry wadsworth longfellow, "yorktown" by john greenleaf whittier, "fredericksburg" by thomas bailey aldrich, "kearny at seven pines" by e. c. stedman, and "robert e. lee" by julia ward howe are printed by permission of houghton mifflin company. contents page the flag goes by old glory in the light of the old north church lexington on the eve of bunker hill the flag of fort stanwix the knight of the sea where the stars and stripes unfurled the surrender of burgoyne the yoke of britain broken yorktown from the other side the star-spangled banner the defense of the crescent city the civil war charleston fredericksburg civil war 'round shiloh church albert sidney johnston old glory at shiloh the flag of the cumberland the cumberland the monitor the cruise of the monitor the night of chantilly kearney at seven pines the cavalry charge an immortal twain stonewall jackson the high tide at gettysburg united old heart of oak farragut pine and palm the conquered banner the conquered banner death of grant robert e. lee old glory on the island wheeler's brigade at santiago soldiers how the flag became old glory how the flag became old glory the flag goes by hats off! along the street there comes a blare of bugles, a ruffle of drums, a flash of color beneath the sky; hats off! the flag is passing by! blue and crimson and white it shines, over the steel-tipped ordered lines, hats off! the colors before us fly! but more than the flag is passing by. sea-fights and land-fights, grim and great, fought to make and to save the state. weary marches and sinking ships; cheers of victory on dying lips. days of plenty and years of peace; march of a strong land's swift increase; equal justice, right and law, stately honor and reverent awe; sign of a nation, great and strong to ward her people from foreign wrong: pride and glory and honor--all live in the colors to stand or fall. hats off! along the street there comes a blare of bugles, a ruffle of drums, and loyal hearts are beating high: hats off! the flag is passing by! henry holcomb bennett. old glory while every american citizen recognizes the significance of the term "old glory" as applied to the national flag, when and where and by whom the nation's emblem was christened with this endearing and enduring sobriquet is a matter of historic interest less understood. in the early epoch-making period of the nation's history william driver, a lad of twelve years, native of salem, mass., begged of his mother permission to go to sea. with her consent he shipped as cabin boy on the sailing vessel _china_, bound for leghorn, a voyage of eighteen months. on this first voyage the courageous spirit of the youth manifested itself in a determination to disprove the words of the ship's owner, made to him at the beginning of the voyage: "all boys on their first voyage eat more than they earn." in appreciation of the mettle shown by the lad, the owner presented him, upon the return from the cruise, with twenty-eight dollars in silver, besides his wages of five dollars per month. he carried the money to his mother, who wisely admonished him to do the very best he could under every circumstance, a charge he never forgot. his intrepid spirit brought the youthful mariner rapid and deserved promotion. his eighteenth year found him master of a vessel. those were hazardous days upon the sea, and more than once his ship was subjected to indignity and outrage incident to seafaring of that period. but throughout a long career as master of a merchantman the stars and stripes was never lowered from the masthead nor sullied by defeat or by dishonor. [illustration: captain william driver.] the sailor, of all men, venerates his nation's flag. to him it is the visible and tangible token of the government he serves, and in it he beholds all the government's strength and virtue. to william driver, therefore, the stars and stripes typified the glory of the land and of the sea. and seeing his nation's symbol float dauntless and triumphant above stress of every encounter and happening upon the deep enkindled the inherent love in his heart for it to enthusiastic ardor, and in thought he called the flag "old glory." a simple incident, but fraught with unread meaning, gave the name into the nation's keep, albeit its formal christening and national adoption was not to come until the soil beneath its folds should be deep-dyed with the blood of conflict between the land's own countrymen. [illustration: _photo of original flag._ "old glory."] in , as master of the brig _charles daggett_, about to set sail for a voyage around the world from salem, mass., captain driver was presented by the citizens with a large bunting flag in commendation of his services upon the sea and his well-known love for his country's emblem. this flag, when presented, was rolled in the form of a triangle, and the halyards bent. a young sailor, stepping forward, said: "in ancient times, when an ocean voyage was looked upon with superstitious dread, it was the custom on the eve of departure to roll the banner in form of a triangle. when ready and bent like this, a priest stepped forward and, taking the banner in his hand, sprinkled it with consecrated water and dedicated it to 'god the father, god the son, and god the holy ghost,' turning the point of the triangle upward at the name of each, thus calling on that sacred unity of creator, redeemer, and sanctifier to bless the national emblem and prosper the voyagers and their friends. the flag thus consecrated was then hoisted to the masthead." with glistening eyes the captain watched the hoisting of the flag; and as it fell into position at the masthead of his ship and the colors unfurled to the breeze, he shouted: "i'll call her old glory, boys, old glory!" cheer after cheer rent the air. the signals of departure were sounded, the cables were cast off, and the good ship set sail for foreign ports. this was the ninth and most memorable voyage made by captain driver. from the island of tahiti he rescued the suffering descendants of the mutineers of the english ship _bounty_, and at risk of grave considerations turned his vessel from her outlined course and returned them to their beautiful and longed-for home, pitcairn, in the waters of the south pacific, the settlement of an island, which marks one of the memorable events of english naval history. captain driver made his last voyage around the globe in command of the _black warrior_. at the masthead flew his salem flag, old glory, to which he never referred but by that loving pseudonym. he left the sea in to become a resident of nashville, tenn. he carried old glory with him as a sacred relic, carefully deposited in a heavy, brass-bound, camphorwood sea chest that had accompanied him on all his voyages. on legal holidays, on st. patrick's day (which was his own birthday), and on days of especial celebration in the southern city old glory was released from confinement and thrown to the light from some window of the driver residence or hung on a rope across the street in a triumphal arch under which all processions passed. at the outbreak of the civil strife captain driver avowed his union sympathies and stood openly for his convictions in the face of business losses, arrest, and threatened banishment. [illustration: the chest in which "old glory" rested.] just after the secession of the state he daringly flaunted his old glory flag from his window; then, fearing its confiscation (which his action had rendered liable), he procured a calico quilt of royal purple hue, and with the aid of two neighboring women sewed it up between the coverings and hid the quilt in his old sea chest. again and again the house was searched by confederate soldiers for this flag, but without success. under the purple old glory rested. the flag of the confederacy waved above the capitol; and nashville, in pride, prosperity, and splendor, basked in the promise of ultimate victory to the southland. but to a rude awakening this fancied security was foredoomed. suddenly, like the breaking of a terrific thunderclap above the city, came the awesome cry: "fort donelson has fallen!" fort donelson fallen meant nashville's subjection. terror-stricken, the people rushed wildly in every direction, and the most ill-founded reports in the excitement gained ready credence. it was announced that general buell would speedily arrive and open his batteries from across the river, and that gunboats would lay the city in ruins. some of the citizens urged the burning of the city, that no spoils might be left to the enemy. the fine suspension bridge across the cumberland was fired. the commissaries were thrown open, and vast quantities of public stores, amounting to millions of dollars, were distributed among the inhabitants or destroyed. the archives of the state were hurriedly conveyed to memphis. in the mad desire to escape an impending doom of whose nature they were wholly ignorant, residents vacated their houses and left priceless furnishings a prey to the invading army. on foot, on horseback, by wagon, by any available means that best favored their flight, the crowds surged out of the conquered city. notwithstanding the apprehensions of speedy hostilities, it was a week later before general buell was encamped in edgefield, opposite the city. to him the mayor formally surrendered nashville. a proclamation was issued assuring the inhabitants of protection in person and property. up the cumberland steamed fifteen transports and one gunboat--general nelson's wing of the union army. from the levee came the clamor and shouts of men, the rattle of musketry, and din of many feet. the sixth ohio was the first regiment to land. captain driver was an interested observer of the scene. "now," said he, "hath the hour of old glory come!" lieutenant thacher, of the sixth, with a squad of soldiers, left the regiment and escorted captain driver to his home, a few blocks distant. they wrested old glory from its hiding place and, with the old mariner bearing the flag in his arms, quickly rejoined the regiment. up the hill, amidst rattle of drum and sounding trumpets, passed the bluecoats to the capitol. there a small regimental flag was being hoisted. suddenly a hush fell upon the waiting victors. the figure of captain driver appeared high against the dome of the statehouse. the strains of "the star-spangled banner" burst upon the ear; and amid cheers and cries of "old glory! old glory!" that echoed to the distant hills the old sea flag unfurled and floated above the topmost pinnacle of the capitol of tennessee. and thus old glory received her formal christening. [illustration: amid cheers and cries of "old glory! old glory!" that echoed to the distant hills the old sea flag unfurled and floated above the topmost pinnacle of the capitol of tennessee.] swarming over the city, bent on various quests, went the victorious federals. not so the old sailor. the revered flag, flaunting the colors so joyously above his head once more, was far too weather-beaten, he feared, to withstand long the stiff breeze blowing about the elevated site. torn to ribbons it must not be, howsoever good the cause. quietly he watched and waited about the grounds until after nightfall, when, under cover of the darkness, he again ascended the dome, rescued his beloved old flag, and swung in its place a big merino one that had figured as a campaign flag in , when "tippecanoe and tyler too" was the slogan of the whig party. he then carried old glory to his home and laid it tenderly away in the old sea locker so long dedicated to its use. very gradually thereafter the pleasing appellation, old glory, made its impress upon the speech of the populace, until, in the later nineties, the "hoosier poet" was moved to expression in verse: old glory, the story we're wanting to hear, is what the plain facts of your christening were, for your name, just to hear it, repeat it and cheer it, s'tang to the spirit as salt as a tear. and seeing you fly and the boys marching by, there's a shout in the throat and a blur in the eye and an aching to live for you always or die; and so, by our love for you floating above, and the scars of all wars and the sorrows thereof, who gave you the name of old glory? james whitcomb riley. but to the query the sealed lips of the old seaman answered not. for him had come the higher summons. captain driver's death occurred in nashville in . at the head of his grave, in the old city cemetery, stands a unique monument of his own designing. upon an old tree trunk, in stone, appears a ship's anchor and cable. at the top of the anchor is inscribed the beloved pseudonym of his heart's own coinage, above him here, even in his last sleep: "his ship, his country, and his flag--old glory." about his body when placed within the casket was wrapped a united states flag. a few years prior to his death captain driver placed his old glory flag in the hands of his elder daughter, mrs. roland, of wells, nev., who was then on a visit to him, saying brokenly as he resigned it: "take this flag and cherish it as i have done. i love it as a mother loves her child. it has been with me, and it has protected me in all parts of the world." worn and faded and tattered, this flag is still in the possession of mrs. roland; and in her far western home it is displayed on patriotic occasions and the story of its naming repeated. another, presumably the whig flag herein mentioned, and that, as has been shown, also flew over the capitol of tennessee, was sent by captain driver, upon request, to the essex institute, of massachusetts. some confusion has of late arisen in the public mind regarding the identity of the two flags, it having been generally believed that the original old glory was the flag in the massachusetts institute. this impression is, however, doubtless erroneous. notwithstanding a somewhat brusque address and a marked individuality of speech and action, captain driver was a man of warm and kindly nature. although a stanch unionist, he lent a ready and willing hand to the suffering ones of the south. he married the first time miss martha babbage, of salem, mass. for his second wife he espoused a southern woman, sarah j. parks, of nashville, tenn. two of his sons bore arms in the confederate service. one of these gave his life for the "lost cause." * * * * * it remained for yet another conflict after the civil strife to bring the name old glory into general and popular use, for the blended ranks of the blue and the gray opposed a common foe. when the north and the south joined hands against a foreign power and floated the stars and stripes above the emblem of spain upon the island of cuba, the flag of the union became old glory to every man of the nation. in the light of the old north church "history points no struggle for liberty which has in it more of the moral sublime than that of the american revolution." they were a godly people, these revolutionary fathers of ours. they prayed as they thought; and they fought as they believed and prayed. they sought no quarrel with the mother country; they asked only independent action, considering themselves full grown in point of knowledge of their needs and desires, although but infants in age as compared with other subjects of great britain. when, therefore, old england announced, "you shall pay taxes!" the colonists demurred. "we are not represented in your parliament; we have no voice in your councils!" "but you must pay taxes," she commanded. they replied, "we will not." "i will compel you," retorted she. [illustration: the old north church.] "if you can," was the answer. a british fleet then sailed into boston harbor, and british soldiers swarmed over boston town. this action enraged the citizens. it angered the "sons of liberty," whose name is self-explanatory and whose slogan was "liberty or death," and inspired them to more vigorous efforts toward freedom from britain's power. the "minute men" were organized and stood ready to the summons, ready at a minute's notice to leave forest, field, or fireside, to take up arms in defense of their liberties and their rights. the spirit of dissension ran rife; and petty altercations between the british soldiers and the citizens were of daily occurrence. a trivial happening brought about the boston massacre. a "son of liberty" and a british soldier disputed the right of way of a street passage. "stand aside," said the one. "give way," said the other. neither would yield. blows followed. rocks flew. the soldiers marshaled and fired into the crowd. several citizens were killed. the town was ablaze with excitement. and the governor had finally to withdraw the troops from boston. when antagonism had abated in degree, king george devised new measures of taxation and stirred ill feeling again. boston brewed british tea in the ocean. england disliked the taste of it. the people were declared rebels; and the charter of massachusetts was annulled by parliament. ten thousand british soldiers then came over. boston neck was seized and fortified. the colonists were to be forced into obedience. then from lexington and concord the signals of revolt were sounded-- "they were building well for a race unborn, as the british plowed through the waving corn, for the birth-pang of freedom rang that morn." the battle of bunker hill that followed was but the natural sequence. defeated though the patriots were in this their first real battle, it was a defeat that spelled for them ultimate victory. this they recognized dimly, but certainly, as they knew that they had gone into battle with a prayer on their lips for themselves, for their homes, and their country. their hearts were fired anew for freedom. their arms would be strengthened to their desires. as the lights from the belfry of old north church revealed to paul revere the route the british were to take against them in the memorable beginnings at lexington and concord, so the light from the great book above its chancel rail would direct them the way they should go. [illustration: the battle of lexington.] lexington with one impulse the colonies sprung to arms; with one spirit they pledged themselves to each other, "to be ready for the extreme event." with one heart the continent cried, "liberty or death!" bancroft. slowly the mist o'er the meadow was creeping, bright on the dewy buds glistened the sun, when from his couch while his children were sleeping, rose the bold rebel, and shouldered his gun. waving her golden veil over the silent dale, blithe looked the morning on cottage and spire; hushed was his parting sigh, while from his noble eye, flashed the last sparkle of liberty's fire. on the smooth green, where the fresh leaf is springing, calmly the first-born of glory have met, hark! the death-volley around them is ringing! look! with their lifeblood the young grass is wet! faint is the feeble breath, murmuring low in death,-- "tell to our sons how their fathers have died;" nerveless the iron hand, raised for its native land, lies by the weapon that gleams at its side. over the hillsides the wild knell is tolling, from their far hamlets the yeomanry come; as through the storm-clouds the thunderburst rolling circles the beat of the mustering drum. fast on the soldier's path darken the waves of wrath, long have they gathered and loud shall they fall; red glares the muskets' flash, sharp rings the rifles' crash blazing and clanging from thicket and wall. gayly the plume of the horseman was dancing, never to shadow his cold brow again; proudly at morning the war steed was prancing, reeking and panting he droops on the rein; pale is the lip of scorn, voiceless the trumpet horn, torn is the silken-fringed red cross on high; many a belted breast low on the turf shall rest, ere the dark hunters the herd have passed by. snow-girdled crags where the hoarse wind is raving, rocks where the weary floods murmur and wail, wilds where the fern by the furrow is waving, reeled with the echoes that rode on the gale; far as the tempest thrills over the darkened hills far as the sunshine streams over the plain, roused by the tyrant band, woke all the mighty land, girded for battle, from mountain to main. green be the graves where her martyrs are lying! shroudless and tombless they sank to their rest, while o'er their ashes the starry fold flying wraps the proud eagle they roused from his nest! borne on her northern pine, long o'er the foaming brine, spread her broad banner to storm and to sun; heaven keep her ever free, wide as o'er land and sea, floats the fair emblem her heroes have won! o. w. holmes. [illustration: the battle of bunker hill.] on the eve of bunker hill the consequences of the battle of bunker hill were greater than those of any ordinary conflict. it was the first great battle of the revolution, and not only the first blow, but the blow which determined the contest. when the sun of that day went down, the event of independence was no longer doubtful. webster. june , 'twas june on the face of the earth, june with the rose's breath, when life is a gladsome thing, and a distant dream is death; there was gossip of birds in the air, and the lowing of herds by the wood, and a sunset gleam in the sky that the heart of a man holds good; then the nun-like twilight came, violet vestured and still, and the night's first star outshone afar on the eve of bunker hill: there rang a cry through the camp, with its word upon rousing word; there was never a faltering foot in the ranks of those that heard. lads from the hampshire hills and the rich connecticut vales, sons of the old bay colony, from its shores and its inland dales; swiftly they fell in line; no fear could their valor chill; ah, brave the show as they ranged a-row on the eve of bunker hill. then a deep voice lifted a prayer to god of the brave and the true and the heads of the men were bare in the gathering dusk and dew; the heads of a thousand men were bowed as the pleading rose,-- smite thou, lord, as of old thou smotest thy people's foes! oh, nerve thy servants' arms to work with a mighty will! a hush, and then a loud amen! on the eve of bunker hill! now they are gone through the night with never a thought of fame, gone to the field of a fight that shall win them deathless name; some shall never again behold the set of the sun, but lie like the concord slain, and the slain of lexington, martyrs to freedom's cause. ah, how at their deeds we thrill, the men whose might made strong the height on the eve of bunker hill. clinton scollard. the flag of fort stanwix trite but true is the old adage that necessity is the mother of invention. the first flag that flew over an american fort was constructed from an "ammunition shirt, a blue jacket captured from the british, and a woman's red petticoat." the garrison at fort stanwix (fort schuyler) had no flag; but it had possession of the fort despite the siege of twenty days against it by the british; and it had five british standards taken from the enemy. so it improvised a flag and, with cheers and yells befitting the occasion, ran the british standards upside down upon the flag mast and swung the stars and stripes above them. the redcoats looked, and, it is safe to assert, laughed not, as to them the humor of the situation was not appealing. but if they were lacking in the sense of humor, these sons of old england were not lacking in persistence, and they besieged the fort with steady determination. fort stanwix stood at the head of navigation of the mohawk river and was an important feature in the plan of general burgoyne to cut off new england from the southern colonies and thus control the whole country. embarking upon this expedition, he had instructed his army: "the services required are critical and conspicuous. difficulty, nor labor, nor life are to be regarded. the army must not retreat." as he advanced down the hudson he swept everything before him. ticonderoga, mount defiance, whitehall, fort edward, each in turn fell: and he now anticipated no successful resistance to his forces. at the beginning of general burgoyne's invasion a force of canadians, hessians, new york tories, and indians commanded by general st. leger had been sent against fort stanwix. the post was held by general gansevoort with some seven hundred and fifty men. they were ill supplied with ammunition and had few provisions. to burgoyne defeat seemed here impossible. the siege had, however, been anticipated by the garrison, and the men had determined to hold out to the last extremity. word was surreptitiously conveyed to colonel willett within the fort that general herkimer would set out with eight hundred volunteers to reënforce him and that a successful sortie might be made against the besiegers by acting in conjunction with general herkimer's forces. this sortie was to be made when a certain signal was given. but the best-laid plans, as we all have doubtless learned by experience, are not always dependable. st. leger in this case learned of herkimer's advance and sent the savages under his command to intercept and ambuscade him. a terrible hand-to-hand combat ensued in which a hundred and sixty of the colonists were killed and the loss to the indians was as great. general herkimer's horse was shot under him and he himself wounded severely in the leg. notwithstanding his agony he insisted upon being placed with his back against a tree for support, and therefrom he continued to direct the battle. in the heat of the contest he lighted his pipe and smoked. the further advance of the americans to the succor of the fort was prevented, but colonel willett, in ignorance of this, made his sally from the fort at the hour appointed. marvelous to state, the british were taken wholly by surprise and, having no time to form, fled. the americans took possession of their supplies and their standards, as before mentioned, and retired to the fort. failing to shell or starve them out, st. leger then began efforts to induce a surrender. two of his american prisoners were compelled to write letters to the commandant at the fort, exaggerating the strength of the enemy and urging, in the name of humanity, a surrender. to this gansevoort returned no answer. st. leger then tried another plan. a white flag appeared before the garrison. two british officers were blindfolded and admitted to the fort. they were courteously received and, when they were seated, were proffered refreshments. one of the officers then presented the message of general st. leger, which was in substance a threat, couched in polite language, that if the fort was not surrendered, the indians would be turned loose upon the country, and not only the men but all the women and children would be tomahawked. not one should escape. but if the garrison would capitulate, not only would these evils be averted, but none of the garrison should be injured or made prisoners. colonel willett arose. "i consider, sir," said he, "the message you bring a degrading one for a british officer to send and by no means reputable for a british officer to carry. i would suffer my body to be filled with splinters and set on fire, and such outrages are not uncommon in your army, before i would deliver this garrison to your mercy. after you get out of it, never expect to enter it again unless you come as a prisoner." provisions were running low, and some uneasiness became manifest in the fort. colonel willett, observing this, assured the men, "i will make a sally in the night, if compelled by lack of supplies, and cut our way through the besiegers or die in the attempt." the siege had now continued more than twenty days, when to the surprise of the garrison it was suddenly raised. this was due, it shortly appeared, to a ruse of general arnold; arnold the valiant, arnold the traitor. among the prisoners of arnold was a young half-witted fellow who was condemned to death. his sorrowing mother never ceased her pleading with general arnold for her son's life. accordingly one day he proposed to her this expedient: that her son, hon yost by name, should make his way to fort stanwix and in some way so alarm the british that they would raise the siege. eagerly the old mother promised this should be done and offered herself as hostage for the fulfillment of the mission. to this arnold would not consent, but retained another son in her place. before starting on his errand, hon yost's clothing was riddled with bullets to indicate escape from the americans. reaching the camp of the indians, he told in a mysterious way of a premeditated attack upon them and aroused their fears. st. leger heard of his arrival and questioned him. to st. leger he related a touching story of his capture and miraculous escape from execution, and by signs, words, and gestures made it appear that he was an emissary of providence to aid in their preservation. canadians, hessians, all became uneasy. when he was asked the number of the americans about to descend upon them, hon yost pointed to the leaves of the trees to indicate a legion. in his efforts to terrorize he was ably seconded by a young indian who had accompanied him. panic seized the camps. in vain st. leger strove to allay the frenzy. the result was precipitate flight. [illustration: when he was asked the number of the americans about to descend upon them, hon yost pointed to the leaves of the trees to indicate a legion.] it is given by one authority that st. leger was himself becoming as apprehensive of his red-faced allies as he was of the enemy he was fighting. the fears he had sought to instill in the minds of the garrison were now returned upon his own head. the knight of the sea (our first european salute) inseparably connected with the stars and stripes must ever be the name of john paul jones. the "untitled knight of the sea," the duchess de chartres--mother of louis philippe, afterward king of france; and granddaughter of a high admiral of france--was fond of calling him. for albeit john paul jones was of scotch peasant ancestry, his associates were people of the highest intellect and rank. in appearance he was handsome; in manner prepossessing; and in speech he was a linguist, having at easy command the english, french, and spanish languages. his surname was paul. the name jones was inherited with a fine plantation in america. the call of the sea was strong to the lad and of its dangers he had no fear. an old seaman one day watched him handle a fishing yawl in a heavy storm and thought he could never weather the squall. "that is my son, john," said his father calmly. "he will fetch her in all right. it is not much of a squall for him." the man complimented the boy and offered him a berth on his ship then bound for america, little dreaming that in so doing he would carry to the new world the father of the american navy. studious and ambitious, the boy devoted his leisure moments to acquiring the most intricate knowledge of his profession and soon held positions of command. when the news of the battle of lexington reached him, he offered his services to congress. he was made _first lieutenant of the alfred, and over this ship hoisted the first emblem shown on an american naval vessel_. the design of this flag was a pine tree with a rattlesnake coiled at the roots and the motto, "don't tread on me," on a background of yellow silk. june th, , was made notable in american annals by the resolution passed by congress for a new flag. embodied in the resolution the name of john paul jones appears thus:-- "resolved--that the flag of the thirteen united states of america be thirteen stripes, alternate red and white; that the union be thirteen stars on a blue field; representing a new constellation: "resolved--that captain john paul jones be appointed to command the ship _ranger_." paul jones' remarks upon the resolutions were significant: "the flag and i are twins; born the same hour from the same womb of destiny. we cannot be parted in life or in death. so long as we can float we shall float together. if we must sink, we shall go down as one." before the _ranger_ was launched, jones was informed that he was to be the bearer of most important news to france. this news was the daily expected surrender of burgoyne, the surrender that was so powerfully to affect the result of the war for independence. as to his fitness for conveying such a message, lafayette attested thus: "to captivate the french fancy, captain jones possesses, far beyond any other officer in your service, that peculiar aplomb, grace of manner, charm of person, and dash of character," a compliment better understood when it is remembered that an alliance with france against great britain was then sought by congress. the _ranger_ lay in the harbor of portsmouth, new hampshire, ready for sailing, and jones _with his own hands raised the flag to the masthead, the first american flag to fly over a man-of-war_. jones had already brought credit to the american navy by the capture of prizes in american waters; now he was to serve his country's interests off the coast of england. the tang of autumn was in the air when he set sail for france. fulfilling his mission at nantes, jones set out for brest, where the fleet of france was anchored. would the stars and stripes, the symbol of the new republic across the sea, be recognized by salute? the question was in every mind aboard ships, and the answer eagerly awaited in the united states. a note couched in the diplomatic and elegant terms of which paul jones was master, was sent by him to the admiral of the french fleet, inquiring whether or not the flag would receive recognition. "it will," came back the answer. with that the _ranger glided gracefully through the fleet of ships; and old glory, in all the radiance of her new birth and coloring, waved response from the masthead to her first salute from european powers_. we, even after the long lapse of intervening years, feel still the thrill of her exultation. two months later the alliance between america and france was signed. the duchess de chartres became greatly interested in the young naval officer; and, having it in her power to advance his interests, she one day at a dinner presented him with a fine louis quintze watch that had belonged to her grandfather, saying, "he hated the english; and i love the americans." paul jones' response to the gift was as graceful as had been the presentation. "may it please your royal highness, if fortune should favor me at sea, i will some day lay an english frigate at your feet." two years later he did this and more. france had promised jones a new ship better suited to his capabilities than the _ranger_. but diplomatic affairs between nations move slowly, and in this case the waiting became tedious. jones had exhausted the pleasures of court circles to which he had been admitted and he longed for the life of the sea. he finally preferred his request directly to the king and shortly afterward was given, not the great sea monster he had been led to expect, but an insignificant looking craft called _le duras_. in compliment to dr. franklin's magazine of the name and in humorous comment of the ship's appearance, he renamed it the _bon homme richard_, meaning the _poor richard_. but with the _poor richard_, as with the human form, the spirit which animated it was the controlling power; and the valor of paul jones was to send the name of the _bon homme richard_ ringing down through the ages of all time. as captain jones of the _ranger_, he had captured the _drake_, in a big sea fight, and surprised england; and now, as commodore jones, he was to win distinction as the greatest of naval heroes. off the english coast at flamborough head, he sighted an english fleet. the flagship was the _serapis_, in command of captain pearson. as the _bon homme richard_ approached the _serapis_, captain pearson raised his glass and remarked: "that is probably paul jones. if so, there is work ahead." the salute affectionate between the vessels, after the formal hail, was a broadside. then they fought, fought like fiends incarnate, clinched in each other's arms, in the death grapple, fought without flinching and, be it said, to the glory of the american navy and the credit of the english. the _bon homme_ was on fire and sinking. captain pearson, noting the situation, called, "have you struck your colors?" above the smoke and din of the conflict, jones' voice answered, "i have just begun to fight, sir." he then lashed his ship to the _serapis_, and stood, himself, at the guns. "shall we be quitting, jamie?" he said in banter to a scotchman at his side. "there is still a shot in the locker, sir," replied the scot. "i thought," said captain pearson afterward, "jones' answer to me meant mere bravado. but i soon perceived that it was the defiance of a man desperate enough, if he could not conquer, to sink with his ship." the _bon homme richard's_ sides were shot away; her prisoners loose; her decks strewn with the dead and dying; the _alliance_, her companion ship, had turned traitor and fired into her. when the fight seemed well-nigh lost, a well-directed blow brought disaster to the _serapis_, and she hauled down her colors. as captain pearson surrendered his sword, commodore jones remarked, "you have fought heroically, sir. i trust your sovereign may suitably reward you." to this captain pearson returned no answer. the wonderful combat on the sea became the talk of all europe. paul jones' name was honored wherever spoken. contrary to court etiquette, he was invited to occupy apartments in the palace of the duke and duchess de chartres. while he was there, a banquet was tendered him. during the progress of the dining, he called an attendant to bring from his apartment a leather case. this when it was opened disclosed a sword. turning to the duchess, the commodore asked if she recalled his promise to lay a frigate at her feet one day? "your royal highness perceives," he went on, "the impossibility of keeping my promise in kind. the english frigate proved to be a on two decks; the best i can do toward keeping my word of two years ago, is to place in your hands the sword of the brave officer who commanded the english . i have the honor to surrender to the loveliest woman the sword surrendered to me by one of the bravest of men,--the sword of captain richard pearson, of his britannic majesty's late ship the _serapis_." [illustration: "i have the honor to surrender to the loveliest woman the sword surrendered to me by one of the bravest of men."] the royal order of military merit with the title of chevalier and the gift of a gold-mounted sword were conferred upon him by the king of france. upon returning to america, he was given the rank of head of the navy. remarkable as was the career of paul jones, the winds did not always set in his favor. many times was his life bark driven through the waters of bitter disappointment. but "all that he was, and all that he did, and all that he knew, was the result of self-help to a degree unexampled in the histories of great men." the flag of the _ranger_, saluted by the french fleet, was transferred by jones to the _bon homme richard_, and, says he, in his journal as given by buell, "was left flying when we abandoned her; the very last vestige mortal ever saw of the _bon homme richard_ was the defiant waving of her unconquered and unstricken flag as she went down. and as i had given them the good old ship for their sepulcher, i now bequeathed to my immortal dead the flag they had so desperately defended, for their winding sheet." here was: "the only flag," says one, "flying at the bottom of the sea, over the only ship that ever sunk in victory."[ ] and everywhere, the slender graceful spars poise aloft in the air and at the masthead white, blue, and red, a flag unfolds, the stripes and stars. ah, when the wanderers, lonely, friendless, in foreign harbors shall behold that flag unrolled, 'twill be as a friendly hand stretched out from native land, filling his heart with memories sweet and endless. longfellow. [ ] in preble's "history of the flags of the united states," it is given that when the _bon homme richard_ was sinking the flag was transferred to the _serapis_, and was afterward presented by the marine committee to james bayard stafford of the _bon homme richard_ for meritorious services. where the stars and stripes unfurled burgoyne was in the enemy's country. he was cut off from reënforcements. his very efforts to separate the colonies now recoiled upon his own armies. he could neither advance nor retreat with safety. for two weeks the opposing armies had stood opposite each other without fire. in desperation the british general now hazarded another battle. after a sustained and terrible struggle burgoyne went down in defeat. his best and bravest officers were lost and seven hundred of his men were killed. general frazer, beloved by every british soldier and respected by those opposed to him, had fallen at the hands of one of morgan's riflemen, of whom it was said, they could strike an apple in mid-air and shoot out every seed. on the american side benedict arnold, although divested of his command, had ridden to the front of his old regiment and became "the inspiring genius of the battle." he charged right into the british lines and received a severe wound. he received also the disapproval of general gates and the reprimand of congress. the battle raged furiously until nightfall, when the proud briton who had boasted "the british never retreat" fled under cover of the darkness. he gained the heights of saratoga, where he found himself completely hemmed in by the americans. with but three days' rations between his army and starvation, he was forced to surrender. while he was holding consultation with his officers concerning this, a cannon ball passed over the table at which they were sitting, and, no doubt, hastened their conclusions. colonel kingston was detailed to confer with the american general on articles of capitulation. he was conducted blindfolded to general gates and with him arranged the formalities. the morning of october , seventeen hundred and ninety-one british subjects became prisoners of war. they marched to fort hardy on the banks of the hudson and, in the presence of generals morgan, wilkerson, and lewis, laid down their arms. the eyes of many of the men were suffused with tears; others among them stamped upon their muskets in anger. the colors had been preserved to the british army through the foresight of general riedesel, who had handed them to his wife for safe-keeping. to the credit of the victorious americans, it is said, they showed no disrespect to the defeated foe. "general gates," wrote lieutenant ansbury, one of the captured officers, "revealed exceeding nobleness and generosity toward the captives, commanding the troops to wheel round the instant arms were grounded. and he, himself, drew down the curtains of the carriage in which he was sitting, as the troops passed him in returning." for the formal surrender of general burgoyne to general gates a marquee had been erected near the latter's old quarters. to this came the british general and staff in full court dress. general gates appeared in plain clothes with nothing to indicate his rank. as the two generals advanced to greet each other, general burgoyne removed his hat and extending his sword, said, "the fortunes of war, general gates, have made me your prisoner." general gates, not to be outdone in polite address, returned the sword and replied, "i shall always be ready to bear testimony that it has not been through any fault of your excellency." [illustration: the surrender of general burgoyne.] the generals and their officers then sat down to a table improvised of boards laid across barrels and dined together most amicably, but on very frugal fare. general burgoyne took occasion to compliment the discipline of the american army. he then proposed a toast to general washington. general gates then drank to the health of the king. high above the marquee the stars and stripes waved gloriously in triumph of the day of first formal military unfurling. the turning point of the war of the revolution was come, this october day, . the surrender of burgoyne october , brothers, this spot is holy! look around! before us flows our memory's sacred river, whose banks are freedom's shrines. this grassy mound, the altar, on whose height the mighty giver gave independence to our country; when, thanks to its brave, enduring, patient men, the invading host was brought to bay and laid beneath "old glory's" new-born folds, the blade, the brazen thunder-throats, the pomp of war, and england's yoke, broken forevermore. you, on this spot,--thanks to our gracious god, where last in conscious arrogance it trod, defied, as captives, burgoyne's conquered horde; below, their general yielded up his sword; there, to our flag, bowed england's battle-torn; where now we stand, the united states was born. general john watts de peyster. the yoke of britain broken the final scene in this stupendous drama of american freedom was enacted in virginia. in september, , washington began a three weeks' siege against yorktown, held by the british under lord cornwallis. finding himself there completely surrounded by both land and water, cornwallis was forced to surrender. now was the yoke of great britain at last broken. seven thousand english and hessian soldiers and eight hundred and forty sailors laid down their arms and became prisoners of war. the formal ceremony of surrender was to take place in an open field the last day of october. thousands of spectators assembled to behold the detested cornwallis surrender the army they had hated and feared. the americans, commanded by general washington in full uniform, and the french troops, under count rochambeau, were drawn up in two lines. at length a splendid charger issued through the gate, bearing not the hated cornwallis as expected, but general o'hara. so overcome was lord cornwallis with the consciousness of his defeat by the "raw americans," that, feigning illness, he refused to appear. the british troops in new uniforms, in striking contrast to the worn and faded garb of the colonists, followed the officer with colors furled. coming opposite general washington, o'hara saluted and presented the sword of cornwallis. a tense silence pervaded the assembly. general washington motioned that the sword be given to general lincoln. apparently forgetful of the indignities heaped upon him by the british at charleston, the latter returned the sword to general o'hara, remarking as he did so, "kindly return it to his lordship, sir." "ground arms" came the order from the british officers. the troops complied sullenly; the humiliation felt by them in their defeat was everywhere apparent. the next day the conquered army marched out of yorktown between the american and french troops. their fifers, with a brave show of humor, played, "the world's turned upside down." washington had directed his soldiers to show no disrespect nor unkindness to the defeated troops. but the remembrance of "yankee doodle," as played by the britons in their times of conquest, in taunting derision of the americans, proved too much for the latter to endure without return, when supreme occasion such as this offered. to the strains of "yankee doodle do," from american fifes, lord cornwallis and his army bade adieu to the scenes wherein they had once marched as conquerors. in thanksgiving to god was voiced the nation's exultation. congress adjourned the sessions and the members repaired to church to give thanks; business was suspended in all places. throughout the land the voice of the people was raised in a mighty chorus of prayer and praise to the almighty. yorktown from yorktown's ruins, ranked and still, two lines stretch far o'er vale and hill: who curbs his steed at head of one? hark! the low murmur: washington! who bends his keen, approving glance where down the gorgeous line of france shine knightly star and plume of snow? thou too art victor, rochambeau! the earth which bears this calm array shook with the war-charge yesterday; plowed deep with hurrying hoof and wheel, shot down and bladed thick with steel; october's clear and noonday sun paled in the breath-smoke of the gun; and down night's double blackness fell, like a dropped star, the blazing shell. now all is hushed: the gleaming lines stand moveless as the neighboring pines; while through them, sullen, grim, and slow, the conquered hosts of england go; o'hara's brow belies his dress, gay tarleton's troops ride bannerless; shout from the fired and wasted homes, thy scourge, virginia, captive comes! nor thou alone: with one glad voice let all thy sister states rejoice: let freedom, in whatever clime she waits with sleepless eye her time, shouting from cave and mountain wood make glad her desert solitude, while they who hunt her, quail with fear; the new world's chain lies broken here! whittier. from the other side ( ) the year witnessed our second war with great britain. in an effort to prevent emigration from her shores england claimed the right to seize any of her subjects upon any vessel of the high seas. america denied her right to do this on american ships. disagreement broke into open rupture. war with the mother country was again declared. the doughty american seamen would not wait for attack upon them, but went forth aggressively against the squadron of the british. oddly enough, considering the condition of the poorly equipped navy, they were remarkably successful and captured more than two hundred and fifty prizes. the following year, however, the british gained the ascendency, and in came in with sea force and land force and sacked and burned the capitol at washington and all public buildings except the patent office. they then proceeded against baltimore. the land troops were almost in sight of the city of their desires, when they were halted and held in check by american troops under general sticker, whose name, it may be said, meant as it sounded, and who effectually prevented their further advance. but the fleet on the waters sailed into the bay of baltimore and up to fort mchenry at the mouth of the patapsco river, in the determination to bombard the fortress and compel entrance to the city in that way. the british admiral had boasted the fort would fall to his hand an easy prey. prior to this, dr. william beane, a citizen of baltimore and a non-combatant, had been captured at marlboro and was held a prisoner on one of the vessels of the british fleet. to secure his release, francis scott key and john skinner set out from baltimore on the ship _minden_ flying a flag of truce. the british admiral received them kindly and released dr. beane; but detained the three on board ship pending the bombardment of the fort, lest in their return to land the intentions of the british might be frustrated. [illustration: from sunrise to sunset they watched the shot and shell poured into the fort and noted with infinite joy that the flag still flew.] thus from the side of the enemy they were constrained to witness the efforts of destruction urged against the protecting fortress of their own city. from sunrise to sunset they watched the shot and shell poured into the fort and noted with infinite joy that the flag still flew. through the glare of the artillery, as the night advanced, they caught now and then the gleam of the flag still flying. would it be there at another sunrise? who could tell! suddenly the cannonading ceased. the british, despairing of carrying the fort, abandoned the project. in the emotion of the hour and inspiration born of the victory, key composed the immortal lines now become our national anthem, "the star-spangled banner." the flag is preserved in the museum of washington and is distinctive in having fifteen stripes and fifteen stars, one of the very few national flags with this number. the star-spangled banner oh, say, can you see, by the dawn's early light, what so proudly we hailed at the twilight's last gleaming; whose broad stripes and bright stars thro' the perilous fight o'er the ramparts we watched were so gallantly streaming? and the rocket's red glare, the bombs bursting in air, gave proof through the night that our flag was still there; oh, say, does that star-spangled banner yet wave o'er the land of the free and the home of the brave? on the shore dimly seen through the mists of the deep, where the foe's haughty host in dread silence reposes, what is that which the breeze o'er the towering steep, as it fitfully blows, half conceals, half discloses? now it catches the gleam of the morning's first beam, in full glory reflected now shines in the stream; 'tis the star-spangled banner; oh, long may it wave o'er the land of the free and the home of the brave! and where is that land who so vauntingly swore that the havoc of war and the battle's confusion a home and a country should leave us no more? their blood has washed out their foul footsteps' pollution. no refuge could save the hireling and slave from the terror of flight or the gloom of the grave; and the star-spangled banner in triumph doth wave o'er the land of the free and the home of the brave. oh! thus be it ever, when freemen shall stand between their loved homes and wild war's desolation; blest with vict'ry and peace may the heaven-rescued land praise the power that hath made and preserved us a nation. then conquer we must, when our cause it is just, and this be our motto: "in god is our trust!" and the star-spangled banner in triumph shall wave o'er the land of the free and the home of the brave! francis scott key. the defense of the crescent city upon every recurrence of january the eighth, the city of new orleans dons gala attire and shouts herself hoarse with rejoicing. she chants the _te deum_ in her cathedrals; and lays wreaths of immortelles and garlands of roses and sweet-smelling shrubs upon the monument of andrew jackson in jackson square. "the saviour of new orleans," the inhabitants called jackson in the exuberance of their gratitude for his defense of the city, and their deliverance from threatened peril, that fateful day of january, . from capture and pillage and divers evil things he saved her, and the crescent city has not forgotten. neither indeed has the nation become unmindful of his great achievement, but upon each succeeding anniversary of the battle of new orleans--that remarkable battle that gloriously ended the war of , and restored the national pride and honor so sorely wounded by the fall of washington--celebrates the event in the chief cities of the united states. during our second clash of arms with england, the creek war, wherein the red man met his doom, brought jackson's name into prominence. at one bound, as it were, he sprang from comparative obscurity into renown. in he was appointed a major general in the united states army, and established his headquarters at mobile. he repulsed the english at fort bowyer, on mobile point, and awaited orders from washington to attack them at pensacola, where, through the sympathy of the spaniards who were then in possession of the florida peninsula, they had their base of operations. receiving no orders from washington, he became impatient of delay, and upon his own responsibility marched his troops against pensacola and put the british to flight. "this," says sumner, "was the second great step in the war in the southwest." washington had been captured and her principal public buildings burned, and new orleans, the crescent city, would now, it was thought, be the next point of attack by the british. to new orleans, therefore, "to defend a defenseless city, which had neither fleets nor forts, means nor men," came jackson. his entrance into the city was quiet and unostentatious and so devoid of the pomp and pageantry of a victorious general as to cause question in the minds of some as to whether or not this was the man expected. his dress was plain in the extreme, and bore upon it no insignia of rank; yet those there were, of insight, who saw in his every aspect the man of power. from eye and posture and gesture emanated a certain indefinable force that attracted men to him, and created in them an enthusiasm for his cause. old and young who came under his influence were ready to do his bidding. to the terrified women and children of new orleans who appealed to him for protection from the enemy, he replied:-- "the british shall not enter the city except over my dead body." his words and his presence inspired confidence. and when his flag was run up above his headquarters in royal street a sense of security was felt by the inhabitants. the conditions about him, however, were far from promising, and to a less determined spirit than that of jackson would have been appalling. the troops under him were few in number and poorly equipped for battle. the crescent city was ill equipped for defense. the governor and the legislature were at loggerheads. as was his way in a crisis, general jackson took matters into his own hands. he placed the city under martial law and made every man a sailor or a soldier compelled to the restrictions and the rules governing the army. he was aware that his action was open to severe censure, but in the face of the object to be attained he held this as of little consequence. while engaged in examining a situation for a fortification in one direction, the british effected a landing in another. they had captured the american flotilla guarding the entrance to lake borgne and were making ready to advance upon the city. this information brought consternation to the inhabitants but not to the indomitable jackson. obstacles to him were but objects to be overcome. he swung his troops into line and went out to meet the enemy. the advance was checked by a sharp engagement with little loss to either side. he then set the little schooner _carolina_, in the mississippi, to bombarding the levee where the british gunners had taken refuge. with her guns continuously roaring she kept the britishers at bay for three whole days, when she succumbed to their heavy fire and exploded. her entire crew escaped with the exception of one man killed and six wounded. on the field of chalmette, a few miles below new orleans, the opposing armies threw up intrenchments from the same soft ooze and mud, so close they now stood to each other. from an upper room of the mccarte mansion house--the home of a wealthy creole--general jackson surveyed the operations of the enemy; and directed the movements of his own troops. december the th an advance was made by the british on the american lines but without significant results. on new year's day another attack was made. in the interim between these assaults went out an order from general jackson to governor claiborne that involved the general for years thereafter in legal complications with the louisiana legislature. news was borne to general jackson on the field that the legislature was preparing to capitulate new orleans in the belief that the city would be captured. "tell claiborne," said the irate jackson, "to blow them up." later, he wrote to governor claiborne, in case the report was true, to place a guard at the door of the legislative hall and keep the members in it; where they could, he satirically remarked to a friend, have full time to make some wholesome laws for the state without distraction from outside matters. through mistake in the execution of the order, the enraged lawmakers were kept outside of the assembly hall instead of in it, and the session was broken up. * * * * * at break of dawn that memorable day of january th, , the british were prepared to attack. jackson and his valorous volunteers were ready. a pygmy force were they against a mighty one! raw recruits contending against the trained veterans of wellington's army, led by the gallant pakenham! the signal rocket went up. the long red lines advanced over the field. but to what a fate! "don't shoot till you can see the whites of their eyes!"--jackson had instructed. "_fire!_" when the smoke cleared, british soldiers, dead and dying, thickly strewed the ground. intrenched behind their barricades of cotton bales and sand and mud, the americans were scarcely touched. the murderous fire went on. the british columns reeled and broke. general pakenham heroically waved his troops forward and fell, wounded to death. general gibbs, second in command, was struck down. general keane was disabled. the leaders were fallen! the troops were disordered. in the distance the red lines receded. _jackson had won._ * * * * * in less than thirty minutes the unequal conflict had ended, save in the silencing of the guns, which required two hours to accomplish. never in the annals of history has such a victory been recorded. the loss to the english was two thousand killed, wounded, and captured. the american loss was but eight killed and thirteen wounded. general jackson marched his victorious troops into new orleans, where he was received with the wildest enthusiasm. the whole country applauded and rejoiced. _andrew jackson had become the hero of the nation._ at ghent, two weeks before the battle, the treaty of peace between england and the united states had been signed; but the ship bearing the news had not then reached this country. but--jackson had finished the war--had "finished the war in glory!" the civil war ( ) the war between the states in was one of the most terrible conflicts known to modern times. many causes led up to it, chief among which was a difference in the interpretation of the constitution by the people of the north and of the south. the slavery question was also a point of dispute; and several minor causes brought about a dissension in the two sections that resulted in the gigantic struggle of friend against friend, brother against brother, father against son. the early engagements of the contending forces were ones of signal victory to the south. the disunion of the nation was so seriously threatened as to bring grave concern to the federal government. as the weeks and months wore away, victory perched above the banner of the federals, and the climax was reached in the surrender of general lee at appomattox, after four years of deadly strife. both sides fought valiantly. both won; in that the glory of the republic was to stand henceforth supreme among foreign nations, the greatness of the combatants to receive a recognition never to be effaced. through a perspective of fifty years of peace, the heroism displayed on either field by those engaged therein is, to the most partisan observer, silhouetted upon the mental vision in glowing lines of light. justly we term it "our most heroic period." not the least remarkable of this aftermath, transcending all experiences of other nations, is the brotherhood, the kindly feeling of sympathy and understanding, that after the passage of but half a century now binds the once warring sections in indissoluble bonds of unity. charleston calm as that second summer which precedes the first fall of the snow, in the broad sunlight of heroic deeds, the city bides the foe. as yet, behind their ramparts, stern and proud, her bolted thunders sleep,-- dark sumter, like a battlemented cloud, looms o'er the solemn deep. no calpe frowns from lofty cliff or scaur to guard the holy strand; but moultrie holds in leash her dogs of war above the level sand. and down the dunes a thousand guns lie couched, unseen, beside the flood,-- like tigers in some orient jungle crouched, that wait and watch for blood. meanwhile, through streets still echoing with trade, walk grave and thoughtful men, whose hands may one day wield the patriot's blade as lightly as the pen. and maidens, with such eyes as would grow dim, over a bleeding hound, seem each one to have caught the strength of him whose sword she sadly bound. thus girt without and garrisoned at home, day patient following day, old charleston looks from roof and spire and dome, across her tranquil bay. ships, through a hundred foes, from saxon lands and spicy indian ports, bring saxon steel and iron to her hands, and summer to her courts. but still, along yon dim atlantic line, the only hostile smoke creeps like a harmless mist above the brine, from some frail floating oak. shall the spring dawn, and she, still clad in smiles, and with an unscathed brow, rest in the strong arms of her palm-crowned isles, as fair and free as now? we know not; in the temple of the fates god has inscribed her doom: and, all untroubled in her faith, she waits the triumph or the tomb. henry timrod. fredericksburg dec. , the increasing moonlight drifts across my bed, and on the church-yard by the road, i know it falls as white and noiselessly as snow. 'twas such a night two weary summers fled; the stars, as now, were waning overhead. listen! again the shrill-lipped bugles blow where the swift currents of the river flow past fredericksburg: far off the heavens are red with sudden conflagration: on yon height, linstock in hand, the gunners hold their breath: a signal-rocket pierces the dense night, flings its spent stars upon the town beneath: hark! the artillery massing on the right, hark! the black squadrons wheeling down to death! thomas bailey aldrich. civil war[ ] "rifleman, shoot me a fancy shot straight at the heart of yon prowling vidette; ring me a ball in the glittering spot that shines on his breast like an amulet!" "ah, captain! here goes for a fine-drawn bead, there's music around when my barrel's in tune!" crack! went the rifle, the messenger sped, and dead from his horse fell the ringing dragoon. "now, rifleman, steal through the bushes, and snatch from your victim some trinket to handsel first blood; a button, a loop, or that luminous patch that gleams in the moon like a diamond stud!" "o, captain! i staggered, and sunk on my track, when i gazed on the face of that fallen vidette, for he looked so like you, as he lay on his back, that my heart rose upon me, and masters me yet." "but i snatched off the trinket,--this locket of gold; an inch from the center my lead broke its way, scarce grazing the picture, so fair to behold, of a beautiful lady in bridal array." "ha! rifleman, fling me the locket!--'tis she, my brother's young bride, and the fallen dragoon was her husband--hush! soldier, 'twas heaven's decree, we must bury him there, by the light of the moon! "but hark! the far bugles their warnings unite; war is a virtue,--weakness a sin; there's a lurking and loping around us to-night; load again, rifleman, keep your hand in!" charles dawson shanly. [ ] the above has been sometimes entitled "the fancy shot." it appeared first in a london weekly and is commonly attributed to charles dawson shanly, who died in the late seventies. 'round shiloh church within shiloh church that fateful day of , no sound of song or praise was heard. but all without the leaden missiles rang and sang in chorus of red death. green blades of grass, dew-tipped, sprang up to greet the sun that april morn, but ere night fell were bowed to earth with weight of human blood. ne'er before had little church looked out on such a scene. ten thousand homes and hearts of north and south were there made desolate; and twice ten thousand men gave up their lives. the world looked on and wondered. albert sidney johnston, the hero of three wars, had staked his life and cause that april day, for victory or defeat. he met--both. it was recognized by both the northern and southern armies that johnston was a formidable antagonist. that he was a man of most magnetic personality as well as a brave officer. where he led men followed. the black hawk war made his name familiar throughout the country. in the war with mexico he won distinction. as he reviewed his troops at shiloh, he beheld on every side his friends of other days, and men who had served under him on other fields. when the war between the states came on, johnston was a brigadier general in the united states army; and although he was offered any position he might desire with the federal government, he resigned to cast his lot with the south, and against the land of his ancestry, for he was a son of connecticut. texas had been his home, and to the lone star state he felt his allegiance due. disappointment, as pertained to his life ambitions, had often before waited upon his footsteps when the thing desired seemed ready to his grasp. yet, seeing his duty clearly, he did it. to his sister by marriage, when she, in surprise at his action in resigning, wrote him in california, where he was then stationed, he replied that he was deeply sensible of the "calamitious condition" of the country; and that whatever his part thereafter regarding it, he congratulated himself that no act of his had aided in bringing it about; that the adjustment of the difficulties by the sword was not in his judgment the remedy. secession was to him a grievous thing. arriving at richmond from the west, general johnston was given the command of the western department of the confederacy. from september to february, , he held the line against heavy odds at bowling green, ky., when he retreated to corinth, miss., where he assembled his entire army and attacked grant at shiloh church near pittsburg landing, tenn. in the flush tide of a great victory, he was struck by a minie ball and expired in a few moments. he rode a magnificent black animal called "fire-eater." on horseback general johnston appeared to distinct advantage. the masterly manner in which he sat his horse attracted the attention of the commander in chief of the army, thomas j. rusk, during the texan revolution, and procured him the appointment of adjutant general over several eager aspirants for the position. as he passed along the lines to the front of the troops at shiloh, he raised his hat and cried out, "i will lead you!" to this the men responded with a mighty cheer and quickened movement, albeit they knew he was leading many of them to death. hard up the slopes they pressed. nor shot, nor shell, nor falling men deterred them. the summit was reached. the federals were in retreat. a little apart from the others, a fine target for the deadly marksman, the figure of general johnston on "fire-eater" was plainly visible. his clothing was torn in places. his boot sole was slashed by a ball, but he himself was uninjured. in his countenance was reflected a satisfaction of the day's results. [illustration: from the last line of the retreating federals a bullet whistled back, whistled back and cut him down.] the wisdom of his decisions had been proven; his judgment justified. from the last line of the retreating federals a bullet whistled back, whistled back and cut him down, did its fatal work in the very moment in which he felt the conviction that success now lay with the confederate cause. * * * * * his death seemed for a time to paralyze the further efforts of his troops, to whom his presence had been a continual inspiration. general beauregard took command. night fell and the battle was stayed. the federals had been driven to the banks of the tennessee river, where the gunboats afforded but meager protection. from nashville, general buell arrived before daybreak with the needed reënforcements. lew wallace came in. grant assumed the offensive; and the afternoon of the second day of the hard-fought contest the final victory swept to the federals. what would have been the result to the confederate cause had the great leader not fallen that first day, who can say? "in his fall, the great pillar of the southern confederacy was crushed," says jefferson davis in his _rise and fall of the confederate government_, "and beneath its fragments the best hope of the southland lay buried." albert sidney johnston i hear again the tread of war go thundering through the land, and puritan and cavalier are clinching neck and hand, round shiloh church the furious foes have met to thrust and slay, where erst the peaceful sons of christ were wont to kneel and pray. the wrestling of the ages shakes the hills of tennessee with all their echoing mounts athrob with war's wild minstrelsy; a galaxy of stars new-born around the shield of mars and set against the stars and stripes the flashing stars and bars. 'twas albert sidney johnston led the columns of the gray, like hector on the plains of troy his presence fired the fray; and dashing horse and gleaming sword spake out his royal will as on the slopes of shiloh field the blasts of war blew shrill. "down with the base invaders," the gray shout forth the cry, "death to presumptuous rebels," the blue ring out reply; all day the conflict rages and yet again all day, though grant is on the union side he cannot stem nor stay. they are a royal race of men, these brothers face to face, their fury speaking through their guns, their frenzy in their pace; the sweeping onset of the gray bears down the sturdy blue, though sherman and his legions are heroes through and through. though prentiss and his gallant men are forcing scaur and crag, they fall like sheaves before the scythes of hardee and of bragg; ah, who shall tell the victor's tale when all the strife is past, when, man and man, in one great mold, the men who strive are cast? as when the trojan hero came from that fair city's gates, with tossing mane and flaming crest to scorn the scowling fates, his legions gather round him and madly charge and cheer, and fill besieging armies with wild disheveled fear; then bares his breast unto the dart the daring spearsman sends, and dying hears his cheering foes, the wailing of his friends, so albert sidney johnston, the chief of belt and scar, lay down to die at shiloh and turned the scales of war. now five and twenty years are gone, and lo, to-day they come, the blue and gray in proud array with throbbing fife and drum; but not as rivals, not as foes, as brothers reconciled; to twine love's fragrant roses where the thorns of hate grew wild; aye, five and twenty years, and lo, the manhood of the south has held its valor staunch and strong as at the cannon's mouth, with patient heart and silent tongue has kept its true parole, and in the conquests born of peace has crowned its battle roll. but ever while we sing of war, of courage tried and true, of heroes wed to gallant deeds, or be it gray or blue, then albert sidney johnston's name shall flash before our sight like some resplendent meteor across the somber night. america, thy sons are knit with sinews wrought of steel, they will not bend, they will not break, beneath the tyrant's heel; but in the white-hot flame of love, to silken cobwebs spun, they whirl the engines of the world, all keeping time as one. to-day they stand abreast and strong, who stood as foes of yore, the world leaps up to bless their feet, heaven scatters blessings o'er; their robes are wrought of gleaming gold, their wings are freedom's own, the trampling of their conquering hosts shakes pinnacle and throne. oh, veterans of the blue and gray who fought on shiloh field, the purposes of god are true, his judgment stands revealed; the pangs of war have rent the veil, and lo, his high decree: one heart, one hope, one destiny, one flag from sea to sea. kate brownlee sherwood. old glory at shiloh spring on the tennessee; april--and flowers bloom on its banks; the anemones white in clusters of stars where the green holly towers o'er bellworts, like butterflies hov'ring in flight. the ground ivy tips its blue lips to the laurel, and covers the banks of the water-swept bars with a background of blue, in which the red sorrel are stripes where the pale corydalis are stars. _red, white and blue! o spring, did you send it,_ _and flowers, did'st dream it for brothers to rend it?_ spring on the tennessee; sabbath--and morning breaks with a bird note that pulses along; a melody sobs in the heart of its dawning-- the pain that foreshadows the birth of a song. art thou a flecking, brave bluebird, of sky light, or the sough of a minor wove into a beam? oh, hermit thrush, hermit thrush, thou of the eye bright, bird, or the spirit of song in a dream? _"our country--our country!" why, birds, do you sing it?_ _and, woodland, why held you the echo, to ring it?_ spring on the tennessee; hark, bluebird, listen! was that a bugle note far up the bend, where the murk waters flush and the white bars glisten, or dove cooing dove into love notes that blend? and wood thrush, sweet, tell me,--that throbbing and humming, is it march at the double quick or wild bees that hum? and that rumble that shakes like an earthquake coming-- tell me, o hermit thrush, thunder or drum? _o birds, you must fly from the home that god gave you!_ _o flowers, you must die 'neath the foot that would save you!_ out from the wood with the morning mist o'er it a gray line sweeps like a scythe of fire, and it burns the stubble of blue before it,-- (how their bugles ring and their cannon roar it!) _in dixie land we'll take our stand,_ _and live and die in dixie!_ out from the deep wood clearer and nigher, the gray lines roll, and the blue lines reel back on the river--their dead are piled higher than the muzzle of muskets thund'ring their peal: _in dixie land we'll take our stand,_ _and live and die for dixie!_ noon on the tennessee; backward, still driven the blue lines reel, and the ranks of the gray flash out with a fierceness that light up the heavens, when the thunders of night meet the lightnings of day. noon and past noon--and this is the story of the flag that fell not, and they call it old glory: it flapped in the air, it flashed with the blare of the bugles so shrill and so true, it faced quick about and steadied the rout and halted the lines of blue. and the _boom-boom-boom_ of the maddened guns roared round it thick and fast, and _dead-dead-dead_ sang the learing lead like hail in the sheeted blast, and up and around it, surge and swell, rose the victor waves of the rebel yell, and grant's grim army staggered, but stood, with backs to the river and dyed it with blood in the shuttle of thunder and drum; and they cheered as it went to the front of the fray and turned the tide at the sunset of day, and they whispered: _buell is come!_ spring on the tennessee; april--and flowers bloom on its banks; the anemones white in clusters of stars where the green holly towers o'er bellworts, like butterflies hov'ring in flight. and the ground ivy tips its blue lips to the laurel and covers the banks and the water-swept bars with a background of blue, in which the red sorrel are stripes where the pale corydalis are stars. red, white, and blue--it tells its own story-- but, spring, who made it and named it old glory! john trotwood moore. the flag of the cumberland the confederate frigate, _merrimac_, newly arisen from her briny bath in the norfolk navy yards, with her sides new coated in an almost impenetrable mail of iron and rechristened the _virginia_, steamed slowly down the river may th, , to newport news, where the _cumberland_, the _congress_, and the _minnesota_ of the union fleet lay at anchor. the crews of the latter vessels were taking life leisurely that day, and were indulging in various pastimes beloved of seamen. the _merrimac_ as she hove in sight did not look especially belligerent. indeed she appeared "like a house submerged to the eaves and borne onward by the flood." notwithstanding her somewhat droll appearance, the _merrimac_ had herself well in control and was not on a cruise of pleasure bent, as the navies well knew. with steady determination she came on, until within easy distance of the _congress_, a vessel which gave her greeting with a shot from one of her stern guns, and received in response a shower of grape. broadsides were then exchanged, resulting in fearful slaughter to the crew of the _congress_ and damage to the guns. an officer of the _congress_ was a favorite brother of captain buchanan of the _merrimac_. but such relation effected naught in the exigencies of war. before the _congress_ could recover herself, the _merrimac_ headed for the _cumberland_. the fires of the cumberland, as she approached, had no effect upon her armored sides. into the _cumberland_ she ran her powerful iron prow, crashing in her timbers and strewing her decks with the maimed, the dead, and dying. again she turned her attention to the _congress_, remembering also the frigate _minnesota_ with her fiery baptisms. upon the _congress_ she soon forced a surrender. the _minnesota_ found refuge in flight. her work upon the _cumberland_ was complete. and albeit the vessel had been rammed and was sinking, her men ascended to the spar deck and fought till the waters engulfed them. the last shot was fired from a gun half submerged in the water. as the ship settled to the bottom she careened slightly and then righted herself; and the flag, as if defying the fate that threatened its destruction, still flew above the masthead. [illustration: and the flag, as if defying the fate that threatened its destruction, still flew above the masthead.] there, close to the waves--her colors almost touching the water--the captain, who was absent from his ship, found his flag upon his return. a harbinger as it proved of the issue that was to be. the cumberland at anchor in hampton roads we lay, on board of the _cumberland_, sloop of war; and at times from the fortress across the bay the alarum of drums swept past, or a bugle blast from the camp on the shore. then far away to the south uprose a little feather of snow-white smoke, and we knew that the iron ship of our foes was steadily steering its course to try the force of our ribs of oak. down upon us heavily runs, silent and sullen, the floating fort; then comes a puff of smoke from her guns, and leaps the terrible death, with fiery breath, from each open port. we are not idle, but send her straight defiance back in a full broadside! as hail rebounds from a roof of slate, rebounds our heavier hail from each iron scale of the monster's hide. "strike your flag!" the rebel cries, in his arrogant old plantation strain. "never!" our gallant morris replies; "it is better to sink than to yield!" and the whole air pealed with the cheers of our men. then, like a kraken huge and black, she crushed our ribs in her iron grasp! down went the _cumberland_ all awrack, with a sudden shudder of death, and the cannon's breath for her dying gasp. next morn, as the sun rose over the bay, still floated our flag at the mainmast head lord, how beautiful was thy day! every waft of the air was a whisper of prayer, or a dirge for the dead. ho! brave hearts that went down in the seas! ye are at peace in the troubled stream; ho! brave land! with hearts like these, thy flag, that is rent in twain, shall be one again, and without a seam! henry wadsworth longfellow. the monitor two old spanish ships had, prior to the sinking of the _cumberland_, met a like fate at the hands of the confederates; and the signal success of the _merrimac_ now augured well for the break of the blockade. the south was greatly elated. the north was disquieted. twenty-four hours later the trend of events was changed. there appeared in hampton roads a strange new craft, called the _monitor_. it was unlike any vessel before seen, having a revolving round tower of iron, that enabled the gunners to train the guns on the enemy continuously, without regard to the position of the ship. the hull had an "overhang," a projection constructed of iron and wood, as a protection against rams. the inventor and builder of this little giant was john ericsson. his, "the master mind that wrought, with iron hand, this iron thought. strength and safety with speed combined." the vessel had been launched in less than a hundred days after the laying of the keel, in an effort of the federal government to have her in service before the completion of the _merrimac_ (the _virginia_.) the new warship attracted the attention of the navies of europe and brought about a change in the construction of war vessels. as if indignant at the actions of the _merrimac_ in preceding her, and in attacking the union fleet, the _monitor_ bore down upon her like some live thing bent upon retribution, and at once engaged her in a terrific encounter. with the hope born of confidence in the strength of the confederate ironclad, and her ability to overpower completely the union flotilla, boats filled with sight-seers had gone out from norfolk, but with the first terrible onset of the armored combatants speedily made their way back to safety. in this battle of the waters two old naval academy comrades fought on opposite sides, lieutenant green and lieutenant butt, both well-known names. for five long awful hours the strength of the two iron monsters was pitted against each other for supremacy on the seas, without apparent serious injury to either vessel. at last the _merrimac_ ended the gigantic contest by turning her prow and withdrawing to norfolk. the cruise of the monitor hampton roads, virginia, march , out of a northern city's bay, 'neath lowering clouds, one bleak march day, glided a craft,--the like i ween, on ocean's crest was never seen since noah's float, that ancient boat, could o'er a conquered deluge gloat. no raking masts, with clouds of sail, bent to the breeze or braved the gale; no towering chimney's wreaths of smoke betrayed the mighty engine's stroke; but low and dark, like the crafty shark, moved in the waters this novel bark. the fishers stared as the flitting sprite passed their huts in the misty light, bearing a turret huge and black, and said, "the old sea serpent's back carting away, by light of day, uncle sam's fort from new york bay." forth from a southern city's dock our frigates' strong blockade to mock, crept a monster of rugged build, the work of crafty hands, well skilled-- old _merrimac_, with an iron back wooden ships would find hard to crack. straight to where the _cumberland_ lay the mail-clad monster made its way; its deadly prow struck deep and sure, and the hero's fighting days were o'er. ah! many the braves who found their graves with that good ship beneath the waves. flushed with success, the victor flew, furious, the startled squadron through; sinking, burning, driving ashore, until the sabbath day was o'er, resting at night, to renew the fight with vengeful ire by morning's light. out of its den it burst anew, when the gray mist the sun broke through, steaming to where, in clinging sands, the frigate _minnesota_ stands, a sturdy foe to overthrow, but in woeful plight to receive a blow. but see! beneath her bow appears a champion no danger fears; a pigmy craft, that seems to be, to this new lord that rules the sea, like david of old to goliath bold-- youth and giant, by scripture told. round the roaring despot playing, with willing spirit helm obeying, spurning the iron against it hurled, while belching turret rapid whirled, and swift shots seethe with smoky wreathe, told that the shark was showing his teeth. the _monitor_ fought. in grim amaze the merrimacs upon it gaze, cowering 'neath the iron hail, crashing into their coat of mail, they swore, "this craft, the devil's shaft, looked like a cheese box on a raft." hurrah! little giant of ' ! bold worden with his gallant crew forces the fight; the day is won; back to his den the monster's gone, with crippled claws and broken jaws, defeated in a reckless cause. hurrah for the master mind that wrought, with iron hand, this iron thought! strength and safety with speed combined, ericsson's gift to all mankind; to curb abuse, and chains to loose, hurrah for the _monitor's_ famous cruise! george h. boker. the night of chantilly in march, , mcclellan set out from washington to capture the confederate capital. at yorktown he was held in check for a month by an inferior force of confederates. it was the last of may before he reached fair oaks (seven pines), seven miles from richmond. the confederates here attacked him, and a furious battle of two days' duration ensued, when the confederates were driven back. a notable event of this engagement was the appointment of general robert e. lee, as commander in chief of the confederate armies; in place of general joseph e. johnston, who was severely wounded. one of the most conspicuous figures of this battle of fair oaks was general philip kearney. in the words of stedman:-- "when the battle went ill, and the bravest were solemn:-- he rode down the length of the withering column, his sword waved us on and we answered the sign." "kearney was the bravest man and the most perfect soldier i ever saw," said general scott. "a man made for the profession of arms," says rope. "in the field he was always ready, always skillful, always brave, always untiring, always hopeful, and always vigilant and alert." he distinguished himself in the war with mexico, and lost an arm while he was leading cavalry troops in close pursuit of the retreating mexicans, at the battle of churubusco, when they retreated into the city of san antonio itself. mounted upon his great gray steed, "monmouth," he spurred through a rampart, felling the mexicans as he went. a thousand arms were raised to strike him, a thousand sabers glistened in the air, when he hurriedly fell back, but too late to escape the wound which necessitated the amputation of his left arm. at churubusco ended the spectacular career of the celebrated san patricios battalion of irish deserters, who deserted to the american army on the canadian border and afterwards deserted to the mexicans from the texan border, fighting against the american in every mexican war battle of consequence from palo alto to churubusco. after capture the leaders and many of the men were court-martialed and shot; their commander, the notorious thomas riley, among the latter. the survivors were branded in the cheek with the letter "d" as a symbol of their treachery. general kearney resigned from the army in and made a tour of the world. he then went to france and fought in the war of that country against italy. at magenta, while he was leading the daring and hazardous charge that turned the situation and won algiers to france, _he charged with the bridle in his teeth_. for his bravery he received the cross of the legion of honor, being the first american thus honored. when the civil war cloud burst, he came back to the united states and was made brigadier general in the federal army and given the command of the first new jersey brigade. his timely arrival at williamsburg saved the day for the federals. in the engagement at fair oaks, "where the red volleys poured, where the clamor rose highest, where the aim from the thicket was surest and nighest," there was no charge like kearney's. "how he strode his brown steed! how we saw his blade brighten, in the one hand still left,--and the reins in his teeth!" general oliver o. howard lost his _right_ arm in this battle. when the amputation was taking place, he looked grimly up at general kearney, who was present, and remarked, "we'll buy our gloves together, after this." at chantilly, a few days after the second battle of bull run, wherein he forced the gallant stonewall jackson back, he penetrated into the confederate lines and met his death. the confederates had won. the dusk had fallen and general kearney was reconnoitering after placing his division. "he rode right into our men," feelingly relates a confederate soldier, "then stopping suddenly, called out, "'what troops are these?'" [illustration: "what troops are these?"] some one replied, "hays' mississippi brigade." he turned quickly in an attempt to escape. a shower of bullets fell about him. he leaned forward as if to protect himself, but a ball struck him in the spine. he reeled and fell. under the white flag of truce, general lee sent his remains to general hooker, who had the body transported to new york, where it was interred with becoming honors. "oh, evil the black shroud of night of chantilly, that hid him from sight of his brave men and tried." kearney at seven pines so that soldierly legend is still on its journey,-- that story of kearney who knew not how to yield! 'twas the day when with jameson, fierce berry, and birney, against twenty thousand he rallied the field. where the red volleys poured, where the clamor rose highest, where the dead lay in clumps through the dwarf oak and pine, where the aim from the thicket was surest and nighest,-- no charge like phil kearney's along the whole line. when the battle went ill, and the bravest were solemn near the dark seven pines, where we still held our ground he rode down the length of the withering column, and his heart at our war cry leapt up with a bound. he snuffed like his charger, the wind of the powder,-- his sword waved us on and we answered the sign; loud our cheer as we rushed, but his laugh rang the louder, "there's the devil's own fun, boys, along the whole line!" how he strode his brown steed! how we saw his blade brighten, in the one hand still left,--and the reins in his teeth! he laughed like a boy when the holidays heighten, but a soldier's glance shot from his visor beneath. up came the reserves to the mellay infernal, asking where to go in,--through the clearing or pine? "o, anywhere! forward! 'tis all the same, colonel! you'll find lovely fighting along the whole line!" oh, evil the black shroud of night of chantilly, that hid him from sight of his brave men and tried! foul, foul sped the bullet that clipped the white lily, the flower of our knighthood, the whole army's pride! yet we dream that he still,--in that shadowy region where the dead form their ranks at the wan drummer's sign,-- rides on, as of old, down the length of his legion, and the word still is "forward!" along the whole line. edmund clarence stedman. the cavalry charge with bray of the trumpet and roll of the drum, and keen ring of bugle, the cavalry come. sharp clank the steel scabbards the bridle chains ring, and foam from red nostrils the wild chargers fling. tramp! tramp! o'er the greensward that quivers below, scarce held by the curb bit the fierce horses go! and the grim-visaged colonel, with ear-rending shout, peals forth to the squadrons the order: "trot out!" one hand on the saber, and one on the rein, the troopers move forward in line on the plain. as rings the word, "gallop!" the steel scabbards clank; as each rowel is pressed to a horse's hot flank; and swift is their rush and the wild torrents flow, when it pours from the crag on the valley below. "charge!" thunders the leader; like shaft from the bow each mad horse is hurled on the wavering foe. a thousand bright sabers are gleaming in air; a thousand dark horses are dashed on the square. resistless and reckless of aught may betide, like demons, not mortals the wild troopers ride. cut right! and cut left! for the parry who needs? the bayonets shiver like wind-scattered reeds. vain--vain the red volley that bursts from the square,-- the random-shot bullets are wasted in air. triumphant, remorseless, unerring as death,-- no saber that's stainless returns to its sheath. the wounds that are dealt by that murderous steel will never yield case for the surgeon to heal. hurrah! they are broken-- hurrah! boys, they fly! none linger save those who but linger to die. rein up your hot horses and call in your men,-- the trumpet sounds, "rally to colors!" again. some saddles are empty, some comrades are slain and some noble horses lie stark on the plain: but war's a chance game, boys, and weeping is vain. francis a. durivage. an immortal twain it is a coincidence worthy of note, and heretofore unremarked by historians, that, as in the hour of birth of the national flag there was given to posterity the name of a great revolutionary hero, the hour of birth of the confederate battle emblem immortalized the name of a hero of the confederacy. at four o'clock in the afternoon of that hard-fought battle of manassas (bull run), july , , the federals were thinning out the lines in gray. now they were directing their efforts against the wings of jackson and beauregard. jackson's solemn visage was growing more solemn; beauregard was anxiously scanning the landscape beyond, in the hope of discovering the approach of badly needed reënforcements. over the hill a long line was seen advancing. the day was hot and dry and not a leaf stirred in the dust-laden air. clouds of smoke and grime enveloped the advancing troops and obscured their colors. general beauregard raised his glass and surveyed them critically. [illustration: general beauregard raised his glass and surveyed them critically.] he then called an officer and instructed him to go to general johnston and inform him that the enemy was receiving reënforcements and it might be wise for him to withdraw to another point. still, he was not fully assured that the coming troops were federals! the flag hung limp and motionless and could not be accurately discerned. if these were federals the day was surely lost. but if they were confederates there was a fighting chance to win. he determined to hold his position, and called out, "what troops are those?" no one could tell. just then a gust of wind spread the colors. the flag was the stars and bars--general early's brigade, not a moment too soon. "we must have a more distinct flag," announced general beauregard vehemently, in infinite relief: "one that we can recognize when we see it." in that instant was conceived the confederate battle flag, used thereafter throughout the civil strife. after the battle, the design--st. andrew's cross--was submitted by general beauregard, and, approved by general joseph e. johnston, was adopted by the confederate congress. "conceived on the field of battle, it lived on the field of battle, and was proudly borne on every field from manassas to appomattox." * * * * * the confederates were routed and running in disorder. general jackson was standing immovable. general bee rode to his side. "they will beat us back!" "no, sir," replied jackson, "we will give them the bayonet." general bee rode back to his brigade. "look at jackson," said he, "standing there like a stone wall. rally behind him." with this his brigade fell into line. * * * * * early's troops arrived and formed. the federals were beaten into a tumultuous retreat that never slacked until centerville was reached. from that day the name "stonewall" attached to thomas jonathan jackson and was peculiarly appropriate as indicating the adamantine, unyielding character of the man. the motto of his life was: "a man can do what he wills to do," and in his resolves he depended for guidance upon divine leading. he tried always to throw a religious atmosphere about his men; and out of respect to his feelings, if for no other reason, they often refrained from evil. his mount was a little sorrel horse, that the men affirmed was strikingly like him as it could not run except towards the enemy. the ardent love of his troops for him made the tragedy of his death the more deplorable. mistaking him for the enemy as he was returning from the front, in the gathering darkness at chancellorsville, may, , his own men shot him,--shot him down with victory in his grasp. the whole country was horror-struck. friend and foe alike paused in sympathy at such a situation. to the southern cause it was more than the taking off of a leader; it was an irreparable loss. by his death was left a gap in the confederate ranks that no one else could fill. prior to the breaking out of the war jackson had been unknown, but in the two years of his service he accomplished more than any other officer on his side. he saved richmond from early fall by keeping the union forces apart, until he was joined by lee, when together they drove mcclellan from within a few miles of the confederate capital and cleared the james river of gunboats. in his report from chancellorsville, general robert e. lee pays tribute to the illustrious officer thus:-- "the movement by which the enemy's position was turned and the fortune of the day decided, was conducted by the lamented lieutenant general jackson, who, as has already been stated, was severely wounded near the close of the engagement saturday evening. i do not propose here to speak of the character of this illustrious man, since removed from the scene of his eminent usefulness, by the hand of an inscrutable but all-wise providence. i nevertheless desire to pay the tribute of my admiration to the matchless energy and skill that marked this last act of his life, forming as it did a worthy conclusion of that long series of splendid achievements which won for him the lasting love and gratitude of his country. "r. e. lee. "general s. cooper, "adjt. and insp. gen. c. s. army, "richmond, va." stonewall jackson not midst the lightning of the stormy fight, nor in the rush upon the vandal foe, did kingly death with his resistless might lay the great leader low. his warrior soul its earthly shackles broke in the full sunshine of a peaceful town; when all the storm was hushed, the trusty oak that propped our cause went down. though his alone the blood that flecks the ground, recalling all his grand heroic deeds, freedom herself is writhing in the wound and all the country bleeds. he entered not the nation's promised land, at the red belching of the cannon's mouth but broke the house of bondage with his hand, the moses of the south! o gracious god! not gainless is the loss; a glorious sunbeam gilds thy sternest frown, and while his country staggers neath the cross, he rises with the crown. henry lynden flash. [illustration: high tide at gettysburg.] the high tide at gettysburg a cloud possessed the hollow field, the gathering battle's smoky shield: athwart the gloom the lightning flashed, and through the cloud some horsemen dashed, and from the heights the thunder pealed. then, at the brief command of lee, moved out that matchless infantry, with pickett leading grandly down, to rush against the roaring crown, of those dread heights of destiny. far heard above the angry guns a cry across the tumult runs,-- the voice that rang through shiloh's woods and chickamauga's solitudes, the fierce south cheering on her sons! ah, how the withering tempest blew against the front of pettigrew! a khamsin wind that scorched and singed like that infernal flame that fringed the british squares at waterloo! a thousand fell where kemper led; a thousand died where garnett bled: in blinding flame and strangling smoke the remnant through the batteries broke and crossed the works with armistead. "once more in glory's van with me!" virginia cried to tennessee; "we two together, come what may, shall stand upon these works today!" (the reddest day in history.) brave tennessee! in reckless way virginia heard her comrade say: "close round this rent and riddled rag!" what time she set her battle-flag amid the guns of doubleday. but who shall break the guards that wait before the awful face of fate? the tattered standards of the south were shriveled at the cannon's mouth, and all her hopes were desolate. in vain the tennesseean set his breast against the bayonet; in vain virginia charged and raged, a tigress in her wrath uncaged, till all the hill was red and wet. above the bayonets, mixed and crossed, men saw a gray, gigantic ghost receding through the battle-cloud, and heard across the tempest loud the death-cry of a nation lost! the brave went down! without disgrace they leaped to ruin's red embrace; they only heard fame's thunders wake, and saw the dazzling sun-burst break in smiles on glory's bloody face! they fell, who lifted up a hand and bade the sun in heaven to stand; they smote and fell, who set the bars against the progress of the stars, and stayed the march of motherland! they stood, who saw the future come on through the fight's delirium; they smote and stood, who held the hope of nations on that slippery slope amid the cheers of christendom. god lives! he forged the iron will that clutched and held the trembling hill! god lives and reigns! he built and lent the heights for freedom's battlement where floats her flag in triumph still! fold up the banners! smelt the guns! love rules. her gentler purpose runs. a mighty mother turns in tears the pages of her battle years, lamenting all her fallen sons! will henry thompson. united all day it shook the land--grim battle's thunder tread; and fields at morning green, at eve are trampled red. but now, on the stricken scene, twilight and quiet fall; only, from hill to hill, night's tremulous voices call; and comes from far along, where camp fires warning burn, the dread, hushed sound which tells of morning's sad return. timidly nature awakens; the stars come out overhead, and a flood of moonlight breaks like a voiceless prayer for the dead. and steals the blessed wind, like odin's fairest daughter, in viewless ministry, over the fields of slaughter; soothing the smitten life, easing the pang of death, and bearing away on high the passing warrior's breath. two youthful forms are lying apart from the thickest fray, the one in northern blue, the other in southern gray. around his lifeless foeman the arms of each are pressed, and the head of one is pillowed upon the other's breast. as if two loving brothers, wearied with work and play, had fallen asleep together, at close of the summer day. foemen were they, and brothers?--again the battle's din, with its sullen, cruel answer, from far away breaks in. benjamin sledd. old heart of oak to the navy is ascribed the larger shares in the civil war, of overcoming the prowess of the south. "the blockade sapped the industrial strength of the confederacy." a powerful factor in this blockade was david g. farragut. farragut was a southerner by birth--a tennessean--and fought, as it were, against his own hearthstone. yet, when it is considered that from early youth he was in the marine service of the government and by arms upheld the national flag, and when it is remembered with what reverence the seaman regards the flag under which he serves, his choice is not surprising. scenes wherein men fought and died for the stars and stripes and often with their dying breath expressing adoration of the nation's emblem were common experiences of his life. in his memoirs is related a pathetic story of a youth's death from accidental shooting. "put me in the boat," implored he of his comrades, "that i may die under my country's flag." another, a young scotchman, who had a leg cut off in battle, cried out mournfully, "i can no longer be of use to the flag of my adoption," and threw himself overboard. the necessity of choosing between the north and the south brought farragut many sleepless nights and forced him between the fires of censure from the south and doubt of his fealty from the north, as it was recognized that the southern man, as a rule, felt that his first allegiance was due to his state. when he was but a lad of seven years, farragut lost his mother and was adopted by his father's friend, that fighting old commodore david porter, who was destined to raise both his adopted and his own son to become admirals in the united states navy. for little dave farragut the sea had always a wonderful fascination, and at the age of twelve he was made a midshipman on the _essex_, a warship of . the _essex_ one day captured a whaling vessel, and captain porter placed david in charge to steer her across the pacific. the captain of the whaler, when clear of the _essex_, thought to regain his vessel from the boy, by countermanding his orders. he threatened to shoot any sailor who dared to disobey him. right here, the mettle that was to make farragut the head of the american navy and the idol of the american people manifested itself. he repeated his order at first given; and when the mutinous captain appeared from below decks where he had gone for his pistols, he was told by the youthful commander that he would have to stay below or be thrown overboard. he chose the former. to this same dauntless spirit, the federal government owed the blockade of the lower mississippi and the closing of the ports of mobile bay, that inflicted such injuries upon the confederacy as to hasten the end of the war. "with ports closed," says an authority, "the southern armies were reduced to a pitiful misery, the long endurance of which makes a noble chapter in heroism." the lower mississippi was controlled by the confederates. possession of the river and the capture of new orleans could be accomplished only by running the forts situated below the city some seventy miles. to run the forts with wooden vessels and escape destruction from the armed vessels of the confederacy in the mississippi was a hazardous undertaking. farragut believed he could do this. in december, , he wrote to a friend: "keep your lips closed and burn my letters. perfect silence is the first injunction of the secretary. i am to have a _flag_ in the gulf, and the rest depends upon myself." in march he again wrote, "i have now attained what i have been looking for all my life--a _flag_--and having attained it, all that is necessary to complete the scene is a victory." the victory he was soon to have. at two o'clock the morning of april , , the signal for the start for the forts was given. in a few moments the thunderous roar of batteries and guns broke upon the air. the river became a mass of writhing flame. "the passing of forts jackson and st. phillips was one of the most awful sights and events i ever saw or expect to experience," says farragut. rafts of cotton were set on fire by the confederates and came down the river, scattering disaster as they came. one of these caught the _hartford_, farragut's flagship, and set it on fire. so high rose the flames that even the courageous commander was for the moment daunted and exclaimed, "my god! is this to end this way!" by the expeditious use of the hose the flames were controlled. the strong barriers across the river were broken. by repeated and desperate efforts the confederate boats were sunk or disabled. the levee at new orleans was gained. the crescent city was taken. thus was accomplished a feat in naval warfare reckoned without a parallel in naval history, except in that of twenty-four months later in mobile bay. in compliment to his exploit the rank of rear admiral was conferred upon farragut. of the fleet, as subordinate officers, were dewey and schley, a future admiral and a rear-admiral. to his home, the victorious commander addressed the following letter:-- "my dearest wife and boy. "i am so agitated i can scarcely write, and i shall only tell you that it has pleased almighty god to preserve my life through a fire such as the world has scarcely known." when the ships lay safely at the levee with but one of the squadron lost, farragut by note requested the mayor of new orleans to remove the confederate flag and to surrender the city formally. in curt terms the doughty mayor refused to do so, stating there was not in the city of new orleans a man who would take down that flag. then ensued a most unique correspondence between the two, through which farragut made himself misunderstood to the extent that it was rumored that it was his intention to turn the guns on the city. at the expiration of forty-eight hours, however, an officer of the fleet removed the offending flag and hoisted the stars and stripes over the city hall. to injure purposely the defenseless, as in turning the guns on the city, was not in keeping with the nature of david farragut as revealed in history. power combined with gentleness were the marked traits of his character. this gentleness had its finest reflex in his delicate attentions to his invalid wife. in the presence of her continuous suffering his warrior nature was laid aside, and his chivalric kindness shone forth in acts of rare devotion and tender care. when he was asked one day, as to his feelings during a battle in seeing men fall writhing upon every side, he answered, "i thought of nothing but the working of the guns; but after the battle, when i saw the mangled bodies of my shipmates, dead and dying, groaning and expiring often with the most patriotic sentiments upon their lips, i became faint and sick. my sympathies were all aroused." markedly noticeable in his letters is the absence of self-elation over his victories. there are, rather, a rejoicing in the advancement of his cause and gratitude to the almighty for preservation. in this we read anew the lesson of true greatness. just prior to entering into the noted action of mobile bay, he wrote his son respecting his views of duty and death. "he who dies in doing his duty to his country, and at peace with his god, has played out the drama of life to the best advantage." shortly after this was penned, the _hartford_ was steaming into mobile bay, under the heavy fire of guns of fort morgan and fort gaines, in the execution of a naval feat that attracted the attention and admiration of the whole civilized world. [illustration: the battle of mobile bay.] at the mouth of the bay the two islands upon which the forts stood were less than a mile apart. the passage had been strewn with torpedoes by the confederates, and only a narrow strip of water was left clear. through this strip went farragut's fleet: the _tecumseh_ first, the _brooklyn_ next, the _hartford_ third. suddenly the prow of the _tecumseh_ lifted: she veered and sank. the _brooklyn_ backed and held farragut's ship directly under the guns of fort morgan. shot and shell hurtled in the air. the smoke grew dense. the fire from the cannons lit the heavens. men shouted and fell. "what's the matter!" called farragut. "torpedoes," some one answered. never a profane man, he now gave vent to an oath, and cried out, "full speed, jouett. four bells, captain drayton." the _hartford_ steamed to the front. the torpedoes crackled under her as she sped on; but the forts were passed. and high in the rigging of his ship, in full view of the enemy and imminent danger of the fiery missiles, was seen farragut, whence he directed all the ships' maneuvers. an officer, observing him standing there, feared lest a shot would cause his fall, and carried a rope and lashed him to the mast. in maddened fury the ironclad _tennessee_ plunged straight at the _hartford_. all the fleet bore down upon the confederate ship. and crowding together, the _lackawanna_, needing room, struck the flagship by accident, and came near striking the commander. against the _tennessee_ every federal ship now redoubled her efforts, until, battered and bruised and despairing, she struck her colors. the captain of the _tennessee_ was buchanan, the same who commanded the _merrimac_ in her fight with the _monitor_ in hampton roads. "the _tennessee_ and buchanan are my prisoners," wrote farragut home. "he has lost a leg. it was a hard fight, but buck met his fate manfully." fort morgan and fort gaines surrendered and farragut's fierce conflicts were at an end. nearly so was his path of life. congress honored him with the rank of admiral, the highest honor to be conferred. america and foreign nations extended him the most distinguishing courtesies. and then--the unseen pilot steered his course across the unknown sea unto the harbor of the city eternal. farragut farragut, farragut, old heart of oak, daring dave farragut, thunderbolt stroke, watches the hoary mist lift from the bay, till his flag, glory-kissed, greets the young day. far, by gray morgan's walls, looms the black fleet. hark, deck to rampart calls with the drums' beat! buoy your chains overboard, while the steam hums; men! to the battlement, farragut comes. see, as the hurricane hurtles in wrath squadrons of clouds amain back from its path! back to the parapet, to the gun's lips, thunderbolt farragut hurls the black ships. now through the battle's roar clear the boy sings, "by the mark fathoms four," while his lead swings. steadily the wheelmen five "nor' by east keep her." "steady," but two alive: how the shells sweep her! lashed to the mast that sways over red decks, over the flame that plays round the torn wrecks, over the dying lips framed for a cheer, farragut leads his ships, guides the line clear. on by heights cannon-browed, while the spars quiver; onward still flames the cloud where the hulls shiver. see, yon fort's star is set, storm and fire past. cheer him, lads--farragut, lashed to the mast! oh! while atlantic's breast bears a white sail, while the gulf's towering crest tops a green vale, men thy bold deeds shall tell, old heart of oak, daring dave farragut, thunderbolt stroke! william tuckey meredith. august, . pine and palm (grant and lee) charles francis adams in address before chicago chapter of phi beta kappa, june , . i now come to what i have always regarded--shall ever regard as the most creditable episode in all american history,--an episode without a blemish,--imposing, dignified, simple, heroic. i refer to appomattox. two men met that day, representative of american civilization, the whole world looking on. the two were grant and lee,--types each. both rose, and rose unconsciously, to the full height of the occasion,--and than that occasion there has been none greater. about it and them, there was no theatrical display, no self-consciousness, no effort at effect. a great crisis was to be met; and they met that crisis as great countrymen should. that month of april saw the close of exactly four years of persistent strife,--a strife which the whole civilized world had been watching intently. then, suddenly, came the dramatic climax at appomattox, dramatic i say, not theatrical,--severe in its simple, sober, matter-of-fact majesty. the world, i again assert, has seen nothing like it; and the world, instinctively, was at the time conscious of the fact. i like to dwell on the familiar circumstances of the day; on its momentous outcome; on its far-reaching results. it affords one of the greatest educational object lessons to be found in history; and the actors were worthy of the theater, the auditory, and the play. a mighty tragedy was drawing to a close. the breathless world was the audience. it was a bright, balmy april sunday in a quiet virginia landscape, with two veteran armies confronting each other; one game to the death, completely in the grasp of the other. the future was at stake. what might ensue? what might not ensue? would the strife end then and there? would it die in a death-grapple, only to reappear in that chronic form of a vanquished but indomitable people, writhing and struggling, in the grasp of an insatiate but only nominal victor? the answer depended on two men,--the captains of the contending forces. think what then might have resulted had these two men been other than what they were,--had the one been stern and aggressive, the other sullen and unyielding. most fortunately for us, they were what and who they were,--_grant and lee. of the two, i know not to which to award the palm._ instinctively, unconsciously, they vied not unsuccessfully each with the other, in dignity, magnanimity, simplicity. the conquered banner like several other poems of renown, "the conquered banner" was written under stress of deep emotion. abram j. ryan (father ryan) had been ordained as a catholic priest. shortly after his ordination he was made a chaplain in the confederate army. when the news came of general lee's surrender at appomattox he was in his room in knoxville, where his regiment was quartered. he bowed his head upon the table and wept bitterly. he then arose and looked about him for a piece of paper, but could find nothing but a sheet of brown paper wrapped about a pair of shoes. spreading this out upon the table, he, "in a spirit of sorrow and desolation" as expressed in his own words, wrote upon it "the conquered banner." the following morning the regiment was ordered away, and the poem upon the table was forgotten. to the author's surprise it appeared over his name, in a louisville paper, a few weeks later, having been forwarded to the paper by the lady in whose house he had stopped in knoxville. the poem was widely copied, and was read at gatherings throughout the south with ardor and often with tears. as an expression of sorrow without bitterness it is considered a fine example. the conquered banner furl that banner, for 'tis weary; round its staff 'tis drooping dreary; furl it, fold it--it is best; for there's not a man to wave it, and there's not a sword to save it, and there's not one left to lave it in the blood which heroes gave it; and its foes now scorn and brave it; furl it, hide it--let it rest! take that banner down! 'tis tattered; broken is its staff and shattered; and the valiant hosts are scattered, over whom it floated high. oh, 'tis hard for us to fold it, hard to think there's none to hold it, hard that those who once unrolled it now must furl it with a sigh! furl that banner--furl it sadly; once ten thousands hailed it gladly, and ten thousands wildly, madly, swore it should forever wave-- swore that foeman's sword could never hearts like theirs entwined dissever, and that flag should float forever o'er their freedom or their grave! furl it! for the hands that grasped it, and the hearts that fondly clasped it, cold and dead are lying low; and the banner--it is trailing, while around it sounds the wailing of its people in their woe. for, though conquered, they adore it-- love the cold, dead hands that bore it! weep for those who fell before it! pardon those who trailed and tore it! but, oh, wildly they deplore it, now who furl and fold it so! furl that banner! true, 'tis gory, yet, 'tis wreathed around with glory, and 'twill live in song and story though its folds are in the dust! for its fame on brightest pages, penned by poets and by sages, shall go sounding down the ages-- furl its folds though now we must. furl that banner, softly, slowly; treat it gently--it is holy, for it droops above the dead; touch it not--unfold it never; let it droop there, furled forever,-- for its people's hopes are fled. abram joseph ryan. death of grant as one by one withdraw the lofty actors from that great play on history's stage eternal, that lurid, partial act of war and peace--of old and new contending, fought out through wrath, fears, dark dismays, and many a long suspense; all past--and since, in countless graves receding, mellowing victor and vanquished--lincoln's and lee's--now thou with them, man of the mighty day--and equal to the day! thou from the prairies?--and tangled and many veined and hard has been thy part, to admiration has it been enacted! walt whitman. the humblest soldier who carried a musket is entitled to as much credit for the results of the war as those who were in command. u. s. grant. [illustration: u. s. grant.] robert e. lee a gallant foeman in the fight, a brother when the fight was o'er, the hand that led the host with might the blessed torch of learning bore. no shriek of shells nor roll of drums, no challenge fierce, resounding far, when reconciling wisdom comes to heal the cruel wounds of war. thought may the minds of men divide, love makes the heart of nations one, and so, thy soldier grave beside, we honor thee, virginia's son. julia ward howe. [illustration: robert e. lee.] old glory on the island men who have had grave differences and looked at each other coldly and passed with unsmiling faces have, when some calamity threatened, sprang shoulder to shoulder and spent their united strength in defense of a common cause. thus in the spanish-american spurt of war,--serious enough, too serious, alas, in some aspects; but great in some of its beneficent results. in that call, "to arms!" was laid to rest--forever forgotten--the old enmity between the north and the south, engendered by the civil strife. on the island of cuba, the trenches of the united states army were five miles in extent and in shape of a horseshoe. above the trenches, five curving miles of _stars and stripes_ gleamed. to the united states prisoners, confined in the prison, within sight of these flags, but _under the flag of spain_, the waving emblems before their eyes brought daily hope and courage. [illustration: every man uncovered and stood with silent lips, and eyes fixed on old glory.] in full vision of the men in the trenches fluttered the flag of spain; above their heads old glory flew,--the sheltering stripes and stars. as night came down, and land and shimmering sea was bathed in the white light of the sub-tropics, the strains of the "star-spangled banner" were borne upon the air and fell away softly, as if coming from across the water. every man uncovered and stood with silent lips, and eyes fixed upon old glory until the last echoing note died in the distance, then turned again to duties; but upon his face was stamped the deeper understanding of the meaning of it all--_of flag, and home, and country_. thus from the shores of a tropic island, fighting together for the flag of the nation, both blue and gray gained a new and happier viewpoint; and looking back across the warm and shining waters of the gulf stream, each knew that all was good, and said:-- "lo! from the thunder-strife, and from the blown, white ashes of the dead, we rise to larger life." "there is a peace amid'st the shock of arms, that satisfies the soul, though all the air hurtles with horror and with rude alarms." "that clarion cry, my country! makes men one." wheeler's brigade at santiago 'neath the lanes of the tropic sun the column is standing ready, awaiting the fateful command of one whose word will ring out to an answering shout to prove it alert and steady. and a stirring chorus all of them sung with singleness of endeavor, though some to "the bonny blue flag" had swung and some to "the union for ever." the order came sharp through the desperate air and the long ranks rose to follow, till their dancing banners shone more fair than the brightest ray of the cuban day on the hill and jungled hollow; and to "maryland" some in the days gone by had fought through the combat's rumble and some for "freedom's battle-cry" had seen the broad earth crumble. full many a widow weeps in the night who had been a man's wife in the morning; for the banners we loved we bore to the height where the enemy stood as a hero should his valor his country adorning; but drops of pride with your tears of grief, ye american women, mix ye! for the north and south, with a southern chief, kept time to the tune of "dixie." wallace rice. soldiers so many, many soldiers at reveille fared forth; such ready, willing soldiers, from sunny south and north. so many gallant soldiers at noon to face the fight; so many weary wounded home-dreaming in the night. so many quick to answer to drum and bugle sound; so many war-scarred sleepers on death's white-tented ground. o soldiers, silent soldiers, calm-sleeping in the sun, beneath one happy flag again, god rest you, every one. of every human difference great time, the high priest, shrives; while southern winds are telling the fragrance of brave lives. beneath the southern willows, in slumber folded deep, o soldiers, brothers, every one, god's peace attend your sleep. will allen dromgoole. * * * * * our battle-fields, safe in the keeping, of nature's kind, fostering care, are blooming,--our heroes are sleeping,-- and peace broods perennial there. all over our land rings the story of loyalty, fervent and true; "one flag, and that flag is old glory," alike for the gray and the blue. john howard jewett. * * * * * printed in the united states of america. * * * * * transcriber's note: the original punctuation, language and spelling have been retained, except where noted. the following changes were made to the original text (correction in brackets): page v: for "soldiers"; to mr. john howard jewitt[jewett] for page v: for "the cruise of the monitor" by george m.[h.] boker; page : now all is hushed: th[the] gleaming lines page : and the star-spangled banner n[in] triumph shall wave page : packenham[pakenham]! page : general packenham[pakenham] heroically waved his troops page : as fair and free as now[now?] page : charles dawson shanley[shanly]. page : george m. baker[h. boker]. page : will allen dromgoloe[dromgoole]. * * * * * flag of the free [illustration] o shine! last lingering star of hope of all humanity! * * * * * to the honorable james rolph, jr., mayor of san francisco for his true patriotism in donating and personally presenting a silken flag to company "a," ninth california colored volunteers as a token of esteem and loyalty of his colored fellow citizens. copyright, , by the lincoln art publishing co. all rights reserved. flag of the free * * * * * flag of the free, our sable sires have borne thee oft before into hot battles' hell-lit fires, against the fiercest foe. when first he shook his shaggy mein, and made the welkin ring, brave attucks fell upon the plain, thy stripes first crimsoning! thy might and majesty we hurl, against the bolts of mars; and from thy ample folds unfurl thy field of flaming stars! fond hope to nations in distress, thy starry gleam shall give; the stricken in the wilderness shall look to thee and live. what matter if where boreas roars, or where sweet zephyr smiles? what matter if where eagle soars, or in the sunlit isles? thy flowing crimson stripes shall wave above the bluish brine; emblazoned ensign of the brave, and liberty enshrine! flag of the free, still float on high through every age to come; bright beacon of the azure sky, true light of freedom's dome. 'till nations all shall cease to grope in vain for liberty-- o shine, last lingering star of hope of all humanity! --edward smyth jones. * * * * * +--------------------------------------------------------------+ | | | transcriber's note: the word 'mein' in the fifth line of the | | poem may represent an archaic spelling of the word mien. it | | has been left as printed in the original. | | | +--------------------------------------------------------------+ transcriber's note: a few typographical errors have been corrected; they are listed at the end of the text. to facilitate the use of the index, page numbers have been included enclosed by curly brackets (example: { }). the flags of the world: their history, blazonry, and associations. from the banner of the crusader to the burgee of the yachtsman; flags national, colonial, personal; the ensigns of mighty empires; the symbols of lost causes. by f. edward hulme, f.l.s., f.s.a., author of "familiar wild flowers," "history, principles and practice of heraldry," "birth and development of ornament," &c., &c. london: frederick warne & co., and new york [all rights reserved.] {iii} table of contents. chapter i. the necessity of some special sign to distinguish individuals, tribes, and nations--the standards of antiquity--egyptian, assyrian, persian, greek, and roman--the vexillum--the labarum of constantine--invocation of religion--the flags of the enemy--early flags of religious character--flags of saints at funeral obsequies--company and guild flags of the mediæval period--political colours--various kinds of flags--the banner--rolls of arms--roll of karlaverok--the flag called the royal standard is really the royal banner--main-sail banners--trumpet banners--ladies embroidering banners for the cause--knights' banneret--form of investiture--the standard--the percy badges and motto--arctic sledge-flags--the rank governing the size of the standard--standards at state funerals--the pennon--knights' pennonciers--the pennoncelle--mr. rolt as chief mourner--lord mayor's show--the pennant--the streamer--tudor badges--livery colours--the guidon--bunting--flag devising a branch of heraldry--colours chiefly used in flags--flags bearing inscriptions--significance of the red flag--of the yellow--of the white--of the black--dipping the flag--the sovereignty of the sea--right of salute insisted on--political changes rendering flags obsolete chapter ii. the royal standard--the three lions of england--the lion rampant of scotland--scottish sensitiveness as to precedence--the scottish tressure--the harp of ireland--early irish flags--brian boru--the royal standards from richard i. to victoria--claim to the fleurs-de-lys of france--quartering hanover--the union flag--st. george for england--war cry--observance of st. george's day--the cross of st. george--early naval flags--the london trained bands--the cross of st. andrew--the "blue blanket"--flags of the covenanters--relics of st. andrew--union of england and scotland--the first union flag--importance of accuracy in representations of it--the union jack--flags of the commonwealth and protectorate--union of great britain and {iv} ireland--the cross of st. patrick--labours of st. patrick in ireland--proclamation of george iii. as to flags, etc.--the second union flag--heraldic difficulties in its construction--suggestions by critics--regulations as to fortress flags--the white ensign of the royal navy--saluting the flag--the navy the safeguard of britain--the blue ensign--the royal naval reserve--the red ensign of the mercantile marine--value of flag-lore chapter iii. army flags--the queen's colour--the regimental colour--the honours and devices--the flag of the th regiment--facings--flag of the king's own borderers--what the flag symbolises--colours of the guards--the assaye flag--cavalry flags--presentation of colours--chelsea college chapel--flags of the buffs in canterbury cathedral--flags of the scottish regiments in st. giles's cathedral--burning of rebel flags by the hangman--special flags for various official personages--special flags for different government departments--the lord high admiral--the mail flag--white ensign of the royal yacht squadron--yacht ensigns and burgees--house or company flags--how to express colours with lines--the allan tricolor--port flags--the british empire--the colonial blue ensign and pendant--the colonial defence act--colonial mercantile flag--admiralty warrant--flag of the governor of a colony--the green garland--the arms of the dominion of canada--badges of the various colonies--daniel webster on the might of england--bacon on the command of the ocean chapter iv. the flag of columbus--early settlements in north america--the birth of the united states--early revolutionary and state flags--the pine-tree flag--the rattle-snake flag--the stars and stripes--early variations of it--the arms of washington--entry of new states into the union--the eagle--the flag of the president--secession of the southern states--state flags again--the stars and bars--the southern cross--the birth of the german empire--the influence of war songs--flags of the empire--flags of the smaller german states--the austro-hungary monarchy--the flags of russia--the crosses of st. andrew and st. george again--the flags of france--st. martin--the oriflamme--the fleurs-de-lys--their origin--the white cross--the white flag of the bourbons--the tricolor--the red {v} flag--the flags of spain--of portugal--the consummation of italian unity--the arms of savoy--the flags of italy--of the temporal power of the papacy--the flag of denmark--its celestial origin--the flags of norway and sweden--of switzerland--cantonal colours--the geneva convention--the flags of holland--of belgium--of greece--the crescent of turkey--the tughra--the flags of roumania, servia, and bulgaria--flags of mexico, and of the states of southern and central america--of japan--the rising sun--the chrysanthemum--the flags of china, siam and corea--of sarawak--of the orange free state, liberia, congo state, and the transvaal republic chapter v. flags as a means of signalling--army signalling--the morse alphabet--navy signalling--first attempts at sea signals--old signal books in library of royal united service institution--"england expects that every man will do his duty"--sinking signal codes on defeat--present system of signalling in royal navy--pilot signals--weather signalling by flags--the international signal code--first published in --seventy-eight thousand different signals possible--why no vowels used--lloyd's signal stations alphabetical index to text coloured plates { } the flags of the world. chapter i. the necessity of some special sign to distinguish individuals, tribes, and nations--the standards of antiquity--egyptian, assyrian, persian, greek, and roman--the vexillum--the labarum of constantine--invocation of religion--the flags of the enemy--early flags of religious character--flags of saints at funeral obsequies--company and guild flags of the mediæval period--political colours--various kinds of flags--the banner--rolls of arms--roll of karlaverok--the flag called the royal standard is really the royal banner--mainsail banners--trumpet banners--ladies embroidering banners for the cause--knights' banneret--form of investiture--the standard--the percy badges and motto--arctic sledge-flags--the rank governing the size of the standard--standards at state funerals--the pennon--knights-pennonciers--the pennoncelle--mr. rolt as chief mourner--lord mayor's show--the pennant--the streamer--tudor badges--livery colours--the guidon--bunting--flag devising a branch of heraldry--colours chiefly used in flags--flags bearing inscriptions--significance of the red flag--of the yellow--of the white--of the black--dipping the flag--the sovereignty of the sea--right of salute insisted on--political changes rendering flags obsolete. so soon as man passes from the lowest stage of barbarism the necessity for some special sign, distinguishing man from man, tribe from tribe, nation from nation, makes itself felt; and this prime necessity once met, around the symbol chosen spirit-stirring memories quickly gather that endear it, and make it the emblem of the power and dignity of those by whom it is borne. the painted semblance of grizzly bear, or beaver, or rattlesnake on the canvas walls of the tepi of the prairie brave, the special chequering of colours that compose the tartan[ ] of the highland clansman, are examples of this; and as we pass from individual or local tribe to mighty nations, the same influence is still at work, and the distinctive union flag of britain, the tricolor of france, the gold and scarlet bars of the flag of spain, all alike appeal with irresistible force to the patriotism of those born beneath their folds, and speak to them of the glories and greatness of the historic past, the duties of the present, and the hopes of the future--inspiring those who gaze upon their proud blazonry with the determination to be no unworthy sons of their fathers, but to live, and if need be to die, for the dear home-land of which these are the symbol. { } the standards used by the nations of antiquity differed in nature from the flags that in mediæval and modern days have taken their place. these earlier symbols were ordinary devices wrought in metal, and carried at the head of poles or spears. thus the hosts of egypt marched to war beneath the shadow of the various sacred animals that typified their deities, or the fan-like arrangement of feathers that symbolised the majesty of pharoah, while the assyrian standards, to be readily seen represented on the slabs from the palaces of khorsabad and kyonjik, in the british museum and elsewhere, were circular disks of metal containing various distinctive devices. both these and the egyptian standards often have in addition a small flag-like streamer attached to the staff immediately below the device. the greeks in like manner employed the owl of athene, and such-like religious and patriotic symbols of the protection of the deities, though homer, it will be remembered, makes agamemnon use a piece of purple cloth as a rallying point for his followers. the sculptures of persepolis show us that the persians adopted the figure of the sun, the eagle, and the like. in rome a hand erect, or the figures of the horse, wolf, and other animals were used, but at a later period the eagle alone was employed. pliny tells us that "caius marius in his second consulship ordained that the roman legions should only have the eagle for their standard. for before that time the eagle marched foremost with four others, wolves, minatours, horses, and bears--each one in its proper order. not many years past the eagle alone began to be advanced in battle, and the rest were left behind in the camp. but marius rejected them altogether, and since this it is observed that scarcely is there a camp of a legion wintered at any time without having a pair of eagles." the eagle, we need scarcely stay to point out, obtained this pre-eminence as being the bird of jove. the vexillum, or cavalry flag, was, according to livy, a square piece of cloth fixed to a cross bar at the end of a spear; this was often richly fringed, and was either plain or bore certain devices upon it, and was strictly and properly a flag. the ensigns which distinguished the allied forces from the legions of the romans were also of this character. examples of these vexilla may be seen on the sculptured columns of trajan and antoninus, the arch of titus, and upon various coins and medals of ancient rome. the imperial standard or labarum carried before constantine and his successors resembled the cavalry vexillum.[ ] it was of purple silk, richly embroidered with gold, and though ordinarily { } suspended from a horizontal cross-bar, was occasionally displayed in accordance with our modern usage by attachment by one of its sides to the staff. the roman standards were guarded with religious veneration in the temples of the metropolis and of the chief cities of the empire, and modern practice has followed herein the ancient precedent. as in classic days the protection of jove was invoked, so in later days the blessing of jehovah, the lord of hosts, has been sought. at the presentation of colours to a regiment a solemn service of prayer and praise is held, and when these colours return in honour, shot-rent from victorious conflict, they are reverently placed in stately abbey, venerable cathedral, or parish church, never more to issue from the peace and rest of the home of god until by lapse of years they crumble into indistinguishable dust. the israelites carried the sacred standard of the maccabees, with the initial letters of the hebrew text, "who is like unto thee, o god, amongst the gods?" the emperor constantine caused the sacred monogram of christ to be placed on the labarum, and when the armies of christendom went forth to rescue the holy land from the infidel they received their cross-embroidered standards from the foot of the altar. pope alexander ii. sent a consecrated white banner to duke william previous to his expedition against harold, and we read in the "beehive of the romish church," published in , how "the spaniardes christen, conjure, and hallow their ensignes, naming one barbara, another katherine," after the names of saints whose aid they invoked in the stress of battle. we may see this invocation again very well in figs. , : flags borne by the colonists of massachusetts when they arrayed themselves against the mercenaries of king george, and appealed to the god of battles in behalf of the freedom and justice denied by those who bore rule over them. this recognition of the king of kings has led also to the captured banners of the enemy being solemnly suspended in gratitude and thanksgiving in the house of god. thus speed tells us that on the dispersal and defeat of the armada, queen elizabeth commanded solemn thanksgiving to be celebrated at the cathedral church of st. paul's, in her chief city of london, which accordingly was done upon sunday, the th of september, when eleven of the spanish ensigns were hung, to the great joy of the beholders, as "psalmes of praise" for england's deliverance from sore peril. very appropriately, too, in the chapel of the royal college at chelsea, the home of the old soldiers who helped to win them, hang the flags taken at barrosa, martinique, bhurtpore, seringapatam, salamanca, waterloo, and many another hard-fought struggle; { } and thus, in like manner, is the tomb of napoleon i., in paris, surrounded by trophies of captured flags. on march th, , the evening before the entry of the allies into paris, about , flags--the victorious trophies of napoleon--were burnt in the court of the eglise des invalides, to prevent their falling into the hands of the enemy. early flags were almost purely of a religious character.[ ] the first notice of banners in england is in bede's description of the interview between the heathen king ethelbert and augustine, the missionary from rome, where the followers of the latter are described as bearing banners on which were displayed silver crosses; and we need scarcely pause to point out that in roman catholic countries, where the ritual is emotional and sensuous, banners of this type are still largely employed to add to the pomp of religious processions. heraldic and political devices upon flags are of later date, and even when these came freely into use their presence did not supplant the ecclesiastical symbols. the national banner of england for centuries--the ruddy cross of her patron saint george (fig. )--was a religious one, and, whatever other banners were carried, this was ever foremost in the field. the royal banner of great britain and ireland that we see in fig. , in its rich blazonry of the lions of england and scotland and the irish harp, is a good example of the heraldic flag, while our union flag (fig. ), equally symbolizes the three nations of the united kingdom, but this time by the allied crosses of the three patron saints, st. george, st. andrew, and st. patrick, and it is therefore a lineal descendant and exemplar of the religious influence that was once all-powerful. the ecclesiastical flags were often purely pictorial in character, being actual representations of the persons of the trinity, of the virgin mother, or of divers saints. at other times the monasteries and other religious houses bore banners of heraldic character; as the leading ecclesiastics were both lords temporal and lords spiritual, taking their places in the ranks of fighting men and leading on the field the body of dependants and retainers that they were required to maintain in aid of the national defence. in such case { } the distinguishing banner of the contingent conformed in character to the heraldic cognisances of the other nobles in the host. fig. , for instance, was the banner of st. alban's abbey. in a poem on the capture of rouen by the english, in the year , written by an eye-witness of the scenes described, we read how the english commander-- "to the castelle firste he rode and sythen the citie all abrode, lengthe and brede he it mette and riche baneres up he sette upon the porte seint hillare a baner of the trynyte; and at porte kaux he sette evene a baner of the quene of heven; and at porte martvile he upplyt of seint george a baner breight." and not until this recognition of divine and saintly aid was made did "he sette upon the castelle to stonde the armys of fraunce and englond." henry v., at agincourt, in like manner displayed at his headquarters on the field not only his own arms, but, in place of special honour and prominence, the banners of the trinity, of st. george, and of st. edward. these banners of religious significance were often borne from the monasteries to the field of battle, while monks and priests in attendance on them invoked the aid of heaven during the strife. in an old statement of accounts, still existing, we read that edward i. made a payment of ½d. a day to a priest of beverley for carrying throughout one of his campaigns a banner bearing the figure of st. john. st. wilfred's banner from ripon, together with this banner of st. john from beverley, were brought on to the field at northallerton; the flag of st. denis was carried in the armies of st. louis and of philip le bel, and the banner of st. cuthbert of durham was borrowed by the earl of surrey in his expedition against scotland in the reign of henry viii. this banner had the valuable reputation of securing victory to those who fought under it. it was suspended from a horizontal bar below a spear head, and was a yard or so in breadth and a little more than this in depth; the bottom edge had five deep indentations. the banner was of red velvet sumptuously enriched with gold embroidery, and in the centre was a piece of white velvet, half a yard square, having a cross of red velvet upon it. this central portion covered and protected a relic of the saint. the victory of neville's cross, october th, , was held to be largely { } due to the presence of this sacred banner, and the triumph at flodden was also ascribed to it. during the prevalence of roman catholicism in england, we find that banners of religious type entered largely into the funeral obsequies of persons of distinction: thus at the burial of arthur, prince of wales, the eldest son of henry vii., we find a banner of the trinity, another with the cross and instruments of the passion depicted upon it; another of the virgin mary, and yet another with a representation of st. george. such banners, as in the present instance, were ordinarily four in number, and carried immediately round the body at the four corners of the bier. thus we read in the diary of an old chronicler, machyn, who lived in the reigns of edward vi., mary, and elizabeth, that at the burial of the countess of arundel, october th, , "cam iiij herroldes in ther cotes of armes, and bare iiij baners of emages at the iiij corners." again, on "aprell xxix, , was bered my lady dudley in saint margarett in westminster, with iiij baners of emages." another item deals with the funeral of the duchess of northumberland, and here again "the iiij baners of ymages" again recur. anyone having the old records, church inventories, and the like before them, would find it easy enough, as easy as needless, to multiply illustrations of this funeral use of pictured banners. these "emages" or "ymages" of old machyn are of course not images in the sense of sculptured or carved things, but are painted and embroidered representations of various saints. machyn, as a greatly interested looker-on at all the spectacles of his day, is most entertaining, but his spelling, according to the severer notions of the present day, is a little weak, as, for instance, in the following words that we have culled at random from his pages:--prossessyon, gaffelyns, fezyssyoun, dysquyet, neckclygens, gorgyusle, berehyng, wypyd, pelere, artelere, and dyssys of spyssys. the context ordinarily makes the meaning clear, but as our readers have not that advantage, we give the same words according to modern orthography--procession, javelins, physician, disquiet, negligence, gorgeously, burying, whipped, pillory, artillery, dishes of spices. the various companies and guilds of the mediæval period had their special flags that came out, as do those of their successors of the present day, on the various occasions of civic pageantry; and in many cases, as may be seen in the illuminated mss. in the british museum and elsewhere, they were carried to battle as the insignia of the companies of men provided at the expense of those corporations. thus in one example that has come under our notice we see a banner bearing a chevron between hammer, trowels, and builder's square; in another between an axe and two pairs of compasses, while a third on its azure field bears a pair of golden { } shears. in the representation of a battle between philip d'artevelde and the flemings against the french, many of the flags therein introduced bear the most extraordinary devices, boots and shoes, drinking-vessels, anvils, and the like, that owe their presence there to the fact that various trade guilds sent their contingents of men to the fight. in a french work on mediæval guilds we find the candle-makers of bayeux marching beneath a black banner with three white candles on it, the locksmiths of la rochelle having a scarlet flag with four golden keys on it. the lawyers of loudoun had a flag with a large eye on it (a single eye to business being, we presume, understood), while those of laval had a blue banner with three golden mouths thereon. in like manner the metal-workers of laval carried a black flag with a silver hammer and files depicted on it, those of niort had a red flag with a silver cup and a fork and spoon in gold on either side. the metal-workers of ypres also carried a red flag, and on this was represented a golden flagon and two buckles of gold. should some national stress this year or next lead our city companies, the fishmongers, the carpenters, the vintners, and others to contribute contingents to the defence of the country, and to send them forth beneath the banners of the guilds, history would but repeat itself. in matters political the two great opposing parties have their distinctive colours, and these have ordinarily been buff and blue, though the association of buff with the liberal party and "true blue" with the conservatives has been by no means so entirely a matter of course as persons who have not looked into the matter might be disposed to imagine. the local colours are often those that were once the livery colours of the principal family in the district, and were assumed by its adherents for the family's sake quite independently of its political creed. the notion of livery is now an unpleasant one, but in mediæval days the colours of the great houses were worn by the whole country-side, and the wearing carried with it no suggestion either of toadyism or servitude. as this influence was hereditary and at one time all-powerful, the colour of the castle, or abbey, or great house, became stereotyped in that district as the symbol of the party of which these princely establishments were the local centre and visible evidence, and the colour still often survives locally, though the political and social system that originated it has passed away in these days of democratic independence. it would clearly be a great political gain if one colour were all over great britain the definite emblem of one side, as many illiterate voters are greatly influenced by the colours worn by the candidates for their suffrages, and have sufficient sense of consistency of principle to vote always for the flag that first claimed { } their allegiance, though it may very possibly be that if they move to another county it is the emblem of a totally distinct party, and typifies opinions to which the voter has always been opposed. at a late election a yorkshire conservative, who had acquired a vote for bournemouth, was told that he must "vote pink," but this he very steadily refused to do. he declared that he would "never vote owt else but th' old true blue," so the liberal party secured his vote; and this sort of thing at a general election is going on all over the country. the town of royston, for instance, stands partly in hertfordshire and partly in cambridgeshire, and in the former county the conservatives and in the latter the liberals are the blue party; hence the significance of the colour in one street of the little town is entirely different to that it bears in another. at horsham in sussex we have observed that the conservative colour is pale pink, while in richmond in surrey it is a deep orange. the orange was adopted by the whigs out of compliment to william iii., who was prince of orange. in the old chronicles and ballads reference is made to many forms of flags now obsolete. the term flag is a generic one, and covers all the specific kinds. it is suggested that the word is derived from the anglo-saxon verb fleogan, to fly or float in the wind, or from the old german flackern, to flutter. ensign is an alternative word formed on the idea of the display of insignia, badges, or devices, and was formerly much used where we should now employ the word colours. the company officers in a regiment who were until late years termed ensigns were at a still earlier period more correctly termed ensign-bearers. milton, it will be recalled, describes a "bannered host under spread ensigns marching." sir walter scott greatly enlarges our vocabulary when he writes in "marmion" of where "a thousand streamers flaunted fair, various in shape, device, and hue, green, sanguine, purple, red, and blue, broad, narrow, swallow-tailed, and square, scroll, pennon, pensil, bandrol, there o'er the pavilions flew," while milton again writes of "ten thousand thousand ensigns high advanced standards and gonfalons 'twixt van and rear stream in the air, and for distinction serve of hierarchies, orders, and degrees." we have seen that the pomp of funeral display led to the use of pictorial flags of religious type, and with these were associated others that dealt with the mundane rank and position of the { } deceased. thus we find edmonson, in his book on heraldry, writing as follows:--"the armorial ensigns, as fixed by the officers of arms, and through long and continued usage established as proper to be carried in funeral processions, are pennons, guidons, cornets, standards, banners, and banner-rolls, having thereon depicted the arms, quarterings, badges, crests, supporters, and devices of the defunct: together with all such other trophies of honour as in his lifetime he was entitled to display, carry, or wear in the field; banners charged with the armorial ensigns of such dignities, titles, offices, civil and military, as were possessed or enjoyed by the defunct at the time of his decease, and banner-rolls of his own matches and lineal descent both on the paternal and maternal side. in case the defunct was an archbishop, banner-rolls of the arms and insignia of the sees to which he had been elected and translated, and if he was a merchant or eminent trader pennons of the particular city, corporation, guild, fraternity, craft, or company whereof he had been a member." however true the beautiful stanza of gray-- "the boast of heraldry, the pomp of power, and all that beauty, all that wealth ere gave, await at last the inevitable hour, the paths of glory lead but to the grave"-- the survivors of the deceased most naturally and most justly bore to their rest those to whom honour was due with the full respect to which their career on earth entitled them. the names bestowed upon the different kinds of flags have varied from time to time, the various authorities of mediæval and modern days not being quite of one mind sometimes, so that while the more salient forms are easily identifiable, some little element of doubt creeps in when we would endeavour to bestow with absolute precision a name to a certain less common form before us, or a definite form to a name that we encounter in some old writer. whatever looseness of nomenclature, however, may be encountered on the fringe of our subject, the bestowal of the leading terms is sufficiently definite, and it is to these we now turn our attention, reflecting for our comfort that it is of far greater value to us to know all about a form that is of frequent recurrence, and to which abundant reference is made, than to be able to quite satisfactorily decide what special name some abnormal form should carry, or what special form is meant by a name that perhaps only occurs once or twice in the whole range of literature, and even that perhaps by some poet or romance writer who has thought more of the general effect of his description than of the technical accuracy of the terms in which he has clothed it. { } the banner first engages our attention. this was ordinarily, in the earlier days of chivalry, a square flag, though in later examples it may be found somewhat greater in length than in depth, and in some early examples it is considerably greater in depth than in its degree of projection outwards from the lance. in the technical language of the subject, the part of a flag nearest the pole is called the hoist, and the outer part the fly. fig. is a good illustration of this elongated form. it has been suggested that the shortness of the fly in such cases was in order that the greater fluttering in the wind that such a form as fig. would produce might be prevented, as this constant tugging at the lance-head would be disagreeable to the holder, while it might, in the rush of the charge, prevent that accuracy of aim that one would desire to give one's adversary the full benefit of at such a crisis in his career. pretty as this may be as a theory, there is probably not much in it, or the form in those warlike days of chivalry would have been more generally adopted. according to an ancient authority the banner of an emperor should be six feet square; of a king, five; of a prince or duke, four; and of an earl, marquis, viscount, or baron three feet square. when we consider that the great function of the banner was to bear upon its surface the coat-of-arms of its owner, and that this coat was emblazoned upon it and filled up its entire surface in just the same way that we find these charges represented upon his shield, it is evident that no form that departed far either in length or breadth from the square would be suitable for their display. though heraldically it is allowable to compress or extend any form from its normal proportions when the exigencies of space demand it,[ ] it is clearly better to escape this when possible.[ ] the arms depicted in fig. are certainly not the better for the elongation to which they have been subjected, while _per contra_ the bearings on any of the banners in figs. , , , , , , , , , , or , have had no despite done them, the square form being clearly well-adapted for their due display. the rolls of arms prepared on various occasions by the mediæval and later heralds form an admirable storehouse of examples. some of these have been reproduced in facsimile, and are, therefore, more or less readily accessible. we have before us as we write the roll of the arms of the sovereign and of the { } spiritual and temporal peers who sat in parliament in the year , and another excellent example that has been reproduced is the roll of karlaverok. this karlaverok was a fortress on the north side of solway frith, which it was necessary for edward i. to reduce on his invasion of scotland in the year , and this investiture and all the details of the siege are minutely described by a contemporary writer, who gives the arms and names of all the nobles there engaged. as soon as the castle fell into edward's hands he caused his banner and that of st. edmund (fig. ), and st. edward (fig. ), to be displayed upon its battlements. the roll is written in norman french, of which the following passage may be given as an example:-- "la ont meinte riche garnement brode sur cendeaus et samis meint beau penon en lance mis meint baniere desploie." that is to say, there were--in modern english wording--many rich devices embroidered on silk and satin, many a beautiful pennon fixed on lance, many a banner displayed. the writer says:--"first, i will tell you of the names and arms, especially of the banners, if you will listen how." of these numerous banners we give some few examples: fig. belongs to him "who with a light heart, doing good to all, bore a yellow banner and pennon with a black saltire engrailed, and is called john botetourte." fig. is the banner of sire ralph de monthermer; fig. the devices of touches, "a knight of good-fame"; while fig. , "the blue with crescents of brilliant gold," was the flag of william de ridre. "sire john de holderton, who at all times appears well and promptly in arms," bore no. , the fretted silver on the scarlet field; while fig. is the cognisance of "hugh bardolph, a man of good appearance, rich, valiant, and courteous." fig. is the well-known lion of the percys, and is here the banner of henri de percy; we meet with it again in fig. . fig. is "the banner of good hugh de courtenay," while fig. is that of the valiant aymer de valence. fig. bears the barbels of john de bar, while the last example we need give (fig. ) is the banner of sire william de grandison. of whom gallant, courteous englishmen as they were, we can now but say that "they are dust, their swords are rust," and deny them not the pious hope "their souls are with the saints, we trust." the well-known flag (fig. ), that everyone recognises as the royal standard, is nevertheless misnamed, as it should undoubtedly be called the royal banner, since it bears the arms of the sovereign in precisely the same way that any of our preceding { } examples bear the arms of the knights with whom they were associated. a standard, as we shall see presently, is an entirely different kind of flag; nevertheless, the term royal standard is so firmly established that it is hopeless now to think of altering it, and as it would be but pedantry to ignore it, and substitute in its place, whenever we have occasion to refer to it, its proper title--the royal banner--we must, having once made our protest, be content to let the matter stand. figs. , , , , , and are all royal or imperial banners, but popular usage insists that we shall call them royal or imperial "standards," so, henceforth, rightly or wrongly, through our pages standards they must be. the banners of the knights of the garter, richly emblazoned with their armorial bearings, are suspended over their stalls in st. george's chapel, windsor, while those of the knights of the bath are similarly displayed in the chapel of henry vii. in westminster abbey. the whole of the great mainsail of a mediæval ship was often emblazoned with arms, and formed one large banner. this usage may be very well seen in the illuminations, seals, etc., of that period. as early as the year we find otho, count of gueldres, represented as bearing on his seal a square banner charged with his arms, a lion rampant; and in a window in the cathedral of our lady, at chartres, is a figure of simon de montfort, earl of leicester from to . he is depicted as bearing in his right hand a banner of red and white, as shown in fig. . references in the old writers to the banner are very numerous. thus in the "story of thebes" we read of "the fell beastes," that were "wrought and bete upon their bannres displaied brode" when men went forth to war. lydgate, in the "battle of agincourt," writes:-- "by myn baner sleyn will y be or y will turne my backe or me yelde." the same writer declares that at the siege of harfleur by henry v., in september, , the king-- "mustred his meyne faire before the town, and many other lordes, i dar will say, with baners bryghte and many penoun." the trumpeters of the life guards and horse guards have the royal banner attached to their instruments, a survival that recalls the lines of chaucer:-- "on every trump hanging a brode bannere of fine tartarium, full richly bete." { } an interesting reference is found in a letter of queen katharine of arragon to thomas wolsey, dated richmond, august th, , while king henry viii. was in france. speaking of war with the scots, her majesty says: "my hert is veray good to it, and i am horrible besy with making standards, banners, and bagies."[ ] while the men are buckling on their armour for the coming strife, wives, sisters, sweethearts, daughters, with proud hearts, give their aid, and with busy fingers--despite the tear that will sometimes blur the vision of the gay embroidery--swiftly and deftly labour with loving care on the devices that will nerve the warriors to living steel in the shock of battle. the queen of england, so zealously busy in her task of love, is but a type and exemplar of thousands of her sex before and since. the raven standard of the danish invaders of northumbria was worked by the daughters of regnar lodbrok, and in the great rebellion in the west of england many a gentlewoman suffered sorely in the foul and bloody assize for her zealous share in providing the insurgents with the standards around which they rallied. the covenanters of scotland, the soldiers of garibaldi freeing italy from the bourbons, the levies of kossuth in hungary, the poles in the deadly grip of russia, the armies of the confederate states in america, the volunteers who would fain free greece from the yoke of the turk,[ ] all fought to the death beneath the banners that fair sympathisers with them, and with their cause, placed in their hands. when two great nations, such as france and germany, fall to blows, the whole armament, weapons, flags, and whatever else may be necessary, is supplied from the government stores according to regulation pattern, but in the case of insurgents against authority struggling--rightly or wrongly--to be free, the weapons may be scythe blades or whatever else comes first to hand, while the standards borne to the field will bear the most extraordinary devices upon them, devices that appeal powerfully at the time to those fighting beneath their folds, but which give a shudder to the purist in heraldic blazonry, as for instance, to quote but one example, the rattle-snake flag with its motto "beware how you tread on me," adopted by the north american colonists in their struggle against the troops of george iii. when a knight had performed on the field of battle some especially valiant or meritorious act, it was open to the sovereign to { } mark his sense of it by making him a knight-banneret. thus, in the reign of edward iii., john de copeland was made a banneret for his service in taking prisoner david bruce, the king of scotland, at the battle of durham; colonel john smith, having rescued the royal banner from the parliamentarians at edgehill, was in like manner made a knight-banneret by charles i. the title does not seem to have been in existence before the reign of edward i., and after this bestowal by charles i. we hear no more of it till , when the title was conferred upon several english officers by the king, george ii., upon the field of dettingen. it was an essential condition that the rank should be bestowed by the sovereign on the actual field of battle and beneath the royal banner. general sir william erskine was given this rank by george iii. on his return from the continent in , after the battle of emsdorff; but as the investiture took place beneath the standard of the th light dragoons and in hyde park, it was deemed hopelessly irregular, and, the royal will and action notwithstanding, his rank was not generally recognised. the ceremony of investiture was in the earlier days a very simple one. the flag of the ordinary knight was of the form known as the pennon--a small, swallow-tailed flag like that borne by our lancer regiments, of which fig. is an illustration. on being summoned to the royal presence, the king took from him his lance, and either cut or tore away the points of his flag, until he had reduced it roughly to banner form, and then returned it to him with such words of commendation as the occasion called for. what the ceremony employed at so late a period as dettingen was we have not been able to trace. as the officers there honoured were lanceless and pennonless, it is evident that the formula which served in the middle ages was quite inapplicable, but it is equally evident that in the thronging duties and responsibilities of the field of battle the ceremony must always have been a very short and simple one. the term standard is appropriately applied to any flag of noble size that answers in the main to the following conditions--that it should always have the cross of st. george placed next to the staff, that the rest of the flag should be divided horizontally into two or more stripes of colours, these being the prevailing colours in the arms of the bearers or their livery colours, the edge of the standard richly fringed or bordered, the motto and badges of the owner introduced, the length considerably in excess of the breadth, the ends split and rounded off. we find such standards in use chiefly during the fifteenth century, though some characteristic examples of both earlier and later dates may be encountered. figs. and are very good typical illustrations. the { } first of these (fig. ) is the percy standard. the blue lion, the crescent, and the fetterlock there seen are all badges of the family, while the silver key betokens matrimonial alliance with the poynings,[ ] the bugle-horn with the bryans,[ ] and the falchion with the family of fitzpayne. the ancient badge of the percys was the white lion statant. our readers will doubtless be familiar with the lines-- "who, in field or foray slack, saw the blanch lion e'er give back?" but henry percy, the fifth earl, to , turned it into a blue one. the silver crescent is the only badge of the family that has remained in active and continuous use, and we find frequent references to it in the old ballads--so full of interesting heraldic allusions--as, for instance, in "the rising of the north"-- "erle percy there his ancyent spred, the halfe-moon shining all soe faire," and in claxton's "lament"-- "now the percy's crescent is set in blood." the motto is ordinarily a very important part of the standard, though it is occasionally missing. its less or greater length or its possible repetition may cut up the surface of the flag into a varying number of spaces. the first space after the cross is always occupied by the most important badge, and in a few cases the spaces beyond are empty. the motto of the percys is of great historic interest. it is referred to by shakespeare, "now esperance! percy! and set on," and we find in drayton the line, "as still the people cried, a percy, esperance!" in the "mirror for magistrates" ( ) we read, "add therefore this to esperance, my word, who causeth bloodshed shall not 'scape the sword." it was originally the war-cry of the percys, but it has undergone several modifications, and these of a rather curious and interesting nature, since we see in the sequence a steady advance from blatant egotism to an admission of a higher power even than that of percy. the war-cry of the first earl was originally, "percy! percy!" but he later substituted for it, "esperance, percy." the second and third earls took merely "esperance," the fourth took "esperance, ma comfort," and, { } later on, "esperance en dieu ma comfort," and the fifth and succeeding earls took the "esperance en dieu."[ ] fig. is the standard of sir thomas de swynnerton. the swine is an example of the punning allusion to the bearer's name that is so often seen in the charges of mediæval heraldry. figs. and are typical standards, having the cross of st. george, the striping of colours, the oblique lines of motto, the elongated tapering form, and all the other features that we have already quoted as belonging to the ideal standard, though one or two of these may at times be absent. thus, though exceptions are rare, a standard is not necessarily particoloured for example, and, as we have seen, the motto in other examples may be missing. the harleian ms. no. , lays down the rule that "every standard or guydhome is to hang in the chiefe the crosse of st. george, to be slitte at the ende, and to conteyne the crest or supporter, with the poesy, worde, and devise of the owner." that the cross of st. george, the national badge, must always be present and in the most honourable position is full of significance, as it means that whatever else of rank or family the bearer might be, he was first and foremost an englishman. figs. and are interesting modern examples of the standard. they are from a series of sledge-flags used during the arctic expedition of - , the devices upon them being those of the officers in charge of each detachment. when in earlier days a man raised a regiment for national defence, he not only commanded it, but its flag often bore his arms or device. thus the standard of the dragoons raised by henry, lord cardross, in was of red silk, on which was represented the colonel's crest, a hand holding a dagger, and the motto "fortitudine," while in the upper corner next the staff was the thistle of scotland, surmounted by the crown. our readers should now have no difficulty in sketching out for themselves as an exercise the following: the standard of henry v., white and blue, a white antelope standing between four red roses; the motto "dieu et mon droit," and in the interspaces more red { } roses. the standard of richard ii., white and green, a white hart couchant between four golden suns, the motto "dieu et mon droit," in the next space two golden suns, and in the next, four. as further exercises, we may give the standard of sir john awdeley, of gold and scarlet, having a moor's head and three white butterflies, the motto "je le tiens," then two butterflies, then four; and the standard of frogmorton, of four stripes of red and white, having an elephant's head in black, surrounded by golden crescents. while no one, either monarch or noble, could have more than one banner, since this was composed of his heraldic arms, a thing fixed and unchangeable, the same individual might have two or three standards, since these were mainly made up of badges that he could multiply at discretion, and a motto or poesy that he might change every day if he chose. hence, for instance, the standards of henry vii. were mostly green and white, since these were the tudor livery colours; but in one was "a red firye dragon," and in another "was peinted a donne kowe," while yet another had a silver greyhound between red roses. stowe and other authorities tell us that the two first of these were borne at bosworth field, and that after his victory there over richard iii. these were borne by him in solemn state to st. paul's cathedral, and there deposited on his triumphal entry into the metropolis. the difference between the standard and the banner is very clearly seen in the description of the flags borne at the funeral obsequies of queen elizabeth--"the great embroidered banner of england" (fig. ), the banners of wales, ireland, chester, and cornwall, and the standards of the dragon, greyhound, and falcon. in like manner stowe tells us that when king henry vii. took the field in , he had with him the standard with the red dragon and the banner of the arms of england, and machyn tells that at the funeral of edward vi., "furst of all whent a grett company of chylderyn in ther surples and clarkes syngyng and then ij harolds, and then a standard with a dragon, and then a grett nombur of ye servants in blake, and then anoder standard with a whyt greyhound." later on in the procession came "ye grett baner of armes in brodery and with dyvers odere baners." standards varied in size according to the rank of the person entitled to them. a ms. of the time of henry vii. gives the following dimensions:--for that of the king, a length of eight yards; for a duke, seven; for an earl, six; a marquis, six and a half; a viscount, five and a half; a baron, five; a knight banneret, four and a half; and for a knight, four yards. in view of these figures one can easily realise the derivation of the word standard--a thing that is meant to stand; to be rather fastened in the ground as a rallying point than carried, like a banner, about the field of action. { } at the funeral of nelson we find his banner of arms and standard borne in the procession, while around his coffin are the bannerolls, square banner-like flags bearing the various arms of his family lineage. we see these latter again in an old print of the funeral procession of general monk, in , and in a still older print of the burial of sir philip sydney, four of his near kindred carrying by the coffin these indications of his descent. at the funeral of queen elizabeth we find six bannerolls of alliances on the paternal side and six on the maternal. the standard of nelson bears his motto, "_palmam qui meruit ferat_," but instead of the cross of st. george it has the union of the crosses of st. george, st. andrew, and st. patrick, since in , the year of his funeral, the england of mediæval days had expanded into the kingdom of great britain and ireland. in the imposing funeral procession of the great duke of wellington we find again amongst the flags not only the national flag, regimental colours, and other insignia, but the ten bannerolls of the duke's pedigree and descent, and his personal banner and standard. richard, earl of salisbury, in the year , ordered that at his interment "there be banners, standards, and other accoutrements, according as was usual for a person of his degree" and what was then held fitting, remains, in the case of state funerals, equally so at the present day. the pennon is a small, narrow flag, forked or swallow-tailed at its extremity. this was carried on the lance. our readers will recall the knight in "marmion," who "on high his forky pennon bore, like swallow's tail in shape and hue." we read in the roll of karlaverok, as early as the year , of "many a beautiful pennon fixed to a lance, and many a banner displayed;" and of the knight in chaucer's "canterbury tales," we hear that "by hys bannere borne is hys pennon of golde full riche." the pennon bore the arms of the knight, and they were in the earlier days of chivalry so emblazoned upon it as to appear in their proper position not when the lance was held erect but when held horizontally for the charge. the earliest brass now extant, that of sir john daubernoun, at stoke d'abernon church, in surrey, represents the knight as bearing a lance with pennon. its date is , and the device is a golden chevron on a field of azure. in { } this example the pennon, instead of being forked, comes to a single point. the pennon was the ensign of those knights who were not bannerets, and the bearers of it were therefore sometimes called pennonciers; the term is derived from the latin word for a feather, _penna_, from the narrow, elongated form. the pennons of our lancer regiments (fig. ) give one a good idea of the form, size, and general effect of the ancient knightly pennon, though they do not bear distinctive charges upon them, and thus fail in one notable essential to recall to our minds the brilliant blazonry and variety of device that must have been so marked and effective a feature when the knights of old took the field. in a drawing of the year , of the royal horse artillery, we find the men armed with lances, and these with pennons of blue and white, as we see in fig. .[ ] of the thirty-seven pennons borne on lances by various knights represented in the bayeux tapestry, twenty-eight have triple points, while others have two, four, or five. the devices upon these pennons are very various and distinctive, though the date is before the period of the definite establishment of heraldry. examples of these may be seen in figs. , , , . the pennoncelle, or pencel, is a diminutive of the pennon, small as that itself is. such flags were often supplied in large quantities at any special time of rejoicing or of mourning. at the burial in the year of "the nobull duke of norffok," we note amongst other items "a dosen of banerolles of ys progene," a standard, a "baner of damaske, and xij dosen penselles." at the burial of sir william goring we find "ther was viij dosen of penselles," while at the lord mayor's procession in we read that there were "ij goodly pennes [state barges] deckt with flages and stremers and a m penselles." this "m," or thousand, we can perhaps scarcely take literally, though in another instance we find "the cordes were hanged with innumerable pencelles."[ ] the statement of the cost of the funeral of oliver cromwell is interesting, as we see therein the divers kinds of flags that graced the ceremony. the total cost of the affair was over £ , , and the unhappy undertaker, a mr. rolt, was paid very little, if any, of his bill. the items include "six gret banners wrought on rich taffaty in oil, and gilt with fine gold," at £ each. five large standards, similarly wrought, at a cost of £ each; six dozen { } pennons, a yard long, at a sovereign each; forty trumpet banners, at forty shillings apiece; thirty dozen of pennoncelles, a foot long, at twenty shillings a dozen; and twenty dozen ditto at twelve shillings the dozen. poor rolt! in "the accompte and reckonyng" for the lord mayor's show of we find "payde to jacob challoner, painter, for a greate square banner, the prince's armes, the somme of seven pounds." we also find, "more to him for the new payntyng and guyldyng of ten trumpet banners, for payntyng and guyldyng of two long pennons of the lord maior's armes on callicoe," and many other items that we need not set down, the total cost of the flag department being £ s. d., while for the lord mayor's show of the year we find that the charge for this item was the handsome sum of £ . the pennant, or pendant, is a long narrow flag with pointed end, and derives its name from the latin word signifying to hang. examples of it may be seen in figs. , , , , , , , , , and , and some of the flags employed in ship-signalling are also of pennant form. it was in tudor times called the streamer. though such a flag may at times be found pressed into the service of city pageantry, it is more especially adapted for use at sea, since the lofty mast, the open space far removed from telegraph-wires, chimney-pots, and such-like hindrances to its free course, and the crisp sea-breeze to boldly extend it to its full length, are all essential to its due display. when we once begin to extend in length, it is evident that almost anything is possible: the pendant of a modern man-of-war is some twenty yards long, while its breadth is barely six inches, and it is evident that such a flag as that would scarcely get a fair chance in the general "survival of the fittest" in cheapside. it is charged at the head with the cross of st. george. figs. , , are tudor examples of such pendants, while fig. is a portion at least of the pendant flown by colonial vessels on war service, while under the same necessarily abbreviated conditions may be seen in fig. the pendant of the united states navy, in that of chili, and in that of brazil. in mediæval days many devices were introduced, the streamer being made of sufficient width to allow of their display. thus dugdale gives an account of the fitting up of the ship in which beauchamp, fifth earl of warwick, during the reign of henry vi., went over to france. the original bill between this nobleman and william seburgh, "citizen and payntour of london," is still extant, and we see from it that amongst other things provided was "the grete stremour for the shippe xl yardes in length and viij yardes in brede." these noble dimensions gave ample room for { } display of the badge of the warwicks,[ ] so we find it at the head adorned with "a grete bere holding a ragged staffe," and the rest of its length "powdrid full of raggid staves," "a stately ship, with all her bravery on, and tackle trim, sails filled, and streamers waving." machyn tells us in his diary for august rd, , how "the queen came riding to london, and so on to the tower, makyng her entry at aldgate, and a grett nombur of stremars hanging about the sayd gate, and all the strett unto leydenhalle and unto the tower were layd with graffel, and all the crafts of london stood with their banars and stremars hangyd over their heds." in the picture by volpe in the collection at hampton court of the embarkation of henry viii. from dover in the year , to meet francis i. at the field of the cloth of gold, we find, very naturally, a great variety and display of flags of all kinds. figs. , , are streamers therein depicted, the portcullis, tudor rose, and fleur-de-lys being devices of the english king, while the particular ground upon which they are displayed is in each case made up of green and white, the tudor livery colours. we may see these again in fig. , where the national flag of the cross of st. george has its white field barred with the tudor green. in the year even the naval uniform of england was white and green, both for officers and mariners, and the city trained bands had white coats welted with green. queen elizabeth, though of the tudor race, took scarlet and black as her livery colours; the house of plantaganet white and red; of york, murrey and blue; of lancaster, white and blue; of stuart, red and yellow. the great nobles each also had their special liveries; thus in a grand review of troops on blackheath, on may th, , we find that "the yerle of pembroke and ys men of armes" had "cotes blake bordered with whyt," while the retainers of the lord chamberlain were in red and white, those of the earl of huntingdon in blue, and so forth. in the description of one of the city pageants in honour of henry vii. we find among the "baggs" (_i.e._, badges), "a rede rose and a wyght in his mydell, golde floures de luces, and portcullis also in golde," the "wallys" of the pavilion whereon these were displayed being "chekkyrs of whyte and grene." the only other flag form to which we need make any very definite reference is the guidon. the word is derived from the { } french _guide-homme_, but in the lax spelling of mediæval days it undergoes many perversions, such as guydhome, guydon, gytton, geton, and such-like more or less barbarous renderings. guidon is the regulation name now applied to the small standards borne by the squadrons of some of our cavalry regiments. the queen's guidon is borne by the first squadron; this is always of crimson silk; the others are the colour of the regimental facings. the modern cavalry guidon is square in form, and richly embroidered, fringed, and tasselled. a mediæval writer on the subject lays down the law that "a guydhome must be two and a half yardes or three yardes longe, and therein shall be no armes putt, but only the man's crest, cognizance, and device, and from that, from his standard or streamer a man may flee; but not from his banner or pennon bearinge his armes." the guidon is largely employed at state or ceremonious funeral processions; we see it borne, for instance, in the illustrations of the funeral of monk in , of nelson in , of wellington in . in all these cases it is rounded in form, as in fig. . like the standard, the guidon bears motto and device, but it is smaller, and has not the elongated form, nor does it bear the cross of st. george. in divers countries and periods very diverse forms may be encountered, and to these various names have been assigned, but it is needless to pursue their investigation at any length, as in some cases the forms are quite obsolete; in other cases, while its form is known to us its name is lost, while in yet other instances we have various old names of flags mentioned by the chroniclers and poets to which we are unable now to assign any very definite notion of their form. in some cases, again, the form we encounter may be of some eccentric individuality that no man ever saw before, or ever wants to see again, or, as in fig. , so slightly divergent from ordinary type as to scarcely need a distinctive name. one of the flags represented in the bayeux tapestry is semi-circular. fig. defies classification, unless we regard it as a pennon that, by snipping, has travelled three-quarters of the way towards being a banner. fig. , sketched from a ms. of the early part of the fourteenth century, in the british museum, is of somewhat curious and abnormal form. it is of religious type, and bears the agnus dei. the original is in a letter of philippe de mezières, pleading for peace and friendship between charles vi. of france and richard ii. of england. flags are nowadays ordinarily made of bunting, a woollen fabric which, from the nature of its texture and its great toughness and durability, is particularly fitted to stand wear and tear. it comes from the yorkshire mills in pieces of forty yards in length, while the width varies from four to thirty-six inches. flags are { } only printed when of small size, and when a sufficient number will be required to justify the expense of cutting the blocks. silk is also used, but only for special purposes. flag-devising is really a branch of heraldry, and should be in accordance with its laws, both in the forms and the colours introduced. yellow in blazonry is the equivalent of gold, and white of silver, and it is one of the requirements of heraldry that colour should not be placed upon colour, nor metal on metal. hence the red and blue in the french tricolour (fig. ) are separated by white; the black and red of belgium (fig. ) by yellow. such unfortunate combinations as the yellow, blue, red, of venezuela (fig. ); the yellow, red, green of bolivia (fig. ); the red and blue of hayti (fig. ); the white and yellow of guatemala (fig. ), are violations of the rule in countries far removed from the influence of heraldic law. this latter instance is a peculiarly interesting one; it is the flag of guatemala in , while in this was changed to that represented in fig. . in the first case the red and the blue are in contact, and the white and the yellow; while in the second the same colours are introduced, but with due regard to heraldic law, and certainly with far more pleasing effect. one sees the same obedience to this rule in the special flags used for signalling, where great clearness of definition at considerable distances is an essential. such combinations as blue and black, red and blue, yellow and white, carry their own condemnation with them, as anyone may test by actual experiment; stripes of red and blue, for instance, at a little distance blending into purple, while white and yellow are too much alike in strength, and when the yellow has become a little faded and the white a little dingy they appear almost identical. we have this latter combination in fig. , the flag of the now vanished papal states. it is a very uncommon juxtaposition, and only occurs in this case from a special religious symbolism into which we need not here enter. the alternate red and green stripes in fig. are another violation of the rule, and have a very confusing effect.[ ] the colours of by far the greatest frequency of occurrence are red, white, and blue; yellow also is not uncommon; orange is only found once, in fig. , where it has a special significance, since this is the flag of the orange free state. green occurs sparingly. italy (fig. ) is perhaps the best known example. we also find it in the brazilian flag (fig. ), the mexican (fig. ), in the hungarian tricolor (fig. ), and in figs. , , , the flags { } of smaller german states, but it is more especially associated with mohammedan states, as in figs. , , , . black is found but seldom, but as heraldic requirements necessitate that it should be combined either with white or yellow, it is, when seen, exceptionally brilliant and effective. we see it, for example, in the royal standard of spain, (fig. ), in figs. and , flags of the german empire, in fig. , the imperial standard of russia, and in fig. , the brilliant tricolor of the belgians.[ ] in orthodox flags anything of the nature of an inscription is very seldom seen. we find a reference to order and progress on the brazilian flag (fig. ), while the turkish imperial standard (fig. ) bears on its scarlet folds the monogram of the sultan; but these exceptions are rare.[ ] we have seen that, on the contrary, on the flags of insurgents and malcontents the inscription often counts for much. on the alteration of the style in the year this necessary change was made the subject of much ignorant reproach of the government of the day, and was used as a weapon of party warfare. an amusing instance of this feeling occurs in the first plate of hogarth's election series, where a malcontent, or perhaps only a man anxious to earn a shilling, carries a big flag inscribed, "give us back our eleven days." the flags of the covenanters often bore mottoes or texts. fig. is a curious example: the flag hoisted by the crew of h.m.s. _niger_ when they opposed the mutineers in at sheerness. it is preserved in the royal united service museum. it is, as we have seen, ordinarily the insubordinate and rebellious who break out into inscriptions of more or less piety or pungency, but we may conclude that the loyal sailors fighting under the royal flag adopted this device in addition as one means the more of fighting the rebels with their own weapons. during the civil war between the royalists and parliamentarians, we find a great use made of flags inscribed with mottoes. thus, on one we see five hands stretching at a crown defended by an armed hand issuing from a cloud, and the motto, "reddite cæsari." in another we see an angel with a flaming sword treading a dragon underfoot, and the motto, "quis ut deus," while yet another is inscribed, "courage pour la cause." on a fourth we find an ermine, and the motto, "malo mori quam foedari"--"it is better to die than { } to be sullied," in allusion to the old belief that the ermine would die rather than soil its fur. hence it is the emblem of purity and stainless honour. the blood-red flag is the symbol of mutiny and of revolution. as a sign of disaffection it was twice, at the end of last century, displayed in the royal navy. a mutiny broke out at portsmouth in april, , for an advance of pay; an act of parliament was passed to sanction the increase of expenditure, and all who were concerned in it received the royal pardon, but in june of the same year, at sheerness, the spirit of disaffection broke out afresh, and on its suppression the ringleaders were executed. it is characteristic that, aggrieved as these seamen were against the authorities, when the king's birthday came round, on june th, though the mutiny was then at its height, the red flags were lowered, the vessels gaily dressed in the regulation bunting, and a royal salute was fired. having thus demonstrated their real loyalty to their sovereign, the red flags were re-hoisted, and the dispute with the admiralty resumed in all its bitterness. the white flag is the symbol of amity and of good will; of truce amidst strife, and of surrender when the cause is lost. the yellow flag betokens infectious illness, and is displayed when there is cholera, yellow fever, or such like dangerous malady on board ship, and it is also hoisted on quarantine stations. the black flag signifies mourning and death; one of its best known uses in these later days is to serve as an indication after an execution that the requirements of the law have been duly carried out. honour and respect are expressed by "dipping" the flag. at any parade of troops before the sovereign the regimental flags are lowered as they pass the saluting point, and at sea the colours are dipped by hauling them smartly down from the mast-head and then promptly replacing them. they must not be suffered to remain at all stationary when lowered, as a flag flying half-mast high is a sign of mourning for death, for defeat, or for some other national loss, and it is scarcely a mark of honour or respect to imply that the arrival of the distinguished person is a cause of grief or matter for regret. in time of peace it is an insult to hoist the flag of one friendly nation above another, so that each flag must be flown from its own staff. even as early as the reign of alfred england claimed the sovereignty of the seas. edward iii. is more identified with our early naval glories than any other english king; he was styled "king of the seas," a name of which he appears to have been very proud, and in his coinage of gold nobles he represented himself with shield and sword, and standing in a ship "full royally { } apparelled." he fought on the seas under many disadvantages of numbers and ships: in one instance until his ship sank under him, and at all times as a gallant englishman. if any commander of an english vessel met the ship of a foreigner, and the latter refused to salute the english flag, it was enacted that such ship, if taken, was the lawful prize of the captain. a very notable example of this punctilious insistance on the respect to the flag arose in may, , when a spanish fleet of one hundred and sixty sail, escorting the king on his way to england to his marriage with queen mary, fell in with the english fleet under the command of lord howard, lord high admiral. philip would have passed the english fleet without paying the customary honours, but the signal was at once made by howard for his twenty-eight ships to prepare for action, and a round shot crashed into the side of the vessel of the spanish admiral. the hint was promptly taken, and the whole spanish fleet struck their colours as homage to the english flag. in the year the combined fleets of france and holland determined to dispute this claim of great britain, but on announcing their intention of doing so an english fleet was at once dispatched, whereupon they returned to their ports and decided that discretion was preferable even to valour. in , on the conclusion of peace between england and holland, the dutch consented to acknowledge the english supremacy of the seas, the article in the treaty declaring that "the ships of the dutch--as well ships of war as others--meeting any of the ships of war of the english, in the british seas, shall strike their flags and lower their topsails in such manner as hath ever been at any time heretofore practised." after another period of conflict it was again formally yielded by the dutch in . political changes are responsible for many variations in flags, and the wear and tear of time soon renders many of the devices obsolete. on turning, for instance, to nories' "maritime flags of all nations," a little book published in , many of the flags are at once seen to be now out of date. the particular year was one of exceptional political agitation, and the author evidently felt that his work was almost old-fashioned even on its issue. "the accompanying illustrations," he says, "having been completed prior to the recent revolutionary movements on the continent of europe, it has been deemed expedient to issue the plate in its present state, rather than adopt the various tri-coloured flags, which cannot be regarded as permanently established in the present unsettled state of political affairs." the russian american company's flag, fig. , that of the states of the church, of the kingdom of sardinia, the turkish imperial standard, fig. , and many others { } that he gives, are all now superseded. for venice he gives two flags, that for war and that for the merchant service. in each case the flag is scarlet, having a broad band of blue, which we may take to typify the sea, near its lower edge. from this rises in gold the winged lion of st. mark, having in the war ensign a sword in his right paw, and in the peaceful colours of commerce a cross. of thirty-five "flags of all nations," given as a supplement to the _illustrated london news_ in , we note that eleven are now obsolete: the east india company, for instance, being now extinct, the ionian islands ceded to greece, tuscany and naples absorbed into italy, and so forth. in figs. and we have examples of early spanish flags, and in and of portuguese, each and all being taken from a very quaint map of the year . this map may be said to be practically the countries lying round the atlantic ocean, giving a good slice of africa, a portion of the mediterranean basin, the british isles, most of south america, a little of north america, the west indies,[ ] etc., the object of the map being to show the division that pope alexander vi. kindly made between those faithful daughters of the church--spain and portugal--of all the unclaimed portions of the world. figs. and are types of flags flying on various spanish possessions, while figs. and are placed at different points on the map where portugal held sway. on one place in africa we see that no. is surmounted by a white flag bearing the cross of st. george, so we may conclude that--pope alexander notwithstanding--england captured it from the portuguese. at one african town we see the black men dancing round the portuguese flag, while a little way off three of their brethren are hanging on a gallows, showing that civilization had set in with considerable severity there. the next illustration on this plate (fig. ) is taken from a sheet of flags published in ; it represents the "guiny company's ensign," a trading company, like the east india, fig. , now no longer in existence. fig. is the flag of savoy, an ancient sovereignty that, within the memory of many of our readers, has expanded into the kingdom of italy. the break up of the napoleonic _régime_ in france, the crushing out of the confederate states in north america, the dismissal from the throne of the emperor of brazil, have all, within comparatively recent years, led to the superannuation and disestablishment of a goodly number of flags and their final disappearance. we propose now to deal with the flags of the various nationalities, commencing, naturally, with those of our own country. { } we were told by a government official that the universal code of signals issued by england had led to a good deal of heartburning, as it is prefaced by a plate of the various national flags, the union flag of great britain and ireland being placed first. but until some means can be devised by which each nationality can head the list, some sort of precedence seems inevitable. at first sight it seems as though susceptibilities might be saved by adopting an alphabetical arrangement, but this is soon found to be a mistake, as it places such powerful states as russia and the united states nearly at the bottom of the list. a writer, von rosenfeld, who published a book on flags in vienna in , very naturally adopted this arrangement, but the calls of patriotism would not even then allow him to be quite consistent, since he places his material as follows:--austria, annam, argentine, belgium, bolivia, and so forth, where it is evident annam should lead the world and austria be content to come in third. apart from the difficulty of asking spain, for instance, to admit that bulgaria was so much in front of her, or to expect japan to allow china so great a precedence as the alphabetical arrangement favours, a second obstacle is found in the fact that the names of these various states as we englishmen know them are not in many cases those by which they know themselves or are known by others. thus a frenchman would be quite content with the alphabetical arrangement that in english places his beloved country before germany, but the teuton would at once claim precedence, declaring that deutschland must come before "la belle france," and the espagnol would not see why he should be banished to the back row just because we choose to call him a spaniard. in the meantime, pending the millenium, the flag that more than three hundred millions of people, the wide world over, look up to as the symbol of justice and liberty, will serve very well as a starting point, and then the great daughter across the western ocean, that sprung from the old home, shall claim a worthy place next in our regard. the continent of europe must clearly come next, and such american nationalities as lie outside the united states, together with asia and africa, will bring up the rear. * * * * * { } chapter ii. the royal standard--the three lions of england--the lion rampant of scotland--scottish sensitiveness as to precedence--the scottish tressure--the harp of ireland--early irish flags--brian boru--the royal standards from richard i. to victoria--claim to the fleurs-de-lys of france--quartering hanover--the union flag--st. george for england--war cry--observance of st. george's day--the cross of st. george--early naval flags--the london trained bands--the cross of st. andrew--the "blue blanket"--flags of the covenanters--relics of st. andrew--union of england and scotland--the first union flag--importance of accuracy in representations of it--the union jack--flags of the commonwealth and protectorate--union of great britain and ireland--the cross of st. patrick--labours of st. patrick in ireland--proclamation of george iii. as to flags, etc.--the second union flag--heraldic difficulties in its construction--suggestions by critics--regulations as to fortress flags--the white ensign of the royal navy--saluting the flag--the navy the safeguard of britain--the blue ensign--the royal naval reserve--the red ensign of the mercantile marine--value of flag-lore. foremost amongst the flags of the british empire the royal standard takes its position as the symbol of the tie that unites all into one great state. its glowing blazonry of blue and scarlet and gold is brought before us in fig. . the three golden lions on the scarlet ground are the device of england, the golden harp on the azure field is the device of ireland, while the ruddy lion rampant on the field of gold[ ] stands for scotland. it may perhaps appear to some of our readers that the standard of the empire should not be confined to such narrow limits; that the great dominion of canada, india, australia, the ever-growing south africa, might justly claim a place. precedent, too, might be urged, since in previous reigns, nassau, hanover, and other states have found a resting-place in its folds, and there is much to be said in favour of a wider representation of the greater component parts of our world-wide empire; but two great practical difficulties arise: the first is that the grand simplicity of the flag would be lost if eight or ten different devices were substituted for the three; and secondly, it would very possibly give rise to a good deal of jealousy and ill-feeling, since it would be impossible to introduce all. as it at present stands, it represents the central home of the empire, the little historic seed-plot from whence all else has sprung, and to which all turn their eyes as the { } centre of the national life. all equally agree to venerate the dear mother land, but it is perhaps a little too much to expect that the people of jamaica or hong kong would feel the same veneration for the beaver and maple-leaves of canada, the golden sun of india, or the southern cross of australasia. as it must clearly be all or none, it seems that only one solution of the problem, the present one, is possible. in the same way the union flag (fig. ) is literally but the symbol of england, scotland, and ireland, but far and away outside its primary significance, it floats on every sea the emblem of that greater britain in which all its sons have equal pride, and where all share equal honour as brethren of one family. the earliest royal standard bore but the three lions of england, and we shall see presently that in different reigns various modifications of its blazonry arose, either the result of conquest or of dynastic possessions. thus figs. and , though they bear a superficial likeness, tell a very different story; the first of these, that of george iii., laying claim in its fourth quartering to lordship over hanover and other german states, and in its second quarter to the entirely shadowy and obsolete claim over france, as typified by the golden fleurs-de-lys on the field of azure. how the three lions of england arose is by no means clear. two lions were assigned as the arms of william the conqueror, but there is no real evidence that he bore them. heraldry had not then become a definite science, and when it did a custom sprang up of assigning to those who lived and died before its birth certain arms, the kindly theory being that such persons, had they been then living, would undoubtedly have borne arms, and that it was hard, therefore, that the mere accident of being born a hundred years too soon should debar them from possessing such recognition of their rank. even so late as henry ii. the bearing is still traditional, and it is said that on his marriage with alianore, eldest daughter of william, duke of aquitaine and guienne, he incorporated with his own two lions the single lion that (it is asserted) was the device of his father-in-law. all this, however, is theory and surmise, and we do not really find ourselves on the solid ground of fact until we come to the reign of richard coeur-de-lion. upon his second great seal we have the three lions just as they are represented in figs. , , , and as they have been borne for centuries by successive sovereigns on their arms, standards, and coinage, and as our readers may see them this day on the royal standard and on much of the money they may take out of their pockets. the date of this great seal of king richard is a.d., so we have, at all events, a period of over seven hundred years, waiving a break during the commonwealth, in which the three golden lions on their scarlet field have typified the might of england. { } the rampant lion within the tressure, the device of scotland--seen in the second quarter of our royal standard, fig. --is first seen on the great seal of king alexander ii., about a.d. , and the same device, without any modification of colour or form[ ] was borne by all the sovereigns of scotland, and on the accession of james to the throne of the united kingdom, in the year , the ruddy lion ramping on the field of gold became an integral part of the standard. the scotch took considerable umbrage at their lion being placed in the second place, while the lions of england were placed first, as they asserted that scotland was a more ancient kingdom than england, and that in any case, on the death of queen elizabeth of england, the scottish monarch virtually annexed the southern kingdom to his own, and kindly undertook to get the southerners out of a dynastic difficulty by looking after the interests of england as well as ruling scotland. this feeling of jealousy was so bitter and so potent that for many years after the union, on all seals peculiar to scottish business and on the flags displayed north of the tweed, the arms of scotland were placed in the first quarter. it was also made a subject of complaint that in the union flag the cross of st. george is placed over that of st. andrew (see figs. , , ), and that the lion of england acted as the dexter support of the royal shield instead of giving place to the scottish unicorn. one can only be thankful that irish patriots have been too sensible or too indifferent to insist upon yet another modification, requiring that whensoever and wheresoever the royal standard be hoisted in the emerald isle the irish harp should be placed in the first quarter. while it is clearly impossible to place the device of each nationality first, it is very desirable and, in fact, essential, that the national arms and the royal standard should be identical in arrangement in all parts of the kingdom. the notion of unity would be very inadequately carried out if we had a london version for buckingham palace, an edinburgh version for holyrood, and presently found the isle of saints and "gallant little wales" insisting on two other variants, and the isle of man in insurrection because it was not allowed precedence of all four. even so lately as the year , on the issue of the florin, the old jealousy blazed up again. a statement was drawn up and presented to lord lyon, king of arms, setting forth anew the old grievances of the lions in the standard and the crosses in the flag of the union, and adding that "the new two-shilling { } piece, called a florin, which has lately been issued, bears upon the reverse four crowned shields, the first or uppermost being the three lions passant of england; the second, or right hand proper, the harp of ireland; the third, or left hand proper, the lion rampant of scotland; the fourth, or lower, the three lions of england repeated. your petitioners beg to direct your lordship's attention to the position occupied by the arms of scotland upon this coin, which are placed in the third shield instead of the second, a preference being given to the arms of ireland over those of this kingdom." it is curious that this document tacitly drops claim to the first place. probably most of our readers--scotch, irish, or english--feel but little sense of grievance in the matter, and are quite willing, if the coin be an insult, to pocket it. the border surrounding the lion is heraldically known as the tressure. the date and the cause of its introduction are lost in antiquity. the mythical story is that it was added by achaius, king of scotland, in the year , in token of alliance with charlemagne, but in all probability these princes scarcely knew of the existence of each other. the french and the scotch have often been in alliance, and there can be little doubt but that the fleurs-de-lys that adorn the tressure point to some such early association of the two peoples; an ancient writer, nisbet, takes the same view, as he affirms that "the tressure fleurie encompasses the lyon of scotland to show that he should defend the flower-de-luses, and these to continue a defence to the lyon." the first authentic illustration of the tressure in the arms of scotland dates from the year . in the reign of james iii., in the year it was "ordaint that in tyme to cum thar suld be na double tresor about his armys, but that he suld ber armys of the lyoun, without ony mur." if this ever took effect it must have been for a very short time. we have seen no example of it. ireland joined england and scotland in political union on january st, , but its device--the harp--was placed on the standard centuries before by right of conquest. the first known suggestion for a real union on equal terms was made in the year in a pamphlet entitled "the generall junto, or the councell of union; chosen equally out of england, scotland, and ireland for the better compacting of these nations into one monarchy. by h. p." this h. p. was one henry parker. fifty copies only of this tract were issued, and those entirely for private circulation. "to persuade to union and commend the benefit of it"--says the author--"will be unnecessary. _divide et impera_ (divide and rule) is a fit saying for one who aims at the dissipation and perdition of his country. honest counsellors have ever given contrary advice. england and ireland are inseparably knit; no severance is possible { } but such as shall be violent and injurious. ireland is an integral member of the kingdom of england: both kingdoms are coinvested and connexed, not more undivided than wales or cornwall." the conquest of ireland was entered upon in the year , in the reign of henry ii., but was scarcely completed until the surrender of limerick in . until it was styled not the kingdom but the lordship of ireland. an early standard of ireland has three golden crowns on a blue field, and arranged over each other as we see the english lions placed; and a commission appointed in the reign of edward iv., to enquire what really were the arms of ireland, reported in favour of the three crowns. the early irish coinage bears these three crowns upon it, as on the coins of henry v. and his successors. henry viii. substituted the harp on the coins, but neither crowns nor harps nor any other device for ireland appear in the royal standard until the year , after which date the harp has remained in continuous use till the present day. in the harleian ms., no. in the british museum, we find the statement that "the armes of irland is gules iij old harpes gold, stringed argent" (as in fig. ), and on the silver coinage for ireland of queen elizabeth the shield bears these three harps. at her funeral ireland was represented by a blue flag having a crowned harp of gold upon it, and james i. adopted this, but without the crown, as a quartering in his standard: its first appearance on the royal standard of england. why henry viii. substituted the harp for the three crowns is not really known. some would have us believe that the king was apprehensive that the three crowns might be taken as symbolising the triple crown of the pope; while others suggest that henry, being presented by the pope with the supposed harp of brian boru, was induced to change the arms of ireland by placing on her coins the representation of this relic of her most celebrated native king. the earl of northampton, writing in the reign of james i., suggests yet a third explanation. "the best reason," saith he, "that i can observe for the bearing thereof is, it resembles that country in being such an instrument that it requires more cost to keep it in tune than it is worth."[ ] { } the royal standard should only be hoisted when the sovereign or some member of the royal family is actually within the palace or castle, or at the saluting point, or on board the vessel where we see it flying, though this rule is by no means observed in practice. the only exception really permitted to this is that on certain royal anniversaries it is hoisted at some few fortresses at home and abroad that are specified in the queen's regulations. the royal standard of england was, we have seen, in its earliest form a scarlet flag, having three golden lions upon it, and it was so borne by richard i., john, henry iii., edward i., and edward ii. edward iii. also bore it for the first thirteen years of his reign, so that this simple but beautiful flag was the royal banner for over one hundred and fifty years. edward iii., on his claim in the year to be king of france as well as of england, quartered the golden fleurs-de-lys of that kingdom with the lions of england.[ ] this remained the royal standard throughout the rest of his long reign. throughout the reign of richard ii. ( to ) the royal banner was divided in half by an upright line, all on the outer half being like that of edward iii., while the half next the staff was the golden cross and martlets on the blue ground, assigned to edward the confessor, his patron saint, as shown in fig. . on the accession of henry iv. to the throne, the cross and martlets disappeared, and he reverted to the simple quartering of france and england. originally the fleurs-de-lys were scattered freely over the field, _semée_ or sown, as it is termed heraldically, so that besides several in the centre that showed their complete form, others at the margin were more or less imperfect. on turning to fig. , an early french flag, we see this disposition of them very clearly. charles v. of france in the year reduced the number to three, as in fig. , whereupon henry iv. of england followed suit; his royal standard is shown in fig. . this remained the royal standard throughout the reigns of henry v., henry vi., edward iv., edward v., richard iii., henry vii., henry viii., edward vi., mary and elizabeth--a period of two hundred years. on the accession of the house of stuart, the flag was rearranged. its first and fourth quarters were themselves quartered again, these small quarterings being the french fleur-de-lys and the english lions; while the second quarter was the lion of scotland, and the third the irish harp; the first appearance of either of these latter kingdoms in the royal standard. this form remained in use throughout the reigns of james i., charles i., charles ii., and james ii. the last semblance of dominion in france had long { } since passed away, but it will be seen that alike on coinage, arms, and standard the fiction was preserved, and londoners may see at whitehall the statue still standing of james ii., bearing on its pedestal the inscription--"_jacobus secundus dei gratia angliæ, scotiæ, franciæ et hiberniæ rex_." during the protectorate, both the union flag and the standard underwent several modifications, but the form that the personal standard of cromwell finally assumed may be seen in fig. , where the cross of st. george for england, st. andrew for scotland, and the harp for ireland, symbolise the three kingdoms, while over all, on a shield, are placed the personal arms of the protector--a silver lion rampant on a sable field. william iii., on his landing in england, displayed a standard which varied in many respects from those of his royal predecessors, since it contained not only the arms themselves, but these were represented as displayed on an escutcheon, surmounted by the crown, and supported on either side by the lion and unicorn. above all this was the inscription "for the protestant religion and the liberties of england,"[ ] while beneath it was "je maintiendray." the arms on the shield are too complex for adequate description without the aid of a diagram; suffice it to say that in addition to the insignia of england, scotland, ireland, and france, were eight others dealing with the devices of smaller continental possessions appertaining to the new monarch. when matters had settled down and his throne was assured, the aggressive inscription, etc., disappeared, and the royal standard of william and his consort mary, the daughter of king james, reverted to the form used by the stuart sovereigns, plus in the centre a small escutcheon bearing the arms of nassau, these being a golden lion rampant, surrounded by golden billets, upon a shield of azure. the royal standard of queen anne bore the devices of england, scotland, ireland, and france. on the accession of george i. the arms of hanover were added, and from to the flag was as shown in fig. . the flag of anne was very similar to this, only instead of hanover in the fourth quarter, the arms of england and scotland, as we see them in the first quarter, were simply repeated in the fourth. the hanoverian quarter, fig. , was made up as follows:--the two lions on the red field are the device of brunswick; the blue lion rampant, surrounded by the red hearts, is the device of lunenburg; the galloping white horse is for saxony; and over all is the golden crown of charlemagne as an indication of the claim set up of being the successor of that potent sovereign. the horse { } of saxony is said to have been borne sable by the early kings, previous to the conversion to christianity of witekind, a.d. . verstigan, however, tells us that the ensign of hengist at the time of the invasion of england by the saxons was a leaping white horse on a red ground. the white horse is still the county badge for kent. the flag, as we see it in fig. , was that of george i. and george ii., and remained in use until the forty-second year of the reign of george iii. on january nd, , the fleurs-de-lys of france were at length removed, and the flag had its four quarters as follows:--first and fourth england, second scotland, and third ireland; the arms of hanover being placed on a shield in the centre of the flag. this remained the royal standard during the rest of the reign of george iii., and throughout the reigns of george iv. and william iv. on the accession of victoria the operation of the salique law severed the connexion of hanover with england, and the present royal standard is as shown in fig. , being in its arrangement similar to that of george iv. and william iv., except that the small central shield, bearing the arms of hanover, is now removed.[ ] we turn now to the national flag. as the feudal constitution of the fighting force passed away, the use of private banners disappeared, and men, instead of coming to the field as the retainers of some great nobleman and fighting under his leadership and beneath his flag, were welded into a national army under the direct command of the king and such leaders as he might appoint. the days when a great noble could change the fortunes of the day by withdrawing his vassals or transferring himself and them, on the eve of the fight, to the opposing party, were over, and men fought no longer in the interests of warwick or of percy, but in the cause of england and beneath the banner of st. george, the national patron saint. "thou, amongst those saints whom thou dost see, shall be a saint, and thine own nation's frend and patron: thou saint george shalt called bee, saint george of mery england, the sign of victoree."[ ] { } at the siege of antioch, according to robertus monachus, a benedictine of rheims who flourished about the year , and wrote a history of the crusade, "our souldiers being wearied with the long continuance of the battaile, and seeing that the number of enemies decreased not, began to faint; when suddenly an infinite number of heavenly souldiers all in white descended from the mountains, the standard-bearer and leaders of them being saint george, saint maurice, and saint demetrius, which when the bishop of le puy first beheld he cryed aloud unto his troopes, 'there are they (saith he) the succours which in the name of god i promised to you.' the issue of the miracle was this, that presently the enemies did turne their backs and lost the field: these being slaine, , horse, beside foot innumerable, and in their trenches such infinite store of victuals and munition found that served not only to refresh the wearied christians, but to confound the enemy." this great victory at antioch led to the recovery of jerusalem. at the crusades england, arragon, and portugal all assumed st. george as their patron saint. throughout the middle ages the war-cry of the english was the name of this patron saint. "the blyssed and holy martyr saynt george is patron of this realme of englande, and the crye of men of warre," we read in the "golden legend," and readers of shakespeare will readily recall illustrations. thus in "king richard ii." we read:-- "sound drums and trumpets, boldly and cheerfully, god and st. george! richard and victory." or again in "king henry v." where the king at the siege of harfleur cries, "the game's afoot, follow your spirit, and upon this charge cry, god for harry, england, and st. george!" while in "king henry vi." we find the line, "then strike up, drums--god and st. george for us!"[ ] at the battle of poitiers, september th, , upon the advance of the english, the constable of france threw himself, lingard tells us, across their path with the battle shout, "mountjoy, st. denis," which was at once answered by "st. george, st. george," and in the onrush of the english the duke and the greater part of his { } followers were swept away, and in a few minutes slain. in an interesting old poem on the siege of rouen in , written by an eye-witness, we read that on the surrender of the city, "whanne the gate was openyd there and thay weren ready in to fare, trumpis blew ther bemys of bras, pipis and clarionys forsoothe ther was. and as they entrid thay gaf a schowte with ther voyce that was full stowte, seint george! seint george! thay criden on height and seide, welcome oure kynges righte!" we have before us, as we write, "the story of that most blessed saint and souldier of christ jesus, st. george of cappadocia," as detailed by peter heylyn, and published in , and the temptation to quote at length from it is great, as it is full of most interesting matter, but into the history of st. george space forbids us to go at any length. the author of the "seven champions of christendom" makes st. george to be born of english parentage at coventry, but for this there is no authority whatever, and all other writers make cappadocia his birthplace. the history of st. george is more obscure than that of any name of equal eminence in the calendar. according to the "acta sanctorum" he was the son of noble parents, became famous as a soldier, and, embracing christianity, was tortured to death at nicomedia in the year . "the hero won his well-earned place, amid the saints, in death's dread hour; and still the peasant seeks his grave, and, next to god, reveres his power. in many a church his form is seen, with sword, and shield, and helmet sheen; ye know him by his shield of pride, and by the dragon at his side." as patron saint, the dragon vanquisher is still seen on our crowns and sovereigns, and reference to such a book as ruding's history of our coinage will show that it has for centuries been a popular device. in , on st. george's day, frederic of austria instituted an order of knighthood and placed it under the guardianship of the soldier-saint, and its white banner, bearing the ruddy cross, floated in battle alongside that of the empire. in like manner on st. george's day, in the year , edward iii. of england instituted the order of the garter with great solemnity. { } st. george's day, april rd, has too long been suffered to pass almost unregarded. the annual festivals of st. andrew, st. patrick, and st. david are never overlooked by the members of the various nationalities, and it seems distinctly a thing to be regretted that the englishman should allow the name day of his patron saint to pass unnoticed.[ ] whatever conduces to the recognition of national life is valuable, and anything that reminds englishmen of their common ties and common duties--and reminds them, too, of their glorious heritage in the past--should scarcely be allowed to fall into disuse. butler, in his "lives of the fathers and martyrs," tell us that at the great national council, held at oxford in , it was commanded that the feast of st. george should be kept. in the year , by the constitutions of archbishop chichely, st. george's day was made one of the greater feasts and ordered to be observed the same as christmas day. in a special collect, epistle, and gospel were prepared, and at the reformation, when many of the saints' days were swept away, this was preserved with all honour, and it was not till the sixth year of the reign of edward vi., when another revision was made, that in "the catalogue of such festivals as are to be observed" st. george's day was omitted. the cross of st. george was worn as a badge,[ ] over the armour, by every english soldier in the fourteenth and subsequent centuries, even if the custom did not prevail at a much earlier period. the following extract from the ordinances made for the government of the army with which richard ii. invaded scotland in , is a good illustration of this, wherein it is ordered "that everi man of what estate, condicion, or nation thei be of, so that he be of owre partie, here a signe of the armes of saint george, large, bothe before and behynde, upon parell that yf he be slayne or wounded to deth, he that hath so doon to hym shall not be putte to deth for defaulte of the cross that he lacketh. and that non enemy do bere the same token or crosse of saint george, notwithstandyng if he be prisoner, upon payne of deth." it was the flag of battle, and we see it represented in the old prints and illuminations that deal with military operations both on land and sea. ordinarily it is the cross of st. george, pure and simple, as shown in fig. , while at { } other times, as in figs. , , , it forms a portion only of the flag. the red cross on the white field was the flag under which the great seamen of elizabeth's reign traded, explored, or fought; the flag that drake bore round the world--that frobisher unfolded amidst the arctic solitudes--that gallant englishmen, the wide world over, bore at the call of duty and died beneath, if need be, for the honour of the old home land; and to this day the flag of the english admiral is the same simple and beautiful device, and the white ensign of the british navy, fig. , is similar, except that it bears, in addition, the union; while the union flag itself, fig. , bears conspicuously the ruddy cross of the warrior saint. figs. , , and are all sea-pennants bearing the cross of st. george. the first of these is from a painting of h.m.s. _tiger_, painted by van de velde, while fig. is flying from one of the ships represented in the picture by volpe of the embarkation of henry viii. from dover on his way to the field of the cloth of gold. fig. is from a picture of h.m.s. _lion_, engaging the french ship _elisabethe_, on july th, , the latter being fitted out to escort the young pretender to scotland. though the red, white, and blue stripes suggest the french tricolor, their employment in the pennant has, of course, no reference to france. the _lion_ had at the foremast the plain red streamer seen at fig. . fig. is the pennant flown at the present day by all colonial armed vessels, while the pennant of the royal navy is purely white, with the exception of the cross of st. george. in a picture by van de velde, the property of the queen, representing a sea fight on august th, , between the english, french, and dutch, we see some of the vessels with streamers similar to fig. , thus ante-dating the colonial flag by over two hundred years. as we have at the present time the white ensign, fig. , the special flag of the royal navy; the blue ensign, fig. , the distinguishing flag of the royal naval reserve; and the red ensign, fig. , the flag of the merchant service, each with the union in the upper corner next the mast, so in earlier days we find the white flag, fig. , the red flag, fig. , and the blue, each having in the upper corner the cross of st. george. fig. becomes, by the addition of the blue, a curious modification of fig. . it is from a sea piece of the sixteenth century. it was displayed at the poop of a vessel, while fig. is the jack on the bowsprit. a hundred years ago or so, we may see that there was a considerable variety in the flags borne by our men-o'-war. such galleries as those at hampton court or greenwich afford many examples of this in the pictures there displayed. in a picture of a battle off dominica, on april th, , we find, one of the english { } ships has two great square flags on the foremast, the upper one being plain red, and the lower one half blue and half white in horizontal stripes, while the main mast is surmounted by the cross of st. george, and below it a tricolor of red, white, and blue in horizontal stripes. other ships show equally curious variations, though we need not stop to detail them, except that in one case both fore and mizen masts are surmounted by plain red flags. in a picture of rodney's action off cape st. vincent, on january th, , we meet with all these flags again. in the representation of an action between an english and french fleet on may rd, , off cape finisterre, we notice that the english ships have a blue ensign at the poop, and one of them has a great plain blue flag at the foremast, and a great plain red flag at the main-mast head. in a picture of the taking of portobello, november st, , we notice the same thing again. these plain surfaces of blue or red are very curious. it will naturally occur to the reader that these are signal flags, but anyone seeing the pictures would scarcely continue to hold that view, as their large size precludes the idea. in the picture of h.m.s. _tiger_ that we have already referred to, the flag with five red stripes that we have represented in fig. is at the poop, while from the bow is hoisted a flag of four stripes, and from the three mastheads are flags, having three red stripes. these striped red and white flags may often be seen. perhaps the most extraordinary grouping of flags may be seen in a picture of a naval review in the reign of george i. it was on exhibition at the great naval exhibition at chelsea, and is in private ownership. all the vessels are dressed in immense flags, and these are of the most varied description. it must be borne in mind that these are government bunting, not the irresponsible vagaries of private eccentricity. besides the reasonable and orthodox flags, such as those represented in figs. , , and others of equal propriety, we find one striped all over in red, white, blue, red, white, blue, in six horizontal stripes. another, with a yellow cross on a white ground; a third, a white eagle on a blue field; another, a red flag inscribed--"for the protestant religion and the liberty of england"; while another is like fig. , only instead of having a red cross on white, it has a blue one instead. an altogether strange assortment. figs. , , , and are flags of the london trained bands of the year . the different regiments were known by the colour of their flags, thus fig. is the flag of the blue regiment, fig. of the yellow, fig. of the green, and fig. of the yellow regiment auxiliaries. other flags were as follows:--white, with red lozenges; green, with golden wavy rays; orange, with white trefoils; in each case the cross of st. george being in the canton. { } in a list before us of the edinburgh trained bands for we find that the different bodies are similarly distinguished by colours.[ ] on the union of the two crowns at the accession of james vi. of scotland and i. of england to the english throne, the cross of st. andrew, fig. , was combined with that of st. george. the cross of st. andrew has been held in the same high esteem north of the tweed that the southrons have bestowed on the ensign of st. george. it will be seen that it is shaped like the letter x. tradition hath it that the saint, deeming it far too great an honour to be crucified as was his lord, gained from his persecutors the concession of this variation. it is legendarily asserted that this form of cross appeared in the sky to achaius, king of the scots, the night before a great battle with athelstane, and, being victorious, he went barefoot to the church of st. andrew, and vowed to adopt his cross as the national device. the sacred monogram that replaced the roman eagles under constantine, the cross on the flag of denmark, the visions of joan of arc, and many other suchlike illustrations, readily occur to one's mind as indicative of the natural desire to see the potent aid of heaven visibly manifested in justification of earthly ambitions, or a celestial support and encouragement in time of national discomfiture. figs. and are examples of the scottish red and blue ensigns. the first of these is from a picture at hampton court, where a large scottish warship is represented as having a flag of this character at the main, and smaller but similar colours at the other mastheads and on the bowsprit. the famous banner, the historic "blue blanket," borne by the scots in the crusades, was on its return deposited over the altar of st. eloi in st. giles' church, edinburgh, and the queen of james ii., we read, painted on its field of azure the white cross of st. andrew, the crown, and the thistle. st. eloi was the patron saint of blacksmiths, and this craft was made the guardian of the flag, and it became the symbol of the associated trades of ancient edinburgh. king james vi., when venting his indignation against his too independent subjects, exclaimed, "the craftsmen think we should be contented with their work, and if in anything they be controlled, then up goes the blue blanket." the craftsmen were as independent and difficult to manage as the london trained bands often proved, but king james vi. found it expedient to confirm them in { } all their privileges, and ordered that the flag should at all times be known as the standard of the crafts, and later sovereigns found it impossible to take away these privileges when they had once been granted. this flag was borne at flodden field. beside the cross, crown, and thistle it bore on a scroll on the upper part of the flag the inscription, "fear god and honor the king with a long lyffe and prosperous reigne," and on the lower portion the words, "and we that is trades shall ever pray to be faithfull for the defence of his sacred majesties' persone till deathe," an inscription that scarcely seems to harmonise with the turbulent spirit that scandalised this sovereign so greatly. the flags borne by the covenanters in their struggle for liberty varied much in their details, but in the great majority of cases bore upon them the cross of st. andrew, often accompanied by the thistle, and in most cases by some form of inscription. several of these are still extant. in one that was borne at bothwell brig, and now preserved in the museum of the society of antiquaries, edinburgh, the four blue triangles (see fig. for these) are filled with the words, "for religion----couenants----king----and kingdomes." the avondale flag was a white one, having the cross, white on blue, as in fig. , in the corner. on the field of the flag was the inscription, "avondale for religion, covenant, and king,"[ ] and beneath this a thistle worked in the national green and crimson. a very interesting exhibition of scottish national memorials was held at glasgow in , and many of these old covenant flags were there displayed. at the great heraldic exhibition held in edinburgh in , one of the most interesting things shown was the cavers standard. this is of sage green silk, twelve feet by three. it bears the cross of st. andrew next the staff, and divers other devices are scattered over the rest of the flag. it is in excellent preservation, and its special interest lies in the fact that it is said to have been the standard of james, second earl of douglas and mar, and borne by his son at the battle of otterburn in the year . if this be so it is one of the oldest flags in existence. on the signet-ring of mary queen of scots the white cross of st. andrew is not shown on its usual blue ground, but on a ground striped blue and yellow, the royal colours; in the same way that the st. george's cross is shown in fig. , not on a { } white ground, but on a ground striped white and green, the tudor colours. why st. andrew was selected to be the patron saint of scotland has never been satisfactorily settled.[ ] some uncharitable enquirer has hazarded the explanation that it was because it was this apostle who discovered the lad who had the loaves and fishes. others tell us that one hungus, a pictish prince, dreamt that the saint was to be his champion in a fight just then pending with the men of northumbria, and that a cross--the symbol of the crucifixion of this apostle--appeared in the sky, the celestial omen strengthening the hearts and arms of the men of hungus to such effect that the northumbrians were completely routed. should neither of these explanations appear sufficiently explanatory, we can offer yet a third. on the martyrdom of st. andrew, in the year , at patræ, in achaia, his remains were carefully preserved as relics, but in the year , regulus, one of the greek monks who had them in their keeping, was warned in a vision that the emperor constantine was proposing to translate these remains to constantinople, and that he must at once visit the shrine and remove thence an arm bone, three fingers of the right hand, and a tooth, and carry them away over sea to the west. regulus was much troubled at the vision, but hastened to obey it, so putting the relics into a chest he set sail with some half-dozen other ecclesiastics, to whom he confided the celestial instructions that he had received. after a stormy voyage the vessel was at last dashed upon a rock, and regulus and his companions landed on an unknown shore, and found themselves in a dense and gloomy forest. here they were presently discovered by the aborigines, whose leader listened to their story and gave them land on which to build a church for the glory of god and the enshrining of the relics. this inhospitable shore proved to be that of "caledonia, stern and wild," and the little forest church and hamlet that sprang up around it were the nucleus that thence and to the present day have been known as st. andrews, a thriving, busy town in fife, and for centuries the seat of a bishopric. on july th, , robert the bruce repaired hither and testified his gratitude to god for the victory vouchsafed to the scots at bannockburn by the intercession of st. andrew, guardian of the realm, when thirty thousand scots defeated one hundred thousand englishmen. what st. george could have been doing to allow this, seems a very legitimate question, but we can scarcely wonder that the scots should very gladly appoint so potent a protector their patron, and look to him for succour in all their national difficulties. on the blending of the two kingdoms into one under the { } sovereignty of king james,[ ] it became necessary to devise a new flag that should typify this union and blend together the emblems of the puissant st. george and the no less honoured st. andrew, and the flag represented in fig. was the result--the flag of the united kingdoms of england and scotland, henceforth to be known as great britain. the royal ordinance[ ] ran as follows:--"whereas some difference hath arisen between our subjects of south and north britain, travelling by seas, about the bearing of their flags,--for the avoiding of all such contentions hereafter we have, with the advice of our council, ordered that from henceforth all our subjects of this isle and kingdom of greater britain, and the members thereof, shall bear in their maintop the red cross, commonly called st. george's cross, and the white cross, commonly called st. andrew's cross, joined together, according to a form made by our heralds, and sent by us to our admiral to be published to our said subjects: and in their fore-top our subjects of south britain shall wear the red cross only, as they were wont, and our subjects of north britain in their fore-top the white cross only, as they were accustomed. wherefore we will and command all our subjects to be comparable and obedient to this our order, and that from henceforth they do not use or bear their flags in any other sort, as they will answer the contrary at their peril." such a proclamation was sorely needed, as there was much ill-will and jealousy between the sailors and others of the two nationalities, and the union flag itself, when "our heralds" produced it, did not by any means please the north, and the right to carry in fore-top the st. andrew's cross pure and simple was a concession that failed to conciliate them. the great grievance was that, as we see in fig. , the cross of st. george was placed in front of that of st. andrew, and the scottish privy council, in a letter dated edinburgh, august th, , thus poured forth their feelings:--"most sacred soverayne, a greate nomber of the maisteris of the schippis of this your majesties kingdome hes verie havelie complenit to your majesties counsell, that the forme and patrone of the flagges of schippis sent down heir and command it to be ressavit and used be the subjectis of both kingdomes is verie prejudiciall to the fredome and dignitie of this estate, and wil gif occasioun of reprotche to this natioun quhairevir the said flage sal happin to be worne beyond sea, { } becaus, as your sacred majestie may persave, the scottis croce, callit sanctandrois croce, is twyse divydit, and the inglishe croce, callit sanct george, drawne through the scottis croce, which is thereby obscurit, and no token nor mark to be seene of the scottis armes. this will breid some heit and miscontentment betwix your majesties subjectis, and it is to be feirit that some inconvenientis sall fall oute betwix thame, for our seyfaring men cannot be inducit to resave that flage as it is set down. they have drawne two new drauchtis and patrones as most indifferent for both kingdomes, whiche they presentid to the counsell, and craved our approbation of the same, but we haif reserved that to your majestie's princelie determinatioun, as moir particularlie the erll of mar, who was present, and herd their complaynt, and to whom we haif remittit the discourse and delyverie of that mater, will informe your majestie and let your heynes see the errour of the first patrone and the indifferencie of the two newe drauchties." these draughts are not to be found, nor does it appear that any notice was taken of the complaint. the scottish union flag, as carefully depicted in a scarce little work published in , and entitled "the ensigns, colours, and flags of the ships at sea, belonging to the several princes and states in the world," may be seen in fig. . in it will be noted that the cross of st. andrew is placed in front of that of st. george--anyone comparing figs. and will readily see wherein they differ. though its appearance in a book of sea-flags would seem to imply that such a flag had been made, we know of no other instance of it. fig. was also suggested as a solution of the problem, but here we get false heraldry, the blue in contact with the red, and in any case a rather weak-looking arrangement. the painful truth is that when two persons ride the same animal they cannot both be in front, and no amount of heraldic ingenuity will make two devices on a flag to be of equal value. the position next the staff is accounted more honourable than that remote from it, and the upper portion of the flag is more honourable than the lower.[ ] at first sight it might appear that matters are impartially dealt out in fig. , but the position next the staff is given to st. george, and in the quartered arrangement, fig. , the same holds true. both these were suggestions made at the time the difficulty was felt, but both were discarded in favour of the arrangement shown in fig. . this union flag is not very often met with. it occurrs on one of the great seals of charles ii., and is seen also as a jack on the { } bowsprits of ships in paintings of early naval battles. it may, by good fortune, be seen also on the two colours of the nd regiment that in the year were suspended in st. giles', edinburgh, and a very good illustration of it may be seen in the national gallery, where, in a battle scene by copley, representing the death of major peirson, at st. helier, jersey, on january th, , this union flag is conspicuous in the centre of the picture. we have it again in fig , the original flag of the east india company; the difference between this and the second union flag, made on the admission of ireland's cross of st. patrick, may be very well seen on a comparison of figs. and . we have it again in figs. and , flags of the revolting american colonists before they had thrown off all allegiance to the old country. a knowledge of the history of the flag has not only interest, but is of some little importance. we remember seeing a picture of the sailing of the _mayflower_, in which, by a curious lack of a little technical knowledge, the flag depicted was the union flag of to-day, which did not come into existence until the first year of the present century, whereas the historic event represented in the picture took place in the year . in a fresco in the house of lords, representing charles ii. landing in england,[ ] the artist has introduced a boat bearing the present union flag. in each of these cases it is evident that it should have been the first union--that of england and scotland--that the flag should have testified to. charles i. issued a proclamation on may th, , forbidding any but the royal ships to carry the union flag; all merchantmen, according to their nationality, being required to show either the cross of st. george or that of st. andrew. queen anne, on july th, , required that merchant vessels should fly a red flag "with a union jack described in a canton at the upper corner thereof, next the staff," while the union flag, as before, was reserved for the royal navy. this merchant flag, if we cut out the inscription there shown, would be similar to fig. . this is interesting, because, after many changes, so lately as october th, , it was ordered that the red ensign once again should be the distinguishing flag of the commercial marine; the present flag is given in fig. . it is further interesting because this proclamation of queen anne's is the first time that the term union jack, so far as we are aware, is officially used. technically, our national banner should be called the union flag, though in ordinary parlance it is always called the union jack. { } the latter flag is a diminutive of the former, and the term ought in strictness to be confined to the small union flag flown from the jack-staff on the bowsprit of a ship. the union flag is, besides this, only used as the special distinguishing flag of an admiral of the fleet, when it is hoisted at the main top-gallant mast-head, and when the sovereign is on board a vessel, in which case the royal standard is flown at the main and the union at the mizen. with a white border round it, as in fig. , it is the signal for a pilot: hence this is called the pilot jack. the sea flags now in use are the white, red, and blue ensigns, figs. , , , to be hereafter described, while the union flag is devoted especially to land service, being hoisted on fortresses and government offices, and borne by the troops. why the flag should be called "jack" at all has been the subject of much controversy. it is ordinarily suggested that the derivation is from jacques, the french word for james, the union jack springing into existence under his auspices. why it should be given this french name does not seem very clear, except that many of the terms used in blazonry are french in their origin. it never seems to have been suggested that, granting the reference to king james, the latin jacobus would be a more appropriate explanation, as the latin names of our kings have for centuries supplanted the earlier norman-french on their coins, seals, and documents. several other theories have been broached, of varying degrees of improbability; one of these deriving it from the word "jaque"[ ] (hence our modern jacket), the surcoat worn over the armour in mediæval days. this, we have seen, had the cross of st. george always represented on it; but there is no proof that the jaque was ever worn with the union of the two crosses upon it, so that the derivation breaks down just at the critical point. the present flag came into existence in the reign of king george, but no one ever dreams on this account, or any other, of calling it the union george. on the death of charles i., the partnership between england and scotland was dissolved, and the union flag, fig. , therefore, was disestablished, and was only restored in the general restoration, when the commonwealth and protectorate had run their course, and charles ii. ascended the throne of his forefathers. the earliest commonwealth flag was a simple reversion to the cross of st. george, fig. . at a meeting of the council of state, held on february nd, - , it was "ordered that the ships at sea in service of the state shall onely beare the red crosse { } in a white flag. that the engravings upon the sterne of ye ships shall be the armes of england and ireland in two scutcheons, as is used in the seals, and that a warrant be issued to ye commissioners of ye navy to see it put in execution with all speed." the communication thus ordered to be made to the commissioners was in form a letter from the president of the council as follows:--"to ye commissioners of ye navy.--gentlemen,--there hath beene a report made to the councell by sir henry mildmay of your desire to be informed what is to be borne in the flaggs of those ships that are in the service of the state, and what to be upon the sterne in lieu of the armes formerly thus engraven. upon the consideration of the councell whereof, the councell have resolved that they shall beare the red crosse only in a white flagg, quite through the flagg. and that upon the sterne of the shipps there shall be the red crosse in one escotcheon, and the harpe in one other, being the armes of england and ireland, both escotcheons joyned according to the pattern herewith sent unto you. and you are to take care that these flaggs may be provided with all expedition for the shipps for the summer guard, and that these engraveings may also be altered according to this direction with all possible expedition.--signed in ye name and by order of ye councell of state appointed by authority of parliament.--ol. cromwell, derby house, february rd, ." in a council meeting held on march th, considerably within a month of the one we have just referred to, it is "ordered that the flagg that is to be borne by the admiral, vice-admiral, and rere-admiral be that now presented, viz., the armes of england and ireland in two severall escotcheons in a red flagg, within a compartment."[ ] this arrangement may be seen in fig. . a commonwealth flag that is still preserved at the dockyard, chatham, differs slightly from this. the ground of the flag is red, but the shields are placed directly upon it without any intervening gold border, and around them is placed a large wreath of palm and laurel in dark green colour. in the year an interesting book called the "respublica" was published; the author, sir john prestwich, deriving much of his material from mss. left by an ancestor of his who lived during the interregnum. in this the reader may find full descriptions of many of the flags of the parliamentarians. one of these is much like the chatham example already referred to, except that the ground of the flag is blue, and that outside the shields, but within the wreath, is found the inscription--"_floreat respublica._" { } the flag of the commonwealth was borne to victory at dunbar, worcester, and many another hard-fought field, and under its folds blake, monk, and other gallant leaders gained glorious victories over the dutch and spaniards, and made the english name feared in every sea. "of wind's and water's rage they fearful be, but much more fearful are your flags to see. day, that to those who sail upon the deep, more wish'd for and more welcome is than sleep, they dreaded to behold, lest the sun's light with english streamers should salute their sight."[ ] it was not until the year that scotland was brought under the sway of the commonwealth, and the ordinance for its full union with england and ireland was not promulgated until april th, . somewhat later an order of council recognised the new necessities of the case, and decreed that the standard for the protectorate be as shown in fig. . england and scotland are here represented by their respective crosses, while ireland, instead of having the cross of st. patrick, is represented by the harp. in fig. all three crosses are introduced, but there seems somewhat too much white in this latter flag for an altogether successful effect, and the blue of the irish quarter, balancing the blue of the scottish, is more pleasing. the union flag underwent yet another modification, and instead of being like figs. or , the union flag of james i., fig. , was reverted to, and in the centre of the flag was placed a golden harp--"the armes of england and scotland united, according to the anncient form, with the addicion of the harpe." on the restoration of charles ii. this harp was removed, and ireland does not appear again in the union flag, fig. , until january st, . a pattern farthing of this period--preserved in the magnificent numismatic collection in the british museum--shows on its reverse a three-masted ship: at the stern is a large flag divided vertically, like fig. , into two compartments, the cross of st. george in one and the harp in the other; the main and mizen masts are shown with flags containing st. george's cross only, as in fig. , while the foremast bears a flag with st. andrew's cross upon it, a flag similar to fig. . for nearly fifty years before its rise, and for nearly one hundred and fifty years after the downfall of the protectorate, that is to say from to and from to , the union flag was as shown in fig. , but in the legislative union of ireland with great britain was effected, and a new union flag, the one now in { } use, was devised. this may be seen in fig. , the noblest flag that flies under heaven. though the national flag is primarily just so much silk or bunting, its design and colouring are full of meaning: and though its prime cost may be but a few shillings, its value is priceless, for the national honour is enwrapped in its folds, and the history of centuries is figured in the symbolism of its devices. it represents to us all that patriotism means. it is the flag of freedom and of the greatest empire that the world has ever known. over three hundred millions of people--in quiet english shires, amid canadian snows, on the torrid plains of hindustan, amidst the busy energy of the great australian group of colonies, or the tropical luxuriance of our west indian possessions--are to-day enjoying liberty and peace beneath its shelter. countless thousands have freely given their lives to preserve its blazonry unstained from dishonour and defeat, and it rests with us now to keep the glorious record as unsullied as of old; never to unfurl our union flag in needless strife, but, when once given to the breeze, to emulate the deeds of our forefathers, and to inscribe on its folds fresh records of duty nobly done. how the form known as st. patrick's cross, fig. , became associated with that worthy is not by any means clear. it is not found amongst the emblems of saints, and its use is in defiance of all ecclesiastical tradition and custom, as st. patrick never in the martyrological sense had a cross at all, for though he endured much persecution he was not actually called upon to lay down his life for the faith. it has been suggested, and with much appearance of probability, that the x-like form of cross, both of the irish and of the scotch, is derived from the sacred monogram on the labarum of constantine, where the x is the first letter of the greek word for christ. this symbolic meaning of the form might readily be adopted in the early irish church, and thence be carried by missionaries to scotland. a life of st. patrick was written by probus, who lived in the seventh century, and another by jocelin, a cistercian monk of the twelfth century, and this latter quotes freely from four other lives of the saint that were written by his disciples. st. patrick was born in scotland, near where glasgow now stands. the date of his birth was somewhere near the close of the fourth century, but as to the year authorities differ widely-- , , , and being all given by various biographers.[ ] his father was of good family, and, while the future saint was still under the paternal roof, god manifested to him by divers visions that he was { } destined for the great work of the conversion of ireland, at that time plunged in idolatry. hence he resigned his birthright and social position, and devoted himself entirely to the salvation of these barbarians, suffering at their hands and for their sakes much persecution. he was ordained deacon and priest, and was ultimately made a bishop. he travelled over the whole of ireland founding monasteries and filling the country with churches and schools of piety and learning. animated by a spirit of perfect charity and humility, he demonstrated not only the faith but the spirit of his master, and the result of his forty years of labour was to change ireland from a land of barbarism into a seat of learning and piety, so that it received the title of the island of saints, and was for centuries a land of mental and spiritual light. on the union of the kingdom of great britain with ireland in the year , the following notice was issued by royal authority:--"proclamation, george r.--whereas by the first article of the articles of great britain and ireland it was declared: that the said kingdoms of great britain and ireland should upon this day, being the first day of january, in the year of our lord one thousand eight hundred and one, for ever after be united into one kingdom, by the name of the united kingdom of great britain and ireland: and that the royal style and titles appertaining to the imperial crown of the said united kingdom and its dependencies, and also the ensigns armorial, flags, and banners thereof, should be such as we, by our royal proclamation under the great seal of the said united kingdom should appoint: we have thought fit, by and with the advice of our privy council, to appoint and declare that our royal style and titles shall henceforth be accepted, taken, and used as the same set forth in manner and form following: georgius tertius, dei gratia, britannarium rex, fidei defensor; and in the english tongue by these words: george the third, by the grace of god of the united kingdom of great britain and ireland king, defender of the faith; and that the arms or ensigns armorial of the said united kingdom shall be quarterly: first and fourth, england: second, scotland: third, ireland: and it is our will and pleasure that there shall be borne thereon on an escutcheon of pretence, the arms of our domains in germany, ensigned with the electoral bonnet:[ ] and that the union flag shall be azure, the crosses saltire of st. andrew and st. patrick quarterly, per saltire counterchanged argent and gules: the latter fimbriated of the second, surmounted by the cross of st. george of the third, fimbriated as the saltire." { } the heralds who devised the new flag of the extended union, fig. , have been subjected to a very considerable amount of adverse criticism,[ ] but no one has really been able to suggest a better plan than theirs. it will be noted in the illustration and in every union flag that is made, that the red cross of st. patrick, fig. , is not in the centre of the white cross, fig. , of st. andrew. the scarlet cross of st. george is equally fringed on either side by the white border or fimbriation that represents the original white field, fig. , on which it was placed, and on the addition of the white cross or saltire of st. andrew on its field of blue, fig. , it fitted in very happily. when, however, another x-like cross had to be provided for, on the admission of ireland to the union, a difficulty at once arose. as the irish cross would, according to all rule and fairness, be of the same width on the joint flag as that of st. andrew, the result of placing the second or red x over the first white one would be to entirely obliterate the latter. even then the irish cross would not be rightly rendered, as it should be on a white ground, and by this method it would be on a blue one, while if we placed the irish cross on that of st. andrew, but left a thin line of white on either side, st. andrew's cross would still be obliterated, as the thin fimbriation of white would be the just due of st. patrick, and would not stand for st. andrew at all. besides, scottish indignation would not unjustly be aroused at the idea that their noble white cross should become a mere edging to the symbol of st. patrick. hence the somewhat awkward-looking compromise that breaks the continuity of direction of the arms of the red cross of ireland by its portions being thrown out of the centre of the white oblique bands, so that in each portion the crosses of ireland and scotland are clearly distinguished from each other. this compromise notwithstanding, no more effective or beautiful flag unfolds itself the round world over than the union flag of great britain and ireland. the crosses might have been quartered as we see them in fig. , but it is clearly better to preserve the idea of the unity and blend all three crosses into one composition. no criticism or objection has ever come from ireland as to the union flag, but even so lately as the scotch renewed their grievance against the cross of st. andrew being placed behind that of st. george, "and having a red stripe run through the arms thereof, for which there is no precedent in law or heraldry." if ever an irishman cared to hunt up a grievance, surely here is one at last--the cross of his patron saint "a red stripe"! { } when the union flag is flown, it should always be as we have drawn it in fig. , with the broad white stripe nearest to the head of the flagstaff. it would be quite possible, our readers will see, on a little study of the matter, to turn it with the red stripe uppermost; but this, as we have indicated, is incorrect; and, trivial as the matter may appear, there is a right and a wrong in it, and the point must not be overlooked. many suggestions at the time of the union were made by divers writers in the public prints, such as the _gentleman's magazine_, and the like. one version preserved the flag of the first union, fig. , but placed in the centre a large green circle having within it the golden harp of the emerald isle; but this is objectionable, as it brings green on red, which is heraldically false, and as ireland has a cross as well as england and scotland, it seems more reasonable to keep the whole arrangement in harmony. another version, and by no means a bad one, is shown in fig. , where each cross is distinct from the two others. this appeared in the _gentleman's magazine_ for march th, , and, like all the other suggestions, good, bad, and indifferent, suffered from the fatal objection that it saw the light when the whole matter was already settled and any alteration scarcely possible. in view of the changes from the simple cross of st. george to its union later on with that of st. andrew, and later on still the union of both with that of st. patrick, it is sufficiently evident that campbell's stirring appeal to the mariners of england to defend the flag that for a thousand years has braved the battle and the breeze, however excellent in spirit, does not fit in with the literal facts, though we would not willingly change it for such a version as ye mariners of england, that guard our native seas: whose flag has braved since eighteen-one, the battle and the breeze. the "queen's regulations" are very precise as to the hoisting of the flag at the various home and foreign stations and fortresses. some few of these have the royal standard for use on royal anniversaries and state occasions only, and these flags are issued in two sizes--either twenty-four by twelve feet, or twelve by six feet--according to the importance of the position; thus dover, plymouth, and the tower of london, for example, have the larger size. in like manner the union flag is of two sizes: twelve by six feet, or six by three feet. these flags at the various stations are either hoisted on anniversaries only, or on sundays in addition, or else daily; thus dover, besides its standard, has a union flag, twelve by six, for special occasions, and another, six by three, { } which is hoisted daily. our foreign stations, bermuda, cape of good hope, cyprus, gibraltar, hong kong, halifax, st. helena, and so forth, are all equally rigidly provided for in regulations. there is no option anywhere in the matter. a particular fortress has to fly a particular flag of a particular size on a particular day. the white ensign, fig. , is the distinguishing flag of the royal navy. it is hoisted at the peak of all vessels in commission, or in such other conspicuous position of honour as their rig or (as in the case of some ironclads) absence of rig will permit. it is a large white flag, having upon it the cross of st. george, the portion of the flag nearest the mast-head being occupied by the union.[ ] until the royal navy was divided into the white, the blue, and the red squadrons, distinguished by the flags shown in figs. , , and , but this arrangement, though it had lasted for over two hundred years,[ ] was found to have many inconveniences. it was very puzzling to foreigners, and it was necessary that each vessel should have three sets of colours, so as to be able to hoist the orthodox flag for the squadron in which, for the time being, it might be placed. it was also a difficulty that peaceful merchantmen were carrying a red ensign, fig. , exactly similar to the war flag of the vessels of the red squadron. it was inconvenient in action, too; hence, nelson at trafalgar ordered the whole of his fleet to hoist the white ensign. an order of council, dated october th, , put an end to this use of differing flags, declaring that henceforth the white ensign alone should be the flag of the royal navy. in the old days the red was the highest, the white the intermediate, and the blue the third in rank and dignity. her majesty's ships, when at anchor in home ports and roads, hoist their colours at o'clock in the morning from march th to september th, and the rest of the year an hour later; and on foreign stations, at either of these hours as the commanding officer shall direct; and either abroad or at home they remain flying throughout the day until sunset.[ ] when at sea, on passing, meeting, { } joining or parting from any other of her majesty's ships or on falling in with any other ship the flag is hoisted, and also when in sight of land, and especially when passing any fort, battery, lighthouse, or town. when salutes are fired on the occasion of a foreign national festival, such as the birthday of the sovereign, the flag of the nation in question is hoisted at the main during the salute and for such further time as the war ships of such nation are be-flagged, but if none are present, then their flag remains up till sunset. should a british war vessel arrive at any foreign fortified port, the flag of the foreign nation is hoisted at the main during the exchange of salutes. it is a rank offence for any vessel to fly any ensign or pendant similar to those used in the royal navy. it will at once be boarded by any officer of her majesty's service, the offending colours seized, and the vessel reported. the penalty for the offence is a very heavy one. the admiral has as a flag the white flag with the cross of st. george thereon, fig. , and this must be displayed at the main top-gallant mast-head, since both the vice and rear-admirals are entitled to fly a similar flag, but the former of these displays his from the fore, and the latter from the mizen top-gallant mast-head; it being not the flag alone but the position of it that is distinctive of rank. the commodore's broad pendant is a very similar flag, but it tapers slightly, and is swallow-tailed. the "naval discipline act," better known as "the articles of war," commences with the true and noble words--"it is on the navy, under the good providence of god, that our wealth, prosperity, and peace depend," and we may trust that the glorious traditions of this great service may be maintained to the full as effectually under the white ensign as in any former period for the defence of "this royal throne of kings, this scepter'd isle, this earth of majesty, this seat of mars, this other eden, demi-paradise; this fortress built by nature for herself, against infection, and the hand of war; this happy breed of men, this little world; this precious stone set in the silver sea, which serves it in the office of a wall, or as a moat defensive to a house, against the envy of less happier lands; this blessed plot, this earth, this realm, this england." the blue ensign, fig. , is the flag of the royal naval reserve, and may be flown by any merchant vessels that comply with the { } admiralty conditions respecting that service. such vessels must be commanded by officers of the reserve, and at least one-third of their crew must belong to it: they then, the structural conditions being satisfactory, receive a government subvention and an admiralty warrant to fly the blue ensign. officers commanding her majesty's ships, meeting with ships carrying the blue ensign, are authorised to go on board them at any convenient opportunity and see that these conditions are strictly carried out, provided that they are of superior rank to the officers of the royal naval reserve. the men of the reserve receive an annual retainer and drill pay. the number of men in the reserve, at the time we write these lines, is , in the first class and , in the second. the first class reserve is composed of the men on the long voyage ships, the second being the fishermen and coasting crews. in addition to this there are some , engineers and stokers, and some , or so of officers, all equally prepared to rally to the pennant and to take their place in the national defence. this utilisation of the faster vessels of the mercantile marine as cruisers in war time has seriously engaged the attention of the admiralty. the government gives an annual subsidy, and then claims the right to the vessel at a fixed charge in case of emergency. such vessels would be of immense service in time of war in many ways: for scouting, for transporting troops, and for engaging such of the enemy as she felt fairly a match for. when, some few years ago, it seemed as though war with russia was imminent, the _massilia_ and the _rosetta_ of the peninsula and oriental company's fleet were put in commission by telegraph at sydney and hong kong respectively. these vessels were provided at once with warlike stores, and were at gun practice off the ports referred to a few hours after the receipt of instructions, and ready to go anywhere. this company, during the crimean war, carried over sixty thousand men to the scene of operations, and during the indian mutiny, the war in the soudan, and all other possible occasions, has rendered the greatest aid to the state. the _teutonic_ and the _majestic_, of the white star line, each carry twelve armstrong guns, and could either of them land two thousand infantry at halifax in five days, or at bombay in fourteen days, or at hong kong in twenty-one; and many other armed cruisers of the mercantile marine, that we need not stay to particularise, could do as much, and as effectively, flying the blue ensign as worthily as those we have named. "little england! great in story! mother of immortal men! great in courage! great in glory! dear to freedom's tongue and pen! { } if the world combine to brave thee, english hearts will dare the fight, english hands will glow to save thee, strong for england and the right!"[ ] the red ensign, represented in fig. , is the special flag of the ordinary merchantman. "the red ensign"--lays down the "merchant shipping (colours) act"--"usually worn by merchant ships, without any defacement or modification whatsoever, is hereby declared to be the proper national colour of all ships and boats belonging to any subject of her majesty, except in the case of her majesty's ships or boats, or in the case of any other ship or boat for the time being allowed to wear any other national colours, in pursuant of a warrant from her majesty or from the admiralty." this act goes on to say that any ship belonging to any subject of the queen shall, on a signal being made to her by one of her majesty's ships, or on entering or leaving any foreign port, hoist the red ensign, and if of fifty tons gross tonnage or upwards, on entering or leaving any british port also, or incur a penalty not exceeding one hundred pounds. a merchantman may also fly the union jack from the bowsprit, but if so the flag, as in fig. , must have a broad white border. the earliest form of red ensign is seen in fig. . in a picture at hampton court, representing the embarkation of william of orange for england, in the year , his ship is shown as wearing two flags, one a red one with st. george's cross in the canton, as in fig. , while the other, also red, has the union flag in the canton. we get, therefore, a regular sequence of red ensigns: that with st. george's cross alone in the corner next the masthead; that with the union of st. george and st. andrew--this picture at hampton court being the earliest example known of its use; and, thirdly, that of to-day with the crosses of st. george, st. andrew, and st. patrick. some little degree of flag-lore is valuable not only to the soldier, the seaman, or the traveller, but to everyone. for want of this knowledge, ludicrous and serious mistakes are often made. discussing these matters with a man of good general knowledge, we found that he had a notion that there were two kinds of "union jack," one, that had most red in it, being the army flag; while the other, in which blue preponderated, was the flag of the navy! outside a large provincial theatre we saw a conspicuous notice indicating that the piece then running was entitled "the old flag." to emphasise this was a picture of a square of british linesmen surrounded by { } zulus, while in the centre of the square rose the royal standard! as a set-off to this we saw, not far off, a public house called the "royal standard," flying from its roof the white ensign! a friend of ours brought home for his son a really capital toy model of an ironclad, with turrets, ram, fighting tops, etc., and yet flying the red ensign of the harmless merchantman! at a church we occasionally pass, the living being in the gift of the queen, the royal standard is hoisted on such church festivals as christmas day, while at other times, for no apparent reason, the white ensign is substituted--the special flag of the war navy. anyone venturing to point out to the authorities thereof that, as the old church could scarcely take up its position as a unit in our fighting fleet--having, in fact, quite another mission in the world--the special flag of the royal navy was not the most appropriate, would probably derive from the interview the impression that, after all, to the churchwardens a flag was a flag, and that it was quite possible to make a mountain out of a molehill. to one who knows anything about it, the eruption of silk bunting, and baser fabrics innumerable that comes to the fore on any occasion of national rejoicing, is a thing of horror, not merely in the festal disfigurements of the patchwork counterpane or cotton pockethandkerchief type, seeing that to some people any coloured piece of stuff that will blow out in the wind is a valid decoration, but in the painful ignorance shown in the treatment of recognised ensigns. some little time ago, for instance, we found ourselves in a town gaily beflagged and radiant in bunting on the occasion of a great popular rejoicing. the royal standard, betokening the presence in the house of some member of the royal family, was flying with a profusion that made it impossible to believe that all the people displaying it could be entertaining such distinguished guests. as a set-off, others were decking their houses with red flags, the symbols of revolution and bloodshed, or with yellow ones, leaving us to infer that such houses were to be avoided as nests of yellow fever or such-like deadly infection. the stars and stripes of the united states were, in almost every case, upside down, as indeed were many others; a thing that, except for the ignorance that was its excuse, might be considered as an insult to the various foreign powers, while the repeated reversal of the red ensign implied a signal of distress. the good folks really meant no harm to anybody, and they were quite happy to believe, as they strolled in their thousands up the leading streets of the town, that their decorations were a great success. at the same time, a little more knowledge would have done them no harm. as it is an insult to hoist one national flag below another, it is a rigid law that in all official decorations national flags may not be so placed, but { } enthusiastic and irresponsible burgesses, in the depth of their ignorance, ignore all such considerations of international courtesy, and in the length of a short street commit sufficient indiscretion to give umbrage to all mankind. it may be said that "happiness too swiftly flies, thought would destroy their paradise"-- that "he that increaseth knowledge increaseth sorrow," that "from ignorance our comfort flows, the only wretched are the wise"-- but despite all this philosophy, that "where ignorance is bliss 'tis folly to be wise," no one is the worse for knowing something about the matter with which he is dealing; and if proverbial philosophy is to count for anything in the matter, a not inappropriate moral may be quoted as to the rushing in of fools where their betters feel a judicious modesty. the confidence of knowledge is better than the confidence of ignorance, and would certainly, in street flagging, produce a more satisfactory result. we have in plate vi. some few examples of these vagaries from sketches that we made at the time. fig. , if it had not got the union in the canton, would nearly be the danish flag, fig. , but the addition of the canton makes it sheer foolishness. fig. is a good example of the notion that anything will do if it be only bright enough: it is a mere piece of patchwork, not by any means the only one in evidence. figs. and explain themselves; it is evident that in one case the decorator started with a white ensign and in the other with a blue one, and then, feeling that they were a little small and insignificant looking, tacked on a goodly amount of red material to bring them up to their notion of what would be sufficiently conspicuous in size. fig. is very quaint: there is a notion of the white ensign hovering about it, but the royal standard employed as a canton in one quarter is outside all the proprieties, and in any case all the arm of the cross that one would expect to see below the canton is absorbed by it. the addition of the two red tails to the royal standard in fig. is not by any means legitimate, while in fig. the royal standard is made the canton of a red ensign, and, as if this were not bad enough in itself, the whole thing is flown upside down. many of the so-called flags had no semblance to anything, some were strange and abnormal tricolors; others, chequers: one, we remember, was deep crimson, with a broad bordering round three of its edges of light blue. whatever opportunity of going wrong seemed to be at all feasible appeared to be eagerly seized by some well-meaning burgess, so that the result was a perfect museum of examples of how not to do it, and therefore of immense interest. * * * * * { } chapter iii. army flags--the queen's colour--the regimental colour--the honours and devices--the flag of the th regiment--facings--flag of the king's own borderers--what the flag symbolises--colours of the guards--the assaye flag--cavalry flags--presentation of colours--chelsea college chapel--flags of the buffs in canterbury cathedral--flags of the scottish regiments in st. giles's cathedral--burning of rebel flags by the hangman--special flags for various official personages--special flags for different government departments--the lord high admiral--the mail flag--white ensign of the royal yacht squadron--yacht ensigns and burgees--house or company flags--how to express colours with lines--the allan tricolor--port flags--the british empire--the colonial blue ensign and pendant--the colonial defence act--colonial mercantile flag--admiralty warrant--flag of the governor of a colony--the green garland--the arms of the dominion of canada--badges of the various colonies--daniel webster on the might of england--bacon on the command of the ocean. having now dealt with the union flag and the red and blue ensigns, we proceed to see how these are modified by the addition of various devices upon them. the flags of the army claim the first place in our regard. each infantry regiment has two "colours," one being called the "queen's colour," and the other the "regimental colour." on turning to barret's "theorike and practike of modern warres," a book published in the year , we find the following passage:--"we englishmen do call them of late colours, by reason of the variety of colours they be made of, whereby they be the better noted and known." this we may doubtless accept as a sufficient explanation of the word, and the passage is interesting, too, as approximately fixing a date for the introduction of the term, and showing that it has been in use for at least three hundred years. the queen's colour in every regiment of the line is the flag of the union, fig. , bearing in its centre the imperial crown and the number of the regiment beneath it in roman figures worked in gold, and its territorial designation. the regimental colour is of the colour of the facings of the regiment, except when these are white, in which case the body of the flag is not plain white all over, but bears upon it the cross of st. george. whatever the colour, it bears in its upper corner the union, and in the centre of the flag the crown and title of { } the regiment, and around it whatever devices, or badges, or other distinctions have been specially conferred upon it, together with the names of the actions in which the regiment has taken part, the records of its gallant service in many a hard-fought struggle in the peninsula, on the sultry plains of india, beneath the burning sun of africa, or wherever else the call of honour and of duty has added to its laurels. thus the regimental flag of the st regiment of the line bears the proud record--st. lucia, egmont-op-zee, egypt, corunna, busaco, salamanca, vittoria, st. sebastian, nive, peninsula, niagara, waterloo, nagpore, maheidpore, ava, alma, inkermann, sebastopol, and several other records of struggles in which they bore gallant share; and many another regiment could show as fine a record of service. in fig. we have a representation of the regimental colour of the th regiment. as the facings of this distinguished corps are green,[ ] the body of the flag is of that colour. beneath its territorial designation will be seen its special badge, the sphinx, bestowed upon it for distinguished service in egypt, and around are grouped the names of famous victories which it contributed to win. the th regiment, now in the territorial arrangement in vogue known as the nd warwickshire, was first formed in the year . in it embarked for canada and greatly distinguished itself in the american struggle. in we find it in egypt, where by its gallantry it won the right to bear the sphinx.[ ] from to it was fighting its way along at the cape of good hope, and then went on to india. in we find it sent off to canada again to suppress rebellion, and it did not return to england till . in we see it in the thick of the punjaub struggle, taking its part right well in the brilliant engagements of chillianwallah and goojerat, and in it is in the thick of the sanguinary mutiny in india; and, after fifteen years in india, lands in in england once more. in we find it again at the cape of good hope, and in - engaged in the kaffir war, and in all times and in all places taking a gallant share in upholding the national cause. in a second battalion was added to the regiment. this only existed ten years, but in that time it earned by its distinguished { } bravery the names of the peninsula battles for the flag,[ ] and at the conclusion of the struggle it was so weak in numbers that it was disembodied. in a new second battalion was formed, and did good service in burmah, south africa, etc. both battalions were in zululand in , and with the exception of one hundred men detailed for special duty, the regiment, save nine men, was wiped out of existence in the fatal field of isandhlwana. lieutenants melville and coghill tore the colours from their staffs and wrapped them around their bodies, and after the fight was over and the enemy had retired they were recovered. on the arrival of the colours in england they were taken by royal command to osborne, where the queen fastened to each a wreath of immortelles, and bestowed on the two dead heroes the victoria cross as the highest acknowledgment then possible to her of her deep appreciation of the sacrifice that these young gallant officers had made for her, for england, and for the honour of the flag. the colours, therefore, that we have represented in fig. , in all their broad blazon of gallant service, even in the hour of defeat never fell into the hands of the enemy, to be hung in triumph in some zulu kraal, but were brought back in honour and proud rejoicing, since defeat so valiantly met was no disgrace, and the honour of the flag and of the gallant th was without stain. as one more illustration of regimental colours we may instance those of the th regiment, the king's own borderers. here the groundwork of the flag is blue, with, of course, the union in the upper corner next the staff. in the centre of the flag is a representation of edinburgh castle, and within a band the words, "king's own borderers." outside this we have a wreath of rose, shamrock, and thistle, surmounted by the crown. below this is a sphinx for service in egypt, and below this again the word "martinique." on either side is inscribed "minden" and "egmont op zee," and above all, "afghanistan." in the upper outer angle of the flag is the lion on the crown and the motto "_in veritate religionis confido_," and in the lower outer angle the white horse of hanover and the motto "_nec aspera terrent_."[ ] this was originally known as the edinburgh regiment, as it was raised in four hours in to defend that city; but george iii., for some reason more or less { } satisfactory to himself, changed the name to the one it has ever since borne--the king's own borderers. in the year the prince regent, on behalf of the king, issued an order to regulate the colours of the army, and, amongst other things, sanctioned the custom that had sprung up of inscribing the names of victories on the flags. the custom of inscribing these honours, the names of the actions fought, did not begin till the battle of minden, so that the victories of marlborough and all other glorious achievements prior to the year would have gone unrecorded; but in july, , sanction was given for the grenadiers and the st, rd, th, th, th, th, th, st, rd, th, th, and th regiments of the line to add blenheim and ramilies to their colours. oudenarde, malplaquet, and dettingen[ ] were also added to the colours of those regiments that were there engaged. by the "queen's regulations" these colours are required to be of silk, and to be three feet nine inches in length and three feet in breadth; the cords and tassels are to be of mixed crimson and gold; the staff is to be eight feet seven inches long, and surmounted by a golden crown on which stands a lion. they are to be carried on parade by the two junior lieutenants, and guarded by two sergeants and two privates. these form what is called "the colour party." the distinguishing badge of the colour-sergeant consists of crossed colours, embroidered on the sleeve above the chevrons of his rank. it has taken something like a thousand years of time to build up the british empire, while the lavish outlay of toil and forethought of statesmen, the ceaseless spending of blood and treasure, the brilliant strategy by land and sea of a long line of distinguished commanders have all contributed to its birth and proud maintenance; and of all this devotion in the past and the determination to uphold it in the future, the flag is the living concrete symbol. it is the flag beneath whose folds nelson and wellington and countless heroes more were carried to their rest; it waved in triumph on the heights of abraham, and its honour was safe with elliot at gibraltar; it was unfurled on many a battlefield in the peninsula, and nerved the arms of those who scaled the heights of the alma and stood unconquerable in the stubborn fight of inkerman; and it waved triumphant in the breeze at sebastopol. the sight of it was strength, comfort, and hope in the dark days of lucknow and cawnpore. it floated, a symbol of duty, over the heroes of the burning _birkenhead_, and to ross, parry, franklin and mcclure, in the icy wastes of the far north it was an incentive to renewed { } effort and a symbol of home. it was the flag of speke and livingstone in savage africa, of burke and wills in their explorations in australia; and for the honour of england that it symbolises men have thought no sacrifice too great. the queen's colour is a pledge of loyalty to the sovereign, an emblem of the unity of all, while the second colour deals with the honour that specially appertains to each regiment--a subject of legitimate pride in the past and an incentive to prove not unworthy in the future of those who gained it such distinction. for some recondite reason the guards reverse the arrangement that holds in the line regiments, as with them the queen's colour is crimson and bears the regimental devices and honours, while the union flag is the regimental colour. william iv., in , gave the grenadier guards a special flag of crimson silk, bearing in its centre the royal cypher w.r., interlaced in gold, and having grouped together in the four corners the rose, thistle, and shamrock. the governor-general in india issued in the year a general order that all the regiments engaged in wellington's greatest indian victory--assaye--should be entitled to the special distinction of a third flag, and the royal authority confirmed the honour. this flag, borne by the th highlanders, the th or ross-shire buffs, and other distinguished regiments, was of white silk, having in its centre an elephant, beneath this the regimental number, and around it a wreath. on blue bands above and below were inscribed in gold the words assaye and seringapatam. in the year the general use on parade of these flags was discontinued by order, and they were reserved for very special occasions. the number of colours borne by the different regiments was formerly very irregular: sometimes it was one to a company, sometimes only one to a whole regiment, now it is two to each battalion. during the eighteenth century several regiments carried three colours, and the th, or northumberland fusiliers, continued to do so until . by an unfortunate accident these were then all burnt, and when the question of granting new colours came forward, the right to carry the third was objected to, and the claim had to be surrendered. king charles's royal regiment of foot guards lost eleven out of thirteen colours at edgehill. the standards carried by the life guards, horse guards, and dragoon guards are of crimson silk, thirty inches by twenty-seven; and the guidons of the dragoon regiments are forty-one inches by twenty-seven, are slit in the fly and have the outer corners rounded off. the tassels and cords are of crimson silk and gold, and each flag bears the royal or other title of the regiment in letters of gold in a circle, and beneath it the number of the regiment, all being surmounted by the crown, surrounded by a { } wreath of rose, shamrock, and thistle, and the honours. where a regiment has a particular badge, such device will be placed in the centre, and the territorial and numerical position placed outside; thus the scots greys (the nd royal dragoons) bear as their badge the imperial eagle of france, because at waterloo this distinguished regiment captured the eagle of the french th regiment, on which were inscribed the words jena, austerlitz, wagram, eylau, and friedland.[ ] the rd dragoons have as their badge the white horse of hanover, and, as record of good service, salamanca, vittoria, toulouse, peninsula, cabool, moodkee, sobraon, ferozeshah, punjaub, chillianwallah, goojerat. the lancers and hussars, like the royal engineers, the royal artillery, and the rifle brigade, have no colours, and therefore bear their badges, devices, etc., on their appointments. thus, for instance, king george ii. ordered the th light dragoons (now the th lancers) to wear the device of the skull and cross-bones, and beneath it the words "or glory" on the front of their caps and on the left breast. this device the "death or glory boys" still retain, like the famous pomeranian horse and the black brunswickers, continental corps from whom the anglo-hanoverian monarch doubtless derived the idea.[ ] the presentation of colours to a regiment is always an imposing ceremony, as with prayer of consecration, martial music, and stirring address they are delivered into its custody, but the bestowal of the old colours in some honoured place of safe keeping is yet more impressive. in the one case there are the hopes and dangers of the future, while in the other the hopes have all been abundantly realised, the dangers triumphantly passed, as the tattered colours--storm tossed, torn by shot and shell--are borne in honour to their last resting place, where, strife for ever over, they rest in peace in the sanctuary of god, a memorial to all men, until their last shreds fall to decay, of duty nobly and fully done. visitors to canterbury cathedral will scarcely fail to have noticed the flags therein suspended. the colours of the st battalion of the buffs (the east kent regiment) there find fitting resting place, and the last of these were added so lately as october, .[ ] on their entrance, with imposing military ceremony, into the { } cathedral, they were met by the clergy and choir, and a hymn of thanksgiving for victory and of safe return from war was sung, commencing-- "grateful, we bring from lands afar, torn, shattered, but unstained, banners that thy servant blessed ere the stern conflict came; lord, let their fragments ever rest where dwells thy holy name." after a short service of prayer and praise the dean of canterbury addressed the great congregation. it might be asked, he said, why they, who were the ministers of the prince of peace, should take such interest in these military proceedings. it was because they recognised in them the greatest force for peace that there was in our land, for it was through them that this country of ours had not been trampled for centuries under the feet of any foreign foe, it was through them that the _pax britannica_ prevailed, and that everywhere where the british flag was present it carried with it peace, and tranquillity, and justice. it was through the help of the army that the peaceful people of this country could carry on their avocations and serve god and do his work in peace; and therefore the clergy gratefully acknowledged their services, and hoped and prayed that everywhere the colours of each regiment might still be not only unstained, but covered with laurels in struggling for right and for justice. colonel hobson then addressed the vast audience, reminding the younger soldiers present that the regiment to which they had the honour to belong was formed more than three hundred years ago, and was, therefore, the oldest in the army. it had won honour and renown in every part of the world, and the colours which they were that day appropriately laying to rest in the warriors' chapel of canterbury cathedral represented as glorious a record as that of any regiment in the british army. the earliest existence of the regiment dated from the movement set on foot in this country in the latter half of the sixteenth century, to assist the cause of civil and religious liberty in the netherlands. the dragon, which is on the colours, was the crest of the city of london, from whose trained bands the regiment was formed in ; and the regimental march, so familiar to them all, was given them by queen elizabeth. after enumerating some few of the services that the regiment had rendered, he concluded by saying:--"the few words i have still to say i want you young soldiers especially to listen to and to take to heart. the colours of a regiment are symbolical of what ought to be the watchword of an army--duty; the queen's colours--duty to { } your sovereign and to your country; the regimental colours--duty towards the regiment. in these days the material side of the profession of arms is much insisted upon, but i tell you that an army without something higher than that, however well cared for in other respects, is a bad army, and that when thoughtfulness and care for the good name of a regiment is sacrificed for selfish, individual advancement, the regiment, as a whole, will suffer. the spirit which animated the regiments of the british army--who placed those names, of which we are so proud to-day, on those colours--was, duty first, self afterwards; and it will be a bad day for the british army if that spirit is ever allowed to depart from it. there was no position in the army, however humble, in which men could not sustain the credit and honour of their regiment and thus contribute to their country's welfare." the dean thereupon solemnly accepted the care of the colours and pronounced the benediction, and the whole audience then joined heart and voice, with thrilling effect, in singing the national anthem. it seems so natural to write of england and of englishmen, so stilted to put great britain and ireland, that one may possibly forget that, comprehensive as we intend the terms to be, we may, perhaps, wound the susceptibilities of our fellow subjects and brother britons across the tweed. let us then turn to a companion picture, and see how, with equal honour and devotion, the flags of our gallant highlanders are borne to their rest. a movement was, some time ago, set on foot to gather in the old flags from the various scottish regiments and to place them all in the cathedral church of edinburgh. this was effected, and the perspective effect of these, as they line the nave on either side, is very fine. the oldest colours there are those of the nd, the duke of hamilton's regiment, presented in the year , and still in excellent preservation. when on november th, , the old colours borne by the various scottish regiments were deposited in st. giles' cathedral, they were escorted in all honour and military pomp from the castle; and says one who was there: "when the colours came in sight, the multitude raised a shout and cheered, but the impulse was but momentary, for at sight of the array of shattered rags the noise of the tumult died away, and a half-suppressed sound was heard as through the hearts of the people there flashed a thrill of mingled pride and pain. those who saw it will never forget the scene. in the centre the tattered silk of the colours, and on the fringe and in the background a wonder-stricken crowd, as past uncovered heads, past dimmed eyes and quivering lips, the old flags were carried." when the flags had been received with service of prayer and { } praise, the meaning of it all was summed up in burning words of love, devotion, and pride. "we have gathered to-day," said the speaker, "for a noble purpose--to receive with all honour into this national church these flags, which have been borne by our soldiers through many a hard fight and in many a distant land. 'in the name of the lord,' said the inspired psalmist long ago, 'we will set up our banners.' in the spirit in which he spoke, these banners were first unfurled; and in that great name they were blessed by god's ministers ere they were committed to those who were to carry them, as a testimony that, as a nation, we believe in god, and desire that he should guide our destinies alike in war and in peace; and now, after the lapse of years, they are brought back to rest in god's house as a testimony to the same truth, that we acknowledge him as the supreme source of all our national success and greatness. 'thine, o lord, is the greatness and the power, and the victory, and the majesty! both riches and honour come of thee, and in thine hand it is to make great and to give strength unto all.' it is in this spirit that we place these emblems in scotland's great historic church. the associations that gather around these faded banners are of the tenderest and most touching kind. they are such as cause the heart to swell and the tear to come to the eye. few, i feel sure, in this vast assemblage have not felt in some degree their power. there are soldiers here whom they carry back to old days, and to comrades with whom they stood shoulder to shoulder in many a perilous hour. the old flag has for the british soldier a meaning so deep and powerful that it is impossible to put it into words. it is but a piece of silk, often faded and tattered, and rent with shot: but it is a symbol, and symbols are amongst the most sacred things on earth. it means for the soldier his queen and his country, and all the honour, loyalty, truth, and heroism they demand of him. therefore it is that men will follow their colours down into the dreadful pit, and would be willing to die twice for them rather than let them be taken by an enemy; and in the hour of defeat, like the heroes of isandlwhana, will fall pierced through with wounds, but with these precious symbols, still untarnished, wrapped around them. and though to the peaceful citizen these emblems can never mean all they stand for to those who have served under them, even to him, as they hang here, they may speak of things that it is good for him to remember. they may well tell him of the history of his country, and the wonderful way by which god has led her, and of the brave men he has raised up to fight for her. nor can we help specially remembering that these are the colours of our scottish regiments. scotland is a poor country compared to the great neighbour with whom it is happily united, but it possesses a distinct national life { } of its own which all true scotchmen would not willingly let die. we are proud of our scotch regiments. we feel that they, of the whole army, belong especially to ourselves; and they too, as they have swept on to battle with the cry, 'scotland for ever!' feel, we believe, that they belong specially to us. providence, said napoleon sneeringly, is generally on the side of the strongest battalions. be it so; but will anyone deny that the character of the soldier has much to do with the strength of the battalion they form? and was it not the character of our soldiers--a character fostered by the traditions of their native land, fostered still more, perhaps, by the religious teaching of their native church and parish school--that made them strong on many a memorable day, and never more than on that memorable day at waterloo, when the great commander i have named generously exclaimed, as he saw his own ranks yielding before the onslaught, 'les braves ecossais!' may the sight of these banners inspire every soldier who looks on them, whether lowland or highland, to echo the desire to hand down the name they bear without a blemish! and should the day ever come when we as a people are tempted to succumb to sloth and luxury, first to undervalue, and finally to give up, national power and privileges which are an heritage from god, and have been dearly purchased by those who went before us--may these emblems, and the stirring memories that cling to them, help us in some degree to wake up the last drop of blood left in our hearts, and nerve us to bear ourselves like the children of our sires. 'we have heard with our ears, o god, and our fathers have told us, what thou didst in their days in the times of old. for they got not the land in possession by their own sword, neither did their own arm save them, but thy right hand and thine arm, and the light of thy countenance, because thou hadst a favour unto them. through thee will we push down our enemies; through thy name will we tread them under that rise up against us.'" this impressive and imposing ceremony closed with the magnificent "hallelujah chorus" of handel, and the final benediction. that colours do not always perish in honour may be seen by the following extract from the _scots' magazine_ of june, , where the citizens of edinburgh assisted at a very different function to the one we have just described. "fourteen rebel colours," says the ancient newsman, "taken at culloden, were brought into edinburgh on the st may, and lodged in the castle. on wednesday, the th of june, at noon, they were brought down to the cross, the pretender's own standard carried by the hangman, and the rest by chimney sweepers. the sheriffs, accompanied by the heralds, pursuivants, trumpeters, city constables, etc., and escorted by the city guard, walked to the cross, where a proclamation was { } made that the colours belonging to the rebels were ordered by the duke of cumberland to be burnt by the hands of the common hangman. the pretender's standard was then put on a fire that had been prepared, and afterwards all the rest one by one--a herald always proclaiming to whom each belonged, the trumpets sounding, and the populace, of which there was a great number assembled, huzzaing." various government officials have their special flags. the flag of the union having been established by "queen's regulations" for the naval service, as the distinguishing flag to be borne by the admiral of the fleet, great inconvenience arose from the use of the same flag when military authorities, diplomatic and consular agents were embarking in boats or other vessels; so it became necessary to make some modification in the flag. it is therefore now ordered that a general or other officer commanding a military station shall have, in the centre of the union, a blue shield bearing the royal initials, surmounted by a crown and surrounded by a garland; those in the diplomatic service shall have, in the centre of the union, a white shield bearing the royal arms, and surrounded by a garland; while consuls-general, consuls, or consular agents have the blue ensign as their distinguishing flag, and in the centre thereof the royal arms. the flag of the lord-lieutenant of ireland is the union, and in its centre, as we may see in fig. , a blue shield bearing the golden harp. different government departments have their special flags also. thus the transport service has the blue ensign with a golden anchor, placed horizontally, in the fly, while the victualling department has the blue ensign again, but this time as shown in fig. , with two crossed anchors. on the blue ensign of the board of trade is found in the fly a white circle, and within this a ship in full sail (see fig. ). the ordnance department flag, represented in fig. , bears a shield with cannons and cannon balls upon it, while vessels and boats employed on submarine mining service are authorized to carry the blue ensign with--as its special badge--a hand issuing from a mural crown, and grasping a thunderbolt. the telegraph branch of the post-office has a very striking device: a representation of father time with his hour glass smashed by lightning. the red ensign is employed by the custom house and the excise, in the first case having, as we see in fig. , a golden crown in the fly, and, in the second, a crown and star. the flag of the admiralty is a very striking one (fig. ). this association of the anchor with the admiralty is a very natural one; we see it not only in our english flag, but in those of france, italy, germany, russia, etc. our admiralty flag is hoisted on any ship when the commissioners { } of the admiralty are on board,[ ] and it is also hoisted at the fore top-gallant mast of every ship on which the queen may be on board. vessels carrying her majesty's mail fly on the fore-mast a white burgee, having in its centre a crown, and on one side of it the word "royal" and on the other "mail"; the words royal mail and the crown being in red on the white field of the flag. the white ensign, fig. , the special flag of her majesty's navy, is, by very exceptional privilege, allowed to be flown by the royal yacht squadron. this distinction was conferred on that club in the year , the club itself being established in .[ ] in the old days, when the royal navy used the red, white, and blue ensigns, the red ensign was of the highest dignity; and it was this from to that the royal yacht squadron flew, but, as the red ensign was also used by merchant vessels, they adopted in the white ensign as being more distinctive. in the admiralty drew up a minute that no warrant should be issued to any other yacht club to fly the white ensign, and that those privileged clubs that already had it must henceforth forego it. copies of the minute were accordingly sent to the royal western of england, royal thames, royal southern, and some two or three other clubs, but, by some oversight, the royal western of ireland was overlooked, and that club continued to use the white ensign until the mistake was discovered by the admiralty in the year . since that date the royal yacht squadron, which has always been under the special patronage of royalty, has been alone in its use. its value is purely sentimental; it carries no substantial privilege. a rather marked case arose, in fact, to the contrary in , when lord annesley's yacht, the _seabird_, was detained by the turkish authorities at the dardanelles in consequence of her bearing the white ensign. no foreign man-of-war is allowed to pass the dardanelles without special permission; and the white { } ensign of the royal navy brought her within that category. on account of this, all yacht owners were warned that should they wish to pass the dardanelles under the white or blue ensign, the latter being also the flag of the royal naval reserve, they must first obtain an imperial iradé, otherwise they were recommended to display the red ensign. austria-hungary, spain, denmark, italy, sweden, norway, and france have each, in like manner, given to the leading club of the country the privilege of flying the naval flag. in america and russia a special ensign has been accorded to all yacht clubs, and all take equal rank. some years ago the royal cork yacht club wished to adopt a green ensign, but the admiralty refused to sanction a new colour. the blue ensign is conferred on certain yacht clubs by special admiralty warrant. the royal eastern, royal barrow, royal clyde, royal highland, royal northern, royal western of england, royal cinque ports, royal albert, royal dorset, etc., fly the blue ensign pure and simple; others have a distinguishing badge on the fly, thus the royal irish has a golden harp and crown, the royal ulster a white shield with the red hand, the royal cornwall the prince of wales' feathers, the royal harwich a golden rampant lion, and so forth. the clubs flying the red ensign change it slightly from that flown by the merchant service; thus the royal st. george, royal victoria, and royal portsmouth have a golden crown in the centre of the union canton, while the royal yorkshire has a white rose and gold crown on the fly, and the royal dart a golden dart and crown. each club has also its distinguishing burgee, and ordinarily of the same colour as its ensign; thus, though the royal clyde and the royal highland both fly the plain blue ensign, the royal clyde burgee has on it the yellow shield and red lion rampant, while the royal highland has the white cross of st. andrew. fig. is the burgee of the ranelagh club, fig. of the yare, fig. of the royal thames, fig. of the dublin bay club. besides these club ensigns and burgees, each yacht bears its owner's individual device, that is supposed to distinguish it from all others, though one finds, in looking through a series of such flags, that some of the simpler devices are borne by more than one yacht. every yacht club has its special burgee, which is flown by each yacht in the club at her truck, but when the vessel is racing the individual flag takes its place. many of these flags, though simple in character, are very effective and striking. the lower flags on plate xii. are good typical examples. fig. is the yacht flag of his royal highness the prince of wales--the flag of the well-known _britannia_; and figs. and are those respectively of the equally-famed _ailsa_ and _valkyrie_. { } merchant vessels are permitted to adopt any house or company flag on condition that it does not resemble any national flag. its great use is that it should be clearly distinctive; and many of the flags employed are of strict heraldic propriety, and very attractive, while others are about as unsatisfactory and bald as they well could be. it would clearly be a painful and invidious thing to pick out any of these latter, so we can only suggest that any of our readers who have an opportunity of visiting busy ports, such as london, southampton, bristol, liverpool, should collect their own awful examples and paint them in the margin of this page. we may point out, by the way, that anyone sketching flags would be greatly assisted by knowing the symbols for the various colours, as it may well be that anyone might have only a pencil in his pocket when desiring to make such a memorandum. white is expressed by simply leaving the paper plain, yellow by dotting the surface over, red by a series of upright lines, blue by horizontal lines, green by sloping lines, and black by a series of upright lines crossed by others at right angles to them. these are the colours used in books on heraldry, and they are very easily remembered. on some of our coins the colours of the arms in the shield are thus expressed, and on heraldic book-plates and the like they may be also seen--wherever, in fact, colour has to be expressed or notified without the actual use of it. our readers will find that if they will sketch out in black and white some few of our examples they will soon gain a useful facility that may stand them in good stead whenever for this or any other purpose they want to make a colour memorandum, and have only a pencil or pen and ink to make it with. in the upper portion of plate xii. we have several illustrations of company flags. fig. is the well-known ensign of green's blackwall line, while fig. is that of the cunard. the peninsular and oriental flag (fig. ) is divided by lines from corner to corner into four triangles, the upper one white, the lower yellow, the hoist blue, and the fly red. this division into triangles is a rather favourite one; we see it again in fig. , the flag of the australasian steam navigation company. in the flag of the demerara and berbice steamship company the upper and lower portions are white, and the two side portions red; in the flag of the vessels belonging to galbraith, pembroke and co., the upper is red, the lower blue, and the two sides white. in another company, that of wesencraft of newcastle, the colours are the same as the p. and o. flag, though differently placed, the blue being at the top, the red at the bottom, the yellow at the hoist, and the white at the fly. fig. is the flag of the fleet of devitt and moore, an australian line. fig. betokens the vessels of the { } canadian pacific company, and fig. the ships of the castle line to south africa. fig. is the company flag of the union steamship company, of southampton, while fig. is the device of the mediterranean and new york steamship company. our remaining illustrations are; fig. , the flag adopted by messrs. houlden brothers; fig. , that of the popular white star line; and fig. , that of the new zealand shipping company. the well-known allan line has as its house flag the three upright strips of blue, white, and red that we see in the french tricolor, fig. , plus a plain red burgee that is always hoisted immediately above it. the allan is the largest private ship-owning company in the world; in the course of the year there are some two hundred arrivals and departures of their vessels at or from glasgow, and some fifty thousand people are carried annually to or from america. during the crimean war many of the steamers of this line were chartered by the french government for the transport of their troops, and it is in memory of this that the vessels of the allan fleet adopt the tricolor as their house flag. that we have by no means exhausted this portion of our subject is patent from the fact that in a book before us that is specially devoted to these house flags seven hundred and eighty-two examples are given, wherein we find not only stripes, crosses, and such-like simple arrangements, but crescents, stars, anchors, lions, stags, thistles, castles, bells, keys, crowns, tridents, and many other forms. in earlier days merchant ships flew rather the flag of their port than of their nation, so that a vessel was known to be of plymouth, marseilles, dantzic, or bremen by the colours displayed. thus the flag of marseilles was blue with a white cross upon it; texel, a flag divided horizontally into two equal strips, the upper being green and the lower black; rotterdam was indicated by a flag having six horizontal green stripes upon it, the interspaces being white; cherbourg, blue, white, blue, white, horizontally arranged; riga, a yellow cross on a blue ground. the british empire--the greater britain across the seas, some eighty times larger in area than the home islands of its birth--must now engage our attention. its material greatness is amazing, far exceeding that of any other empire the world has ever seen, and its moral greatness is equal to its material. wherever the flag of britain flies, there is settled law, property is protected, religion is free; it is no mere symbol of violence or rapine, or even of conquest. it is what it is because it represents everywhere peace, and civilization, and commerce. protected by the _pax britannica_ dwell four hundred millions out of every race under heaven, the { } mother of nations extending to jew, parsee, arab, chinese, blackfoot, maori, the liberties that were won at runnymead and in many another stern fight for life and freedom. in every school-room in the united states hangs the flag of their union, the stars and stripes; and devotion to all that it symbolises is an essential part of the teaching. we in turn might well in our systems of education give a larger space to the history, laws, and literature of our great empire, taking a more comprehensive view than is now ordinarily the case, studying the growth of the mighty states that have sprung into existence through british energy, and attaching at least as much importance to the lives of the men who have built up this goodly heritage as to the culinary shortcomings of alfred or the schemes of perkin warbeck. as regards the value of our colonies to the empire, the following extract from a speech made by the prince of wales at the royal colonial institute may very aptly be quoted:-- "we regard the colonies as integral parts of the empire, and our warmest sympathies are with our brethren beyond the seas, who are no less dear to us than if they dwelt in surrey or kent. mutual interests, as well as ties of affection, unite us as one people, and so long as we hold together we are unassailable from without. from a commercial point of view, the colonies and india are among the best customers for home manufacturers, it being computed that no less than one-third of the total exports are absorbed by them. they offer happy and prosperous homes to thousands who are unable to gain a livelihood within the narrow limits of these islands, owing to the pressure of over-population and consequent over-competition. in transplanting themselves to our own colonies, instead of to foreign lands, they retain their privileges as citizens of this great empire, and live under the same flag as subjects of the same sovereign. as professor seeley remarks in his very interesting work, 'the expansion of england,' 'englishmen in all parts of the world remember that they are of one blood and one religion; that they have one history, and one language and literature.' we are, in fact, a vast english nation, and we should take great care not to allow the emigrants who have gone forth from among us to imagine that they have in the slightest degree ceased to belong to the same community as ourselves." our statesmen and thinkers have never failed to recognise the brotherhood of greater britain. of this fact it would be easy enough to reproduce illustrations by the score. we need, however, here but refer to the sentiments of the earl of rosebery on the expansion of the empire, where we find him declaring-- { } "since the empire has been growing by leaps and bounds. that is, perhaps, not a process which everybody witnesses with unmixed satisfaction. it is not always viewed with unmixed satisfaction in circles outside these islands. there are two schools who view with some apprehension the growth of our empire. the first is composed of those nations who, coming somewhat late into the field, find that great britain has some of the best plots already marked out. to those nations i will say that they must remember that our colonies were taken--to use a well-known expression--at prairie value, and that we have made them what they are. we may claim that whatever lands other nations may have touched and rejected, and we have cultivated and improved, are fairly parts of our empire, which we may claim to possess by an indisputable title. but there is another ground on which the extension of our empire is greatly attacked, and the attack comes from a quarter nearer home. it is said that our empire is already large enough, and does not need extension. that would be true enough if the world were elastic, but, unfortunately, it is not elastic, and we are engaged at the present moment, in the language of mining, in 'pegging out claims for the future.' we have to consider not what we want now, but what we shall want in the future. we have to consider what countries must be developed, either by ourselves or some other nation, and we have to remember that it is part of our responsibility and heritage to take care that the world, as far as it can be moulded by us, shall receive an 'english-speaking' complexion, and not that of another nation. we have to look forward beyond the chatter of platforms, and the passions of party, to the future of the race of which we are at present the trustees, and we should, in my opinion, grossly fail in the task that has been laid upon us did we shrink from responsibilities, and decline to take our share in a partition of the world which we have not forced on, but which has been forced upon us." statistics of area of square miles, population, and so forth, can be readily found by those who care to seek for them, and we need give them no place here; but let us at least try and realise just by bare enumeration something of what this greater britain is. in europe it includes, besides the home islands, gibraltar, malta, cyprus. in asia--the great indian empire, ceylon, aden, hong-kong, north borneo, the straits settlements, perim, socotra, labuan. in america--the dominion of canada, newfoundland, trinidad, guiana, honduras, jamaica, the bahamas, bermudas, barbadoes, falkland isles, the leeward and windward isles. in australasia--new south wales, victoria, western australia, tasmania, queensland, new zealand, fiji, new guinea. in africa--the cape colony, basutoland, bechuanaland, zululand, natal, { } gold coast, lagos, sierra leone, gambia, mauritius, seychelles, ascension, st. helena. our list is by no means a complete one. newfoundland was the earliest british colony, the settlement being made about the year . many of our colonies have been thus created by peaceful settlement, while others have fallen to us in victorious fights with france, holland, spain, and other powers, or have been ceded by treaty. the flags of our colonies are those of the empire, with, in some cases, special modifications. in all our colonies, for instance, the royal standard, as we see it in england, is displayed on the fortresses on the anniversaries of the birth and coronation of the sovereign. the blue ensign is the flag borne by any vessel maintained by any colony under the clauses of the colonial defence act, vic., cap. . the "queen's regulations" state that "any vessel provided and used, under the third section of the said act, shall wear the blue ensign, with the seal or badge of the colony in the fly thereof, and a blue pendant. all vessels belonging to, or permanently in the service of, the colony, but not commissioned as vessels of war under the act referred to, shall wear a similar blue ensign, but not the pendant." in figs. , , , and we have the government ensigns of four of our great colonies--cape colony, queensland, canada, and victoria--while in fig. we have the blue pendant. this colonial defence act of is so important in its bearings on the possibilities of naval defence that it seems well to quote from it some of its provisions. its object is to enable the several colonial possessions of her majesty to make better provision for naval defence, and, to that end, to provide and man vessels of war; and also to raise a volunteer force to form part of the royal naval reserve, to be available for the general defence of the colony in case of need. this act declares that "in any colony it shall be lawful for the proper legislative authority, with the approval of her majesty in council, from time to time to make provision for effecting at the expense of the colony all or any of the purposes following: "for providing, maintaining, and using a vessel or vessels of war, subject to such conditions and for such purposes as her majesty in council from time to time approves. "for raising and maintaining seamen and others entered on the terms of being bound to serve as ordered in any such vessel. { } "for raising and maintaining a body of volunteers entered on the terms of being bound to general service in the royal navy in emergency, and, if in any case the proper legislative authority so directs, on the further terms of being bound to serve as ordered in any such vessel as aforesaid: "for appointing commissioned, warrant, and other officers to train and command or serve as officers with any such men ashore or afloat, on such terms and subject to such regulations as her majesty in council from time to time approves: "for obtaining from the admiralty the services of commissioned, warrant, and other officers and of men of the royal navy for the last-mentioned purposes: "for enforcing good order and discipline among the men and officers aforesaid while ashore or afloat within the limits of the colony: "for making the men and officers aforesaid, while ashore or afloat within the limits of the colony or elsewhere, subject to all enactments and regulations for the time being in force for the discipline of the royal navy. "volunteers raised as aforesaid in any colony shall form part of the royal naval reserve, in addition to the volunteers who may be raised under the act of , but, except as in this act expressly provided, shall be subject exclusively to the provisions made as aforesaid by the proper legislative authority of the colony. "it shall be lawful for her majesty in council from time to time as occasion requires, and on such conditions as seem fit, to authorize the admiralty to issue to any officer of the royal navy volunteering for the purpose a special commission for service in accordance with the provisions of this act. "it shall be lawful for her majesty in council from time to time as occasion requires, and on such conditions as seem fit, to authorize the admiralty to accept any offer for the time being made or to be made by the government of a colony, to place at her majesty's disposal any vessel of war provided by that government and the men and officers from time to time serving therein; and while any vessel accepted by the admiralty under such authority is at the disposal of her majesty, such vessel shall be deemed to all intents a vessel of war of the royal navy, and { } the men and officers from time to time serving in such vessels shall be deemed to all intents men and officers of the royal navy, and shall accordingly be subject to all enactments and regulations for the time being in force for the discipline of the royal navy. "it shall be lawful for her majesty in council from time to time as occasion requires, and on such conditions as seem fit, to authorize the admiralty to accept any offer for the time being made or to be made by the government of a colony, to place at her majesty's disposal for general service in the royal navy the whole or any part of the body of volunteers with all or any of the officers raised and appointed by that government in accordance with the provisions of this act; and when any such offer is accepted such of the provisions of the act of as relate to men of the royal naval reserve raised in the united kingdom when in actual service shall extend and apply to the volunteers whose services are so accepted." as the act winds up by saying that "nothing in this act shall take away or abridge any power vested in or exerciseable by the legislature or government of any colony," it is evident that the whole arrangement is a purely voluntary one. the vessels of the mercantile marine registered as belonging to any of the colonies, fly the red ensign without any distinguishing badge, so that a victorian or canadian merchantman coming up the thames or mersey would probably fly a flag in all respects similar (fig. ) to that of a merchant vessel owned in the united kingdom. there is, however, no objection to colonial merchant vessels carrying distinctive flags with the badge of the colony thereon, in addition to the red ensign, provided that the lords commissioners of the admiralty give their warrant of authorization. the red ensign differenced may be seen in fig. , the merchant flag of canada,[ ] and in fig. that of victoria, the device on this latter bearing the five stars, representing the constellation of the southern cross--a simple, appropriate, and beautiful device. { } "governors of her majesty's dominions in foreign parts, and governors of all ranks and denominations administering the governments of british colonies and dependencies shall"--as set forth in "queen's regulations"--"fly the union jack with the arms or badge of the colony emblazoned in the centre thereof." figs. and are illustrations, the first being the special flag of the viceroy of india, and the second that of the governor of western australia. the governor-general of canada has in the centre of his flag the arms of the dominion, while the lieutenant-governors of quebec, ontario, nova scotia, new brunswick, manitoba, british columbia, and prince edward's island have in the centre of their flags the arms of their province alone. these arms in each case are placed on a shield within a white circle, and surrounded by a wreath. the admiralty requirements are that the colonial badge on the governor's flag should be placed within a "green garland," and this is understood to be of laurel; but in canada received the imperial sanction to substitute the leaves of the maple.[ ] though the provinces that together make the dominion of canada are seven in number, the canadian shield only shows the arms of four--ontario, quebec, nova scotia, and new brunswick--an arrangement that can be scarcely palatable to the other three. the queen's warrant, published in the _canadian gazette_ of november th, , is as follows:-- "victoria, by the grace of god, of the united kingdom of great britain and ireland, queen, defender of the faith, &c. "to our right trusty and well-beloved councillor, edward george fitzalan howard (commonly called lord edward george fitzalan howard), deputy to our right trusty and right entirely beloved cousin, henry duke of norfolk, earl marshal and our hereditary marshal of england--greeting:-- "whereas, by virtue of, and under the authority of an act of parliament, passed in the twenty-ninth year of our reign, entitled 'an act for the union of canada, nova scotia, and new brunswick, and the government thereof," we were empowered to declare after a certain day therein appointed, that the said provinces of canada, nova scotia and new brunswick should { } form one dominion under the name of canada. and it was provided that on and after the day so appointed, canada should be divided into four provinces, named, ontario, quebec, nova scotia and new brunswick; that the part of the then province of canada, which formerly constituted the province of upper canada, should constitute the province of ontario; and the part which formerly constituted the province of lower canada, should constitute the province of quebec; and that the provinces of nova scotia and new brunswick should have the same limits as at the passing of the said act. and whereas we did by our royal proclamation, bearing date the twenty-second day of may last, declare, ordain, and command that, on and after the first day of july, , the said provinces should form and be one dominion under the name of canada accordingly. "and forasmuch as it is our royal will and pleasure that, for the greater honour and distinction of the said provinces, certain armorial ensigns should be assigned to them, "know ye, therefore, that we, of our princely grace and special favour, have granted and assigned, and by these presents do grant and assign the armorial ensigns following, that is to say:-- "for the province of ontario: "vert, a sprig of three leaves of maple slipped, or, on a chief argent the cross of st. george. "for the province of quebec: "or, on a fess gules between two fleurs de lis in chief azure, and a sprig of three leaves of maple slipped vert in base, a lion passant guardant or. "for the province of nova scotia: "or, on a fess wavy azure between three thistles proper, a salmon naiant argent. "for the province of new brunswick: or, on waves a lymphad, or ancient galley, with oars in action, proper, on a chief gules a lion passant guardant or, as the same are severally depicted in the margin hereof, to be borne for the said respective provinces on seals, shields, banners, flags, or otherwise according to the laws of arms. "and we are further pleased to declare that the said united provinces of canada, being one dominion under the name of { } canada, shall, upon all occasions that may be required, use a common seal, to be called the 'great seal of canada,' which said seal shall be composed of the arms of the said four provinces quarterly, all which armorial bearings are set forth in this our royal warrant." this latter point is a somewhat important one, as owing to the semi-official endorsement given in many colonial publications, it appears to be a popular misconception that as many different arms as possible are to be crowded in. in one example before us five are represented, the additional one being manitoba. in a handbook on the history, production, and natural resources of canada, prepared by the minister of agriculture for the colonial exhibition, held in london in , the arms of the seven provinces are given separately, grouped around a central shield that includes them all. the whole arrangement is styled "arms of the dominion and of the provinces of canada." when the queen's warrant was issued in , ontario, quebec, nova scotia, and new brunswick were the only members of the confederation. manitoba entered it in , british columbia in , and prince edward island in . the royal canadian yacht club, the royal nova scotia yacht squadron, and the royal hamilton yacht club have the privilege of flying the blue ensign. canada, unlike australia, supplies no contingent towards the imperial navy, but she has spent on public works over forty million pounds sterling. by her great trans-continental railway a valuable alternative route to the east is furnished; she provides graving docks at quebec, halifax, and victoria; trains an annual contingent of forty thousand volunteers, supports a military college at kingston, of whose cadets between eighty and ninety are now officers in the british army; and in many other ways contributes to the well-being of the empire, that greater britain, which has been not unaptly termed "a world-venice, with the sea for streets." the badges of the various colonies of the empire, as shown in the official flag-book of the admiralty, are very diverse in appearance; some pleasing and others less charming, perhaps, than fantastic. it is needless to particularise them all. some, like those of mauritius, jamaica, and of cape colony (fig. ) are heraldic in character, while others--as barbadoes, where britannia rides the waves in a chariot drawn by sea-horses, or south australia, where britannia lands on a rocky shore on which a black man is seated--are symbolical. queensland has the simple and pleasing device we see in fig. , the maltese cross, having a crown at its centre. newfoundland has a crown on a white disc and the { } latinised name _terra nova_ beneath, and fiji (fig. ) adopts a like simple device, the crown and the word fiji, while new guinea does not get even so far as this, but has the crown, and beneath it the letters n. g. the gnu appears as the device of natal; the black swan (fig. ) as the emblem of west australia. an elephant and palm-tree on a yellow ground stand for west africa, and an elephant and temple for ceylon. british north borneo (fig. ), on a yellow disc has a red lion, and tasmania (fig. ), on a white ground has the same, though it will be noted that the action of the two royal beasts is not quite the same. the straits settlements have the curious device seen in fig. . new zealand (fig. ) has a cross of stars on a blue field. victoria we have already seen in figs. and , while new south wales has upon the white field the cross of st. george, having in the centre one of the lions of england, and on each arm a star--an arrangement shown in fig. . british east africa has the crown, and beneath it the golden sun shooting forth its rays, one of the simplest, most appropriate, and most pleasing of all the colonial devices; when placed in the centre of the governor's flag it is upon a white disc, and the sun has eight principal rays. when for use on the red or blue ensigns, the sun has twelve principal rays, and both golden sun and crown are placed directly upon the field of the flag. st. helena, trinidad, bermuda, british guiana, leeward isles, labuan, bahamas, and hong kong all have devices in which ships are a leading feature--in the bermuda device associated with the great floating dock, in the hong kong with junks, and in the other cases variously differentiated from each other, so that all are quite distinct in character. in the device of the leeward isles, designed by sir benjamin pine, a large pine-apple is growing in the foreground, and three smaller ones away to the right. it is jocularly assumed that the centre one was sir benjamin himself, and the three subordinate ones his family. with great britain the command of the ocean is all-important. by our sea-power our great empire has been built up, and by it alone can it endure. "a power to which rome in the height of her glory is not to be compared--a power which has dotted over the surface of the whole globe her possessions and military posts, whose morning drum-beat, following the sun, and keeping company with the hours, circles the earth with one continuous and unbroken strain of the martial airs of england." so spoke daniel webster in , and our ever-growing responsibilities have greatly increased since the more than sixty years when those words were uttered. let us in conclusion turn to the "true greatness of kingdoms and estates," written by bacon, a great and patriotic englishman, where we may read the warning words:-- { } "we see the great effects of battles by sea; the battle of actium decided the empire of the world; the battle of lepanto arrested the greatness of the turk. "there be many examples where sea-fights have been final to the war; but this is when princes or states have set up their rest upon the battles; but this much is certain, that he who commands the sea is at great liberty, and may take as much and as little of the war as he will, whereas those that be strongest by land are many times, nevertheless, in great straits. "surely at this day, with us of europe, the vantage of strength at sea (which is one of the dowries of this kingdom of great britain) is great; both because most of the kingdoms of europe are not merely inland, but girt with the sea most part of their compass, and because the wealth of both indies seems, in great part, but an accessory to the command of the seas." we are the sons of the men who won us this goodly heritage, and it behoves us in turn to hand it on to our descendants in undiminished dignity, a world-wide domain beneath the glorious union flag that binds all in one great brotherhood. * * * * * { } chapter iv. the flag of columbus--early settlements in north america--the birth of the united states--early revolutionary and state flags--the pine-tree flag--the rattle-snake flag--the stars and stripes--early variations of it--the arms of washington--entry of new states into the union--the eagle--the flag of the president--secession of the southern states--state flags again--the stars and bars--the southern cross--the birth of the german empire--the influence of war songs--flags of the empire--flags of the smaller german states--the austro-hungary monarchy--the flags of russia--the crosses of st. andrew and st. george again--the flags of france--st. martin--the oriflamme--the fleurs-de-lys--their origin--the white cross--the white flag of the bourbons--the tricolor--the red flag--the flags of spain--of portugal--the consummation of italian unity--the arms of savoy--the flags of italy--of the temporal power of the papacy--the flag of denmark--its celestial origin--the flags of norway and sweden--of switzerland--cantonal colours--the geneva convention--the flags of holland--of belgium--of greece--the crescent of turkey--the tughra--the flags of roumania, servia, and bulgaria--flags of mexico and of the states of southern and central america--of japan--the rising sun--the chrysanthemum--the flags of china, siam, and corea--of sarawak--of the orange free state, liberia, congo state, and the transvaal republic. the well-known ensign (fig. ) of the united states of america is the outcome of many changes; the last of a long series of national, state, and local devices. the first flag planted on american ground was borne thither by christopher columbus, in the year , and bore on its folds the arms of leon and castile, a flag divided into four and having upon it, each twice repeated, the lion of leon and the castle of castile: the first red on white, the second white on red. these arms form a portion of the present spanish standard, and may be seen in the upper staff corner in fig. . in this same year-- --newfoundland was discovered, but the first english settlement on the mainland was not made until sir walter raleigh took possession of a tract of country in , naming it virginia, after elizabeth, the virgin-queen he served, and hoisting the standard of her majesty, bearing in its rich blazonry (fig. ) the ruddy lions of england quartered with the golden lilies of france. the dutch established themselves, in the year , in what is now the state of new york; the french, having already founded a colony in canada in , took possession of louisiana, so called after their king louis, in , while florida, at first french, became spanish, and in was ceded to england. { } three ships, bearing the earliest pilgrim fathers from england to america, had already sailed from england in the year , and these were followed by the historic _mayflower_ and the _plymouth rock_, in . while these exiles for conscience sake established for themselves a new england in the west, a colony of scotchmen in the year took possession of a tract of land which they named nova scotia. maryland, rhode island, connecticut, new jersey, carolina, pennsylvania, and other colonies were successively formed by parties of englishmen--the final outcome of peaceful settlement, or the arbitrament of the sword, being that the greater part of the eastern seaboard, and the country beyond it, came under the sway of the english crown, until injudicious taxation and ill-advised repression led at length to open discontent and disloyalty, and finally to revolution and the birth of the great republic of the west. so long as the colonists owed allegiance to the british crown, one would naturally have taken for granted that they would have been found beneath the national flag, but this was not altogether the case. in the early days of new england the puritans strongly objected to the red cross on the flag: not from any disloyalty to the old country, but from a conscientious objection to the use of a symbol which they deemed idolatrous. by the year , though the cross of st. george was still the leading device, the different colonies began to employ special devices to distinguish their vessels from those of england and of each other.[ ] this, though it indicated a certain jealousy and independence amongst the colonies themselves, was no proof of any desire for separation from the old country, and even when, later on, the dispute between king and colonists became acute, we find them parting from the old flag with great reluctance. fig. is a very good illustration of this; its date is . in the early stages of the revolution each section adopted a flag of its own, and it was only later on, when the desirability of union and uniformity became evident, that the necessity for one common flag was felt. thus, the people of massachusetts ranged themselves beneath banners bearing pine trees; the men of south carolina went in for rattle-snakes; the new yorkers adopted a white flag with a black beaver thereon; the rhode islanders had a white flag with a blue anchor upon it; and, in like manner, each contingent adopted its special device. in fig. , one of the flags of the insurgents at bunker's hill, { } june th, , we see that the cross of st. george is still preserved, and it might well fly in company with fig. , a flag of the london trained bands, except that in the corner we see the pine tree. in fig. the english emblem has dropped out and the pine tree has become much more conspicuous, and in figs. and all suggestion of st. george or of the red or blue ensigns has disappeared. this arboreal device was not by any means a new one to the men of massachusetts. we find a mint established at boston as early as , busily engaged in coining the silver captured from the spaniards by the buccaneers. on one side was the date and value of the coin, and, on the reverse, a tree in the centre and "in massachusetts" around it. it must be remembered that at the time there was no king to resent this encroachment on the royal prerogative, and no notice was taken of it by the parliament or by cromwell. there was a tacit allowance of it afterwards, even by charles ii., for more than twenty years. it will be remembered that on his enquiry into the matter he was told by some courtier that the device was intended for the royal oak, and the question was allowed to drop. south carolina adopted the rattle-snake flag at the suggestion of one gadsden, a delegate to the general congress of the south carolina convention in . on a yellow ground was placed a rattlesnake, having thirteen rattles; the reptile was coiled ready to strike, and beneath was the warning motto, "don't tread on me." the number thirteen had reference to the thirteen revolted states, as it was originally proposed that this flag should be the navy flag for all the states. as an accessory to a portrait of commodore hopkins, "commander-in-chief of the american fleet," we see a flag of thirteen alternate red and white stripes. it has no canton, but undulating diagonally across the stripes is a rattlesnake. the idea was not altogether a new one, as we find the _pennsylvania gazette_, in commenting twenty-five years previously on the iniquity of the british government in sending its convicts to america, suggesting as a set off that "a cargo of rattlesnakes should be distributed in st. james's park, spring gardens, and other places of pleasure." at the commencement of any great struggle by a revolting people there is often a great variety of device, and it is only after a while that such a multiplicity is found to be a danger. hence we find that prior to the yellow rattlesnake flag, south carolina had, with equal enthusiasm, adopted the blue flag with the crescent moon that we have figured in no. .[ ] { } in the year a committee was appointed to consider the question of a single flag for the thirteen states. this ensign, though it went far towards moulding these different sections into the united states, was a curious illustration of that reluctance that we have already referred to, to sever themselves finally from the old country, as the committee recommended the retention of the union in the upper corner next the staff, but substituted for the broad red field of the rest of the flag thirteen horizontally disposed stripes, alternately red and white, the emblems of the union into one of the thirteen colonies in their struggle against oppression. we have this represented in fig. . it was also the flag of the east india company. on the final declaration of independence, when the severance from the old country was irrevocable, and the colonists became a nation, the question of a national flag was one of the points awaiting solution; but it was not till about a year afterwards that a decision was come to. the vessels commissioned by washington flew the flag we have figured in no. ; this was approved in april, , and remained in use some little time, as did also the one represented in fig. . sometimes we find the cross and pine-tree removed and the whole flag nothing but the red and white stripes. this flag composed of stripes alone was not peculiar to the american navy, as a flag of similar design was for a long time a well-known signal in the british fleet, being that used for the red division to form up into line of battle. anyone looking over a collection of the common pottery made from about a hundred and fifty years ago up to comparatively recent times will find that stirring contemporary events are very freely introduced--sea-fights, portraits of leading statesmen, generals, and so forth. these are often caricatures, as, for example, the hundreds that may be seen in our various museums and private collections derisive of "boney," while others are as historically correct as the potter's knowledge and skill could compass. anyone visiting the corporation museum at brighton will find a jug bearing the head of zebulon m. pike, an american general; trophies of flags are grouped around this, but the only flag with any device upon it is a plain striped one. another that bears the head of commodore decatur, u.s.n., has below it a cannon, on the left a trophy of flags and weapons, and on the right a ship; and a very similar jug may be seen in honour of commodore parry. in each of these cases the flags in the trophies and on the ships are simply striped. on august th, , congress resolved "that the flag of the united states be thirteen stripes, alternately red and white, and that the union be thirteen stars, white in a blue field, representing { } a new constellation."[ ] this was the birth of the national flag, "the stars and stripes," and it would appear at first sight to be a final settlement of the device, though in practice the result did not work out at all uniformly, the number of stripes being unequal. if we commence at the top with a white one, we shall have seven white and six red, whereas if we begin with a red stripe we shall get seven red and six white. each of these renderings was for some years in use, until it was authoritatively laid down that the latter was the arrangement to be adopted. it seems a minor point, but any of our readers who will re-draw fig. and transpose the colours of the stripes, so that the upper and lower edges of the flag are white instead of red, will be surprised to note how so apparently trivial a change will affect the appearance of the flag.[ ] in like manner the stars were sometimes made with six points, and at others with five. even so late as , we find such a striking variation as a flag bearing stars with eight points, and its stripes alternately red, blue, and white. the coins issued during the presidency of washington had five-pointed stars on them, but later on they had six points. nobody seems now to know why this change was made. as nothing was said in this resolution of congress as to the arrangement of the stars on the blue field, a further opening for variety of treatment was found. in some of the early flags they were arranged to represent the letters u.s., in others they were all placed in a circle, in others again they were dispersed irregularly, so as the better to suggest a constellation; and it was finally ordered that they should be placed in parallel horizontal rows, as we now see them. though the stars did not appear in the american flag until , we find in a poem in the _massachusetts spy_ of march th, , on the outbreak of the rebellion, the lines-- "the american ensign now sparkles a star which shall shortly flame wide through the skies." { } this poetic and prophetic flight is the earliest suggestion of the stars in the national flag of the united states. it has been held that the american eagle and the stars and stripes of the national flag were suggested by the crest and arms of the washington family. this statement has been often made; hence we find an american patriot writing:--"it is not a little curious that the poor, worn-out rag of feudalism, as many would count it, should have expanded into the bright and ample banner that now waves on every sea." but that it should be so seems by no means an established fact. no reference is made to it in washington's correspondence, or in that of any of his contemporaries. the arms of the washington family are a white shield having two horizontal red bars, and above these a row of three red stars; and this certainly bears some little resemblance to the american flag, but how much is mere coincidence, and how much is adaptation it is impossible to say. these arms may be seen on a brass in solgrave church, huntingdonshire, on the tomb of laurence washington, the last lineal ancestor who was buried in england. he was twice mayor of northampton, in and in , and the first president of the united states was his great-great-grandson. he was a man of considerable influence, and on the dissolution of the monasteries henry gave him the priory of st. andrews, northampton. in the troublous times that succeeded, his son john went to america, and lived for some twenty years on the banks of the potomac. another theory that has been advanced is that the blue quarter was taken from the blue banner of the scotch covenanters, and was therefore significant of the solemn league and covenant of the united colonies against oppression, while the stripes were a blending of the red colours used in the army with the white flags used in the navy. we give the theory for what it is worth, which we venture to say is not very much; but as it was advanced by an american writer, we give it place. should our readers care to consider yet another theory, they may learn that the genesis of the star-spangled banner was very much less prosaic. prose has it that a committee of council, accompanied by general washington, called on mrs. ross, an upholstress of arch street, philadelphia, and engaged her to make a flag from a rough sketch that they brought with them, that she in turn suggested one or two practical modifications, and that at her wish washington re-drew it there and then, that she at once set to work on it, and in a few hours the first star-spangled flag was floating in the breeze; but the poet ignores the services of mrs. ross altogether, and declares that { } "when freedom from her mountain height unfurled her standard to the air, she tore the azure robe of night and set the stars of glory there. she mingled with its gorgeous dyes the milky baldric of the skies, and striped its pure celestial white with streakings of the morning light: then from his mansion in the sun she called her eagle-bearer down and gave into his mighty hand the symbol of her chosen land." this view was expressed by another great american in the words:--"as at the early dawn the stars shine forth even while it grows light, and then, as the sun advances, that light breaks out into banks and streaming lines of colour, the glowing red and intense light striving together and ribbing the horizon with bars effulgent, so on the american flag stars and beams of light shine out together. where this flag comes, and men behold it, they see in its sacred emblazoning no ramping lions, and no fierce eagle, no embattled castles, or insignia of imperial authority: they see the symbols of light: it is the banner of dawn; it means liberty!" we have clearly now got a long way from the establishment in arch street. this flag, which, after such glowing passages as the foregoing, we should almost expect to find too sacred a thing for change or criticism, has undergone some few modifications in its details, though the original broad idea has remained untouched. as the first conception was that each of the original thirteen states was represented in the national flag by a star and a stripe, other states, as they came into the union, naturally expected the same consideration: hence on the admission of vermont in , and kentucky in , an act was passed which increased the number of stars and stripes from thirteen to fifteen. later on came tennessee, ohio, louisiana, and so forth, and the flag was presently made to consist of twenty stars and stripes, but it was found to be so objectionable to be thus continually altering it that it was settled in the year to go back to the original thirteen stripes, but to add a star for each new state. hence the stripes show always the original number of the states at the birth of the nation, while the stars show the present number in the union. it is interesting to trace the growth of the country, illinois being enrolled in the union in , alabama in , maine in , missouri in , arkansas in , michigan in , and so on; but suffice it now to say that by the original thirteen had { } grown to forty-four, and it was announced that on and after the th of july of that year the national flag should bear this latter number of stars. as there are still several territories awaiting promotion to the rank of states, the constellation is even yet incomplete. "a song for our banner! the watchword recall which gave the republic her station; united we stand, divided we fall, it made, and preserves us, a nation! the union of lakes, the union of lands, the union of states none can sever; the union of hearts, the union of hands, and the flag of our union for ever." the most striking modification of the flag is seen in the revenue service. we have still the silver stars on the azure field and the stripes of alternate red and white, but in this special case the stripes, instead of being disposed horizontally, are placed vertically, a slight enough difference apparently, but one which makes a striking alteration in the appearance of the flag. the pendant of the united states navy is shown in fig. ; the stars in it, it will be seen, are reduced to the original thirteen, while the narrowness of the flag permits but two of the stripes. the american jack is simply the blue and white portion of the national flag, fig. , made into a separate flag. the commodore's broad pendant is a swallow-tailed blue flag, with one white star in the centre. the admiral's flag, hoisted at the main, is shown in fig. ; the vice-admiral's flag, hoisted at the fore, has three white stars on the blue field; and the rear-admiral's flag, hoisted at mizen, has two arranged vertically over each other. while in some nationalities the flag of the war navy differs from that of the mercantile marine--as in the case of great britain, germany, and spain--in others the same flag is used. this is so in the united states, france, etc. the chief of the state, whether he be called emperor, king, president, or sultan, has his own flag--his personal standard--and this special and personal flag, in the case of the president of the united states, has on its blue field an eagle, bearing on its breast a shield with the stars and stripes, and beneath it the national motto, "_e pluribus unum_." as it has been suggested that the employment of the eagle as a symbol of the state was derived from the crest of washington, it may not be inopportune to state that the crest in question was not an eagle at all, but a raven. the idea of the eagle, together with the word "senate," and many such similar { } things, no doubt arose from their use in ancient rome, and afforded an illustration the more of the pseudo-classicalism that was raging in the eighteenth century in france and elsewhere. the eagle appears on many of the early flags of america. fig. is a curious example of its use. in an old engraving we see a figure of liberty defended by washington, and above them this flag. in another old print before us we see washington leaning on a cannon, and behind him a flag bearing the stars and stripes, plus an eagle, that with outstretched wings fills up much of the field, having in his beak a label with the "_e pluribus unum_" upon it, with one foot grasping the thunderbolts of war, and the other the olive-branch of peace. both these eagle-bearing flags, it will be seen, are associated with the president; but in many of these early examples there seems no necessary connection. thus in one instance we see a busy ship-building scene, and while the ship in the foreground has at stern the stars and stripes, at the bowsprit it bears a jack that is identical with the blue and white portion of fig. . in a presidential standard proposed in the flag is quartered. in the first quarter are twenty white stars on a blue field; in the second quarter is the eagle and thunderbolt; in the third a sitting figure emblematic of liberty; in the fourth, seven red horizontal stripes alternating with six white ones. we found the flag figured in an old american book, but are unable to say whether such a flag was ever actually made, proposition and adoption not being altogether the same thing. history repeated itself on the secession from the union, in the year , of north and south carolina, florida, mississippi, alabama, georgia, louisiana, virginia, texas, arkansas, and tennessee. there was the same desire at first for individuality in the different flags adopted by the seceding states, the same unwillingness to break wholly away from the old flag, that we have seen as features in the first revolt. louisiana adopted the flag shown in fig. ; this was emblematic of the origin and history of the state, louisiana having been settled by louis quatorze in , ceded to spain at the peace of , restored to france in , sold by france to america in , and admitted as a state of the union in . the spanish flag, fig. , is red and yellow, hence the golden star on the ruddy field, while the stripes of red, white and blue are the colours found in the flags of france and america. on the election of president lincoln in november, , south carolina, by vote of convention, proclaimed her resumption of independence as a sovereign state, and on the th of the month the new state flag, having a green palmetto palm in the centre of a { } field of white, was hoisted in charleston amidst the ringing of bells, a salute of one hundred guns, and every possible sign of public rejoicing. in january, , the flag shown in fig. was substituted, the old crescent moon of the first rebellion, , reappearing, but in the _charleston mercury_, of january th, , we read that "the legislature last night again altered the design of the state flag. it now consists of a blue field with a white palmetto palm tree in the middle. the white crescent in the upper flagstaff corner remains as before, but the horns pointing upwards. this may be regarded as final." this flag is shown in fig. . fig. is the flag of texas--"the lone star" state. "hurrah for the lone star! up, up to the mast with the honoured old bunting, and nail it there fast. the ship is in danger, and texans will fight 'neath the flag of the lone star for god and their right." when it became necessary, as it almost immediately did, to adopt one flag as the common ensign of all the confederate states, a special committee was appointed to consider the matter, and to study the numerous designs submitted to them. on presenting their report the chairman said--"a flag should be simple, readily made, and capable of being made up in bunting; it should be different from the flag of any other country, place, or people: it should be significant: it should be readily distinguishable at a distance: the colours should be well contrasted and durable: and lastly, and not the least important point, it should be effective and handsome. the committee humbly think that the flag which they submit combines these requirements. it is very easy to make; it is entirely different from any other national flag. the three colours of which it is composed--red, white, and blue--are the true republican colours; they are emblematic of the three great virtues--valour, purity, and truth. naval men assure us that it can be recognised at a great distance. the colours contrast admirably, and are lasting. in effect and appearance it must speak for itself." the flag, thus highly and justly commended, was first hoisted on march th, , at montgomery. it is represented in fig. , and was quickly known as the "stars and bars."[ ] even the _new york herald_ admitted that "the design of this flag is striking, and it has { } the merit of originality as well as of durability." the circle of white stars was intended to correspond in number with the states in the confederacy, but no great attention seems to have been paid to this. the flag may be seen engraved on the paper money of the different southern states, and on other government papers. in one example before us the stars are seven in number, and in another nine are shown, the number of seceding states being eleven. while the "stars and bars," fig. , was quite a different flag from fig. , the "stars and stripes," it was found that, nevertheless, in the stress of battle confusion arose; so the battle flag, fig. , known as the "southern cross," became largely adopted, though its use was never actually legalised. here, again, we find that though eleven should be the proper number of the stars, they are in our illustration thirteen, while in one example we have found seventeen. it would be found in practice very difficult to make a pleasing arrangement of eleven stars; given a central one, and two on either side of it in the arms of the cross, and we get nine as a result, with three on either side it will total to thirteen, and with four it must take seventeen. in a few instances it may be seen without the red portions--a white flag with the blue cross and white stars. one great objection to the southern cross was that it was not adapted for sea service, since being alike in whatever way it was looked at, it could not be reversed in case of distress. to obviate this difficulty, at a congress in richmond in the form seen in fig. was adopted--a plain white flag having the southern cross as its union; but this, in turn, was objected to as being too much like a flag of truce, so to meet this, in the following year, it was ordered that the space between the union and the outer edge of the flag should be divided vertically in half, and that the outer half should be red: an alteration that may have been necessary, but which greatly spoiled the appearance of what was, before this, a handsome and striking flag. as the struggle came to an end in the following year, the "stars and bars" and the "southern cross" perished in the general downfall of the southern cause--the victories of fredericksburg, chancellorsville, shenandoah valley, chattanooga, and many another hard-fought field, and the brilliant strategy of lee, beauregard, longstreet, jackson, early, hood, and many another gallant commander, being all in vain against the unlimited resources of the north. over six hundred and fifty thousand human lives, over seven hundred millions of pounds sterling, were spent in what an american writer delicately calls "the late unpleasantness." the americans, jealous of the honour of their flag, have sometimes, to our insular notions, a rather odd way of showing it. some { } of our readers will remember how an american, some time ago, undertook to carry the flag of his country through england. whatever visions he or his compatriots may have had of his defending it gallantly against hostile attack were soon proved to be baseless. englishmen, _cela va sans dire_, have no hostility to the americans, and the populace--urban, suburban, and rural--everywhere entered into the humour of the thing, and cheered the gallant sergeant and his bunting wherever he appeared. all the risk and terror of the exploit melted away in general acclamation and hearty welcome. an englishman told us that in descending a mountain in norway he met an american carrying something rolled up; he unfolded it, and displayed the stars and stripes, and said that he had brought it to plant on the summit of the mountain. why he should do so is by no means apparent: but still, as it pleased him and hurt no one else, it would be churlish, indeed, to demur to so innocent a pastime. our friend courteously raised his hat to the symbol of the great daughter nation over the ocean, whereupon the american heartily reciprocated, saying, "thanks, stranger; and here's to the union jack."[ ] when the french declared war against prussia, on july th, , they were entirely unprepared for the enthusiasm and unity with which the various german states rallied together against the common opponent. it was thought that the southern and catholic states would, at least, be neutral, if they did not side with france against a power that, during previous conflict with austria, had laid heavy hand on those that had then taken sides against her. but this, after all, had been but a quarrel amongst themselves; and the attempt of france to violate german soil was at once the signal for germans to stand shoulder to shoulder in one brotherhood against the common foe. the separate interests and grievances of bavarians, saxons, hessians, badeners, brunswickers, wurtemburgers, hanoverians, were at once put aside, and united germany, in solid phalanx, rose in irresistible might. in the great historic palace of versailles, in the hall dedicated "to all the glories of france," the confederate princes of germany, headed by the king of bavaria, { } conferred on the king of prussia the title of emperor of germany, bestowing on him the duty of representing all the german states in international questions, and appointing him and his successors the commander-in-chief of the german forces. thus, on january th, , amid the acclamation of the allied sovereigns and the deep bass of the cannon in the trenches surrounding the beleagured capital of the common enemy, the principle of german unity received its seal and consummation. the war ensign of the empire is represented in fig. . the colours of prussia, black and white, and the prussian eagle enter largely into it, and perhaps it may at first sight appear that these symbols of the prussian state are even a little too conspicuous, but it must be borne in mind that it is to the sovereign of this state the headship of all is given, and that the vital interests of prussia in the matter may be further illustrated by the fact that while she has a population, in round numbers, of thirty millions, bavaria has but five, and saxony three, while the wurtemburgers and badeners between them make up about another three millions, and no other state in the empire comes at all near these figures. prussia has over , square miles of territory to fight for, while bavaria has but , , and the next largest, wurtemburg, has only an area of , ; in every way, political, commercial, or what not, the interests of prussia are overwhelmingly predominant. the flag of west prussia is the black, white, black, shewn in fig. , while the east prussian flag is made up of but two horizontal strips, the upper black and the lower white. hence the well-known war song, "ich bin ein preussen,"[ ] commences, "i am a prussian! know ye not my banner? before me floats my flag of black and white! my fathers died for freedom, 'twas their manner, so say those colours floating in your sight." { } the black, white, and red canton in the staff-head corner of the flag is also made into an independent flag, as at fig. , and used as a "jack" in the imperial navy, while this same flag, fig. , minus the cross, is the flag of the mercantile marine. on the th of october, , on the establishment of the north german confederacy, at the conclusion of the austro-prussian campaign, the king of prussia sanctioned a proposal for a flag common to all. we find in this decree that "the confederate flag henceforth solely to bear the qualification of the national flag, and as such to be exclusively on board the merchantmen of the confederacy, shall be composed of three equilateral stripes horizontally arranged: the colour of the top one being black, the middle stripe white, and that of the bottom stripe red." on the inclusion of the south german states on the formation of the german empire, the latter still more potent and august body retained the confederacy flag for its mercantile marine. up to the year no german national flag had ever flown on the ocean, as the various states and free cities had their special colours of merely local value. the responsible minister of the crown, in a speech delivered in the diet in , stated to the members that the combination of colours was emblematic of a junction of the black-white prussian flag with the red-white ensign of the hanseatic league. this league of the sea-ports of germany was organised in for their mutual defence and for the interchange of commercial advantages. as its strength and reputation increased, many other cities sought to be admitted, but international jealousies disintegrated the league, and by the year it was reduced from sixty-six cities to three--lubeck, hamburg, and bremen. these three hanse towns still retain special privileges. the red and the white in the german flag represents the commercial prosperity of the nation, while the black and white symbolises the strong arm of the state prepared to protect and foster it. the flags of these three cities still retain the old colours, lubeck being half white and half red, bremen red and white stripes, and hamburg a white castle on a red field. the arms of the hohenzollerns are quarterly arranged. the first and fourth quarters are themselves quartered, black and white for zollern, while the second and third quarters are azure with a golden stag for sigmaringen. friedrich vi., the first of the hohenzollerns, the burggraf of nürnberg, became friedrich i., elector of brandenburg, in . there were twelve in all, of these hohenzollern electors, and friedrich iii., the last of these, became in the first king of prussia. all the succeeding sovereigns have been of the same house, so that the black and { } white in the flag of to-day is the black and white that for over five hundred years has been emblazoned in the arms of the hohenzollerns. the cross on the flag (figs. and )--the "iron cross" so highly prized as the reward of fine service--is the cross of the teutonic order, and dates from the close of the th century. the history of the teutonic order, in its connexion with prussia, is dealt with very fully in the first volume of carlyle's "frederick the great." the imperial standard of germany has the iron cross, black with white border, on a yellow field, in the centre of all being a shield bearing the arms of prussia, surmounted by a crown and surrounded by the collar of the order of the black eagle. the yellow groundwork of the flag is diapered over in each quarter with three black eagles and a crown. the arms of the cross stretch out to the four edges of the flag. the admiral's flag in the imperial german navy is square, and consists of the black cross on a white ground--the cross, as in the standard, extending to the edges of the flag. the vice-admiral's flag is similar, but has in the upper staff-space a black ball in addition, while the rear-admiral has the same flag again, but with the addition of a black ball in each of the quarters nearest the mast. the chief of the admiralty has a white flag again with the cross in the centre, but in this case there is a considerable margin of white all round, and four red anchors are placed so that they extend in a sloping direction from the corners of the flag towards the inner angles of the cross. we get the characteristic black and white again in the burgee of the imperial yacht club, which is thus quartered, an upright line meeting a horizontal one in the centre of the burgee, and thus giving a first and fourth black quarter and a second and third white one. the signal for a pilot again is a white flag with a broad border of black; if our readers will take a mourning envelope with a good deep margin of black to it, they will see the effect exactly. german vessels engaged in trade on the east african coast fly the black, white, red, but in the centre of the white stripe is a blue anchor placed erect, while the imperial governor in east africa substitutes for the anchor the black eagle. the german east africa company's flag is white cut into quarters by a narrow and parallel-edged cross and a red canton with five white stars on it in the quarter nearest the masthead. while we find amongst the minor states of germany oldenburg, fig. , with a cross-bearing flag, the greater number are made up of stripes disposed horizontally, and either two or three in number. thus fig. is the white-green of saxony, fig. { } the black-red-yellow of waldeck, fig. the blue-white of pomerania, fig. the black-red of wurtemburg, fig. the red-yellow-blue of mecklenburg-strelitz, fig. the blue-yellow of brunswick, fig. the green-white of saxe-coburg gotha, fig. the blue-red-white of schomberg lippe, fig. the red-white of hesse. others that we have not figured are the red-yellow of baden, the white-blue of bavaria, the yellow-white of hanover, the yellow-red of elsass, the red-yellow of lothringen.[ ] to these, others might be added: sleswig-holstein, brandenburg, posen, silesia, etc., all agreeing in the same general character. the imperial standard of the austro-hungarian monarchy is yellow, and has in its centre the black double-headed eagle and a bordering all round composed of equal-sided triangles turning alternately their apices inwards and outwards; the first of these are alternately yellow and white, the second alternately scarlet and black. on the displayed wings of the eagle are the arms of the eleven provinces of the empire. the war-ensign of the monarchy in represented in fig. ; it is composed of three equal horizontal bands of red, white, red, and bears in its centre beneath the imperial crown a shield similarly divided. this flag originated in , when the emperor joseph ii. decreed its introduction. this shield was the heraldic device of the ancient dukes of austria, and is known to have been in existence in the year , as duke leopold heldenthum bore these arms at that date during the crusades. the "oesterreich-ungarische monarchie," to give it its official title, is under the command of one sovereign, who is both emperor of austria and king of hungary, but each of these great states has its own parliament, ministry, and administration. austria had long held the hungarians in most unwilling subjection, and the disastrous outcome for austria of the war with prussia made it absolutely essential to make peace with hungary, the magyars seeing in the humiliation of austria the opportunity that they had long been awaiting of becoming once again an independent state. a compromise was effected in february, , by which the hungarians were willing to remain under the rule of the emperor of austria, but only on condition that he submitted to be crowned king of hungary, and that in the dual monarchy thus { } created they should have absolutely the same rights and freedom as the austrians. the austrian flag, as we have seen, is red-white-red, while the hungarian is red-white-green, and a commission being appointed to consider how these two flags could be blended into one, introduced on march th, , as the result of its deliberations, the austro-hungarian national flag that we have represented in fig. . the austrian provinces have chiefly bi- or tri-color flags, the stripes being arranged horizontally. thus bohemia is red-white; tyrol is white-red; dalmatia is blue-yellow; galicia is blue-red; croatia is red-white-blue; istria yellow-red-blue. we are so used in england to the idea that cheering is a spontaneous product that it seems strange to find that the official welcome by the austrian fleet to their emperor is a salute of twenty-one guns, followed by fifteen hurrahs. each rank has its special limit of honour; thus a minister of state or field-marshal is saluted by nineteen guns and eleven hurrahs; a general by thirteen and seven, while a commodore drops to eleven and three; ambassadors, archbishops, consuls, all have their definite share of gunpowder and such specified amount of shouting as is held to be befitting to their position. the imperial standard of the czar of all the russias is the brilliant yellow and black flag represented in fig. . the introduction of the black two-headed eagle dates back from the year , when ivan the great married sophia, a niece of constantine palæolagus, and thence assumed the arms of the greek empire. on the breast of the eagle is an escutcheon bearing on its red field in silver the figure of st. george slaying the dragon, the whole being surrounded by the collar of the order of st. andrew. on the displayed wings of the eagle are other shields, too small for representation in our figure, bearing the arms of kiow, a silver angel on an azure field; of novgorod, two black bears on a golden shield; of voldermirz, a golden lion rampant on a red shield; of kasan, a black wyvern on a silver ground, and so forth. the flag of the czarina is similar, except that it has a broad blue bordering to it. a new standard is made for each czar. it was originally borne before him in battle, but this custom has fallen into disuse, and it is now deposited with the rest of the regalia. on the heavy gold brocade is embroidered the black eagle, and around this the arms of the provinces of the empire. from the eagle that surmounts the staff are pendant the blue ribbons of the order of st. andrew, embroidered in gold, with the dates of the foundation of the russian state in , the baptism by st. vladimir in , the union of all russian possessions under the sceptre of john iii. in , and the { } proclamation of the empire by peter the great. its dedication is a great religious function, and its sacred character and its appeal to a lofty patriotism duly enforced. thus we find the imperial chaplain addressing the present czar before the consecration of the standard as follows:-- "divine providence has resolved, by the right of succession to the throne, to entrust to thee, as supreme head and autocrat of the peoples of the empire of all the russias, this sacred banner, an emblem of its unity and power. "we pray the heavenly father for the union of all thy subjects in loyalty and devotion to their throne and country, and in the unselfish fulfilment of their patriotic duties. "may this banner inspire thy enemies with dread, may it be a sign to thee of divine assistance, and in the name of god, of the orthodox faith, of right and of justice; may it help thee, in spite of all obstacles, to lead thy people to prosperity, greatness, and glory." after the benediction, holy water was sprinkled upon the standard, and the czar, as the embodiment of the nation, was again addressed:-- "the almighty has been pleased, in the course of the law of inheritance, to enthrone you as the sovereign ruler of all the peoples of the russian nation; this sacred standard is a token of unity and power. we pray it may unite all thy subjects in unquestioning loyalty to the throne and country, and in unselfish fulfilment of each duty of a subject. may it be to thee a sign, terrible to the foes of russia, of the help given by the lord god to the glory of his holy name, that, through orthodox faith, notwithstanding all limitations, thy people may be led to prosperity, greatness, and glory; so shall all nations know that god is on our side." the russians venerate st. andrew as their patron saint, believing that it was he who carried the doctrines of christianity into their midst. origen asserts that he preached in scythia. peter the great instituted under his name and protection, in the year , the first and most noble order of knighthood of the russian empire as a reward for the valour of his officers in the war against the ottomans. the badge is the x-like cross of st. andrew displayed upon the imperial eagle and pendant from a broad blue ribbon. we have already seen that st. andrew is the patron saint of scotland also, but in scotland the cross, fig. , is white upon a field of blue, while in russia, fig. , it is blue upon a field of white. this flag, fig. , is the war ensign, the flag of the imperial navy. the creed of the russian church extols the worship of saints, and amongst the numerous subjects of veneration st. george takes { } rank next to st. andrew himself. hence we see his presentment on the standard of the czar, and hence catherine ii., in , instituted an order of knighthood in his honour. the badge is a cross of gold, having in its centre a medallion with a figure of the saint slaying the dragon; the ribbon being yellow and black. st. george, we need scarcely remind our readers, is the great warrior-saint of england too, but while we place his scarlet cross, fig. , on the field of white, the russians reverse the arrangement and place his white cross on scarlet.[ ] fig. is the russian union jack that combines the crosses of st. andrew and st. george. fig. is the british union jack that deals with precisely the same combination. the flag of the russian merchant service is represented in fig. . this was originally instead of being white, blue, red, a flag of blue, white, red. peter the great borrowed this from the dutch, amongst whom he learnt ship-building. the dutch flag, fig. , it will be seen is a tricolor of red, white, blue. peter simply turned this upside down, and afterwards, for greater distinction, charged the central white space with a small blue st. andrew's cross, as we see in fig. , which represents this early form of flag. later on, for still greater clearness of distinction, the blue and the white strips changed places, and so we get the modern russian mercantile flag, as shown in fig. . it was evidently undesirable that the flag of the great empire of russia should be the same as that of a reversed dutch ensign--a signal of distress and disaster. based upon these two simple forms, the government cross of st. andrew, fig. , and the commercial tricolor, fig. , we get a great variety of official flags. thus fig. is a very happy blending of the two forms in the flag of a consul-general, since he is an official of the state, and at the same time his duties deal largely with commercial interests; and much the same ground may be taken as regards the blending of the two flags in fig. , the flag of a russian chargé d'affaires. fig. is the ensign of a russian transport; if of the second division the field of the flag is blue, and if of the third it is red, in each of these cases the crossed anchors being white. the russian signal for a pilot is the jack shown in fig. , but with a broad white border to it. { } a russian ambassador or minister plenipotentiary flies the flag shown in fig. . in the imperial navy we find a considerable variety of flag types. while the full admiral flies the imperial naval flag, fig. , that of the vice-admiral has along its bottom edge a horizontal strip of blue, and that of the rear-admiral in the same position a strip of red. the flag of the minister of marine is the official flag, fig. , except that instead of the four plain white spaces there seen these triangles hold each of them a golden anchor, the fluke end outwards. there are many other modifications that we need not here particularise. fig. is the official flag of poland; the device in the canton in the upper corner, the white eagle on the scarlet field, is the ancient polish flag, when poland was yet a nation. the early history of the french flag is lost in obscurity, and it is not always easy to trace the various modifications that it has undergone. at the earliest date of which we have record we find the kings of the franks marshalling their forces under the plain blue flag known as the chape de st. martin. later on the red flag of st. denis, known as the oriflamme, came into use, and was held in great popular esteem, until by the tenth century we find it accepted as the national flag, though the blue flag still held its ground as a recognised flag. we may, in fact, assume that as the russians placed themselves beneath the protection both of st. george and also of st. andrew, so the french felt that a double claim on saintly assistance would be by no means amiss. the chape de st. martin was originally in the keeping of the monks of the abbey of marmoutiers, and popular belief held it to be a portion of the actual blue cloak that the legend affirms the saint divided with the beggar suppliant. the counts of anjou claimed the right to take this blue flag to battle with them. we find it borne by clovis in the year against alaric, and again by charlemagne at the battle of narbonne; and time after time it led the hosts of france to victory. when the kings of france transferred the seat of government to paris, the great local saint, st. denis, was held in high honour, and the scarlet flag of the abbey church of st. denis gradually ousted the blue flag of st. martin, and "st. denis" became the war-cry of france.[ ] fig. is a representation of the oriflamme from some ancient stained glass, but the authorities differ somewhat; thus the "chronique de flandre" describes it as having three points and tassels of green { } silk attached thereto, while an english authority says, "the celestial auriflamb, so by the french admired, was but of one colour, a square redde banner." du cange gives no hint of its shape, but affirms that it was simple, "sans portraiture d'autre affaire." all therefore that seems quite definite is that it was a plain scarlet flag. the last time that the sacred ensign was borne to battle was at agincourt on october th, , when it certainly failed to justify the confidence of its votaries. the precise date when the golden fleurs-de-lys were added to the blue flag is open to doubt, but we find the form at a very early date, and from the first recognition of heraldic coats of arms this blazon was the accepted cognizance of the kings of france. we see this represented in fig. . originally the fleurs-de-lys were powdered, as in fig. , over the whole surface, but in the reign of charles v., a.d. , the number was reduced to three.[ ] the meaning of the fleur-de-lys has given rise to much controversy; some will tell us that it is a lily flower or an iris, while others affirm that it is a lance-head. some authorities see in it an arbitrary floral form assumed by king louis,[ ] and therefore the fleur-de-louis; while others are so hard put to it that they tell us of a river lys in flanders that was so notable for its profusion of yellow iris that the flower became known as the fleur-de-lys. the ancient chronicles gravely record that they were lilies brought from paradise by an angel to king clovis in the year , on the eve of a great battle fought near cologne. clovis made a vow that if he were victorious he would embrace the christian faith, and the angel visitant and the celestial gift were a proof that his prayers were heard and his vow accepted. as the belief that france was in an especial degree under divine protection was a very flattering one, the lilies were held for centuries in great favour; and the fleur-de-lys did not finally disappear from the flag of france until the downfall of louis philippe in the year , a date within the recollection, doubtless, of some of our readers. finality, indeed, may not even yet have been reached in the matter. as the bees of napoleon i. reappeared in the arms of napoleon iii., so the fleur-de-lys may yet again appear on the ensigns of france. by virtue of a napoleonic decree in against factious or treasonable emblems, it was forbidden to introduce the fleur-de-lys in jewellery, tapestry, or any other decorative way, lest its introduction might peril the position of a { } sovereign who rose to power by lavish bribery, and the free outpouring of blood. napoleon the first, and at least by contrast the great, when at auch enquired the reason why many of the windows of the cathedral were partially concealed by paper, and he was informed that it was because it was feared that he would be offended at the sight of certain ancient emblems there represented. "what!" he exclaimed, "the fleurs-de-lys? uncover them this moment. during eight centuries they guided the french to glory, as my eagles do now, and they must always be dear to france and held in reverence by her true children." the white cross frequently appears on the early french flags. fig. , the flag of the french guards in the year , is a good example of this. we find favyn, in a book published in paris in , "le théâtre d'honneur et de chevalerie," writing: "le grand estendard de satin bleu celeste en riche broderie de fleurs de lys d'or a une grande croix plein de satin blanc, qui est la croix de france." figs. and are taken from a ms. executed in the time of louis xii., a.d. , illustrating a battle scene; these two flags are placed by the side of the fleur-de-lys flag, fig. . when louis xi., in , organised the national infantry we find him giving them as the national ensign a scarlet flag with white cross on it; and some two hundred years later we find the various provincial levies beneath flags of various designs and colours, but all agreeing in having the white cross as the leading feature. fig. , for example, is that of the soissonois. desjardins, in his excellent book on the french flag,[ ] gives a great many illustrations of these. in the musée d'artillerie in paris we find a very valuable collection of martial equipments from the time of charlemagne, and amongst these a fine series (original where possible, or, failing this copies) of the flags of france from the year . the huguenot party in france adopted the white flag, and when king henry iii., to , himself a protestant, came to the throne, the white flag became the royal ensign, and was fully adopted in the next reign, that of henry iv., the first king of the house of bourbon, as the national flag. the whole history of the flag prior to the great revolution, is somewhat confused, and in the year , which we may consider about the middle of the bourbon or white flag period,[ ] we find the order given by the { } minister of the marine that "the ensigns are to be blue, powdered with yellow fleurs-de-lys, with a large white cross in the middle." merchant ships were to wear the same flag as the ships of war except that in the canton corner was to be placed the device of their province or town. before the end of the year a new order was issued to the effect that "the ensigns at the stern are to be in all cases white," while the merchants were to fly the white flag with the device of the port in the corner. the white flag was sometimes plain, as in fig. , and at other times provided with yellow fleurs-de-lys. on the restoration of the bourbons in , after the republic, consulate, and empire, the white flag was again the flag of the nation, and remained so until , its last appearance in france, unless or until the house of bourbon again arises to the throne, when the restoration of the _drapeau blanc_ would probably follow. the white flag has therefore been the national ensign of france for over two hundred years. in a book in the library of the science and art department, south kensington, we found the flag represented in fig. figured as the french standard, with fig. apparently as an alternative, while the national flag of france is represented as the tricolor with bordering shown in fig. , and the admiral's flag is given as pure white. the book is entitled "a display of naval flags of all nations." it was published in liverpool; no date is given, but we can arrive approximately at this, as the british standard is represented as including the arms of hanover; this limits its publication to between the years and . the well-known tricolor of france, fig. , dates from the era of the revolution and came into existence in . it has, with the exception of the short bourbon restoration, been the flag of france for over a century, and it remains so to this day, though it underwent some few modifications ere it settled down to the present form. thus, for instance, on october th , it was decreed that the colour next the staff was to be red, the central strip white and the outer blue, but on february th, , it was ordered that "the flag prescribed by the national assembly be abolished. the national flag shall be formed of the three national colours in equal bands placed vertically, the hoist being blue, the centre white, and the fly red." on the revolution of , the provisional government ordered on march th that the colours were to run thus--blue, red, white, but the opposition to this was so strong that only two days later the order was cancelled. in the tricolor was made the jack, and the ensign was as shown in fig. . this ensign was to be common to both the men-of-war and the flags of the merchant navy, but the arrangement was not of long continuance. the spirit of change that was felt in every department affected the flags { } likewise, and some little time elapsed before the matter was satisfactorily settled. the arms of paris are a white galley on a red ground, and above this are three golden fleurs-de-lys on a blue band or strip. on july th, , it was determined that a civic guard of forty thousand men should be raised, and that its colours should be those of the city, the gules and azure of the groundwork of the escutcheon, to which, on the proposal of lafayette, the white of the royal _drapeau blanc_ was added. during the first and second empire the imperial standard was still the tricolor, but it bore in the centre of the white strip the eagle; and all three strips were richly diapered over with the golden bees of the napoleons. the national flag was the tricolor pure and simple, both for the imperial and the commercial navy. as the flags of the army were borne on staffs surmounted by a golden eagle, the term "eagle" was often applied to these colours.[ ] on the outbreak of the second republic in , the people immediately on its proclamation demanded the adoption of the ill-omened red flag. lamartine, the leading member of the provisional government, closed an impassioned address with the words: "citizens, i will reject even to death this banner of blood, and you should repudiate it still more than myself, for this red flag you offer us has only made the circuit of the champs de mars bathed in the blood of the people, while the tricolor has made the circuit of the world, with the name, the glory, and the liberty of your country." louis blanc and other members of the government were in favour of the red flag, and at last a compromise was effected and the tricolor was accepted with the addition of a large red rosette. louis blanc, not unreasonably, as a republican, pointed out that lafayette had in associated the white of the bourbon flag with the red and blue of the arms of the city, and that the tricolor flag was therefore the result of a compromise between the king and the people, but that in the king having abdicated, and monarchy done away with, there was no reason why any suggestion of the kingly power should continue. doubtless the suppression of the flag of the barricades, the symbol of civil strife, { } of anarchy and bloodshed, and the retaining of the tricolor was the wiser and more patriotic course, though it required no mean amount of courage and strong personal influence to effect the change. the imperial eagle, so long a symbol of victory, has now in these republican days[ ] disappeared from the national colours. the flag of the french army is now surmounted by a wreath of laurel traversed by a golden dart with the letters r.f. and the regimental number, while on one face of the flag itself is, in the middle, the inscription "republique française, honneur et patrie," each corner being occupied by a golden wreath enclosing the number of the regiment. the name of the regiment and its "honours" occupy the other side. the pendant of the french man-of-war is simply, fig. , the tricolor elongated. the admiral flies a swallow-tailed tricolor, while the rear-admiral and the vice-admiral have flags of the ordinary shape, like fig. , except that the former officer has two white stars on the blue strip near the top of it, and the latter three. maritime prefects have the three white stars on the blue plus two crossed anchors in blue in the centre of the white strip. the governor of a french colony has such a special and distinctive flag as fig. would be if, instead of the union canton on the blue, we placed in similar place the tricolor. there are naturally a great many other official flags, but the requirements of our space forbid our going into any further description of them. the war and mercantile flags of spain have undergone many changes, and their early history is very difficult to unravel; but on may th, , the flags were adopted that have continued in use ever since. fig. is the flag of the spanish navy; it consists, as will be seen, of three stripes--a central yellow one, and a red one, somewhat narrower, above and below. the original proportion was that the yellow should be equal in width to the two red ones combined. this central stripe is charged, near the hoist, with an escutcheon containing the arms of castile and leon, and surmounted by the royal crown. the mercantile flag, fig. , is also red and yellow. the yellow stripe in the centre is without the escutcheon, and in width it should be equal to one-third of the entire depth of the flag, the remaining thirds above and below it being divided into two equal strips, the one red and the other yellow. this simple striping of the two colours was doubtless { } suggested by the arms of arragon, the vertical red and yellow bars[ ] of which may be seen also in the spanish royal standard, fig. . spain, like italy, has grown into one monarchy by the aggregation of minor states. in the year we have the union of navarre and castile; in we find leon and asturias joining this same growing kingdom, and in the year ferdinand ii. of arragon married isabella of castile, and thus united nearly the whole of the christian part of spain into one monarchy. in this same prince added to his dominions moorish spain by the conquest of granada. legend hath it that in the year the carlovingian prince charles the bold honoured geoffrey, count of barcelona, by dipping his four fingers in the blood from the count's wounds after a battle in which they were allied, and drawing them down the count's golden shield, and that these ruddy bars were then and there incorporated in the blazon. barcelona was shortly afterwards merged into the kingdom of arragon, and its arms were adopted as those of that kingdom. its four upright strips of red, the marks of the royal fingers, are just beyond the upper shield in fig. . the pendant of the spanish navy bears at its broad end a golden space in which the arms and crown, as in fig. , are placed; the rest of the streamer is a broad strip of yellow, bordered, as in fig. , by two slightly narrower strips of red. the royal standard of spain, fig. , is of very elaborate character, and many of its bearings are as inappropriate to the historic facts of the present day as the retention in the arms of great britain of the french fleurs-de-lys centuries after all claim to its sovereignty had been lost. in the upper left hand part of the flag we find quartered the lion of leon and the castle of castile.[ ] at the point we have marked "c" are the arms of arragon. "d" is the device of sicily. the red and white stripes at "e" are the arms of austria; we have already encountered these in fig. . the flag of ancient burgundy, oblique stripes of yellow and blue within a red border, is placed at "f." the black lion on the golden ground at "g" is the heraldic bearing of flanders, while the red eagle "h" is the device of antwerp. at "i" we have the { } golden lion of brabant, and above it at "j" the fleurs-de-lys and chequers of ancient burgundy. the upper small shield contains the arms of portugal, and the lower contains the fleurs-de-lys of france.[ ] the portuguese were an independent nation until philip ii. of spain overran the country, and annexed it in the year to his own dominions, but in the year they threw off the spanish yoke, which had grown intolerable, and raised john, duke of braganza, to the throne. the regal power has ever since remained in this family. the royal standard bears on its scarlet field the arms of portugal, surmounted by the regal crown. these arms were originally only the white shield with the five smaller escutcheons that we see in the centre of the present blazon. would the scale of our illustration (fig. ) permit it, each of these small escutcheons should bear upon its surface five white circular spots. portugal was invaded by the moors in the year , and the greater part of the country was held by them for over three centuries. in the year alphonso i. defeated an alliance of five great moorish princes at the battle of ourique, and the five escutcheons in the shield represents the five-fold victory, while the five circles placed on each escutcheon symbolise the five wounds of the saviour in whose strength he defeated the infidels. the scarlet border with its castles was added by alphonso iii., after his marriage in with the daughter of alphonso the wise, king of castile, the arms of which province, as we have already seen in discussing the spanish standard, are a golden castle on a red field. in an english poem, written by an eye-witness of the siege of rouen in the year , we find an interesting reference to the arms of portugal, where we read of "the kyngis herandis and pursiuantis, in cotis of armys arryauntis. the englishe a beste, the frensshe a floure of portyugale bothe castelle and toure, and other cotis of diversitie as lordis beren in ther degre."[ ] the portuguese ensign for her vessels of war and also for the merchant service bears the shield and crown, but instead of the { } scarlet field we find the groundwork of the flag half blue, and half white, as shown in fig. . the choice of these special colours, no doubt, arose from the arms on the original shield, the five blue escutcheons on the white ground. the portuguese jack has the national arms and royal crown in the centre of a white field, the whole being surrounded by the broad border of blue. italy, for centuries a geographical expression, is now one and indivisible. within the recollection of many of our readers the peninsula was composed of the kingdom of the two sicilies, the pontifical states, the grand duchy of tuscany, the duchies of parma and modena. there was also in the north the kingdom of sardinia, while lombardy and venetia were in the grip of austria. it is somewhat beside our present purpose to go into the wonderful story of how victor emmanuel of savoy, aided by cavour, garibaldi, and many another noble patriot, by diplomacy, by lives freely laid down on the tchernaya, on the fields of magenta and solferino, by the disaster at sedan, by bold audacity at one time, by patient waiting at another, was finally installed in rome, the capital of united italy, as king of a great and free nation of over thirty millions of people. suffice it now to say that this kingdom of italy, as we now know it, did not achieve until the year this full unity under one flag that had been for centuries the dream of patriots who freely shed their blood on the battlefield or the scaffold, or perished in the dungeons of papal rome, or naples, or austria for this ideal. on the downfall in of the bourbon government in the kingdom of the two sicilies before the onslaught of the volunteers of garibaldi, the first national parliament met in turin, and proclaimed victor emmanuel king of italy. the title was at once acknowledged by great britain, and, later on, by the other powers, and the capital of the rising state was transferred to florence. the papal states were still under the protection of france, "the eldest son of the church"; and the young kingdom, unable to wrest rome from the french, had to wait with such patience as it could command for the consummation of its hopes. the long-looked-for day at last arrived, when amidst the tremendous defeats inflicted in by germany on france, the french garrison in rome was withdrawn, and the italians, after a short, sharp conflict with the papal troops, entered into possession of the eternal city, and at once made it the capital of a state at last free throughout its length and breadth--no longer a geographical expression, but a potent factor to be reckoned with and fully recognised. napoleon i. formed italy into one kingdom in the year , but it was ruled by himself and the viceroy, eugene beauharnois, he appointed; and on his overthrow this, like the various other political { } arrangements he devised, came to nought. the flag he bestowed was a tricolor of green, white, and red, his idea being that, while giving the new kingdom a flag of its own, it should indicate by its near resemblance to that of france the source to which it owed its existence. in , the great revolutionary period, this flag, which had passed out of existence on the downfall of napoleon, was reassumed by the nationalists of the peninsula, and accepted by the king of sardinia as the ensign of his own kingdom, and charged by him with the arms of savoy. this tricolor, so charged (see fig. ) was the flag to which the eyes of all italian patriots turned, and it is to-day the flag of all italy. the flag we have represented is the ensign of the merchant service; the flag of the armed forces military and naval, is similar, save that the shield in the centre is surmounted by the royal crown. the royal standard, the personal flag of the king, has the arms of savoy in the centre, on a white ground, the whole having a broad bordering of blue. this shield of savoy, the white cross on the red field, was the device of the knights of st. john of jerusalem, an order semi-religious, semi-military, that owed its origin to the crusades. in the year the knights captured rhodes from the saracens, but being hard pressed by the infidels, duke amadeus iv., of savoy, came to the rescue, and the grand master of the order conferred upon him the cross that has ever since been borne in the arms of savoy. the jack or bowsprit flag of the italian man-of-war, fig. , is simply this shield of the knights of st. john squared into suitable flag-like form. the minister of marine has the tricolor, but on the green portion is placed erect a golden anchor. the vessels carrying the royal mail fly a burgee of green, white, red, having a large white "p" on the green; and there are many other official flags, the insignia of various authorities or different departments, but lack of space forbids our dwelling at greater length upon them. the war flag of the defunct temporal power of the pope was white, and in its centre stood figures of st. peter and st. paul, and above them the cross keys and tiara. fig. was the flag of the merchant ships owned by the subjects of the states of the church. the combination of yellow and white is very curious. in the banner borne by godfrey, the crusader king of jerusalem, the only tinctures introduced were the two metals, gold and silver, five golden crosses being placed upon a silver field. this was done of deliberate intention that it might be unlike all other devices, as it is in all other cases deemed false heraldry to place metal on metal. the theory that these metals were selected because of the reference in the psalms to the holy city, may also be a very possible one--"though ye have lien amongst the pots, yet shall ye { } be as the wings of a dove covered with silver, and her feathers with yellow gold." however this may be, the yellow and white of the arms of jerusalem was adopted by the papal government. the danish flag is the oldest now in existence. in the year , king waldemar of denmark in a critical moment in his stormy career, saw, or thought he saw, or said he saw, a cross in the sky. he was then leading his troops to battle against the livonian pagans, and he gladly welcomed this answer to his prayers for divine succour, this assurance of celestial aid. this sign from heaven he forthwith adopted as the flag of his country, and called it the dannebrog, _i.e._, the strength of denmark. as a definite chronological fact, apart from all legend, this flag dates from the thirteenth century. there was also an order of dannebrog instituted in , in further commemoration and honour of the miracle; and the name is a very popular one in the danish royal navy, one man-of-war after another succeeding to the appellation. one of these dannebrogs was blown up by the fire of nelson's fleet in . the danish man-of-war ensign is shown in fig. . the royal standard, like the ensign, is swallow-tailed, but in the centre of the cross is placed a white square, indicated in our illustration, fig. , by dots. this central, square space contains the royal arms, surrounded by the collars of the orders of the elephant and of the dannebrog. the merchant flag, fig. , is rectangular. in the year , norway, sweden, and denmark all formed one kingdom under the rule of the latter, but in the swedes waged with more or less success an arduous struggle for liberty, and their independence was definitely acknowledged in the year . the flag of sweden is the yellow cross on the blue ground shown in fig. . the blue and yellow are the colours of the swedish arms,[ ] and they were then doubtless chosen for the flag as the colours of freedom and independence. norway had no separate political existence until the year , but in that year the norwegians seceded from denmark, and declared their independence. their first flag was still a red flag with a white cross on it, and the arms of norway in the upper corner next the flagstaff, but this being found to too closely resemble the danish flag, they substituted for it the device seen in fig. , which it will be noted is still the danish flag, plus the blue cross on the white one. the administration of norway is entirely distinct from sweden, and it retains its own laws, but in the two kingdoms were united under one sovereign. as a sign of the union there is carried in the upper square, next to the flagstaff in the flags of both countries, a union device, a combination of the swedish { } and norwegian national colours. after considerable dispute, the union jack shown in fig. was accepted as the symbol of the political relationship of the two nations. it is a very neat arrangement, for if we look at the upper and lower portions we see the flag (fig. ) of norway, if we study the two lateral portions we find they are the flag (fig. ) of sweden. both the swedish and norwegian war flags are swallow-tailed, and have the outer limb of the cross projecting; we may see this very clearly in fig. , where the main body of the flag is norwegian. the merchant flag is with each nationality rectangular; in fig. we have the flag of a swedish merchant vessel. both in the norwegian and swedish flags, as we may note in figs. and , it will be noticed that the union device is conspicuously present. the norwegian man-of-war flag, fig. , would be that of a norwegian merchant if we cut off the points in the fly; the swedish merchant flag, fig. , would be that of a swedish man-of-war if instead of the straight end we made it swallow-tailed. as sovereign of sweden, the king places his arms in the centre of the large yellow cross; as sovereign of norway, in the centre of the large blue cross; hence we get the swedish and norwegian royal standards, the one for use in the one country, and the other for service in the other, the union device being present in the upper corner in each case, and the outer portion of the flags swallow-tailed. the standard is, in fact, the war flag plus the royal arms. the post service has in the centre of the flag a white square, with a golden horn and crown in it; the customs flag has a similar white square at the junction of the arms of the cross, and in its centre is placed a crowned "t." fig. , on the same sheet as the flags of norway and sweden, is the simple and beautiful flag of switzerland. like the crosses of st. george, st. andrew, st. patrick, or that on the flag of denmark, its device has a religious significance. gautier tells us that:--"la première fois qu'il en est fait mention dans l'histoire écrite est dans la chronique du bearnois justinger. il dit, après avoir fait l'énumération des forces des suisses quittant berne pour marcher contre l'armée des nobles coalisés en --'et tous étaient marqués au signe de la sainte croix, une croix blanche dans un écusson rouge, par la raison que l'affranchissement de la nation était pour eux une cause aussi sacrée que la délivrance des lieux saints.'" its twenty-two cantons are united by a constitution, under one president and one flag, but each canton has its own cantonal colours. thus basel is half black and half white; st. gallen, green and white; geneva, red and yellow; aargau, black and blue; glarus, red, black, and white; uri, yellow and black; berne, black and red; fribourg, black and white; lucerne, blue and white; { } tessin, red and blue; and so forth. in each case the stripes of colour are disposed horizontally, and the one we have each time mentioned first is the upper colour. within the walls of the city of geneva was held, in , an international conference, to consider how far the horrors of war could be mitigated by aid to the sick and wounded. this conference proposed that in time of war the neutrality should be fully admitted of field and stationary hospitals, and also recognised in the most complete manner by the belligerent powers in the case of all officials employed in sanitary work, volunteer nurses, the inhabitants of the country who shall assist the wounded, and the wounded themselves--that an identical distinctive sign should be adopted for the medical corps of all armies, and that an identical flag should be used for all hospitals and ambulances, and for all houses containing wounded men. the distinctive mark of all such refuges is a white flag with a red cross on it--the flag of switzerland reversed in colouring--and all medical stores, carriages, and the like, bear the same device upon them; while the doctors, nurses, and assistants, have a white armlet with the red cross upon it, the sacred badge that proclaims their mission of mercy. in deference to the religious feelings of turkey a red crescent may be substituted for the cross in campaigns where that country is one of the belligerents. these valuable proposals were confirmed by a treaty in august, , signed by the representatives of twelve powers, and known as the geneva convention. since then all the civilised powers in the world, with the exception of the united states, have given in their adhesion to it. in an international conference was held at paris for still further developing and carrying out in a practical manner the principles of the geneva conference, and another at berlin in for the same object. one notable feature of these two conferences was the extension of the principles accepted for land conflict to naval warfare. holland, as an independent state, came into existence in the year . from we find the country under the rule of the courts of hainault, and in it came into the hands of the dukes of burgundy, who in turn were subjugated by the spaniards. the tyranny and religious persecution to which the netherlanders were exposed by the spaniards led to numerous revolts, which at last developed into a war of independence, under william, prince of orange. the hollanders adopted as their flag the colours of the house of orange--orange, white, and blue. at first there was great latitude of treatment, the number of the bars of each colour and their order being very variable, but in it was definitely fixed that the flag of the netherlands was to be orange, white, blue, in three horizontal stripes of equal width. how the orange became { } changed to red is very doubtful; fournier, writing in , we see refers to the dutch flag as a tricolor of red, white, blue. fig. represents the royal standard of holland; the army and navy and commercial flags are similar, except that the royal arms are not introduced. during the general effervescence caused by the french revolution, the naval flag of holland had in the upper staff-corner a white canton, charged with a figure of liberty, but the innovation was not at all popular, as the sailors preferred the old tricolor under which the great victories of reuter and van tromp were gained, and in it was deemed expedient to revert to it. the brilliant scarlet, yellow, and black tricolor represented in fig. is the flag of belgium. the standard has, in addition, the royal arms placed in the centre of the yellow strip. the black, yellow, and red, are the colours of the duchy of brabant, and these were adopted as the national flag in . from onwards we find belgium under austrian domination, and in it fell into the hands of spain. in , and for some years following, it was held by france, and in was handed over to the prince of orange, but in the belgians rose against the hollanders, and before the end of the year their independence was acknowledged by the great powers, and leopold of coburg, in the following year, became first king of belgium. within a month of his accession to the throne, the dutch recommenced the struggle, and it was only in that a final treaty of peace was signed in london between belgium and holland, and its claims to independence frankly recognised by the dutch. greece, originally invaded by the turks in the year , remained for nearly five hundred years under their oppressive yoke, rising from time to time against their masters, only to expose their country, on the failure of their attempts, to the greater tyranny and the most dreadful excesses. over ten thousand greeks were slaughtered in cyprus in , while the bombardment of scio in , and the horrible massacre on its capture, stand out in lurid colours as one of the most atrocious deeds the world has ever known: over forty thousand men, women, and children fell by the sword. seven thousand who had fled to the mountains were induced to surrender by a promise of amnesty, and these, too, were murdered. the towns and villages were fired, and the unfortunate inhabitants, hemmed in by the turks, perished in the flames or fell beneath the swords of their relentless foes if they attempted to escape. small wonder, then, that the heart of europe was stirred, and that lord byron and thousands more took up the cause of greek independence, by contributions of arms and money, by fiery denunciation, and with strong right hand. missolonghi, navarino, { } and many another scene of struggle we cannot here dwell upon, suffice it to say that at last the victory was won and greece emerged, after a tremendous struggle, from the bondage of the turks, and took its place in europe as a free and independent nation, the porte acknowledging the inexorable logic of the _fait accompli_ on april th, . after a short presidency under one of the greek nobles, otho of bavaria was elected king of greece in , and the new kingdom was fairly launched. the greeks adopted the blue and white, the colours of bavaria, as a delicate compliment to the prince who accepted their invitation to ascend the throne of greece. the merchant flag of greece is shown in fig. . it will be seen that it consists of nine stripes, alternately blue and white, the canton being blue, with a white cross in it. the navy flag is similar, except that in addition there is placed a golden crown in the centre of the cross. the royal standard is blue with a white cross; the arms of the cross are not, as in fig. , of equal length, but the one next the staff is shorter, as in the danish flag, fig. . in the open space at the crossing of the arms is placed the royal arms. the turkish empire has undergone many changes and vicissitudes, and has in these latter days shrunk considerably. european turkey now consists of about seventy thousand square miles, while turkey in asia, syria, asia minor, palestine, armenia, etc., is over seven hundred thousand.[ ] the crescent moon and star, figs. and , were adopted by the turks as their device on the capture of constantinople by mahomet ii., in . they were originally the symbol of diana, the patroness of byzantium, and were adopted by the ottomans as a badge of triumph. prior to that event, the crescent was a very common charge in the armorial bearings of english knights, but it fell into considerable disuse when it became the special device of the mohamedans, though even so late as the year we find rené, duke of anjou, founding an order of knighthood having as its badge the crescent moon, encircled by a motto signifying "praise by increasing." though the crescent was, as we have seen, originally a pagan symbol, it remained throughout the rise and development of the greek church the special mark of constantinople, and even now in moscow and other russian cities the { } crescent and the cross may be seen combined on the churches, the object being to indicate the byzantine origin of the russian church. the crescent may be seen on the coins and medals of augustus, trajan, and other emperors. the origin of the symbol was as follows: philip, the father of alexander the great, meeting with many unforeseen difficulties in carrying on the siege of the city, set the soldiers to work one dark night to undermine the walls, but the crescent moon appearing the design was discovered and the scheme miscarried; and in acknowledgment the byzantines erected a statue to diana, and made the crescent moon--the attribute of the goddess--the symbol of their city. the war flag of turkey is the crescent and star on the scarlet field, as shown in fig. . the flag of the merchant service seems less definitely fixed. in the official flag book[ ] of the english admiralty, fig. is given as both the man-of-war flag and the merchant flag for turkey, egypt, and tripoli, while in an excellent book on the subject, published at vienna in , fig. is given as the flag of the commercial marine; and we have also seen a plain red flag with a star in the upper corner of the hoist, and another divided into three horizontal bands, the upper and lower being red, and the central one green. the military and naval service of tunis has the flag represented in fig. , while the tunisian commercial flag is simply red, without device of any kind. in a map bearing the date the turkish dominions are marked by a scarlet flag having three points and bearing three black crescents, while in a sheet of flags with the comparatively modern date of , "turk" is represented by a blue flag with three crescents in white upon it. the personal flag of the sultan, corresponding to our royal standard, is scarlet, and bears in its centre the device of the reigning sovereign: hence it undergoes a change at each accession to the throne. this device, known as the tughra, is placed on the coinage, postal stamps, etc., as well as on the royal flag, and consists of the name of the sultan, the title khan, and the epithet _el muzaffar daima_, signifying the ever-victorious. the history of the tughra is curious: when sultan murad i. entered into a treaty of peace with the ragusans, he was not sufficiently scholarly to be able to affix { } his signature to the document, so he wetted his open hand with ink and pressed it on the paper, the first, second, and third fingers making smears in fairly close proximity, while the thumb and fourth finger were apart on either side. within the mark thus made, the ottoman scribes wrote the name of murad, his title, and the epithet that bore testimony to his ever-victorious career. the tughra remains the symbol of this, the three upright forms being the three fingers of murad, the rounded line to the left the thumb, and the line to the right the little finger; these leading forms do not vary, but the smaller characters change with the change of sovereign. this murad, sometimes called amurath, ascended the throne in the year .[ ] the personal flag of the khedive of egypt is green, and has in its centre the crescent and three white stars. by the treaty of berlin, july , the provinces of moldavia and wallachia, formerly a portion of the turkish empire, and the territory of the dobrudscha, were recognised as an independent state, and were formed into the kingdom of roumania somewhat later, the sovereign who had previously held the rank of prince being crowned king in march, . the flag of roumania is the brilliant blue, yellow and red tricolor shown in fig. . the flag of servia, another small kingdom of eastern europe, is shown in fig. ; the royal standard is similar, except that the arms are placed in the centre of the blue stripe. it will be seen that the flag of servia is that of russia, fig. , reversed. by the berlin treaty of , servia received a large increase of territory, and was created an independent state, its princely ruler being crowned king in march, . the state of bulgaria is another of the creations of the berlin treaty. it is governed by a prince who is nominally under the suzerainty of turkey. its war flag is shown in fig. ; the mercantile flag has no leonine canton, but is simply a tricolor of white, green, and red. having already dealt with the united states, we propose now to turn our attention to the other governments of the new world. the simple and effective ensign of chili is represented in fig. . this flag is used both by the chilian men-of-war and by the vessels of the mercantile marine. fig. is so much of the pendant of a man-of-war as the limits of our page will permit. the chilian jack is the blue canton and white star of fig. , treated as a distinct { } flag, and the flags of the various naval ranks are also blue with a varying number of white stars. fig. is the merchant flag of new granada; the government ensign has in addition the shield of arms in the centre of the blue stripe. it will be observed that the colours in this tricolor are the same as those of roumania, fig. , only differently disposed. new granada is composed of nine small states, and in these bound themselves into a closer confederation, and changed their collective name from new granada to that of the united states of colombia, and adopted a tricolor of yellow, blue, and red, only disposed horizontally instead of as in fig. , vertically. this sounds identical with the flag of venezuela, but in the centre of the colombian flag is placed a different device, and the yellow stripe takes up half the space, the other two being only half its width. fig. is the flag of uruguay, a state that was formerly a province of brazil, but declared its independence in the year . the next flag on our plate, fig. , is the war ensign of guatemala: the shield in the centre bears a scroll with the words "libertad de setiembre, ," surmounted by a parrot, surrounded by a wreath, and having behind it crossed rifles and swords. the merchant flag is the plain blue, white, blue, without the shield. in the year the country was conquered by don pedro de alvarado, one of the companions of cortes, and it remained subject to spain until , when it gained its independence, the "libertad" of the scroll. it then went in vigorously for several years of civil war, and the outcome of this was that the country known under spanish rule as guatemala, a country embracing all central america, split up in into five republics, all absolutely independent of each other, viz., guatemala, san salvador, honduras, nicaragua, and costa rica. the next flag, fig. , is the ensign of costa rica: the one represented is that of the merchant service. the war ensign differs from it in having in the centre the arms of the state, surrounded on either side by a trophy of three flags, and beneath all a wreath. fig. , the flag of paraguay, is very suggestive of the colours of holland, though the device in the centre serves to differentiate it. paraguay is the only state in america that has no sea-board, and therefore no mercantile marine. brazil, discovered by the portuguese in , remained in their possession until a revolutionary struggle in the year ended in favour of the brazilians, when an empire was shortly afterwards established. compared to the other states of south america, it has passed through long periods of rest and prosperity, but of late years its political position has been one of considerable uncertainty, the emperor having been dismissed and the rival { } ambitions for the presidentship leading to civil war. these political changes have necessarily produced modifications in the flag. the present flag, fig. , is not altogether unlike that of the late empire, though in this latter case the yellow diamond on the green ground held a shield and imperial crown, flanked by sprays of coffee and tobacco. in the present flag this yellow diamond has a blue sphere spotted over with stars and a white band running across it, that bears in blue letters the legend _ordem e progresso_.[ ] fig. is the upper portion of the man-of-war pendant, a blue ground with white stars. fig. is the ensign, both of the war and merchant navy of brazil. the yellow, blue, and red tricolor, fig. , is the merchant ensign of venezuela; the war flag has the same stripes, and in addition the shield of the arms of the state is placed on the yellow band at the staff corner. when the spaniards arrived off the coast in the year , they found on landing that some of the native indians were living in huts built on piles, hence they called the country venezuela, or little venice. bolivia, formerly comprised in the spanish vice-royalty of colombia, derives its present name from simon bolivar, the leader of the revolution that gained it its freedom. its commercial flag is shown in fig. ; the war flag only differs in having the arms of the state placed in the centre of the red strip. the familiar green, white, red of italy is repeated in the flag of mexico, but instead of the cross of savoy, we have the eagle and serpent. the mexican merchant ensign is the plain tricolor of green, white, red, the central device we see in fig. marking it as the war flag. mexico was discovered in , and conquered, with infamous cruelties, by cortes. after a lengthened revolutionary struggle, the yoke of spain was finally thrown off in , and the independence of mexico was recognised by all the great european powers. peru was discovered by the spaniards in , and was soon afterwards, under the command of pizarro, added to the dominions of the king of spain. peru remained in subjection to the spaniards (who murdered the incas and all their descendants, and committed the most frightful cruelties) until , when the independence of the country, after a prolonged struggle, was completely achieved. the peruvian war ensign is given in fig. , the merchant flag being the plain red, white, red. san salvador, the smallest of the central american republics, { } established itself in , on the break-up of the spanish state of guatemala. its flag is shown in fig. . the country now held by the argentine republic was discovered in , and settled by the spaniards in . the war ensign is represented in fig. ; the merchant ensign has the three stripes, but the golden sun is missing. the government of ecuador has fig. as its war flag, the merchant ensign being without the ring of white stars. the last flag on the sheet (fig. ) is the merchant flag of haiti; the government flag has the blue and red reduced to a broad border, the central portion of the flag being white. in the centre of this white portion stands a palm tree, and below it a trophy of arms and flags, flanked on either side by a cannon. the flag of the cuban national forces in conflict with spain has at the hoist a triangular portion of blue, one side of this triangle being the depth of the flag itself, and on this blue field is a white, five-pointed star. the rest of the flag is made up of the following horizontal and equal stripes--red, white, red, white, red. japan--known to the japanese as niphon, derived from _nitsu_, sun, and _phon_, the rising--the land of the rising sun,[ ] has adopted this rising sun as its emblem. japan claims to possess a written history of over , years, but the fairly authentic portion begins with the year b.c., when the present hereditary succession of rulers commenced. english merchants visited japan in , and the portuguese almost a century before. by the converts of the portuguese jesuit missions numbered some six hundred thousand. at this time some spanish franciscans appeared on the scene, and political and religious discord soon followed. the japanese ruler took alarm at the papal claim to universal sovereignty, and the buddhist priesthood and the english and dutch protestant traders fanned the flame of suspicion and jealousy. this was done so effectually that the japanese government banished all foreigners, and closed the country against them. this state of things lasted for over two centuries, and it was only in the year that japan was re-opened to the outside world. the flag of japan, the rising sun, is represented in fig. . the red ball without the rays is used as a jack, in which case it is placed in the centre of the white field. fig. is the standard of the emperor. the chrysanthemum is the emblem of japan, and its golden flower, somewhat conventionally rendered it must be admitted, is the form we see introduced in fig. .[ ] figs. and are the transport flag and the guard flag respectively of the japanese war marine. { } the imperial standard of china is yellow with a blue dragon. the official flag book of the admiralty gives the flag of a chinese admiral as made up of the following horizontal stripes: yellow, white, black, green, red, a blue dragon on a white ground being the canton in the staff-head corner. the merchant ensign is shown in fig. . amongst the chinese flags captured in , and preserved in the royal united service institution, is one with a blue centre with an inscription in white upon it, and with a broad notched border of white; another has its centre of a pale blue and a darker blue dragon upon it, the whole being surrounded by a broad and deeply-notched border of red. the flag of siam is scarlet with a white elephant thereon. before xacca, the founder of the nation, was born his mother dreamt that she brought forth a white elephant, and the brahmins affirm that xacca, after a metempsychosis of eighty thousand changes, concluded his very varied experiences as this white elephant, and thence was received into the company of the celestial deities. on this account the white elephant is held a sacred beast, and the siamese rejoice to place themselves beneath so potent a protector. the flag of korea bears the tiger. in the thickly-wooded glens of the interior, the royal tiger is found in formidable numbers. the flag of sarawak, a territory of some forty thousand square miles, on the north-west of borneo, is shown in fig. . the government was obtained in from the sultan of borneo by an englishman, sir james brooke, and it is still ruled by one of the family, a nephew of the first rajah. in africa, the only flags that we need particularize are those of the orange free state, liberia, the congo state, and the south african republic. the orange free state was founded by dutch emigrants from the cape of good hope. it was proclaimed british territory in , but by a convention entered into in , the inhabitants were declared to be "to all intents and purposes, a free and independent people, and their government to be treated thenceforth as a free and independent government." the flag, fig. , is the only one that has orange in it, clearly in allusion to the name of the state, while the canton of red, white, and blue, equally shows the pride of the people in their dutch origin. the flag of the independent negro republic of liberia, is shown in fig. . the population largely consists of freed slaves, emigrants from america and their descendants, plus the aborigines. the flag, it will be seen, even to the thirteen stripes, is largely based on that of the united states, though one would have thought that that would have been about the last thing they would have selected. { } the congo free state in central africa was established in by the king of the belgians; its flag is the golden star on the blue ground that we see in fig. , a device at once simple, expressive and pleasing. in , a number of dutch boers, dissatisfied with the government of cape colony, established themselves in natal, where their treatment of the natives was so unjustifiable that a general rising was imminent, and the british government was compelled to interfere, and itself take charge of the district. this the boers resented, so they crossed the vaal and established themselves afresh in the wilderness. in , the british government recognised the transvaal or south african republic, and in a fresh convention was agreed to by which the boers were confirmed in full possession of the land, subject to the recognition of the british suzerainty. the flag of the transvaal government is shown in fig. . now have we journeyed the whole world over and found in every land the emblems of nationality and patriotism. unfamiliar as many of these may appear to us, they each represent a symbol endeared to thousands or hundreds of thousands of hearts, and thus are they full of warm human interest. for these various strips of gaily-coloured bunting, men have given without hesitation their lives, have poured out blood and treasure without stint or count of cost, and wherever they encounter them the wide world over, the wanderers forget for a while the alien shore or waste of ocean as their thoughts turn to the dear homeland. * * * * * { } chapter v. flags as a means of signalling--army signalling--the morse alphabet--navy signalling--first attempts at sea signals--old signal books in library of royal united service institution--"england expects that every man will do his duty"--sinking signal codes on defeat--present system of signalling in royal navy--pilot signals--weather signalling by flags--the international signal code--first published in --seventy-eight thousand different signals possible--why no vowels used--lloyd's signal stations. we propose in this, our final chapter, to deal with the use of flags as a means of signalling; a branch of the subject by no means wanting either in interest or in practical value. the flags used for army signalling are only two in number if we consider their design, though, as each of these is made in two sizes, the actual outfit consists of four flags. the large size is three feet square, and the smaller is two feet square; the larger sizes are clearly more visible, but on the other hand the smaller save weight and consequently labour; and with good manipulation and clear weather their messages can be followed by observers, with ordinary service telescopes, up to a distance of twelve miles or so. the poles are respectively five feet six inches long and three feet six inches, and the flags themselves are either white with a blue horizontal stripe across the centre, or wholly blue. only one flag is used at a time, the first being used when the background is dark and the second when light, so as to ensure under all circumstances the greatest visibility. the person sending the signals should hold the flag pointing upwards to the left, and with the pole making an angle of about °, with an imaginary vertical line passing down the centre of his body. the signals are based upon the dot and dash system of morse. the dot or short stroke is made by waving the flag from the normal position to the corresponding point on the right hand, while for the dash or long stroke the flag is waved till the head of the pole nearly touches the ground. the morse alphabet is so constructed that the letters of most frequent occurrence are represented by the shortest symbols, and no letter requires more than four of these for its expression, while figures are all represented by five signs. { } the letters of the alphabet are thus represented:-- a ·- a (æ) ·-·- b -··· c -·-· d -·· e · f ··-· g --· h ···· i ·· j ·--- k -·- l ·-·· m -- n -· o --- o (oe) ---· p ·--· q --·- r ·-· s ··· t - u ··- u (ue) ··-- v ···- w ·-- x -··- y -·-- z --·· ch ---- the following code is adopted to represent figures:-- ·---- ··--- ···-- ····- ····· -···· --··· ---·· ----· ----- a space about equal in length to the dash is left between each letter, and a time interval of about three times the duration between each word. this alphabet, once learned, it is evident can be utilized in many ways. steamers, by means of short and long whistles, can spell out messages to each other; seamen, across a harbour, can communicate by waving their arms; prisoners by opening and shutting their hands. it is also utilised in the light-flashes of the heliograph, in telegraphy again, and in various other directions. classes are held at the school of army signalling at aldershot, and from thence the knowledge permeates the army and the auxiliary forces.[ ] the requirements are steadiness, intelligence, quickness of eye-sight and of action, and the power to spell correctly; and it takes a man from fifteen to twenty days, at five hours drill a day, to learn the alphabet and the proper manipulation of the flags. the standard of efficiency is ten words a minute with the large flag or sixteen with the small. if our readers will take the trouble to count the letters in the first sixteen words in this present sentence they { } will find that they are sixty-nine in number, and they will further find, if they take the additional trouble to translate these letters into morse, that it will take dots and dashes to do it. our readers will probably then go on to conclude that as it takes one hundred and sixty-five motions of the flag, plus sixty-eight intervals between the letters to signal these sixteen words, a speed of ten words a minute is a very creditable performance either for the sender to work off or for the receiver to read. besides the ordinary spelling out of the words, various arbitrary signs are used, thus a continued succession of dots ······ is used to call attention to the fact that a message is going to be sent, and a series of dashes ------ means that it is finished. g means "go on," r is a request to "move more to the right" and l to "shift a little to the left"; b means "use the blue flag," and w "use the white flag," k.q is "say when you are ready," f.i means that figures are coming, and f.f indicates that the figures are finished. those who have to receive the message may see that the background behind the transmitter is not quite satisfactory for the due observation of the flags, and they may then flash back h or o, meaning either "higher up" or "lower down," as the case may be, and in case of any misunderstanding, they will signal i.m.i, which means "please repeat," and as soon as all is clear, they will signal r.t, meaning "all right." as our man-of-war's-men are also instructed in this system of signalling, communication can be established during an expedition between the ships and the troops on shore. the signal for communication is a white pendant with two black x.x on it. should this special flag not be forthcoming, the x.x -··--··- (see code of letters) is flashed at night or waved by the flag by day, and as soon as the preparative dots ······ have been acknowledged, the message is dispatched. when the message is of a general character, nothing more need be done, but when it is intended for a particular vessel, the communication is preceded by the special sign apportioned to that vessel. though the morse system has its place, as we have seen, in the drill of our blue-jackets, it does not altogether meet naval requirements. a man waving flags on board ship would be a scarcely conspicuous enough object, and intermediate vessels in a squadron would block out all view of him from those farthest off, hence naval communications are ordinarily made by means of flags exhibited from the mast head or other clearly visible position. instead of one flag being used, our men-of-war have over forty, and these are all conspicuously distinct from each other. the messages are not spelt out, as in land operations, but the flags are used in various combinations, and the meaning of the signal is found by reference to a { } code-book. these flags, it is arithmetically evident, can be transposed and grouped in some thousands of different ways, and the code-book contains questions and answers to meet the very varied requirements of naval service, and the special signal hoist for each. the first real attempt at sea-signalling was made during the reign of charles ii., when a series of signs of the most arbitrary character was devised, consisting for the most part of flags hoisted in various parts of the ship, and altering their significance as their locality was changed. the system was a very cumbrous one, and in kempenfeldt, the commander of the ill-fated _royal george_, improved to some extent upon it, but even then the result was not very brilliant. lord howe, in , could only make a total of one hundred and eighty-three signals. as yet, however, it had never struck anybody how much simplicity and advantage would be gained by employing numbered or lettered flags, and then using them in the thousands of combinations that such a system rendered possible. it is stated by various authorities--and even authorities have a way of copying from each other--that flags were numbered for the first time about the year , but in the library of the royal united service institution may be seen "an essay on signals, by an officer of the british navy," bearing the date .[ ] the flags were numbered , , , , , , , , , and , and they are represented in our illustrations by figs. , , , , , , , , , and . it will be seen that they are all of a very clear and distinct character. when such a number as was required, it would appear to be necessary to have three flags like fig. --the no. of the series--but to avoid this multiplication of identical flags, a red triangular flag called a decimal, a white triangular called a centenary, and a blue triangular called a millenary, were used, and these were placed as required before the unit to be repeated. by this plan would be expressed by the yellow flag, the no. , having below it the red and white pennants. sometimes these flags really meant numbers, and then the required number was hoisted, plus a yellow swallow-tailed flag. thus in answer to "how many guns does she carry?" if the response should be fifty, the five and the nought flags, figs. and , plus the swallowtail or cornet, as it is technically called, would be hoisted, while the same five-nought signal, without the cornet, would signify "whole fleet change course four points to starboard." if we want to find the english equivalent of some german word, we turn to the german-english half of our dictionary, but if we { } required the german equivalent of our english word, we should refer to the english-german part of the book, and signal codes are in like manner divided into flag-message and message-flag. by the system we are at present discussing, we should find by referring to the flag-message half of our book, that the three flags , , , meant, "recall cruisers," while , , , signified "sprung a leak." on the other hand, if we wished ourselves to send such an order we should turn to the message-flag half of our code book, and under the heading of "cruisers," find all the references that could concern the management of such vessels until we presently found "cruisers, recall-- , , ," and then at once proceed to hoist those particular flags. only fourteen flags, the ten numerals, the three pennants, and the cornet, suffice for sending many hundreds of messages, but the anonymous author adds, "exclusive of this arrangement, i would propose to have the most current signals in battle made with one flag only, and these should be used on the day of battle only. a similarity between these and the flags used as the numerical signals ought as much as possible to be avoided." figs. , , , , , , , and , are illustrations of some of these. the striking design of the rising sun signifies "engage the enemy." fig. is an order for "close action." fig. is an instruction to "invert the line of battle by tacking," while fig. is a direction to "force the enemy's line." it is needless to particularise them all, suffice it to say that each and all are of stirring significance. many minds were at work on the urgent problem of an adequate system of sea-signalling, and numerous plans, therefore, were suggested. it does not appear that the one we have just referred to as an example of these endeavours to solve the difficulty was ever adopted. the official "signal book for the ships of war," compiled by the admiralty in , and afterwards amplified in by admiral sir hope popham, is of immense interest, as it was introduced into the navy for the first time in the fleet of nelson, and it was therefore the code of trafalgar. in the copy preserved in the library of the royal united service museum is written, "this is a copy of the signal book by means of which the battle of trafalgar was fought." all signals are by numbers. in the book in question, those given have been pasted over others, but some of those underneath are still visible: thus the flag that once represented one here stands for five, and the flag that heretofore was three is now seven. "if the admiral"--an instruction in the book says--"should have reason to believe that the enemy has got possession of these signals, he will make the signal for changing the figures of the flags. the figure, which by the new arrangement each flag is to represent, is to be immediately entered in every ship's signal-book," and it is { } evident that one of these transpositions has been made here. the ten flags of the code are represented in figs. , , , , , , , , , and . it is very difficult to say really how the flags were arranged for the world-famed "england expects that every man will do his duty," as the numerical significance of the ten flags was so often changed during the exigencies of war. the book we have referred to makes fig. stand for , fig. for , fig. for , fig. for , fig. for , etc.; and while it declares that it was by this code trafalgar was fought, we have no evidence as to who wrote this statement. it may have been the authoritative statement of some one at the time in full possession of the facts, or a mere surmise added a dozen years afterwards by some irresponsible scribbler. on turning to the "naval history" of james, vol. iv., p. , we read "there is not, that we are aware of, a single publication which gives this message precisely as it was delivered. the following is a minute of the several flags, as noted down on board more than one ship in the fleet." he then proceeds to give them, and the arrangement that he follows is that of our illustration, his being fig. ; , fig. ; , fig. ; , fig. ; , fig. ; , fig. ; , fig. ; , fig. ; , fig. ; and fig. . if he may be accepted as a reliable authority, "england" was expressed by the flags , , and ; "expects," by , , and ; "that," by flags , , and ; "every," by flags , , and ; "man," by , , and ; "will," by , , and ; "do," by , and ; and "his," by , , , those being the code numbers assigned to those words in the vocabulary. this necessitated eight distinct hoists, one group of flags for each word, but singularly enough the code contained no signal for "duty," so that it was necessary to spell this out letter by letter, making four hoists more, flag being for "d"; and for "u"; and for "t"; and and for "y." as given in one or two french historical works the signal is equally short and expressive: "l'angleterre compte que chacun fera son devoir." the story of nelson's signal is best told in the words of the _victory's_ signal lieutenant, pasco, the officer who received nelson's orders to make it. "his lordship," lieutenant pasco says, "came to me on the poop, and, after ordering certain signals to be made, about a quarter to noon, said, 'mr. pasco, i want to say to the fleet "england confides that every man will do his duty."' he added, 'you must be quick,[ ] for i have one more to add, which is for "close action."'[ ] i replied, 'if your lordship will permit me to substitute "expects" for "confides" the signal will soon be { } completed, because the word "expects" is in the vocabulary, and "confides" must be spelt.'[ ] his lordship replied in haste, and with seeming satisfaction, 'that will do, pasco, make it directly.' as the last hoist was hauled down, nelson turned to captain blackwood, who was standing by him, and said, 'now i can do no more. we must trust to the great disposer of all events, and the justice of our cause; i thank god for this great opportunity of doing my duty.'" and great britain that day did not call upon her sons in vain, nor was the appeal to the god of battles unheard, though the rejoicing of victory was turned into mourning at the loss of him who had so nobly done his duty in the nation's service. in the royal navy of the present day, a special code, requiring forty-five different flags, is employed. figs. to inclusive, are examples of some of these.[ ] this code, we need scarcely say, is of a confidential nature, and is not published anywhere for all the world to study. the commercial code of international signals being now recognised by the principal maritime states of the world, is, by queen's regulations, made use of by our men-of-war when communicating with foreign war-ships, or with merchant vessels whether british or foreign. the signal codes of the royal navy, when not actually in use, are kept in perforated metal cylinders, so that in case of capture of the vessel they may at once be thrown overboard. in the library of the royal united service institution may be seen the signal book of the u.s. frigate _chesapeake_, with bullets attached to it for the purpose of sinking it. in the confusion incidental to the capture of the vessel by h.m.s. _shannon_,[ ] it fell into the hands of the britisher. besides these regulation signals of the american navy, a second set, supplied to privateers, was also captured, marked "strictly confidential. the commanders of private armed vessels are to keep this paper connected with a piece of lead or other weight, and to throw the whole overboard before they shall strike their flag, that they may be sunk." this also, instead of going to the bottom of the atlantic, may be seen within half a mile of charing cross. landsmen have a notion, remembering possibly that nelson went into action with the signal for close action flying, that when a signal is made it is to be instantly obeyed, but the present system of signalling is on somewhat different lines. the hoisting of a signal on the flag ship is preparative. the ships leading the other columns repeat the signal, hoisting their colours three-quarters of { } the way up the mast. the other ships each hoist their "answering pennants" to show that they have seen and understood the order. then when the repeating ships notice that all the other vessels have answered, they hoist the signal right up as an intimation to the admiral that this is the case. then it is that on the admiral's ship the signal is hauled down, thus giving the executive order for its purport to be obeyed, so that the signal is cautionary of what is coming, and the manoeuvre is only executed when to the eye no instructions at all are to be seen. the answering pennant has vertical stripes--red, white, red, white, red. fig. is the flag used by any vessel that wishes to communicate with a coastguard station, or hoisted when one coastguard station wants to send a message to another. thus when beachy head has any notification to make to the neighbouring post away down at burling gap, the first thing to be done is to hoist at the masthead fig. . when the men on duty at burling gap see this they hoist the answering pennant, meaning "all right, talk away," and then the arms of the beachy head semaphore work vigorously, or the gay signal flags flutter in the breeze and send their message across the downs. war vessels signal to each other at night by means of the morse system of short and long flashes,[ ] and all the large steamship lines have night signals peculiar to themselves, thus the night signal of the orient line is red and blue lights burnt alternately. any vessel seeing this, knows that they are dealing with this special line and similarly report themselves, and after this due introduction proceed to dot and dash to their heart's content. the last two rows of flags on plate xxiii. are signals for pilots. these are either the two flags standing for p. and t. in the international signal code, a system we have yet to deal with, or it may be a single flag, the special pilot flag of each nation. fig. is the pilot flag of the argentine republic; fig. , that of brazil; fig. , that of ecuador. fig. is the pilot flag of greece; , that of japan; and , that of spain. france, mexico and chili all adopt a flag like fig. , a white flag with broad blue border, while great britain, fig. , germany, fig. , belgium, fig. , denmark, fig. , holland, fig. , sweden, austria-hungary, italy, all fly the national flag of the country with a broad white border to it. russia takes the jack, fig. , for the same purpose, and places this { } white band around it, while the united states of america takes the star-bestrewn azure canton from the national flag, fig. , and similarly surrounds it with the broad band of white. penalties are recoverable, as they clearly should be, if any ship uses or displays signals which may be mistaken for either pilot calls or signals of distress. the united states uses flags for its weather signals at the various meteorological stations. a violent storm is prognosticated by a red flag with a black centre. a red pennant signifies "storm approaching station," while a yellow pennant signifies "call at station for special information." a plain white flag betokens fine weather and a plain blue one rain or snow, and there are various combinations of other flags that indicate direction, intensity, velocity and so forth. it is evident that this employment of flags could be made a very valuable one. another instance of its use with which we are acquainted, is at the london office in st. paul's churchyard of the _draper's record_, one of the largest in circulation of any trade paper in the world. the citizen of london may see displayed from its roof by private enterprise the whole of the forecasts issued by the meteorological office, viz., the a.m., the . p.m., and the . p.m. for the south of england, which officially includes st. paul's churchyard. a white flag is hoisted for clear weather, a blue one for rain, while local showers are prognosticated by a flag half blue and half white. changeable weather is indicated by a flag like fig. , and a coming fog by a yellow flag with black ball in its centre, like fig. . snow is foretold by a flag like fig. , and squally weather by a swallow-tailed flag, having its upper half black, and the lower white. a plain red triangular flag is used to indicate temperature; when this is hoisted above other flags, it indicates rising temperature; when placed below, falling temperature; and when omitted we are to conclude that things are stationary. thus the red flag, then below it the white one, and then the blue hoisted together, would mean that we might expect warmer weather, at first fair, but succeeded by rain, while the blue flag above the red would indicate that wet weather was before us, and a fall of temperature. at the meeting of the national rifle association at bisley a system of this kind was inaugurated, in order to give those in camp an idea of the weather that might be expected for the ensuing twelve hours, the hoisting of a blue flag indicating fine weather or moderate wind, a red one foretelling stormy weather or strong wind; green, pointing to unsettled weather or gusty wind, and a yellow flag indicating thunder or rain storms. for shooting purposes a knowledge of the strength of the wind is very valuable. { } the development of a code of flag signals seems to have exercised a great fascination on many minds, and the result has been that until the general adoption of the international code things had got into a somewhat chaotic state. some systems had many excellent points in them, while others broke down under the strain of practical use. in some cases, too, the claims of patriotism influenced the choice, it being difficult for an englishman or an american to believe that the scheme of a frenchman or german could possibly be better than the home-grown article. the systems best known in this country are the admiralty codes of , , and , lynn's in , squire's in , raper's in , philipps' in , eardley wilmot's in , the code of rogers, the american, in , the french code of reynolds in , and the system devised by marryat in , all being superseded by that of the board of trade. the international code of signals was prepared and first published in april, , in accordance with the views and recommendations of a committee appointed by the lords of the privy council. three members, admiral beechey, captain robert fitzroy, and mr. j. h. brown, the registrar-general of seamen, were named by the board of trade; one member, admiral bethune, by the admiralty; an elder brother, captain bax, was appointed as a member by the trinity house; mr. w. c. hammett and captain halstead were the members named by lloyds; while the liverpool shipowners' association, and the general shipowners' society, each, by the nomination of a member, had a voice in the discussion. after a deliberation of more than a year, the examination of the thirteen then existing codes and due attention to any practical suggestion made to them, a mature and valuable scheme was promulgated. eighteen flags in all, viz., one burgee, four pennants, and thirteen square flags, were employed, and these represented the consonants of the alphabet. these are depicted in the three upper rows on plate xxiv. figs. to , the letter it stands for in the code being placed by each flag. these flags are combined in various ways, either in twos, threes, or fours, and are always read downwards, thus fig. must be read b.d.t.f; if we read it the reverse way, as f.t.d.b, it would have an entirely different significance. of the two-flag signals we have three varieties. should the burgee, fig. , be uppermost it constitutes what is termed an attention signal; thus the hoisting of b.d signifies, "what ship is that?" if the upper flag be a pennant c.d.f. or g it is a compass signal; thus g.f means west-north-west-half-west. if a square flag be uppermost it is an urgency signal; thus, n.c signifies "am in distress," or n.j "am driving, no more anchors to let go." { } signals made with three flags are not classified according to the upper flag; they relate to subjects of general inquiry or communication of news. in the lower portion of plate xxiv. we have given five examples of these. fig. , flags b.p.q, asks "do you wish to be reported?" while the hoisting of p.d.s, see fig. , replies, "report me to lloyds' agent." fig. , h.v.f, asks, "do you want assistance?" while fig. , g.b.h, enquires, "has any accident happened?" fig. , made up of flags v.k.c, gives the reassuring answer to both enquiries--"all safe." as weather signals, we find "barometer rising" indicated by g.f.w; "barometer falling" by g.h.b; and "barometer standing," by g.h.c. fine weather is prognosticated by the group h.m.s; a breeze off sea is foretold in the combination h.s.v; and a breeze off land by h.s.w. signals composed of four flags are divided into different sections again, according to the form of the uppermost flag employed. if this upper flag be either of the pennants c.d or f, it indicates that the signal is what is called vocabulary. if the upper be the burgee--the letter b of the code--it is a geographical signal; thus, any vessel beating up channel and seeing fig. , made up of b.d.t.f, hoisted from a lighthouse, would, even if uncertain before, know their position, as this signal is the one specially assigned to the eddystone. fig. , the letters b.d.p.q, signifies that the vessel flying it hails from the port of london, while b.f.q.t. is edinburgh, and so on. all names of ships are expressed by four letters, thus n.v.b.q is the code signal (fig. ) of the steamship _germanic_; m.n.d.l (fig. ) that of the _hesperus_; and fig. , made up of g.r.c.t, is the special grouping assigned to h.m.s. _devastation_. all these names are recorded in the shipping list, so that two vessels passing each other in mid-ocean are able at once to determine each others' names if within sighting distance of the flags run up. should we see a stately liner coming to port, flying m.t.l.q, we recognise that it is the _australia_ of the great peninsula and oriental line, but if she runs up l.h.t.b then she is the orient company's boat _orotava_. some names occur frequently, thus other _australias_, belonging to various owners, are distinguished by the code signals r.l.h.v, j.t.g.k, m.p.f.c, m.q.n.g, m.t.w.d, w.f.t.n, etc., etc. figs. , , , , are all code signals of various _australias_. while the peninsular and oriental company has also a _victoria_, k.m.q.f., they have no monopoly of the name. there are numerous other boats of that popular designation, but even when vessels have the same name no two vessels ever have the same code letters assigned to them. other _victorias_, for example, are differentiated, as w.q.m.n., l.s.h.r, k.p.g.q, m.k.c.h, m.s.p.b, m.q.c.j, l.d.f.h, t.r.b.n, k.j.h.p, t.d.r.f, etc., etc. figs. , , , , { } are all _victorias_; and figs. , , , , are the flag-signals of various _britannias_. our readers will see at once how distinctive they are. figs. to inclusive are the special flags of well-known steamships of the peninsular and oriental, the orient line, and the _compagnie générale transatlantique_. should the vessel be a yacht, it is the _aline_ if she shows the flags p.w.n.d; the _star of the sea_ if her signal is t.n.b.h; but if it is the _meteor_ we shall be aware of the fact from her hoisting the four flags l.c.t.p. the flag signal of the _valkyrie_ is l.f.m.g. applications for the allotment of a code-signal, for the purpose of making ships' names known at sea, should be made, if of the united kingdom, to the registrar general of shipping, custom house, and, if belonging to a colony, to the registrar at the port to which the vessel belongs. if a ship to which this international code signal has been alloted is reported wrecked, lost, or sold to a foreigner, and her register is in consequence cancelled, the signal letters allotted to her are also cancelled, so that if the ship is afterwards recovered or re-purchased from foreigners, either in her original or some other name, new signal letters will be necessary, and the owner must make application anew for another allotment, as the signal letters the vessel originally bore may have been in the interval re-allotted. the flags to be hoisted at one time never exceed four, and it is an interesting arithmetical fact, that, with these eighteen flags, never using more than four at a time, over seventy-eight thousand different combinations can be made. with these flags, only using two at a time, different arrangements can be made, while by using three at a time we get , possibilities, and by using four at a time, we can make , changes; a total in all of , variations made from these simple elements. marryat's code, prior to the introduction of the international, being the one most in use, twelve out of its sixteen flags were, to save expense, incorporated in the new code. their significance was, however, entirely changed. marryat's flags, too, were numerals, while the international code, as we have seen, has its flags named after the letters of the alphabet. proposals are in the air to add eight new flags to the code, the x, y, and z, and the five vowels, since it is held that even the great number of combinations now possible may in time not suffice. the reason for the absence of the vowels is a somewhat curious one. directly vowels are introduced we begin to spell words, and it was found that amongst the thousands of combinations possible, would be presently included all the profane, obscene, and otherwise objectionable four-letter words of the whole world. to hoist d.b.m.n could offend no one's susceptibilities, but to { } run up the signal d.a.m.n in response to an enquiry is quite another matter, and it must be remembered that as this code is used by all civilised nations, a word that is merely meaningless in one country might be most offensive in another. an english captain might hoist as a necessary signal j.a.l.p. or f.l.u.m. and see no possible objection to it, but "jalp" or "flum" might to the people of some other nationality carry a most atrocious significance. it is a practical necessity that all connected with the sea should understand the use of the international code, therefore, the lords commissioners of the admiralty require that all royal naval reserve men who act as masters or mates of ships should be instructed in its working, and the board of trade makes like requirements from all candidates for masters' or mates' certificates. its international character is a most valuable feature, as by its use two captains, say a dane and a greek, or a russian and a spaniard, who, on the quay, could not comprehend a word of each other's language, can at sea, by this common flag-language, come to a perfectly clear understanding of each other's need, or impart any information required. it is the only code used at the signal stations around our coasts. lloyds' have thirty-three of these signal stations at dover, beachy head, lundy island, dungeness, flamborough head, st. catherine's point, north foreland, and other conspicuous points on our line of ocean traffic, and abroad again at aden, ascension, gibraltar, bermuda, honolulu, suez, perim, malta, teneriffe, and elsewhere, and here too, the international is the only code recognised. this "lloyds," that we may see daily referred to in the newspapers, is a corporation that, amongst other marine business, distributes shipping intelligence. a mr. edward lloyd, in the seventeenth century, kept a coffee house in tower street, which in time from the daily gathering there of merchants, captains, and others interested in marine affairs, became a centre for shipping and underwriting news and business. in the year it was moved to lombard street, and in the coffee supplying part of the business was abandoned and rooms were taken in the royal exchange. during the wars with napoleon, the government was often indebted to the committee of lloyds' for the earliest information of important events all over the world. lloyds' has its agents in every port, and by its complete organisation and the potent aid of the telegraph, the shipping business of the world is brought day by day before us. vessels spoken far out on the ocean are reported by the vessel that spoke them immediately on its arrival at any port. thus a sailing-vessel journeying from london to vancouver may be five months or more before it touches land, { } but during that time it is sighted by other vessels from time to time, and these report having seen it, and that all was well on board. so the mother knows that her son, who is parted from her by thousands of miles of ocean, has got thus far in health and safety; and the owners of the vessel learn that their venture has so far surmounted the perils of cape horn and the other dangers of the deep. the good ship is drawing nearer at each report to the end of her long voyage, and on arrival at last off vancouver, as the land is sighted, the signal flags run up once more to the masthead, the news of her coming is flashed across continent and ocean, and the london newspaper of the next morning contains the brief notification that far exceeds to anxious hearts all else of interest its broad pages may contain. familiarity, though it may not necessarily breed contempt, dulls the sense of the wonder of it all, and yet how marvellous it is! we have before us the _standard_, that came into our hands about seven o'clock this morning, and we find from it that yesterday the _glenshiel_ had arrived at hong kong, that the _arab_, from cape town, had just put in at lisbon, that the _sardinian_, from quebec, had reached moville, that the _circassian_ was safely at new york, that the _orizaba_, speeding on to sydney, had at a.m. passed the desolate shores of arid perim, that the _danube_, from southampton, had at a.m. entered the harbour of rio janeiro. of this, and much else of the same tenor, may we read in a space of a quarter-column or so of the paper as we sit at breakfast and see pass before us a panorama of world-wide interest and extent; and to accomplish this result, the flags we have figured have been a potent factor. though we have covered much ground, it must have been patent to all readers who have thus far companioned us that much detail was necessarily omitted, unless our book had to grow to the dimensions of an encyclopædia. it would probably, for instance, take some fifty figures or so to give all the distinctive flags of the various government departments, official ranks, etc., of a single great power. we trust nevertheless that while our labours have been by no means exhaustive, they have been instrumental in showing that there is much of interest in flag-lore, and that an increased knowledge and appreciation of our subject may be one result of our pleasant labours, and prove full justification for our work. * * * * * { } index. a. aargau, flag of "acta sanctorum," the admiral's flag, r.n. admiralty, flag of the , agincourt, battle of agincourt, flags at agnus dei, as device on flag _ailsa_, flag of the yacht allan line, flag of the allotment of code signals ambulance flag ancient irish harp anchor as badge , , , , andrew, cross of st. , , , , , , andrew, st., of scotland , , andrew, st., of russia , andrew, st., order of anne, standard of queen annunciation on flag answering pennant antelope as a device antiquity, standards of antwerp, device of city of anvil as device on flag argentine republic, flag of armada, defeat of the arms of canada , arms of washington army, flags of the army signalling , , arragon, arms of articles of war assaye, special flag for assyrian standards athene, owl of australian steam navigation company's house flag austro-hungarian flags , avondale flag awdeley, standard of sir john b. bacon on sea-power , baden, flag of badge , , , , , , , , , bahamas, badge of the balmoral tartan banner, its nature banneroll, kind of flag bannockburn, battle of barbadoes, badge of barcelona, arms of bar, banner of sir john de bardolph, banner of sir hugh basel, flag of city of bavaria, flag of , bayeux tapestry, flags represented in , bear as a device , beau-seant of knights templars beaver as a device , bede on flags "beehive of the romish church" bees of the napoleons , belgium, flags of , bermuda, badge of berne, flag of beverley, flag of birkenhead, burning of the black and white flag of prussia black as a flag colour , , black swan, device of the blackwall line of shipping black watch, the blenheim, battle of , blue blanket of edinburgh blue ensign , , , , board of trade, flag of the bohemia, flag of bolivia, flag of , bombardment of scio boots and shoes on a flag bordered jack , botetourte, banner of sir john bourbon kings, the { } brabant, lion of brass of sir john daubernoun brazil, flag of , , brazil, pendant of bremen, flag of port of _britannia_, flag of the yacht british east africa, device of, british guiana, badge of british north borneo, badge of broad pendant brunswick, arms of brunswick, flag of buckles as device on flag bugle-horn as a device builder's square on flag bulgaria, flag of bunker's hill, battle of bunting as material for flags burgee, variety of flag , burgundy, flag of , burning of rebel colours butler's "lives of the fathers" butterflies as a flag device c. campbell on the national flag canada, dominion of canada, flags of dominion of canadian pacific steamship line candlemakers' flag, the canterbury cathedral, flags in cantonal colours cape of st. martin cape st. vincent, action off castle line, house flag of the castle on flag as a device , cavalry standards cavers standard, the ceylon, device of the colony of chapel of royal college, chelsea, flags in , chaucer, quotation from , cheering to order cherbourg, flag of port of chili, flag of chili, pendant of chinese flags chrysanthemum flag of japan coastguard flag codes for flag-signalling coffee plant on flag coins, devices on , , , colombia, flag of united states of colonial defence act , , colonial flags , , colonies, value of , colour party colours, queen's , , colours, regimental , , colours used in flags columbus, flag flown by , commodore's broad pendant commonwealth flags company or house flags , compasses as a device compass signals confederate states of america , , congo free state, flag of conquest of ireland consecrated banner , constantine, labarum of , , consular flag consul-general, russian, flag of cornet, variety of flag , costa rica, flag of courtenay, banner of sir hugh de covenanter flags , , crescent as device , , , , , croatia, flag of cromwell, arms of cromwell, funeral of cross of st. andrew , , , , , , cross of st. george , , , , , , , , , , , , cross of st. patrick , , , crown of charlemagne crowns of ireland cuba, flag of culloden, battle of cunard line, house flag of customs department, flag of czarina, standard of the czar, standard of the , d. dalmatia, flag of dannebrog, the demerara and berbice steamship company denis, st., flag of { } denmark, flags of derivation of word flag desjardins on french flag devitt and moore house flag diana, crescent of diplomatic service, flag of dipping the flag dragon as a device , drayton, quotation from durham, st. cuthbert of e. eagle as a device , , , , , , , , , early spanish flags east africa company, german east india company, flag of , east kent regiment, flags of east prussia, flag of ecclesiastical flags often pictorial ecuador, flag of eddystone light flag signal edinburgh cathedral, flags in edinburgh trained bands edmonson on flag usage edward the confessor, arms of edward iii., "king of the seas" edward vi., funeral of egypt, ancient, standards of egyptian flags, modern , electoral bonnet elephant as a device , , elephant, order of the elizabeth, funeral of queen elizabeth, thanksgiving service elsass, flag of emperor of germany ensign ermine as a flag device errors in flag-making , , excise, flag of the eye as a device on flag f. facings of the regiment falcon as a device favyn "le théâtre d'honneur" , fiji, badge of colony files represented on trade flag flag-book of the admiralty flag-lore valuable flagons on trade flag flag-signalling , _et seq._ flanders, badge of flashing messages at night fleur-de-lys , , , , , , flodden, battle of florida, settlement of florin, arms on the fly of a flag, the fork and spoon on a flag four-flag signals france, flags of , , , , , , , franco-german war of fribourg, flag of frogmorton, standard of funeral obsequies, flags at , , , , g. garter, order of the gautier on the swiss flag geneva convention geneva, flag of geographical signals george, st., cross of , , , , , , , , , , , , george, st., of england , , george, st., of russia , german unity , germany, flags of , globe on flag , gnu as a flag device golden legend, the gonfalon, kind of flag government, departments, flags of governor-general of canada, flag of governors of colonies, flags of , grandison, banner of sir william de gray, quotation from greater britain great seal of canada great seal of richard i. greece, flag of green and white of the tudors green as a flag colour , , , greyhound as a device { } growth of the italian state guards, flags of the guatemala, flag of , guidon, form of flag guild flags , guinea company's flag h. half-mast high, flags at hamburg, flag of city of hammer represented on flag , hand as a device hanover, arms of , , hanover, flag of hanseatic league, flag of harfleur, siege of harleian ms. on flags , harp of ireland , , , , , , hayti, flag of , heavenly succour , , , , henry v., standard of henry vii., flags in chapel of heraldic exhibition, edinburgh heraldic requirements in flag devising , hesse, flag of highland tartans "history and principles of heraldry" hohenzollerns, arms of the hoisting one flag over another hoist of the flag, the holderton, banner of sir john de holland, flags of , hong kong, badge of colony of horse as a device horsham, political colours at house flags , , house of orange, flag of hungary, flag of , i. idolatrous emblem illiterate voters, mistakes of , imperial eagle , , inscriptions on flags , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , international signal code , , , investiture of knight-banneret invocation of saints ireland joined to great britain iron cross of germany isandlwana, battle of , istria, flag of italy, flags of , , j. james ii., statue of japan, flags of jerusalem, arms of city of , jewish standards joan of arc, standard of jove, eagle of k. karlaverok, siege of , kasan, arms of province of katharine of arragon flag-making kempenfeldt's signal code key as a device on flag khorsabad, slabs from kingdom of hungary king's own borderers kiow, arms of province of knights-banneret knights of the bath, banners of knights of the garter, banners of knights templars, banner of the köbel, book on costume and flags korea, flag of kingdom of l. labarum of constantine , , labuan, badge of colony of la haye's book on flags lamartine on the red flag lancer pennon , landing of charles ii. land of the rising sun laurel wreath on flag , lawyers, flag of the leeward isles, badge of the leon and castile, arms of , , liberia, flag of liberty, figure of , lion of scotland , , , lions of england , , , { } livery colours , , , livy on vexillum lloyd's signal stations locksmiths, flag of the london, port of, flag signal london trained bands , lone star state, flag of the lord cardross, flag of lord high admiral of england , lord-lieutenant of ireland, flag of lord mayor's show, flags at , loss of colours at edgehill lothringen, flag of louisiana, flag of state of louisiana, settlement of lozenges as a device on flag lubeck, flag of city of lucerne, flag of lunenburg, arms of lydgate, the duty of chivalry m. maccabees, standard of the machyn, diary of , , , , mackay, extract from , mail service flag mainsail emblazoned as banner malplaquet, battle of man-of-war pendant , , , , , , , maple-leaf of canada , marmion, quotation from , martin, description of western islands marseillaise, the marseilles, flag of port of martlets on flag massachusetts, flag of , _mayflower_, sailing of the mecklenburg-strelitz, flag of mediæval spelling , mediterranean and new york company merchant flag, red ensign , , , , merchant shipping (colours) act metal-workers, flag of the meteorological signals mexico, flag of , milton, quotation from minotaur as a device minden, battle of "mirror for magistrates," quotation from mohammedan flags often green monasteries, flags of monk, funeral of general , monogram, sacred, on flag , , monthermer, banner of sir ralph morse alphabet for signalling , , mottoes on flags , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , mutiny in the royal navy n. napoleon, flags at tomb of nassau, arms of , natal, device of colony of naval discipline act naval exhibition at chelsea navy signalling , _et seq._ nelson, funeral of , neville's cross, battle of new brunswick, arms of province of newfoundland, badge of colony of new granada, flag of new guinea, badge of colony of new south wales, badge of colony of new zealand, badge of new zealand shipping company , night signalling at sea nisbet on the tressure norie's "flags of all nations" northallerton, sacred flags at north german confederacy norway, flag of nova scotia, arms of province of nova scotia, settlement of novgorod, arms of province of o. obsolete flags , , ontario, arms of province of orange flag orange free state, flag of , order of black eagle { } ordnance department flag orient steam navigation company , oriflamme oudenarde, battle of owl of athene p. palmetto palm on flag , _pamiot azof_, flag of the papal states, flag of the , , paraguay, flag of paris, arms of city of passion symbols on flag patrick, st., life of , pendant or pennant, , , , , , , , , peninsular and oriental company, flag of pennoncelle or pencel pennon, nature of the , , pepys, extract from diary of percy, banner of sir henri de percy lion , percy motto , percy standard persepolis, sculptures of peruvian flag pictorial flags pilgrim fathers, the pilot flag , , , pine-apple as a device pine-tree flag , , plantagenet livery colours pliny on roman standards poland, flag of political colours political devices on flags pomerania, flag of popham's signal code portcullis as a device portobello, capture of ports, flags of portugal, flags of , pottery, representation of flags on precedence a difficulty presentation of colours , president, u.s.a., flag of , printed flags protectorate flag, the prussian eagle q. quarantine flag, the , quebec, arms of province of queen's colour , queensland, badge of colony of queen's regulations , , , , , r. ramilies, battle of rattlesnake flag , , , raven of the danes rebel colors burnt red ensign , , , , red flag of revolution , , relics of saints worked into flag religious character of early flags , , religious service , revenue flag, u.s.a. rey on the french flag rhode island, flag of richard ii., standard of ridre, standard of sir william de riga, flag of port of ripon, st. wilfrid's banner at rolls of arms rome, standards of ancient , roses as a flag device , rotterdam, flag of port of rouen, capture of , , roumania, flag of royal colonial institute royal horse artillery of royal marines royal naval reserve , , , , , royal navy, flag code of the royal oak on coins royal standard , , , , , , royal united service museum , , , royal yacht squadron, flag of the royston, political colours at russia, flags of , , , , russian american company's flag s. sacred monogram on flag salique law, operation of salmon as a flag device saluting the flag , , { } san salvador, flag of sarawak, flag of sardinia, flag of savoy, flag of , , saxe-coburg gotha, flag of saxony, arms of saxony, flag of schomburg-lippe, flag of school of army signalling "scotland for ever" scots greys scottish grievance as to arms , , , scottish variation of union flag scott, quotation from , servia, flag of seven champions of christendom, seventeenth lancers shakespeare, quotation from , _shannon_ and _chesapeake_ duel shears as a device on trade flag siam, flag of kingdom of signal-book of _chesapeake_ signalling by flags , , , _et seq._ simon de montfort, banner of, skull and cross-bones device sledge flags of arctic expedition south australia, badge of south carolina, flag of , , southern cross , , sovereignty of the seas , spain, flags of , , , , spelling, mediæval liberty of , spenser, quotation from sphinx as a badge , spoon and fork on trade flag standard, nature of the st. andrew, cross of , , , , , , stars and bars, c.s.a. , stars and stripes, u.s.a. st. denis, flag of stewart on tartans st. gallen, flag of st. george, cross of , , , , , , , , , , , , st. helena, badge of colony of storm signals by flags "story of thebes," quotation from st. patrick, cross of , , , straits settlement, device of streamer, variety of flag , strictly confidential signals stuart, livery colours of house of sun as a device , swallow-tail flag , , , , , , swan, black, of western australia sweden, flag of switzerland, flag of swynnerton, standard of sir thomas de sydney, sir philip, funeral of sidney, sir philip, on war symbols to express colours t. tartans, scottish tasmania, device of colony of telegraph department, flag of tessin, flag of canton _teutonic_, armament of the teutonic order, cross of the texas, flag of the state of texel, flag of the port of "the late unpleasantness" "theorike and practike of modern warres" third dragoons thistle as a flag device , three-flag signals tiger of korea titus, the arch of tobacco plant on flag torpedo practice flag trafalgar, nelson's famous signal , trajan's column, standards on transport service, flag of the , transvaal, flag of the trefoils as a device tressure of scotland, the , tricolor of france , trinidad, badge of colony of trinity, banner of the , trowel on guild flag trumpet banners , tudor flags tughra device, the , { } tunisian flags turkey, flags of , , twenty-fourth regiment tyrol, flag of the u. union between england and scotland union between great britain and ireland , union flag , , , , , , union flag of sweden and norway, union jack , union steamship company's flag united italy united states of america, flag of , , , universal code for signalling urgency flag signals uri, flag of canton of uruguay, flag of utilisation of liners as cruisers v. valence, banner of sir aymer de _valkyrie_, flag of the yacht variation in size a sign of rank venezuela, flag of , , venice, obsolete flags of versailles, palace of vessels spoken at sea , viceroy of india, flag of , victoria cross victoria, flag of colony of victualling department, flag of virginia, settlement of virgin mary on flag vocabulary signals voldermirz, arms of vowel flags objectionable , w. waldeck, flag of war cries war songs , warriors' chapel at canterbury , washington, arms of , "watch upon the rhine" waterloo, battle of weather signals , wellington, funeral of duke of , west africa, device of western australia, device of western australia, governor's flag west prussia, flag of white cross of france white elephant of siam white ensign , , , white horse of hanover , white horse of kent white star line, house flag of , why called "jack" william iii., standard of wreath on flag , , wolf as a device wurtemburg, flag of y. yacht flags , yellow flag, its significance , york, livery colours of house of * * * * * { } coloured plates. plate i. banner of sir john botetourte. banner of sir ralph de monthermer. banner of sir hugh touches. banner of sir william de ridre. banner of sir hugh bardolph. banner of sir john de holderton. banner of sir henri de percy. banner of sir hugh de courtenay. banner of sir aymer de valence. banner of sir john de bar. banner of sir william de grandison. plate ii. percy flag, crescent badge. arctic sledge-flag, expedition of - . the percy standard. standard of sir thomas de swynnerton. arctic sledge-flag, expedition of - . banner of st. edmund. banner of simon de montfort. banner of st. edward. plate iii. streamer, tudor fleur-de-lys badge, . streamer, tudor portcullis badge, . standard of henry viii. streamer, tudor rose badge, . streamer, tudor red dragon badge, . pendant of h.m.s. _lion_. pendant of h.m.s. _tiger_. pendant of warship of . plate iv. guidon form of flag. abnormal form of pennon. lancer pennon of present day. pennon, royal horse artillery, . flag from early german book. modification of pennon form. flag of h.m.s. _niger_, . ecclesiastical flag, ms. british museum. burgee, the ducal shipping line. early form of banner, ms. british museum. burgee, mciver's shipping line. , , , examples from bayeux tapestry. illus. plate v. the royal standard of king george iii. the royal standard of queen victoria. plate vi. , , , , , , illustrations of perverted ingenuity and crass ignorance, taken from street decorations on occasions of general rejoicing. plate vii. , flags from early spanish map in british museum, . , early portuguese flags, british museum. the guinea company. east india company. early form of algerian flag. russian-american company. early english war flag. heligoland flag during british possession. the flag of savoy. flag of the grand seigneur. turkish flag. plate viii. { } ship flag, reign of george i. early form of red ensign. london train bands: the blue regiment, . london train bands: the yellow regiment, . flag of warship, th century. flag of h.m.s. _tiger_. st. george, and tudor livery colours. london train bands: the green regiment, . flag of union of england and scotland. pendant of h.m.s. _lion_, . scottish blue ensign. scottish red ensign. banner of st. alban's abbey. jack of warship of the th century. suggested forms for union flag, . plate ix. early union flag, england and scotland. commonwealth flag, england and scotland. commonwealth flag, england and ireland. standard of cromwell. scotch suggestion for union flag, . flag of commonwealth. commonwealth flag of england and ireland. early form of irish flag, ms. in british museum. , suggested forms for second union jack. plate x. union flag of great britain and ireland. cross of st. george of england. cross of st. andrew of scotland. cross of st. patrick of ireland. regimental colours: th of the line, the nd warwickshire regiment. plate xi. the white ensign, man-of-war. the blue ensign, naval reserve. the red ensign, merchant service. victualling service. admiralty flag. ranelagh yacht club. yare yacht club. royal thames yacht club. dublin bay yacht club. pilot jack. board of trade flag. flag of lord-lieutenant of ireland. customs house flag. ordnance flag. plate xii. green's blackwall line. cunard line, liverpool. peninsular and oriental company. australasian naval company. devitt & moore, london. canadian pacific company. donald currie & co., london. union steamship company, southampton. mediterranean and new york shipping company. houlder brothers & company, london. white star line, liverpool. new zealand shipping company. _britannia_, h.r.h. the prince of wales. _ailsa_, a. b. walker, esq. _valkyrie_, the earl of dunraven. _hester_, major w. h. gretton. _dream_, w. h. jones, esq. _carina_, admiral montague. plate xiii. cape colony, government. queensland, government. canada, commercial. canada, government. badge of straits settlements. badge of british north borneo. badge of tasmania. victoria, commercial. victoria, government. badge of new zealand. { } badge of fiji. badge of new south wales. flag of viceroy of india. portion of pendant, government colonial vessels. governors' flag, west australia. plate xiv. american insurgent flag, . admiral's flag, u.s. navy. flag used at bunker's hill. american pine-tree flag. the stars and stripes of the united states. new england navy flag, . massachusetts flag, . pine-tree and stripes. early american flag. portion of pendant, u.s.navy. plate xv. confederate states of america. confederate, the southern cross. southern cross, modified. south carolina state flag, . louisiana state flag. chili, portion of pendant. south carolina, . south carolina state flag, . texas state flag. chili, commercial. guatemala, flag of . guatemala, flag of . plate xvi. colombia (formerly new granada), commercial. uruguay, general service. guatemala, government. costa rica, commercial. paraguay, government. brazil, general service. venezuela, commercial. bolivia, commercial. mexico, government. portion of pendant, brazil. peru, government. san salvador, general service. argentine, government. ecuador, government. hayti, commercial. plate xvii. oriflamme. , early french forms of flag. soissonois flag. bourbon flag. standard of charles vi. standard, french. man-of-war pendant. standard, french. flag of french guards, . flag of republic, france. tricolor of . modern french tricolor. plate xviii. spain, war. spain, commercial. royal standard of spain. portugal, royal standard. portugal, general service. italy, commercial. papal merchant (obsolete). plate xix. saxony. waldeck. saxe weimar. pomerania. wurtemburg. oldenburg. mecklenburg strelitz. brunswick. german empire, war ensign. german empire, jack. saxe-coburg-gotha. schomberg lippe. west prussia. hesse. austria, government. austro-hungarian, commercial. russian jack. poland. plate xx. russian man-of-war. russia, commercial. early form of russian ensign. russia, consul general. russia, chargé d'affaires. russia, ambassador or minister. russia, transport service. danish man-of-war. danish, commercial. { } russian imperial standard. swedish, commercial. norwegian man-of-war. union flag of sweden and norway. flag of norway. flag of sweden. switzerland. plate xxi. greece, commercial flag. italian jack. turkey, commercial. belgium, commercial. holland, royal standard. turkey, standard. turkey, government. tunis, government. plate xxii. bulgaria. roumania. servia. japanese ensign. japanese imperial standard. japanese transport flag. chinese merchant flag. japanese guard flag. orange free state. liberia. congo state. rajah of sarawak. south african republic. plate xxiii. to fourteen flags from the signal code of the royal navy. special flag of the coast guard. to code of sir hope popham, used by nelson at trafalgar, &c. illus. to special battle signals, code suggested in . illus. to numerical code. signal code of . illus. to pilot signals of various nationalities. illus. plate xxiv. to the flags of the international code. illus. the signal-hoist for the eddystone lighthouse, b.d.t.f. code-signal for the port of london, b.d.p.q. code-signal of ss. _germanic_, n.v.b.q. code-signal of the _hesperus_, m.n.d.l. code-signal of h.m.s. _devastation_, g.r.c.t. "do you wish to be reported?" b.p.q. "all safe!" v.k.c. "report me to lloyd's agent." p.d.s. "do you want assistance?" h.v.f. "has any accident happened?" b.g.h. plate xxv. to signal flags of ss. _australia_, _arcadia_, _massilia_, _victoria_, _bengal_. (are all vessels in the p. & o.) to signal flags of ss. _oroya_, _orient_, _ophir_, _orotava_, _ormuz_. (are all vessels of the orient line.) to signal flags of ss. _la touraine_, _lafayette_, _ville-de-tanger_, _amerique_, _saint-germain_. (are all vessels of the compagnie generale transatlantique.) plate xxvi. to flag-signals of some of the numerous _victorias_ on the shipping list. to flag-signals of some of the numerous _australias_ on the shipping list. to flag-signals of some of the numerous _britannias_ on the shipping list. _the botolph printing works, crosskey square, little britain, e.c._ * * * * * notes [ ] "every isle differs from each other in their fancy of making plads, as to the stripes in breadth and colours. this humour is as different through the main land of the highlands in so far that they who have seen those places are able at the first view of a man's plad to guess the place of his residence."--martin's "description of the western islands," . see also "old and rare scottish tartans," by donald stewart, all illustrated by actual pieces woven in silk to a reduced scale. the latest tartan, that of balmoral, was devised by prince albert in the year . [ ] in mediæval days the pastoral staff or crook of the bishop often had a small scarf attached to it. this was known as the vexillum, and was supposed to be derived from the labarum, or standard of the first christian emperor, constantine the great. [ ] in favyn's book, "le théâtre d'honneur et de chevalerie," published in paris some two hundred and fifty years ago, we read of "le grand estendard de satin bleu celeste double en riche broderie de fleurs de lys d'or de chypre à une grande croix plein de satin blanc, qui est la croix de france. "le grand estendard saint michel ange gardien de la france, de satin bleu celeste de riche broderie d'or de chypre, semé d'estoiles d'or. "le grand estendard de l'ordre du benoist saint-esprit, faict de double satin verd à une columbe d'argent, rayonné d'or de riche broderie, le rest semé de flammes d'or." joan of arc had a white standard powdered over with gold fleurs-de-lys, and in the centre a figure of christ sitting on a rainbow, and holding a globe. on either side an angel in the posture of adoration, and, underneath, the words "jhesu, maria." on another she had the annunciation, and the words "ave maria." these were painted at tours "par james power, ecossais, peintre du roi." [ ] thus the cross of st. george would be normally represented as in fig. , but we find it much elongated in figs. and , much widened out in figs and , and yet more so on the shield of the arms of the dominion of canada in fig. . [ ] we do not pause to explain the meaning of any heraldic terms that we are obliged to employ. such terms may be readily found in any technical book on blazonry, and we have ourselves, in "the history, principles and practice of heraldry," gone very thoroughly into the meaning and use of the various forms that enter into the blazonry of shield or banner, and do not, therefore, repeat these matters here. [ ] _i.e._, badges. [ ] "lord gordon has arrived at nauplia. he has brought the greeks a number of ensigns, embroidered by scotch ladies, and sent by them."--_salisbury and winchester journal_, december th, . [ ] this crowned key may be seen as early as on the seal of sir michael de poynings. [ ] the bugle horn appears as the crest of sir william de bryan on his brass, . [ ] in an old pedigree of the family is inscribed the lines:-- "esperance en dieu, trust in hym, he is most true. en dieu esperance, in hym put thyne affiaunce. esperance in the worlde? nay, the worlde variethe every day. esperance in riches? nay, not so; riches slidethe, and some will go. esperance in exaltacion of honour? nay, it widderethe away, lyke a flowre. esperance en dieu, in hym is all, which is above fortune's fall." [ ] the modern flag, known as the burgee, largely used in flag signalling, is like a shortened pennon. it is sometimes also called a cornet. [ ] "now the often changing fortune beganne also to channge the law of the battels. for at the first, though it were terrible, yet terror was deckt and broachie with rich furniture, guilt swords, shining armours, pleasant pensils, that the eye with delight had scarce time to be afraide; but now all defiled with dust, blood, broken armour, mangled bodies, tooke away the maske, and set forth horror in his own horrible manner."--sir philip sydney. [ ] "a streamer shall stand in the toppe of a shippe, or in the forecastle, and therein be putt no armes, but a man's conceit or device, and may be of the lengthe of twenty, forty, or sixty yards."--harleian ms., no. , , dealing with "the syze of banners, standardes, pennons, guydhomes, pencels, and streamers." [ ] while thus severe in our judgment on misguided foreigners it is only just to point out that england itself is responsible for a combination as horrible as any in the green, red, white, of the special flag that she bestowed on heligoland, while it was yet a british possession. it may be seen in fig. . [ ] the famous banner of the knights templars, called the beau-seant, had its upper half black and lower white. the black symbolised the terror it should be to the foe, and the white amity and goodwill to friends. [ ] the "house-flags" of the various shipping companies make a great use of letters: thus the flag of the orient steam navigation company is white and divided into four portions by a blue cross. in these four portions are placed in red the letters o.s.n.c. in fig. we have the flag of the new zealand shipping company, where the n.z.s. co. are equally conspicuous. any reference to a good list of house-flags, such as that published by griffin, would reveal scores of illustrations of this feature. [ ] the map is freely embellished with illustrations. in south america, for instance four immense crimson parrots about fill up brazil, while in africa the parrots are green. many of these figured details are very quaint. [ ] "the dazzling field, where in proud scotland's royal shield, the ruddy lion ramped in gold."--_scott._ [ ] with only one exception the sovereigns of scotland never quartered the arms of any other kingdom with their own. the only exception was when mary stuart claimed the arms of england and placed them upon her standard, and thus gave irreparable provocation to queen elizabeth. [ ] brian boru, who was killed in battle with the danes, did much to civilise ireland; and, amongst other things, introduced the harp. the ancient irish harp at trinity college, dublin, was long claimed as the identical instrument of boru, but it has been proved by the ornament upon it that it cannot be later than the fourteenth century. the most primitive representation of the harp in ireland is in a rude sculpture in a church near kilkeny. this is known to date from the ninth century. though the harp has ever shone in the poetry of the irish people, they have but little claim to it. it has been by no means such a national instrument with the irish as with the welsh. it is one of the most ancient of instruments, figuring in the mural paintings of egypt centuries before the christian era. [ ] as may be seen beautifully enamelled on his tomb in westminster abbey. [ ] another flag was a plain scarlet one, having this inscription: "for the protestant religion and the liberty of england" in white upon it. [ ] the following summary may be taken as correct in its broad facts:--from about to , the standard had the lions of england alone on it. from to , england and france together. to , england, france, and the arms of edward the confessor. to , england and france. to , england, france, scotland and ireland. to , interregnum: a period of change and uncertainty, when divers changes in the standard were made that are scarcely worth detailing. to , england, france, scotland, and ireland. to , england, france, scotland, ireland, and nassau. to , england, france, scotland, and ireland. to , england, france, scotland, ireland, and hanover. to , england, scotland, ireland, and hanover. from , england, scotland, and ireland. [ ] spenser. [ ] in the same way, we find the scottish clansmen rushing to the fray to the cry of "st. andrew and our right." in the ballad of otterbourne we read that the scots "uppon sent andrewe loude they crye, and thrysse they showte on hyght." [ ] one interesting exception to this is that, on st. george's day, the th regiment (northumberland fusiliers) holds full-dress parade, all wearing the rose, the national emblem, in their headgear, and the officers on their sword-knots also. the colours, too, are festooned with roses. [ ] "the x day of january hevy news came to london that the french had won cales (calais), the whyche was the hevest tydyngs to england that ever was herd of. "the xj day of january the cete of london took up a thousand men, and mad them whytt cotes and red crosses, and every ward of london found men. "the xxj day of january came a new commandement to my lord mayre that he shuld make men redy in harnes with whyt cotes weltyd with green, and red crosses, by the xxiij day of the same moneythe to be at leydenhalle to go forward. "the xviij day of may there was sent to the shyppes men in whyt cotes and red crosses, and gones, to the queen's shyppes."--machyn's diary. [ ] thus we have the white, the blue, the white and orange, the green and red, the purple, the blue and white, the orange and green, the red and yellow, the red and blue, the red and white, and divers others. the orange company always took the lead. these companies were for a long time in abeyance, and were superseded in by the formation of the royal edinburgh volunteers, but each year the magistrates and council still appoint one of their number to be captain of the orange colours. his duty is to take charge of the old colours and preserve them as an interesting relic of a bygone institution. [ ] it is remarkable that none of the flags extant bear the motto which the parliament on july th, , ordered "to be upoun haill culloris and standardis," _i.e._, "for covenant, religion, king, and kingdom." it is characteristic that each body claimed independence even in this matter. thus the fenwick flag bore "phinegh for god, country, and covenanted work of reformations." another flag has, "for reformation in church and state, according to the word of god and our covenant," while yet another bears the inscription, "for christ and his truths, no quarters to ye active enemies of ye covenant." [ ] st. andrew's day is november th. [ ] the question of the union between england and scotland was often mooted. in the year edward i., being victorious in the north, declared the two countries united, but this did not last long. in edward iii. opened negotiations for a union of the two crowns if king david of scotland died without issue. in the reign of edward vi. the matter was again to the fore, but it was left to queen elizabeth to take the decisive step. [ ] april th, . [ ] thus in the royal standard of spain, fig. , the arms of leon and castile being in the upper corner next the staff take precedence of honour over arragon and all the other states therein introduced. [ ] in a picture in the collection at hampton court, representing the embarkation of charles ii. from holland, the ship has a large red flag charged with the stuart arms in the centre, but so soon as his position in england was assured he reverted to the royal standard of his stuart predecessors and to the original form of the union flag, a form that during the protectorate was widely departed from. [ ] "jaque, espece de petite casaque militaire qu'on portait au moyen age sur les armes et sur la cuirasse."--bouillet, "dict. universel." [ ] a contemporary representation of this long parliament flag may be seen on the medals bestowed on the victorious naval commanders, where the principal ship in the sea-fight represented on the reverse of the medal flies this flag at her masthead. [ ] andrew marvell on the victory of blake at santa cruz. [ ] as the year of his birth is scarcely known within a century or so, it is too much to expect the month or the day, but the day that is assigned to st. patrick in the calendar is march th. [ ] in the year , in consequence of the electorate of hanover being raised to the rank of a kingdom, the hanoverian royal crown was substituted for the electoral headgear in the royal arms on the shield and standard. [ ] a writer in the _retrospective review_ in the year , thus relieves his feelings:--"the banner of st. george, argent, and cross gules is still borne as part of the english flag, though, from the disgraceful manner in which it has been amalgamated with the crosses of st. andrew and st. patrick, it has not only lost all its purity, but presents a melancholy example of the ignorance of heraldry and total want of patriotism and taste which must have characterised those to whom we unfortunately owe its arrangement." [ ] "all her majesty's ships of war in commission shall bear a white ensign with the red st. george cross, and the union in the upper canton, and when it shall be thought proper to do so, they may display the union jack at the bowsprit end."--_queen's regulations._ [ ] we read, for instance, in the diary of pepys that in the expedition of the duke of buckingham, in the year , against the isle de rhé that "the duke divided his fleet into squadrons. himself, ye admirall, and general in chiefe, went in ye triumphe, bearing the standard of england in ye maine topp, and admirall particular of the bloody colours. the earl of lindsay was vice-admirall to the fleete in the rainbowe, bearing the king's usual colours in his foretopp, and a blew flag in his maine topp, and was admirall of the blew colours. the lord harvey was rear admirall in ye repulse, bearing the king's usual colours in his mizen, and a white flag in the main topp, and was admirall of ye squadron of white colours." [ ] on the hoisting of the ensign all work stops, and all ranks muster on deck, standing with hand raised to the cap in salute, while the ship's band plays the opening bars of the national anthem. [ ] charles mackay. [ ] other regiments with green facings are the th, th, th, th, th, th, th, rd, etc. regiments with blue facings are the st, th, th, th, th, th, st, rd, th, etc., while buff is found in the nd, rd, th, nd, th, st, th, etc. amongst the regiments with yellow facings are the th, th, th, th, th, th, th, th, th, th, th, th, th, etc. white is met with in the th, nd, st, rd, th, th, th. red is not so common, since the colour is that of the tunic ordinarily, but we see it in the rd, th, and th. black is also less commonly used, but we find it in the facings of the th, th, th, and th regiments. [ ] the "black watch," the gallant nd, and other regiments also bear the sphinx for their services in egypt in , where napoleon received his first serious check from british troops. [ ] when a regiment consists of two battalions the distinctions won by each are common to both, and are, quite justly, the property of the whole regiment. [ ] in like manner we find the royal marines bearing on their colours an anchor, first granted to the corps as a badge in the year . the lion and crown was added to this in . in , in honour of the gallant share taken by the marines in the capture of bellisle, a laurel wreath was added to the other badges of honour, and in the motto "_per mare per terram_" and a globe, surmounted by the word "gibraltar," was also placed on their colours, as a testimony to the services of the marines all over the world, and notably at the taking of gibraltar. [ ] blenheim, august nd, ; ramilies, may rd, ; oudenarde, june th, ; malplaquet, september th, ; dettingen, june th, ; minden, august st, . [ ] this, with many other interesting trophies of war, may be seen in the chapel of chelsea college. the blenheim colours are now nearly all consumed away with age: of one but the staff remains, and many others are now as tender as tinder. french, russian, american, chinese, and many other flags of former foes may there be seen quietly fading away, as the old national animosities have likewise done. [ ] amongst the various devices seen on the flags of the parliamentarians, was one of a skull surrounded by a laurel crown, accompanied by the words "_mors vel victoria_." [ ] there are the colours of other regiments as well. those that we specially refer to above will be found in what is known as the warriors' chapel. we deal with these especially, because, as being the flags of the territorial regiment, they find, with particular appropriateness, their resting place in canterbury cathedral. [ ] there is now no lord high admiral of great britain; his functions are analogous to those of the commander-in-chief of the army; the last lord high admiral was william iv., who received this appointment when prince of wales. the office is now said to be "in commission"--its functions are performed by the lords commissioners of the admiralty, a board uniting the dual control which is exercised over the land forces by the war office and the horse guards. commissions of naval officers are not signed by the queen, they are headed "by the commissioners for executing the office of lord high admiral of the united kingdom," etc.; and they are signed by two of the lords. [ ] we find the royal yacht club, in , and the royal thames yacht club, in , flying what would be a white ensign if it had but the great cross of st. george upon it; an entirely white flag having the union in the corner next the staff. one may get a fair notion of its effect by looking at fig. , but imagining the union in the place of the device there seen. the royal yacht club burgee at this period was plain white, without any device whatever. the burgee of the other club we have named has undergone many changes. in it is scarlet, with the letters t.y.c. in white; in the prefix royal has been gained, and the flag, still red, has the crown and the r.t.y.c. in white upon it; while in we still find the crown and the same letters, but now, not white on red, but red on white. [ ] "by the commissioners for executing the office of lord high admiral of the united kingdom of great britain and ireland, &c. "whereas, we deem it expedient that canadian registered vessels shall be permitted to wear the red ensign of her majesty's fleet, with the canadian coat of arms in the fly thereof. "we do therefore, by virtue of the power and authority vested in us, hereby warrant and authorize the red ensign of her majesty's fleet, with the canadian coat of arms in the fly, to be used on board vessels registered in the dominion. "given under our hands and the seal of the office of admiralty, this second day of february, ." [ ] the maple is to canada what the rose is to england, or the shamrock to ireland. hence, we find it on the coinage, etc. in the canadian militia list before us we find it on the accoutrements of many of the regiments, enwreathing the motto or device; sometimes alone, and often in association with the rose, thistle, and shamrock. [ ] thus in a french book on flags (la haye's), published in , we see a "pavillon de nouvelle angleterre en amerique." this is a blue flag, having on a white canton the cross of st. george, and in the first quarter of this canton a globe, in allusion to america, the new world. [ ] in september, , moultrie, the heroic defender of the fort which still bears his name, devised this the first flag of the state of south carolina, the uniform of the south carolina men being blue, and some of the regiments having a silver crescent in their caps; but why they had the silver crescent as a badge no record seems to inform us. [ ] it may be somewhat of an assistance to our readers if we give a few chronological details: the obnoxious duty on tea and other articles imposed by the british parliament, june, . tea thrown overboard in boston harbour by the discontented populace, november, . the boston port bill, by which that port was to be shut up until compensation made to the east india company for the tea destroyed, passed march, . general congress of the colonists at philadelphia, september, . revolution, first blood shed at lexington, april, . washington appointed commander-in-chief of the american armies, june, . thirteen colonies declare themselves independent, july th, . independence of colonies recognised by france in march, , by holland in april, , and by great britain in september, . john adams received as ambassador from america by george iii. in june, , and first ambassador sent from great britain to the united states, in . [ ] in an old print before us of the fight between the _shannon_ and the _chesapeake_, we see that the latter hoists three american flags, all having the top and bottom stripes white, and at the foremast a white flag inscribed with the enigmatical motto, "free trade and sailors' rights." [ ] "forty flags with their silver stars, forty flags with their crimson bars." whittier, "barbara frietchie." [ ] at a banquet at the mansion house, when many leading englishmen and eminent colonists gathered together to celebrate st. george's day, the american ambassador, an honoured guest, said that he was very conscious that he was there at a gathering of the clans. "there was a tradition that the mischievous boy was generally the favourite of the household. his mother might confess it openly, his father secretly, but the rest of the family said nothing about it. now there was a mischievous boy who broke away from home something more than a century ago, but let them not suppose that because he left the home he or his descendants ever came back without a strong feeling that it is the home." he went on to say that he never met a body of representative englishmen, british men, speaking the same language that he did, without a sense of grave joy and pleasure: the sense that they were his brethren in a great cause, and that he joined with them, he and his people, in sustaining the best hopes and aspirations of the world's civilization. blood is thicker than water, and all right-minded englishmen will read his kindly words with pleasure, and give them heartiest reciprocation. [ ] to the germans, in their campaign against france, this and the "watch upon the rhine" were worth many battalions as a spur and stimulus to heroic deeds. during the american war both federals and confederates owed much to the influence of stirring patriotic songs. there can be no doubt that the songs of dibdin contributed not a little to our own naval victories, and every cause that is worth fighting for evokes like stirring strains. perhaps one of the most marked illustrations of this is the birth of that grand war-song known as the "marseillaise." rouget de l'isle, its author, was a captain of french engineers stationed in strassbourg on the opening of the campaign against austria and prussia in . on the eve of the day that the contingent from that city was going to join the main army of the rhine, a question arose as to what air should be played at their departure. several were suggested and rejected, and rouget de l'isle left the meeting and retired to his own quarters, and before the gathering broke up had written both words and music of "le chant de l'armee du rhin." on returning to the meeting, still in consultation on the various details of the morrow, he sang his composition, and it was at once welcomed with delight. it flew like wildfire throughout france, and, owing to the marseillaise troops singing it on entering paris, it derived the name by which it has ever since been known. its stirring words and the grand roll of the music aroused the enthusiasm of the country, and at once made it the battle-song of france, to be at times proscribed, but never forgotten. [ ] the book on german costume by köbel, printed at frankfort-on-the-main in , should be referred to, if possible, by the reader. it is, unfortunately, a very rare book. the first edition of this splendid volume contains large illustrations of standard-bearers; the figures are admirably drawn and very varied in attitude, while the flags they carry are replete with interest, many of course being now quite obsolete, while others there represented have come down to us through the three centuries intact. [ ] the _pamiot azof_, one of the most powerful ironclads of the russian navy, flies at her mast-head the cross of st. george (white on red), in memory of the gallant service at navarino in of her predecessor of that name. the czar nicholas decreed that all future _pamiot azofs_ in the navy should bear this distinguishing mark of honour. peter the great built the first _pamiot azof_ as a memorial of the great siege of azof, and the name has been handed down ever since. the influence of that piece of scarlet and white bunting will doubtless be such that no _pamiot azof_ will ever fall short of the highest expectations that this exceptional honour would suggest. [ ] "clisson, assura sa majesté du gain de la bataille, le roi lui répondit: 'connestable, dieu le veeulte, nous irons donc avant au nom de dieu et de sainct denis.'"--_vulson de la colombière._ [ ] in a miniature of charles ii., a.d. , in a book of prayers, the royal sceptre terminates in a fleur-de-lys. the crown of hugh capet, a.d. , in st. denis, is formed of fleur-de-lys, as is that of his successor, robert le sage, a.d. , henry i., , and many others. to make the matter more complicated, we find on the crown of uffa, first king of the east angles, a. d. , true fleurs-de-lys. [ ] one old writer asserts that louis vii., on setting out in the year for the crusade chose the purple iris flower as his emblem. [ ] "recherches sur les drapeaux français, oriflamme, bannière de france, marques nationales, couleurs du roi, drapeaux de l'armée, pavilions de la marine."--gustave desjardins, paris, . another good book to see is the "histoire du drapeau de la monarchie française," by m. rey. [ ] it may be helpful here to append for reference the chronology of the earlier sovereigns of the house of bourbon:--henry iv., "the great," ascended the throne in ; louis xiii., "the just," ; louis xiv., "the great," ; louis xv., "the well-beloved," ; louis xvi., , guillotined in january, . [ ] thus, at a grand military _fête_, on may th, , in the champ de mars, on restoring this symbol, we find the emperor addressing the troops:--"the roman eagle, adopted by the emperor napoleon at the commencement of this century, was a brilliant symbol of the grandeur of france. it disappeared amongst our calamities. it ought to return when france, raised up again, should no more repudiate her high position. soldiers! take again the eagles which have so often led our fathers to glory." in , in addressing a detachment of the imperial guard prior to its departure for the crimea, he exclaimed, "the imperial guard, the heroic representative of military glory and honour, is here before me. receive then these eagles, which will lead you on to glory. soon will you have planted them on the walls of sebastopol!" [ ] first republic, to . the consulate, to . the first empire, to . the restoration, bourbon and orleanist, to , the second republic, to , the second empire, to , the third republic from . [ ] the diary of henry machyn, "citizen and merchant tayler of london," from which we have already quoted, tells us how the writer saw the "kyng's grace and dyvers spaneards," the said king being philip of spain, riding through the city attired in red and yellow, the colours of spain. in the cavalcade, machyn tells us, were "men with thrumpets in the same colors, and drumes made of ketylles, and baners in the same colors." [ ] this quarter of the flag, the arms of leon and castile, was the entire flag of the time of columbus. isabella gave the great explorer a personal flag, a white swallow-tailed ensign having in its centre a green cross and the letters f.y. the quartered arms of leon and castile are sculptured upon the monument in westminster abbey of alianore, the daughter of ferdinand iii., king of leon and castile, and the wife of edward i. of england. the date of the tomb is . [ ] the following chronological items may prove of assistance. crown of navarre passes to france, . ferdinand of arragon re-conquers navarre, . accession of house of austria to throne of spain, . spain annexed netherlands, , and, shortly after philip ii., husband of our queen mary, annexed burgundy. portugal united to spain, . portugal lost, . philip v. invades naples, . charles iii., king of the two sicilies, succeeds to spanish crown, . [ ] the various heralds and pursuivants in their tabards blazoned with the lions of england, the fleurs-de-lys of france, or the castles of portugal. [ ] az. three crosses in pale or. [ ] the turks, originally an asiatic people, overran the provinces of the eastern, or greek empire, about the year , but did not capture constantinople until . thirty years afterwards they obtained a footing in italy, and in egypt was added to the empire. the invading hosts spread terror throughout europe, and in and in we find them besieging vienna. rhodes was captured from the knights of st. john, greece subdued, cyprus taken from the venetians: but later on the tide of war turned against them, and frequent hostilities with england, france, and russia led to the gradual weakening of the turkish power. [ ] there is such a general impression that officials are so very much bound up in highly-starched red tape that we gladly take this opportunity of acknowledging the extreme consideration with which all our enquiries have been met. the libraries of the admiralty, the royal united service museum, the guildhall, south kensington, etc., have been placed unreservedly at our service. the authorities of the board of trade, of lloyds, of the royal chelsea hospital, of the royal naval exhibition, the agents-general of the colonies, have all most willingly given every possible information, and we have received from all to whom we have applied for information the greatest readiness to afford it, and the most courteous responses. [ ] the position of sultan, though one of great dignity, has its serious drawbacks. this all-conquering murad was, after all, assassinated; his son and successor, bajuzet, died in prison. isa belis the next holder of the throne, solyman who succeeded him, and musa, who succeeded solyman, were all in turn murdered by their brothers or other relatives. [ ] "order and progress." not a very happily chosen motto, since, as a brazilian said to us, such a sentiment might equally be placed on the flags of all civilized nations, order and progress not being features to take any special credit for, but to be entirely taken for granted, and as a matter of course. [ ] our english name, japan, for this land of the far east, is a corruption of the chinese name for it, _zipangn_, a word of the same meaning, land of the rising sun. [ ] there are four orders of distinction in japan; the first is the order of the chrysanthemum, and the second that of the rising sun. [ ] each spring and summer our volunteers have long-distance practices. from the account of one of these now before us, we see that the line extended from reculvers on the north coast of kent, to aldershot, a distance of over one hundred miles, messages from one point to the other being rapidly and accurately transmitted by signalling parties on the various eminences, such as beacon hill, gravelly hill, box hill, and st. martha's hill, between the two extremities of the line. [ ] one may see here, too, the signal book of james, duke of york, dating about , by means of which most of our sea-fights with the dutch were conducted, and also the code introduced by kempenfeldt. [ ] the _victory_ at this time was somewhat less than a mile and a half from the enemy's line. [ ] the signal for "close action" was flags and . all flag signals are always read from above downwards; and would mean something entirely different to and . [ ] "expects," it will be seen, is expressed by one hoist of flags, while "confides" would have necessitated the pulling up and hauling down of eight distinct sets. [ ] special hoists are also used for special purposes, thus the display of the yellow flag, with a black ball on it, is an intimation that torpedo practice is going on. [ ] june st, . [ ] this system was introduced by captain columb in . on one occasion, during heavy weather, from a steamer fifteen miles off shore he sent a message through a station on the isle of wight across to portsmouth, and received his answer back in thirteen minutes! this was altogether too good to be gainsaid or shelved, and the system was speedily adopted. * * * * * transcriber's note: the following corrections were made to the printed original: table of contents, chapter v:--"england expects" printed as "englands expects" in original. page :--in "a priest of beverley for carrying": "carrying" printed as "carring" in original. page :--in "we find these charges represented": "charges" printed as "changes" in original. page :--in "their thoughts turn to the dear homeland": "turn" printed as "turns" in original. page :--in "thirteen then existing codes": "thirteen" printed as "thirteeen" in original. page :--in "our readers will see": "our" printed as "ours" in original. the history of the national flag of the united states of america. by schuyler hamilton, capt. by brvt. u.s.a. philadelphia, lippincott, grambo & co. . entered according to act of congress, in the year , by lippincott, grambo, and co., in the office of the clerk of the district court of the united states in and for the eastern district of pennsylvania. philadelphia: t. k. and p. g. collins, printers. this research as to the origin and meaning of the devices combined in the national flag of the united states of america, is respectfully dedicated to major-general winfield scott, as a slight tribute of respect for his distinguished services, and as a mark of personal gratitude, by his friend and aide-de-camp, schuyler hamilton, _captain by brevet, u.s.a._ preface. as nearly as we can learn, the only origin which has been suggested for the devices combined in the national colors of our country is, that they were adopted from the coat of arms of general washington. this imputed origin is not such as would be consonant with the known modesty of washington, or the spirit of the times in which the flag was adopted. we have, therefore, been at some pains to collect authentic statements in reference to our national colors, and with these, have introduced letters exhibiting the temper of those times, step by step, with the changes made in the flag, so combining them as to form a chain of proof, which, we think, must be conclusive. should, however, the perusal of the following account of the origin and meaning of the devices in the national flag of our country, serve no other purpose than that of impressing more strongly upon the mind of the reader the importance and the prominence those who achieved our liberties and founded our government attached to the idea of union, its preparation will not have been a futile labor. emblems and devices, adopted under high excitement of the public mind, are chosen as epitomes of the sentiments prevailing at the time of their adoption. those of the days of our revolution afford proofs far more striking than the most elaborate arguments, that, in the estimation of our forefathers, union, and existence as a nation, were inseparable. the prosecution of our subject has made it necessary for us to dwell upon those devices, and to develop those proofs. introduction. as a not uninteresting introduction to our research, we will glance at the history of standards, from their inception to the present time. we shall find that man's faculty of imitation has here, as elsewhere, found employment, modified in its operation by some cause peculiar to the nation whose standard chances to be under consideration. fosbroke, in his _dictionary of antiquities_, has furnished us with most of the information on this subject which is pertinent to our design. we shall add such comments as will tend to illustrate our conclusions. under the head of standards, he writes:-- "the invention began among the egyptians, who bore an animal at the end of a spear; but among the græco-egyptians, the standards either resemble, at top, a round-headed knife, or an expanded semicircular fan. among the earlier greeks, it was a piece of armor at the end of a spear; though agamemnon, in homer, uses a purple veil to rally his men, &c. afterwards, the athenians bore the olive and owl; the other nations the effigies of their tutelary gods, or their particular symbols, at the end of a spear. the corinthians carried a _pegasus_, the messenians their initial [mu], and the lacedæmonians, [lambda]; the persians, a golden eagle at the end of a spear, fixed upon a carriage; the ancient gauls, an animal, chiefly a bull, lion, and bear. sir s. r. meyrick gives the following account of the roman standards. 'each _century_, or at least each _maniple_ of troops, had its proper standard, and standard-bearer. this was originally merely a bundle of hay on the top of a pole; afterwards, a spear with a crosspiece of wood on the top; sometimes the figure of a hand above, probably in allusion to the word _manipulus_; and below, a small round or oval shield, generally of silver or of gold. on this metal plate were anciently represented the warlike deities mars or minerva; but after the extinction of the commonwealth, the effigies of the emperors or their favorites. it was on this account that the standards were called _numina legionum_, and held in religious veneration. the standards of different divisions had certain letters inscribed on them, to distinguish the one from the other. the standard of a legion, according to dio, was a silver eagle, with expanded wings, on the top of a spear, sometimes holding a thunderbolt in its claws; hence the word _aquila_ was used to signify a legion. the place for this standard was near the general, almost in the centre. before the time of marius, figures of other animals were used, and it was then carried in front of the first maniple of the _triarii_. the _vexillum_, or flag of the cavalry (that of the infantry being called _signum_; an eagle on a thunderbolt, within a wreath, in meyrick, pl. , fig. ), was, according to livy, a square piece of cloth, fixed to a crossbar on the end of a spear. the _labarum_, borrowed by the greek emperors from the celtic tribes, by whom it was called _llab_, was similar to this, but with the monogram of christ worked upon it. thus sir s. r. meyrick. the dragon, which served for an ensign to barbarous nations, was adopted by the romans, probably from the mixture of auxiliaries with the legions. at first, the dragon, as the general ensign of the barbarians, was used as a trophy by the romans, after trajan's conquest of the dacians. the dragons were embroidered in cotton, or silk and purple. the head was of metal, and they were fastened on the tops of spears, gilt and tasselled, opening the mouth wide, which made their long tails, painted with different colors, float in the wind. they are seen on the trajan column and the arch of titus, and are engraved. the _draconarii_, or ensigns, who carried them, were distinguished by a gold collar. from the romans, says du cange, it came to the western empire, and was long, in england, the chief standard of our kings, and of the dukes of normandy. matthew paris notes its being borne in wars which portended destruction to the enemy. it was pitched near the royal tent, on the right of the other standards, where the guard was kept. stowe adds, that the dragon-standard was never used but when it was an absolute intention to fight; and a golden dragon was fixed, that the weary and wounded might repair thither, as to a castle, or place of the greatest security. thus far for the dragon-standard. to return, vigetius mentions _pinnæ_, perhaps _aigrettes_ of feathers, of different colors, intended for signals, rallying-points, &c. animals, fixed upon plinths, with holes through them, are often found. they were ensigns intended to be placed upon the ends of spears. "count caylus has published several; among others two leopards, male and female. ensigns upon colonial coins, if accompanied with the name of the legion, _but not otherwise_, show that the colony was founded by the veterans of that legion. there were also standards called _pila_, or _tufa_, consisting of bucklers heaped one above the other. "the ancient franks bore the tiger, wolf, &c., but soon adopted the eagle from the romans. in the second race, they used the cross, images of saints, &c. the _fleur-de-lis_ was the distinctive attribute of the king. "ossian mentions the standard of the kings and chiefs of clans, and says that it (the king's) was blue studded with gold. this is not improbable, for the anglo-saxon ensign was very grand. it had on it _the white horse_, as the danish was distinguished by the _raven_. they were, however, differently formed from the modern, being parallelograms, fringed, and borne, sometimes at least, upon a stand with four wheels. a standard upon a car was, we have already seen, usual with the ancient persians. sir s. r. meyrick admits that it was of asiatic origin, first adopted by the italians, and introduced here in the reign of stephen. that of stephen is fixed by the middle upon a staff, topped by a cross _pattée_ (wider at the ends than in the middle), has a cross _pattée_ itself on one wing, and three small branches shooting out from each flag. it appears from drayton, that the main standard of henry v. at the battle of agincourt was borne upon a car; and the reason which he assigns is, that it was too heavy to be carried otherwise. sir s. r. meyrick adds, that it preceded the royal presence. edward i. had the arms of england, st. george, st. edmond, and st. edward, on his standards. the flag or banner in the hands of princes, upon seals, denotes sovereign power, and was assumed by many lords in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries." we observe that the invention of standards is ascribed to the egyptians. layard, in "nineveh, and its remains," says of the standards of the assyrians:-- "standards were carried by the charioteers. in the sculptures, they have only two devices: one, a figure (probably that of the divinity) standing on a bull, and drawing a bow; the other, two bulls running in opposite directions," probably, as is stated in a note, the symbols of war and peace. "these figures are inclosed in a circle, and fixed to the end of a long staff ornamented with streamers and tassels." here we see the early use of pendants as emblems of supreme authority. in our own day, we frequently hear, commodore ----'s broad pendant was hoisted on the ship ----. in queen anne's time, on the union of england and scotland, we find the use of pendants by the ships of her subjects, expressly prohibited in the following words: "_nor any kind of pendants whatsoever_, or any other ensign than the ensign described in the side or margent hereof, which shall be worn instead of the ensign before this time [ ] usually worn in merchant vessels." in reference to the flags of the national vessels, the following language is used: "our flags, jacks, and pendants, which, _according to ancient usage_, have been appointed to a distinction for our ships." every one will observe the distinction made in the case of the pendants, which were absolutely prohibited to the subjects. we return now to the consideration of the standards of the assyrians. "the standards seem to have been partly supported by a rest in front of the chariot, and a long rod or rope connected them with the extremity of the pole. in a bas-relief of khorsabad, this rod is attached to the top of the standard."[ ] [ ] "standards, somewhat similar to those represented on the assyrian bas-reliefs, were in use in egypt. some sacred animal or emblem was also generally placed upon them." the reader will have observed what fosbroke says of the introduction into england of a standard borne on a car, that it was in imitation of the eastern nations. in the case of the romans, the force of this habit was even more strikingly illustrated. they at first used a bundle of bay or straw; as they extended their conquests over the neighboring colonists from greece, and doubtless from egypt, they assumed the wolf and other animals. the wolf, perhaps, referred to the foster-mother of romulus. as they extended their conquests further, they borrowed the custom of the greeks, of placing a shield with the image of a warlike deity upon it on a spear, still, however, retaining the reference to the _manipulus_ in the hand, above it. in the time of marius, they adopted the eagle with the thunderbolt in its claws, the emblem of jove. we are also told that different divisions had certain letters, frequently the name of the commander, inscribed on their standards. this practice was also introduced among the romans from greece. it was introduced among the grecians by alexander the great, who observed it among the persians and other eastern nations. intoxicated with his triumphs, when he began to claim for himself a divine origin, he caused a standard to be prepared, inscribed with the title of "son of ammon," and planted it near the image of hercules, which, as that of his tutelary deity, was the ensign of the grecian host. in the same way, the franks borrowed the eagle from the romans. the same holds good of the dragon-standard, which, borrowed from the dacians and other barbarians, was for a long time the standard of the western empire, of england, and of normandy. after the crusades, however, the cross seems to have taken a prominent place on the standards and banners of european nations. the double-headed eagle of russia and austria originated among the romans, to indicate the sovereignty of the world. when the empire of the cæsars was divided into the western and eastern empires, this standard continued to be used in both those divisions. from the eastern empire it passed into the standard of russia, on the marriage of ivan i. with a grecian princess. from the western, with the title of roman emperor, it passed to austria. from the above, we cannot fail to perceive, in the past as well as in the present, the tendency, throughout the world, to imitation, in the adoption of national ensigns; also, that the adoption of a particular ensign marked some epoch in the history of the particular nation which adopted it. thus the various changes in the roman standard marked the epochs of their conquest, first of the greeks, then of the barbarians. the adoption of the eagle by the franks, their conquest of the romans. the cross, the era of the crusades. the double-headed eagle of russia, the marriage of the czar to the heiress of the eastern empire. that of austria, the investiture of the emperors of germany with the title of roman emperor. the present union of the crosses of st. george, st. andrew, and st. patrick, in the british ensign, reverting to the crusades, in the members composing it, more directly refers to the union, first, of england and scotland into the united kingdom of great britain, and more recently, to the union of the kingdoms of great britain and ireland, and hence is called _the great union_. the eagle of france, marked her republican era. having thus observed, in the adoption of ensigns by the principal nations of the world, the prevalence of certain general rules, viz.: a reference to their deity; the habit of imitating the ensigns of nations from which they sprung, or which they conquered; the custom of marking, by their standards, some epoch in their history; or these customs in combination, may we not expect to find, in the adoption of our national ensign, that it is not wholly an exception to these general rules? the national flag of the united states of america. adopting these general principles, we find ourselves, in attempting to give a satisfactory account of the origin, adoption, and meaning of the devices embodied in the national flag of the united states, obliged to describe the principal flags displayed during the revolution, which resulted in the independence of those states; to give some account of the flags used by the colonists prior to that revolution; and to notice, though in a cursory manner, the national flag of the mother country. to facilitate the consideration of our subject, we shall arrange the flags, mention of which we have met with, as displayed during our revolution, in a table, chronologically; and shall number them, according to the date of the notice of them, , , , , &c., beginning in . in this table, we shall give their distinguishing devices; noticing them, when necessary, more at length as we proceed. table of the above flags. . "union flags."[ ]--these flags are very frequently mentioned in the newspapers, in , but no account is given of the devices upon them. to establish these devices, will be one of the principal objects of this inquiry. [ ] siege of boston, frothingham, p. , _note_. . the standard of the connecticut troops.--a letter, dated wethersfield, connecticut, april , , says: "we fix upon our standards and drums the colony arms, with the motto, '_qui transtulit sustinet_,' round it, in letters of gold, which we construe thus: 'god, who transplanted us hither, will support us.'"[ ] the standards of the different regiments were distinguished by their color. act of provincial congress of connecticut, july , : "one standard for each regiment _to be distinguished by their color, as follows, viz.: for the seventh, blue; for the eighth, orange_."[ ] [ ] american archives, th series, vol. ii. p. . [ ] ibid. p. . . the flag unfurled by general israel putnam, on prospect hill, july , , which is thus described in a letter, dated "cambridge, july , . "last saturday, july , the several regiments quartered in this town being assembled upon the parade, the rev. dr. langdon, president of the college, read to them 'a declaration, by the representatives of the united colonies of north america now met in general congress at philadelphia, setting forth the causes and necessity of taking up arms.' it was received with great applause; and the approbation of the army, with that of a great number of other people, was immediately announced by three huzzas. his excellency, the general, with several other general officers, &c., were present on the occasion." "last tuesday morning, july , according to orders issued the day before by major-general putnam, all the continental troops under his immediate command assembled at prospect hill, when the declaration of the continental congress was read; after which, an animated and pathetic address to the army was made by the rev. mr. leonard, chaplain to general putnam's regiment, and succeeded by a pertinent prayer, when general putnam gave the signal, and the whole army shouted their loud _amen_ by three cheers; immediately upon which a cannon was fired from the fort, and the standard lately sent to general putnam was exhibited, flourishing in the air, bearing this motto; on one side, 'an appeal to heaven,' and, on the other side, '_qui transtulit sustinet_.' "the whole was conducted with the utmost decency, good order, and regularity, and the universal acceptance of all present; and the _philistines_, on bunker's hill, heard the shout of the _israelites_,[ ] and, being very fearful, paraded themselves in battle array."[ ] [ ] general putnam was named _israel_. [ ] american archives, th series, vol. ii. p. . this flag bore on it the motto of connecticut, "_qui transtulit sustinet_," and the motto, "an appeal to heaven;" the latter of which is evidently adopted from the closing paragraph of the "address of the provincial congress of massachusetts, to their brethren in great britain," written shortly after the battle of lexington, which ended thus: 'appealing to heaven for the justice of our cause, we determine to die or be free;' and which motto, under the form 'appeal to heaven,' combined with a pine-tree, constituted the motto and device on the colors of the massachusetts colonial cruisers. in this combination of the mottoes of connecticut and massachusetts, one can scarcely fail to perceive the germ of the emblem of union which was introduced into the flag, which, january , , replaced the flag we have described above, on prospect hill. from the following notice of the flag displayed by general putnam, july , , we learn that it was a red flag. before, however, giving the notice, we will state that, as early as the time of the romans, a red flag was the signal of defiance or battle; thus, we are told: "when a general, after having consulted the auspices, had determined to lead forth his troops against the enemy, a red flag was displayed on a spear from the top of the _prætorium_,[ ] which was the signal to prepare for battle."[ ] this accords with the account given of the display of the above flag, and corroborates the fact mentioned in the following extract from a letter of a captain of an english transport to his owners in london:-- "boston, jan. , . "i can see the rebels' camp very plain, whose colors, a little while ago, were entirely red; but, on the receipt of the king's speech (which they burnt), they have hoisted the union flag, which is here supposed to intimate the union of the provinces."[ ] he probably could not perceive the mottoes referred to in the preceding letter, owing to the distance. [ ] the general's tent. [ ] adams's roman antiquities, p. . [ ] american archives, th series, vol. iv. p. . . the flag used at the taking of fort johnston, on james's island, september , .--"colonel moultrie, september [ ], received an order from the council of safety for taking fort johnston, on james's island." [s.c.] "a flag being thought necessary for the purpose of signals, colonel moultrie, who was requested by the council of safety to procure one, had a large blue flag made, with a crescent in one corner, to be in uniform with the troops. this was the first american flag displayed in south carolina."[ ] [ ] holmes's annals, vol. ii. p. . of the crescent, we have the following interesting account:-- "as is well known, the crescent, or, as it is usually designated, the _crescent montant_, has become the symbol of the turkish empire, which has thence been frequently styled the empire of the crescent. this symbol, however, did not originate with the turks. long before their conquest of constantinople, the crescent had been used _as emblematic of sovereignty_, as may be seen from the still-existing medals struck in honor of augustus, trajan, and others; and it formed from all antiquity the symbol of byzantium. on the overthrow of this empire by mohammed ii., the turks, regarding the crescent, which everywhere met their eye, as a good omen, adopted it as their chief bearing."[ ] it was, doubtless, "as the emblem of sovereignty," that it was adopted by colonel moultrie. [ ] brande's dictionary of literature, &c. _crescent._ . the flag of the floating batteries.--colonel joseph reed to colonel glover and stephen moylan, says: "head-quarters, october , : please to fix upon some particular color for a flag, and a signal by which our vessels may know one another. what do you think of a flag with a white ground, a tree in the middle, the motto, 'appeal to heaven?' this is the flag of our floating batteries."[ ] [ ] american archives, th series, vol. iii. p. . . the flag called _the great union flag_, hoisted january , , the day which gave being to the new army.--general washington's letter of january , , to joseph reed.[ ] this flag, which we shall designate in this way, was the basis of our national flag of the present day. [ ] ibid. vol. iv. p. . . the flag presented by colonel gadsden, a member of the naval committee of the continental congress, to the provincial congress of south carolina, february , , as the standard to be used by the commander-in-chief of the american navy, "being a yellow field, with a lively representation of a rattlesnake in the middle, in the attitude of going to strike; and the words underneath, don't tread on me."[ ] [ ] american archives, th series, vol. v. p. . . the flag of the cruisers of the colony of massachusetts.--"and the colors to be a white flag with a green pine-tree, and an inscription, 'appeal to heaven.'"--resolution of massachusetts provincial congress, april , .[ ] [ ] ibid. vol. v. p. . . the national flag of the united states, "the stars and stripes," adopted as such by a resolution of congress, passed june , .--"_resolved_, that the flag of the thirteen united states be thirteen stripes, alternate red and white; that the union be thirteen stars, white, in a blue field, representing a new constellation."[ ] [ ] journal of congress, vol. ii. p. . this resolution, though passed june , , was not made public until september , .[ ] [ ] boston gazette and country journal, sept. , . with this table before us, we shall proceed to consider certain badges intimately connected with the devices on the national flag of england, afterwards embodied in the national flag of great britain, a modification of which we shall show was, for a time, the flag of the united states, and the basis of the "stars and stripes." "in the first crusade, the scots, according to sir george mackenzie, were distinguished by the cross of st. andrew; the french, by a white cross; and the italians, by a blue one. the spaniards, according to columbiere, bore a red cross, which, in the third crusade (a.d. ), was appropriated by the french, the flemings using a green cross, and the english a white one. the adherents of simon montfort, the rebellious earl of leicester, assumed the latter as their distinguishing mark, thus making the national cognizance the badge of a faction. [illustration: pl. i.] "the cross of st. george has been the badge, both of our kings and the nation, at least from the time of edward iii. its use was for a while nearly superseded by the roses, but revived upon the termination of the wars between the rival houses. it still continues to adorn the banner of england."[ ] [ ] parker. terms used in british heraldry, p. . of the arms and banner of st. george, we have the following account: "saynte george, whyche had whyte arms with a red cross." (fig. , plate i.) "this blessed and holy martyr saynte george is patrone of the realme of england; and ye crye of men of warre."[ ] [ ] parker. terms used in british heraldry, p. . "with reference to the cross of st. george, sir n. h. nicholas observes: 'that in the fourteenth and subsequent centuries, even if the custom did not prevail at a much earlier period, every english soldier was distinguished by wearing that simple and elegant badge over his armor.' "the following extract," he adds, "from the ordinances made for the government of the army with which richard ii. invaded scotland in , and which were also adopted by henry v., will best show the regulations on the subject. "also, that everi man of what estate, condition, or nation thei be of, so that he be of oure partie, bere a signe of the armes of saint george, large, both before and behynde, upon parell that yf he be slayne or wounded to deth, he that hath so done to him shall not be put to deth, for default of the cross that he lacketh. and that non enemy do bere the same token or cross of st. george, notwithstanding if he be prisoner, upon payne of deth." "the banner of st. george is white, charged with the red cross."[ ] [ ] ibid. p. . "banner. a banner is a square flag painted or embroidered with arms, and of a size proportioned to the rank of the bearer."[ ]--see the banner of st. george, fig. , plate i. [ ] parker. terms used in british heraldry, p. . we now come to the description of the arms and banner of saint andrew. the cross of st. andrew is called a saltire, and is thus described:-- "saltire, or _saltier_. this honorable ordinary probably represents the cross whereon st. andrew was crucified."[ ] [ ] ibid. p. . "andrew, s., the apostle: the patron saint of scotland. "the arms attributed to him, and emblazoned on the banner bearing his name, are azure, a saltire argent."[ ]--see fig. , plate i., arms of saint andrew; and for the banner of saint andrew, fig. , plate i. [ ] ibid. p. . "union jack: the national flag of great britain and ireland. "the ancient national flag of england was the banner of st. george (argent, a cross gules), to which the banner of st. andrew (azure, a saltire argent), was united (instead of being quartered, according to ancient custom), in pursuance of a royal proclamation, dated april , . an extract from this proclamation follows:-- "whereas, some difference hath arisen between our subjects of south and north britain, travelling by seas, about the bearing of their flags: for the avoiding of all such contentions hereafter, we have, with the advice of our council, ordered, that henceforth all our subjects of this isle and kingdom of great britain, and the members thereof, shall bear in their maintop the red cross, commonly called st. george's cross, and the white cross, commonly called st. andrew's cross, joined together, according to a form made by our heralds, and sent by us to our admiral, to be published to our said subjects; and in their foretop our subjects of south britain shall wear the red cross only, as they were wont; and the subjects of north britain, in their foretop, the white cross only, as they were accustomed."[ ] [ ] parker. terms used in british heraldry, p. . the union of the crosses described above may naturally be called the _king's colors_, though in fact, as james was king both of scotland and england, the national flags of either of those kingdoms would also be the king's colors, in an extended sense; but would be likely to be designated as the red or white crosses, or the crosses of st. george or st. andrew, while this form prepared by the heralds, and only prescribed for "subjects travelling by seas," would be by those subjects called, _par excellence_, the king's colors. "there is," says sir n. h. nicholas, "every reason to believe that the flag arranged by the heralds on this occasion was the same as, on the union with scotland [ ], became the national banner." it may be emblazoned azure, a saltire argent surmounted by a cross gules, edged of the second. (see fig. , plate i.) the white edging was no doubt intended to prevent one color from being placed upon another; but this precaution was, to say the least, unnecessary; for surely no heraldic rule would have been broken, if the red cross had been placed upon the white satire. the contact of the red cross and blue field would have been authorized by numerous precedents. this combination was constituted the national flag of great britain by a royal proclamation, issued july , .[ ] [ ] note by author.--this white edging would, however, show the union of the two flags, which otherwise might not have been apparent. we are told, in de foe's history of the union, that great jealousy for the ancient banners of their respective kingdoms, was shown both by scots and english. "no further change was made until the union with ireland, january , , previous to which instructions were given to combine the banner of st. patrick (argent, a saltire gules) with the crosses of st. george and st. andrew. in obedience to these instructions, the present national flag of great britain and ireland was produced."[ ]--see fig. , plate i. we would observe that, as this last form of the _union_ was only adopted in , which was the first time that a change was made in the flags proscribed in , it is only of interest as completing the account of the union jack. "the word jack is most probably derived from the surcoat, charged with a red cross, anciently used by the english soldiery. this appears to have been called a jacque, whence the word jacket, anciently written jacquit."[ ] [ ][ ] parker. terms used in british heraldry, pp. - . we desire to impress this last remark upon the mind of the reader, as, in the course of our inquiry, we shall meet more than once with allusions to the "jack," the "st. george's jack," &c., and to invite special attention to the fact that the badge on the clothes of the soldiery furnished a badge to the flag of their country. thus the cross of st. andrew, worn by the scots, was emblazoned on the banner of scotland, and the cross of st. george, worn by the english soldiery, was emblazoned on the banner of england. this last, the national flag of england, the red cross flag, has now, for us, especial interest. a singular circumstance furnishes us with proof that this red cross flag was in use in the colonies. we find in the "journal of john winthrop, esq., the first governor of the colony of massachusetts bay," the following memoranda in reference to it:-- "anno , november .] at the court of assistants, complaint was made by one of the country (viz., richard brown, of watertown, in the name of the rest), that the ensign at salem was defaced, viz.: one part of the red cross taken out. upon this, an attachment was issued against richard davenport, ensign-bearer, to appear at the next court to answer. much matter was made of this, as fearing it would be taken as an act of rebellion, or of like high nature, in defacing the king's colors;" [_i.e._ the banner of st. george;] "though the truth were, it was done upon this opinion, that the red cross was given to the king of england, by the pope, as an ensign of victory, and so a superstitious thing, and a relic of antichrist. what proceeding was hereupon, will appear after, at next court in the first month; for by reason of the great snows and frosts, we used not to keep courts in the three winter months."[ ] [ ] winthrop's new england, vol. i. p. . "anno , mo. , .] a general court at newtown." "mr. endecott was called to answer for defacing the cross in the ensign; but, because the court could not agree about the thing, whether the ensigns should be laid by, in regard that many refused to follow them, the whole case was deferred till the next general court; and the commissioners for military affairs gave order, in the mean time, that all ensigns should be laid aside," &c.[ ] [ ] ibid. vol. i. pp. - . "anno , mo. , .] a general court was held at newtown, where john haynes, esq., was chosen governor; richard bellingham, esq., deputy governor; and mr. hough, and mr. dummer, chosen assistants to the former; and mr. ludlow, the late deputy, left out of the magistracy. the reason was, partly, because the people would exercise their absolute power, &c., and partly by some speeches of the deputy, who protested against the election of the governor as void, for that the deputies of the several towns had agreed upon the election before they came, &c. but this was generally discussed, and the election adjudged good."[ ] [ ] ibid. vol. i. pp. . "mr. endecott was also left out, and called into question about the defacing the cross in the ensign; and a committee was chosen, viz.: every town chose one (which yet were voted for by all the people), and the magistrates chose four, who, taking the charge to consider the offence, and the censure due to it, and to certify the court, after one or two hours time, made report to the court, that they found the offence to be great, viz.: rash and without discretion, taking upon him more authority than he had, and not seeking advice of the court, &c.; uncharitable, in that he, judging the cross, &c., to be a sin, did content himself to have reformed it at salem, not taking care that others might be brought out of it also; laying a blemish, also, upon the rest of the magistrates, as if they would suffer idolatry, &c., and giving occasion to the state of england to think ill of us. for which they adjudged him worthy admonition, and to be disabled for one year from bearing any public office; declining any heavier sentence because they were persuaded he did it out of tenderness of conscience, and not of evil intent."[ ] [ ] winthrop's new england, vol. i. p. . "the matter of altering the cross in the ensign was referred to the next meeting (the court having adjourned for three weeks), it being propounded to turn it to the red and white rose, &c." [we have seen, under our first notice of the cross of st. george, that "its use was, for a while, nearly superseded (in england) by the roses, but revived upon the termination of the wars between the rival houses."] "and every man was to deal with his neighbors to still their minds, who stood so stiff for the cross, until we should fully agree about it, which was expected, because the ministers had promised to take pains about it, and to write into england to have the judgment of the most wise and godly there."[ ] [ ] winthrop's new england, vol. i. p. . "anno , mo. , .] at the last general court it was referred to the military commissioners to appoint colors for every company; who did accordingly, and left out the cross in all of them, appointing the king's arms to be put into that of castle island, and boston to be the first company."[ ] [ ] ibid. vol. i. p. . "anno , mo. , .] here arrived a ship called the st. patrick, belonging to sir thomas wentworth [afterwards the great earl of strafford], deputy of ireland [_i.e._ viceroy], one palmer, master. when she came near castle island, the lieutenant of the fort went aboard her and made her strike her flag, which the master took as a great injury, and complained of it to the magistrates, who, calling the lieutenant before them, heard the cause and declared to the master that he had no commission so to do. and because he had made them strike to the fort (which had then no color abroad), they tendered the master such satisfaction as he desired, which was only this, that the lieutenant, aboard their ship, should acknowledge his error, that so all the ship's company might receive satisfaction, lest the lord deputy should have been informed that we had offered that discourtesy to his ship which we had never offered to any before." "mo. , .] one miller, master's mate in the hector, spake to some of our people aboard his ship, that, because we had not the king's colors at our fort, we were all traitors and rebels, &c. the governor sent for the master, mr. ferne, and acquainted him with it, who promised to deliver him to us. whereupon, we sent the marshal and four sergeants to the ship for him, but the master not being aboard they would not deliver him; whereupon, the master went himself and brought him to the court; and, the words being proved against him by two witnesses, he was committed. the next day the master, to pacify his men, who were in a great tumult, requested he might be delivered to him, and did undertake to bring him before us again the day after, which was granted him, and he brought him to us at the time appointed. then, in the presence of all the rest of the masters, he acknowledged his offence, and set his hand to a submission, and was discharged." we will break the thread of this extract to introduce this curious paper, which, taken from the _colonial record,_ i. , we, find given at length in a note to winthrop's _new england_. "whereas i, thomas millerd, have given out most false and reproachful speeches against his majesty's loyal and faithful subjects, dwelling in the massachusetts bay in america, saying that they were all traitors and rebels, and that i would affirm so much before the governor himself, which expressions i do confess (and so desire may be conceived) did proceed from the rashness and distemper of my own brain, without any just ground or cause so to think or speak, for which my unworthy and sinful carriage being called in question, i do justly stand committed. my humble request, therefore, is that, upon this my full and ingenuous recantation of this my gross failing, it would please the governor and the rest of the assistants to accept of this my humble submission, to pass by my fault, and to dismiss me from further trouble; and this, my free and voluntary confession, i subscribe with my hand, this th june, ." we now resume our extract from winthrop. "then the governor desired the masters that they would deal freely, and tell us, if they did take any offence, and what they required of us. they answered, that in regard they should be examined upon their return, what colors they saw here; they did desire that the king's colors might be spread at our fort. it was answered, we had not the king's colors. thereupon, two of them did offer them freely to us." this was about june, , and we have seen that it was only in the year , that the commissioners for military affairs had ordered the red cross ensigns to be laid aside; hence, it is altogether improbable that they could not have procured one of these, but, what we have styled the king's colors _par excellence_, being prescribed only for ships, was not likely to be owned by the colonial authorities. its device, a modification of the cross, about which the question had arisen, might possibly have served as a device to relieve the tenderness of the consciences of the authorities, and would also enable the masters to say, on their return, that they had seen the king's colors spread at the castle at boston. as we see above, "it was answered we had not the king's colors. thereupon, two of them did offer them freely to us. we replied, that for our part, we were fully persuaded that the cross in the ensign was idolatrous, and, therefore, might not set it up in our ensign; but, because the fort was the king's, and maintained in his name, we thought his own colors might be spread there. so the governor accepted the colors of captain palmer, and promised they should be set up at castle island. we had conferred over night with mr. cotton, &c., about the point. the governor, and mr. dudley, and mr. cotton, were of opinion that they might be set up at the fort upon this distinction, that it was maintained in the king's name. others, not being so persuaded, answered that the governor and mr. dudley, being two of the council, and being persuaded of the lawfulness, &c., might use their power to set them up. some others being not so persuaded, could not join in the act, yet would not oppose, as being doubtful, &c."[ ] [ ] winthrop's new england, vol. i. p. . "anno , mo. , .] the governor, with consent of mr. dudley, gave warrant to lieutenant morris, to spread the king's colors at castle island, when the ships passed by. it was done at the request of the masters of the ten ships which were then here; yet with this protestation, that we held the cross in the ensign idolatrous, and, therefore, might not set it up in our own ensigns; but this being kept as the king's fort, the governor and some others were of opinion that his own colors might be spread upon it. the colors were given us by captain palmer, and the governor, in requital, sent him three beaver-skins."[ ] [ ] winthrop's new england, vol. ii. p. . the following order of the court of massachusetts, leads us to conclude that these colors, or those containing the king's arms, were continued in use until they were likely to bring the colony under the displeasure of the parliament of england, which, in arms against the king, used the red cross flag, or st. george's banner. we then find the colony of massachusetts giving orders on this matter as follows:-- "massachusetts records, .[ ] "forasmuch as the court conceives the old english colors now used by the parliament of england to be a necessary badge of distinction betwixt the english and other nations in all places of the world, till the state of england shall alter the same, which we much desire, we being of the same nation, have, therefore, ordered that the captain of the castle shall presently advance the aforesaid colors of england upon the castle upon all necessary occasions." [ ] hazard, vol. i. p. . these extracts show the importance attached to _colors_ in those times. [illustration: pl. ii. this question, and indeed all questions, as to the flags to be used both at sea and land by the subjects of great britain, and the dominions thereunto belonging, were, however, set at rest, by the st article of the treaty of union between scotland and england, from which fact the flags then prescribed were called _union flags_. "act of parliament ratifying and approving the treaty of the two kingdoms of scotland and england, jan. , ." "i. article. that the two kingdoms of scotland and england shall, upon the first day of may next, ensuing the date hereof, and forever after, be united into one kingdom by the name of great britain; and that the ensigns armorial of the said united kingdom be such as her majesty shall appoint; and the crosses of st. andrew and st. george be conjoined in such manner as her majesty shall think fit, and used in _all_ flags, banners, standards, and ensigns, both at sea and land."[ ] [ ] history of the union of scotland and england, by danl. de foe, p. . under the head of union jack, we have shown how these crosses were conjoined. we now give a portion of the proclamation of july , , referred to in that account of the union jack. "by the queen: proclamation. "declaring what ensigns and colors shall be borne at sea in merchant ships, and vessels belonging to any of her majesty's subjects of great britain, and the dominions thereunto belonging. "anne r. "whereas, by the first article of the treaty of union, as the same hath been ratified and approved by several acts of parliament, the one made in our parliament of england, and the other in our parliament of scotland, it was provided and agreed that the ensigns armorial of our kingdom of great britain be such as we should appoint, and the crosses of st. george and st. andrew conjoined in such manner as we should think fit, and used in all flags, banners, standards, and ensigns, both at sea and land, we have therefore thought fit, by, and with the advice of our privy council, to order and appoint the ensign described on the side or margent hereof [see fig. , plate i.], to be worn on board of all ships or vessels belonging to any of our subjects whatsoever; and to issue this, our royal proclamation, to notify the same to all our loving subjects, hereby strictly charging and commanding the masters of all merchant ships and vessels belonging to any of our subjects, whether employed in our service or otherwise, and all other persons whom it may concern, to wear the said ensign on board their ships and vessels. and whereas, divers of our subjects have presumed, on board their ships, to wear our flags, jacks, and pendants, which, according to ancient usage, have been appointed to a distinction for our ships, and many times thinking to avoid the punishment due for the same, have worn flags, jacks, and pendants in shape and mixture of colors, so little different from ours, as not without difficulty to be distinguished therefrom, which practice has been found attended with manifold inconveniences: for prevention of the same for the future, we do, therefore, with the advice of our privy council, hereby strictly charge and command all our subjects whatsoever, that they do not presume to wear on any of their ships or vessels, our jack, commonly called the union jack, nor any pendants, nor any such colors as are usually borne by our ships without particular warrant for their so doing from us, or our high admiral of great britain, or the commissioners for executing the office of high admiral for the time being; and do hereby further command all our loving subjects, that, without such warrant as aforesaid, they presume not to wear on board their ships or vessels, any flags, jacks, pendants, or colors, made in imitation of ours, or any kind of pendant, whatsoever, or any other ensign, than the ensign described in the side or margent hereof, which shall be worn instead of the ensign before this time usually worn in merchant vessels. saving that, for the better distinction of such ships as shall have commissions of letters of mart or reprisals against the enemy, and any other ships or vessels which may be employed by principal officers and commissioners of our navy, the principal officers of our ordnance, the commissioners for victualling our navy, the commissioners for our customs, and the commissioners for transportation for our service--relating particularly to those offices our royal will and pleasure is, that all such ships as have commissions of letters of mart and reprisals, shall, besides the colors or ensign hereby appointed to be worn by merchant ships, wear a red jack, with a union jack described in a canton at the upper corner thereof, next the staff [see fig. , plate ii.], and that such ships and vessels as shall be employed for our service by the principal officers and commissioners of our navy, &c. [same enumeration as before], shall wear a red jack with a union jack in a canton at the upper corner thereof, next the staff, as aforesaid; and in the other part of the said jack, shall be described the seal used in such of the respective offices aforesaid, by which the said ships and vessels shall be employed. [this flag was the same as fig. , plate ii., except the seal of the office by which employed.] and we do strictly charge and command, &c., (and the residue orders, seizure of vessels not obeying this proclamation, by wearing other ensigns, &c., and to return the names of such ships and vessels, and orders strict inquiry into any violation of the proclamation, and then directs it to take effect in the channel or british seas and in the north sea, after twelve days from the date of the proclamation, and from the mouth of the channel unto cape st. vincent after six weeks from the date, and beyond the cape, and on this side the equinoctial line, as well in the ocean and mediterranean as elsewhere, after ten weeks from the date, and beyond the line, after the space of eight months from the date of these presents.) "given at our court at windsor, the th day of july, in the sixth year of our reign.[ ] "god save the queen." [ ] the boston news letter, no. , from monday, jan. , to monday, jan. , . in a description of boston harbor, in , thirteen years after the date of this proclamation, we learn that, "to prevent any possible surprise from an enemy, there is a light-house built on a rock appearing above water, about three long leagues from the town, which, in time of war, makes a signal to the castle, and the castle to the town, by hoisting and lowering the union flag so many times as there are ships approaching."[ ] [ ] neal's history of new england, p. . after having given the first article of the treaty, and the above proclamation, this description is only useful as proving that the term "union flag" was the familiar one applied to describe the flags established under the union, as well in the colonies as the mother country, and explains the following note in frothingham's _siege of boston_. frothingham says: "in , there are frequent notices of union flags in the newspapers, but i have not met with any description of the devices on them."[ ] after the history of union flags already given, this will not appear surprising; for who, in our day, speaking of the "stars and stripes," would pause to describe its devices. we, however, are inclined to the opinion that the flags spoken of in the newspapers, referred to by mr. frothingham, were the ensigns described in the proclamation of queen anne, as being the common ensign of the commercial marine of "great britain, and the dominions thereof." for, as such, they must have been more easily procurable than the union jacks, and more familiar to the people, and therefore would appeal with most force to the popular sentiment. [ ] siege of boston, p. , note. that this was the case in the colony of new york, we learn from the following: "in march, , 'a union flag with a red field' was hoisted at new york upon the liberty-pole, bearing the inscription 'george rex, and the liberties of america,' and, upon the reverse, 'no popery.'"[ ] with the exception of the mottoes, this was the same flag as is represented, fig. , plate i. [ ] t. westcott, notes and queries. literary world, oct. , . frothingham gives us to understand that they were displayed on liberty-poles and on the famous "liberty tree" on boston common. in this connection, we will quote a few lines from a letter, dated philadelphia, december , , to show the temper of the public mind at that time, and to indicate the name given to the colonies, whose flag we are now about to consider. "to the people of north america: "philadelphia, december , . "those who have the general welfare of the united english colonies in north america sincerely at heart, who wish to see peace restored, and her liberties established on a solid foundation, may, at present, be divided into two classes, viz.: those who 'look forward to an independency as the only state in which they can perceive any security for our liberties and privileges,' and those who 'think it not impossible that britain and america may yet be united.' "if the present struggle should end in the total independence of america, which is not impossible, every one will acknowledge the necessity of framing what may be called the 'constitution of the united english colonies.' if, on the other hand, it should terminate in a reunion with great britain, there yet appears so evident a necessity of such a constitution that every good man must desire it."[ ] [ ] american archives, th series, vol. iv. p. . this letter shows the importance the union of the colonies, lately entered into, held in the mind of the public. prior to its being entered into, its necessity was thus forcibly indicated to the public mind. the newspapers commonly bore the device of a disjointed snake, represented as divided into thirteen portions. each portion bearing the initials of one of the colonies, and under it the motto, "join, or die." thus impressed, we can readily perceive how naturally they seized upon the flag in use in the mother country and its dominions, as an emblem of union among the members of that mother country, to indicate the necessity of it among the colonies, and, by displaying it from liberty-poles, &c., indicated the object for which union was necessary, viz.: to secure the liberty of british subjects. the first authentic account of the display of the union flag, as the flag of the united colonies, is from the pen of general washington, in a letter addressed to colonel joseph reed, his military secretary. "cambridge, january , . "dear sir: we are at length favored with a sight of his majesty's most gracious speech, breathing sentiments of tenderness and compassion for his deluded american subjects. the echo is not yet come to hand, but we know what it must be; and, as lord north said (and we ought to have believed and acted accordingly), we now know the ultimatum of british justice. the speech i send you. a volume of them was sent out by the boston gentry; and, farcical enough, we gave great joy to them, without knowing or intending it; for, on that day, the day which gave being to the new army, but before the proclamation came to hand, we had hoisted the union flag in compliment to the united colonies. but, behold! it was received in boston as a token of the deep impression the speech had made upon us, and as a signal of submission. so we hear, by a person out of boston, last night. by this time, i presume, they begin to think it strange that we have not made a formal surrender of our lives." [from _philadelphia gazette_], note to the above, in _american archives_. "philadelphia, january , . "our advices conclude with the following anecdote: that, upon the king's speech arriving at boston, a great number of them were reprinted and sent out to our lines on the d of january, which, being also the day of forming the new army, the great union flag was hoisted on prospect hill, in compliment to the united colonies. this happening soon after the speeches were delivered at roxbury, but before they were received at cambridge, the boston gentry supposed it to be a token of the deep impression the speech had made, and a signal of submission. that they were much disappointed at finding several days elapse without some formal measure leading to a surrender, with which they had begun to flatter themselves." we observe, in general washington's letter, that the americans, "farcical enough," "without knowing or intending it," led the boston gentry to imagine them about to surrender, because a union flag was displayed, which was only displayed in compliment to the united colonies on the day the army, organized under the orders of congress, _subsequent_ to the union of the thirteen colonies, came into being. and, in the extract from the newspaper account of this, that the flag was displayed on prospect hill, and that it must have been a peculiarly marked union flag, to be called the great union flag. as this was the name given to the national banner of great britain, this indicates this flag as the national banner of the united colonies. lieutenant carter, a british officer, very naturally explains both these circumstances. he was on charlestown heights, and says: january , : "the king's speech was sent by a flag to them on the st inst. in a short time after they received it, they hoisted an union flag (above the continental with thirteen stripes) at mount pisgah; their citadel fired thirteen guns, and gave the like number of cheers."[ ] [ ] siege of boston, p. . this account of the flag, from lieut. carter, is corroborated by the following from the captain of an english transport, to his owners in london, when taken in connection with the extract subjoined to it, taken from the _british annual register_ for . the captain writes:-- "boston, jan. , . "i can see the rebels' camp very plain, whose colors, a little while ago, were entirely red; but, on the receipt of the king's speech (which they burnt), they have hoisted the union flag, which is here supposed to intimate the union of the provinces."[ ] [ ] american archives, th series, vol. iv. p. . the _annual register_ says: "the arrival of a copy of the king's speech, with an account of the fate of the petition from the continental congress, is said to have excited the greatest degree of rage and indignation among them; as a proof of which, the former was publicly burnt in the camp; and they are said, on this occasion, to have changed their colors from a plain red ground, which they had hitherto used, to a flag with thirteen stripes, as a symbol of the number and union of the colonies."[ ] [ ] british annual register, , p. . we have already shown that the first flag spoken of in both the above accounts (flag no. ) in our table, bore certain mottoes; and not being precise in the description of the flag, which for months had been displayed before their eyes, we may expect inaccuracies in the description of a flag newly presented to them, and which, even to an officer on charlestown heights, who, as appears, was at some pains to describe it, appeared to be _two_ flags; and remembering that this flag was supposed to be displayed on the receipt of the king's speech, the following account of the colors of british regiments explains why it was especially regarded by the british as a token of submission. "the kings, or _first_ color of every regiment, is to be the great union throughout. "the _second_ color is to be the color of the facing of the regiment, with the union in the upper canton, except those regiments which are faced with red, white, or black. "the first standard, guidon, or color of regiments of the line, is not to be carried by any guard but that of the king, queen, prince of wales, commander-in-chief, or admiral of the fleet, being of the royal family; and, except in those cases, it is always to remain with the regiment."[ ] [ ] king's regulations for the british army, colors, &c. from the above we see that, to the mind of a british officer, the union flag, supposed to have been displayed in connection with the receipt of the king's speech, above a flag with thirteen stripes, would indicate an acknowledgment of the supremacy of the king over the united colonies, supposed to be represented in the thirteen stripes. without further proof, therefore, we may conclude that the "union" flag, displayed by general washington, was the union of the crosses of st. george and st. andrew, with thirteen stripes through the field of the flag. (see fig. , plate ii.) on the evacuation of boston by the british, this standard was, on the entrance of the american army into boston, carried by ensign richards.[ ] [ ] american archives, th series, vol. v. p. . while we may fairly infer from general washington's letter, that this emblem of union had presented itself to his mind as such, we may also infer from his not describing its accompanying devices, to mark the compliment to the united colonies, that he supposed colonel joseph reed, his military secretary, fully acquainted with them; and from this we may conclude colonel reed had something to do with its preparation. this conclusion is strengthened by the fact, that colonel joseph reed was secretary to the committee of conference sent by congress to arrange with general washington the details of the organization of the army, which went into being january , . and, at the very time that committee was in session at the camp at cambridge, we find colonel reed having the subject of flags under consideration. to the reply to a letter written by him at that time, we may possibly trace the origin of the use of a modification of the british ensign, a drawing of which is given under queen anne's proclamation before quoted, as the flag of the united colonies. and we shall give good reasons to conclude that this modification consisted in applying to its red field a sufficient number of white stripes, to divide the whole into thirteen stripes, alternate red and white, as above shown; and we will show the propriety of this by establishing the fact that a _stripe_ was the badge of rank in the ununiformed army that assembled about boston in defence of liberty. colonel joseph reed, secretary to the committee of conference from congress, and military secretary of general washington, the committee being then in session, wrote, october , : "please fix upon some particular color for a flag and a signal by which our vessels may know one another.[ ] what do you think of a flag with a white ground, a tree in the middle, the motto, 'appeal to heaven?' this is the flag of our floating batteries." to which colonels glover and moylan replied, october , : "that as broughton and selman, who sailed that morning, had none but their old colors, they had appointed the signal by which they could be known by their friends to be 'the ensign up to the maintopping lift."[ ] [ ] from this, we may justly conclude that the committee of conference, composed of dr. franklin, mr. lynch, and mr. harrison, had the subject of the flag under consideration, and that the flag prepared under their supervision was the one displayed as the flag of the united colonies, on the day the army organized by them, general washington, &c., went into being. [ ] siege of boston, p. . this ensign, which is called their "old colors," must have been the ensign spoken of and described in queen anne's proclamation. (see fig. , plate i.) since we have seen _one_ ensign prescribed , for the merchant ships and vessels of great britain, and the dominions thereunto belonging, and that no change was made until . this being the case, the ensign of the colonial cruisers, inasmuch as they were armed merchant vessels, must have been the british ensign displayed at the maintopping lift. there were several reasons for this; the most forcible of which were, that it being usual to have no special place for the display of the national ensign at sea, but the custom being to exhibit it in such part of the vessel from which it could be most conveniently observed by the strange sail (on which occasion only it was worn at sea), to adopt a particular place for its display would be to give it a new character; one peculiarly happy for the then state of affairs, as it would betray the _english_ transports to the colonial cruisers, and would not betray the _colonial_ cruisers to the british ships of war, as "the maintopping lift" must have been such a position as would not attract the attention of those not in the secret. this reply of the gentlemen charged with the continental or colonial cruisers, would readily have suggested a modification of the british ensign for the ensign of the united colonies of north america; for the transition, in the adoption of a flag, from a particular place for the display of a particular flag, to some modification of the same flag, was both natural and easy; especially, as a slight modification of this flag would enable them to indicate the number of colonies, while the emblem of union would happily indicate the union of those colonies, and at the same time would have justified them in saying, in their address of december , , "allegiance to our king. our words have ever avowed it, our conduct has ever been in keeping with it," as having acknowledged their dependence on the mother country, even in the flag with which they were to struggle against her. before we proceed to consider the origin of the stripes, we shall give an account of the same flag as displayed on the fleet fitted out at philadelphia about this time, so as to fix, beyond a doubt, this emblem of _union_. as a preliminary, we will give a short extract of the sailing orders given to benedict arnold's fleet,[ ] when he set out on his expedition to canada. they may be found at length in major meigs's journal of that expedition. [ ] mass. historical collections, d series, vol. ii. p. . " st signal." "for speaking with the whole fleet, _ensign_ at maintopmast head." " d signal." "for chasing a sail, ensign at foretopmast head." " th signal." "for boarding any vessel, jack at maintopmast head, and the whole fleet to draw up in a line as near as possible." the jack, or union, or union jack, as it was and is called, was and is, to this day, in the navy of great britain, the flag of the admiral of the fleet; and was probably, as such, worn by the vessel of the commander-in-chief of this expedition, and its use probably suggested the adoption of a standard for the commander-in-chief of the first american fleet, flag no. , in our table. the date of sailing of the above fleet was sept. , , before the letter of colonels glover and moylan, speaking of the "old colors," was written (the date of the latter was oct. , ), and the use of the terms jack and ensign strengthens the conclusion that the term "old colors" meant british colors, for we shall find, in the orders of the first american fleet, that the ensign and jack are called the striped ensign and jack. in this connection, we give a few extracts from the sailing orders of the first american fleet, "given the several captains in the fleet, at sailing from the capes of delaware, feb. , ."[ ] [ ] american archives, th series, vol. iv. p. . "sir: you are hereby ordered to keep company with me, if possible, and truly observe the signals given by the ship i am in." "in case you are in any very great danger of being taken, you are to destroy these orders and your signals." signals for the american fleet by day. "for chasing: for the whole fleet to chase, a red pennant at the foretopmast head." we have already said that, since the time of the romans, a red flag has been the signal to prepare for battle. "for seeing a strange vessel: hoist the ensign, and lower and hoist it as many times as you see vessels, allowing two minutes between each time." supposing this _ensign_ to be a union flag, observe the similarity between this signal and that for the lighthouse and castle in boston harbor in ; "the lighthouse," as we have already stated, "in time of war makes a signal to the castle, and the castle to the town, by hoisting and lowering the union flag so many times as there are ships approaching." "for the providence to chase: a st. george's ensign with stripes at the mizzen peak." "for a general attack, or the whole fleet to engage, the standard at the maintopmast head, with the _striped_ jack and ensign at their proper places." now let us look at some of the descriptions of the colors of this fleet, both by american and british writers. sailing of the first american fleet. "newbern, north carolina, february , . "by a gentleman from philadelphia, we have received the pleasing account of the actual sailing from that place of the first american fleet that ever swelled their sails on the western ocean, &c. "this fleet consists of five sail, fitted out from philadelphia, which are to be joined at the capes of virginia by two more ships from maryland, and is commanded by admiral hopkins, a most experienced and venerable sea captain." "they sailed from philadelphia amidst the acclamations of thousands assembled on the joyful occasion, under the display of a union flag, with thirteen stripes in the field, emblematical of the thirteen united colonies."[ ] [ ] american archives, th series, vol. iv. p. . and the following extract from a letter, dated new providence, west indies, of which island admiral hopkins took prisoner the governor, &c.[ ] [ ] ibid. vol. v. p. . this letter was kindly furnished by colonel peter force, editor of the _american archives_, and may be found in the _london ladies' magazine_, vol. vii. july , p. . "new providence, may , . "the colors of the american fleet were striped under the _union_, with thirteen strokes, called the united colonies, and their standard, a rattlesnake; motto--'don't tread on me.'" the following extract was furnished by the same gentleman, to whom i cannot too warmly return my thanks for the facilities and assistance he has afforded me. "williamsburg, va., april , . "the roebuck [a british cruiser] has taken two prizes in delaware bay, which she decoyed within her reach, by hoisting a _continental union flag_." reference to this letter not obtained, but in support of its correctness, see affidavit of mr. barry, master's mate, ship grace, captured by the roebuck, to be found in the _pennsylvania evening post_, june , , vol. ii. no. . it is unnecessary to multiply proof on this subject. the term _union_, in these accounts, both by american and british writers, at sea and land, by the interpretation we give it, explains and harmonizes all of them. we therefore proceed to consider the other and what may be called the distinctive devices--we mean the stripes on this continental union flag. under the head of ensign (_brande's dictionary_), we are told: "men of war carry a red, white, or blue ensign, according to the color of the flag of the admiral." by the st article of the union between england and scotland, we have seen that the ensigns, both "at sea and land," were to embody the union of the crosses of st. george and st. andrew conjoined; hence the colors, red, white, &c., only apply to the field of the ensign. in the extract from the king's regulations for the british army, we have shown that the ensign of the different regiments differed in color according as the facings of the uniforms of the particular regiments to which they belonged differed. we have seen, in the crusades, the different nations were distinguished by different colored crosses on their surcoats, from which the particular colored cross was transferred to the national banners of at least scotland and england. here the striking distinction was color. the same practice prevailed at the time of the revolution in the colonies.--see the proceedings of the provincial congress of connecticut, "july , . one standard for each regiment, distinguished by their color, as follows, viz.: for the seventh, blue; for the eighth, orange."[ ] [ ] american archives, th series, vol. ii. p. . with this practice of nations, then, before them, and evidently applied by them, viz.: that of applying some badge of distinction in use in their armies to their national banner, combined with that of indicating different portions of their armies by different colors for their flags; and of two nations, when uniting, adopting as a common ensign something to indicate their union, and still preserve the original banners (both as to devices and color), under which they had respectively achieved signal triumphs, especially as this last example was that of the mother country, we may expect to see the colonies carrying out this practice in their union flag. they were british colonies: and, as we have shown, they used the british union, but now, they were to distinguish their flag by its color from other british ensigns, preserve a trace of the colors under which they had previously fought with success, and, at the same time, represent this combination in some form peculiar to themselves. the mode of distinction by color could not well be applied by the united colonies in a single color, as the simpler and most striking were exhausted in application to british ensigns; but, if applied, must have been used in a complex form or combination of colors. this being the case, stripes of color would naturally be suggested as being striking, as enabling them to show the number and union of the colonies, _as preserving the colors of the flags previously used by them_; and also the badge of distinction, which, at the time of the adoption of this flag, marked the different grades in the ununiformed army before boston. hence, probably, the name, _the great union flag_, given to it by the writer in the _philadelphia gazette_, before quoted, doubtless colonel joseph reed, inasmuch as this flag indicated, as respected the colonies, precisely what the great union flag of great britain indicated respecting the mother country. the only point that now remains for us to establish is, that a stripe or ribbon was the badge in common use in the army of the colonists before boston. in proof of this, we quote the following extracts from the orders of general washington. "head-quarters, cambridge, july , . ("countersign, inverness. parole, halifax.) "there being something awkward as well as improper in the general officers being stopped at the outposts, asked for passes by the sentries, and obliged, often, to send for the officer of the guard (who, it frequently happens, is as much unacquainted with the persons of the generals as the private men), before they can pass in or out, it is recommended to both officers and men, to make themselves acquainted with the persons of all officers in general command, and, in the mean time, to prevent mistakes, the general officers and their aides-de-camp will be distinguished in the following manner: the commander-in-chief, by a light blue ribbon worn across his breast, between his coat and waistcoat; the majors and brigadiers general by a pink ribbon worn in like manner; the aides-de-camp, by a green ribbon."[ ] [ ] american archives, th series, vol. ii. p. . "head-quarters, cambridge, july , . ("parole, brunswick. countersign, princeton.) "as the continental army have unfortunately no uniforms, and consequently many inconveniences must arise from not being able always to distinguish the commissioned officers from the non-commissioned, and the non-commissioned from the privates, it is desired that some badges of distinction may be immediately provided; for instance, the field officers may have red or pink colored cockades in their hats, the captains yellow or buff, and the subalterns green. they are to furnish themselves accordingly. the sergeants may be distinguished by an epaulette or stripe of red cloth sewed upon the right shoulder, the corporals by one of green."[ ] [ ] american archives, th series, vol. ii. p. . "head-quarters, cambridge, july , . ("parole, salisbury. countersign, cumberland.) "it being thought proper to distinguish the majors from brigadiers general, by some particular mark for the future, the majors general will wear a broad purple ribbon." having thus established the use of the stripe as a badge of distinction, we have completed our proofs in reference to the union flag displayed by general washington before boston, january , . and to perceive how simple and natural is the deduction of the ensign of the army and fleet of the united english colonies of north america, from the national ensign of great britain, it is only necessary to compare fig. , plate i. and fig. , plate ii. having made some observations in reference to the mottoes on several of the flags given in our table, we would now invite attention to the religious character of those on the colonial flags, viz.: _qui transtulit sustinet_, and an "appeal to heaven." in the famous effort of colonial vigor, which, resulting in the capture of louisburg, surprised the world in , we learn, from belknap's _history of new hampshire_, vol ii. p. , that the flag used bore the motto, _nil desperandum christo duce_. a motto furnished by the celebrated george whitfield. this last flag, under the treaty of union, must have been an union flag, probably, similar to the british ensign above given, or perhaps with a white field, to which color the new england people were partial (see the colors of the massachusetts cruisers, flag no. , in our table), with the motto above given inscribed on the field. may we not conclude that, when the flags embodying such mottoes were dispensed with, some reference to them would still be preserved, as would be the case by preserving in the flag which replaced them the colors of the flags laid aside? the rattlesnake union flag. the letter previously quoted, dated new providence, may , , says: "and their standard, a rattlesnake;" motto--"don't tread on me." this _standard_ is thus described, viz.:-- "in congress, february , . "colonel gadsden presented to the congress an elegant standard, such as is to be used by the commander-in-chief of the american navy, being a yellow field, with a lively representation of a rattlesnake in the middle, in the attitude of going to strike, and the words underneath, 'don't tread on me.'[ ] "_ordered_, that the said standard be carefully preserved and suspended in the congress room." [ ] american archives, th series, vol. v. p. . south carolina provincial congress. before i proceed, i shall offer one or two remarks on this device of the rattlesnake, to show that it also, as well as the british crosses, was an emblem of union, and that it was seized upon as one _then_ (december, ) in use, and familiar. in , in the _philadelphia gazette_, when benjamin franklin was editor of that paper, an article appeared, urging _union_ among the colonies as a means of insuring safety from attacks of the french. this article closed with a wood-cut of a snake divided into parts, with the initials of one colony on each division, and the motto, "join, or die," underneath, in capital letters.[ ] (see fig. , plate ii.) [ ] franklin's works, vol. iii. p. . when union among the colonies was urged, in - , as a mode of securing their liberties, this device, a disjointed snake, divided into _thirteen_ parts, with the initials of a colony on each division, and the motto, "join, or die," was adopted as the head-piece of many of the newspapers. when the union of the colonies took place, this was changed, for the head-pieces of the newspapers, into the device adopted on the standard, viz.: a rattlesnake in the attitude of going to strike, and into an _united_ snake. (under both forms of this device, was the motto, "don't tread on me.") the seal of the war department is the only public instrument in use, exhibiting evidence of the rattlesnake's having played an important part as a device in the american revolution. the old seal of , and the more modern seal now in use, both bear the rattlesnake (with its rattles as the emblem of union), and a _liberty cap_ in contiguity with it; the _liberty cap_ enveloped by the body, so that the opened mouth may defend the _rattles_, and liberty cap, or _union_ and liberty, with the motto, "this we'll defend." (see fig. , plate ii.) the following account of this device, supposed to be from the pen of benjamin franklin, indicates fully why it was adopted, and will be found in the _american archives_, vol. iv. p. . "philadelphia, december , . "i observe on one of the drums belonging to the marines now raising, there was painted a rattlesnake, with this motto under it, 'don't tread on me.' as i know it is the custom to have some device on the arms of every country, i suppose this may have been intended for the arms of america; and, as i have nothing to do with public affairs, and as my time is perfectly my own, in order to divert an idle hour, i sat down to guess what could have been intended by this uncommon device. i took care, however, to consult, on this occasion, a person who is acquainted with heraldry, from whom i learned that it is a rule, among the learned in that science, 'that the worthy properties of the animal, in the crest-born, shall be considered;' he likewise informed me that the ancients considered the serpent as an emblem of wisdom; and, in a certain attitude, of endless duration--both which circumstances, i suppose, may have been had in view. having gained this intelligence, and recollecting that countries 'are sometimes represented by animals peculiar to them,' it occurred to me that the rattlesnake is found in no other quarter of the world beside america, and may, therefore, have been chosen on that account to represent her. "but then, 'the worthy properties' of a snake, i judged, would be hard to point out. this rather raised than suppressed my curiosity, and having frequently seen the rattlesnake, i ran over in my mind every property by which she was distinguished, not only from other animals, but from those of the same genus or class of animals, endeavoring to fix some meaning to each, not wholly inconsistent with common sense. "i recollected that her eye excelled in brightness that of any other animal, and that she has no eye-lids. she may, therefore, be esteemed an emblem of vigilance. she never begins an attack, nor, when once engaged, ever surrenders. she is, therefore, an emblem of magnanimity and true courage. as if anxious to prevent all pretensions of quarrelling with her, the weapons with which nature has furnished her she conceals in the roof of her mouth; so that, to those who are unacquainted with her, she appears to be a defenceless animal; and even when those weapons are shown and extended for defence, they appear weak and contemptible; but their wounds, however small, are decisive and fatal. conscious of this, she never wounds till she has generously given notice, even to her enemy, and cautioned him against the danger of treading on her. was i wrong sir, in thinking this a strong picture of the temper and conduct of america? "the poison of her teeth is the necessary means of digesting her food, and at the same time is certain destruction to her enemies. this may be understood to intimate that those things which are destructive to our enemies, may be to us not only harmless, but absolutely necessary to our existence. i confess i was wholly at a loss what to make of the rattles, till i went back and counted them; and found them just thirteen, exactly the number of the colonies united in america; and i recollected, too, that this was the only part of the snake which increased in number. "perhaps it might be only fancy, but i conceited the painter had shown a half-formed additional rattle; which, i suppose, may have been intended to represent the province of canada. 'tis curious and amazing to observe how distinct and independent of each other the rattles of this animal are, and yet how firmly they are united together, so as never to be separated but by breaking them to pieces. one of these rattles singly is incapable of producing sound; but the ringing of thirteen together is sufficient to alarm the boldest man living. the rattlesnake is solitary, and associates with her kind only, when it is necessary for their preservation. in winter, the warmth of a number together will preserve their lives: while, singly, they would probably perish. the power of fascination attributed to her, by a generous construction, may be understood to mean, that those who consider the liberty and blessings which america affords, and once come over to her, never afterwards leave her, but spend their lives with her. she strongly resembles america in this, that she is beautiful in her youth, and her beauty increaseth with her age, 'her tongue also is blue, and forked as the lightning, and her abode is among impenetrable rocks.' "having pleased myself with reflections of this kind, i communicated my sentiments to a neighbor of mine, who has a surprising readiness at guessing at everything which relates to public affairs; and indeed, i should be jealous of his reputation in that way, was it not that the event constantly shows that he has guessed wrong. he instantly declared it as his sentiments, that the congress meant to allude to lord north's declaration in the house of commons, that he never would relax his measures until he had brought america to his feet; and to intimate to his lordship, that if she was brought to his feet, it would be dangerous treading on her. but, i am positive he has guessed wrong, for i am sure that congress would not condescend, at this time of day, to take the least notice of his lordship, in that or any other way. in which opinion, i am determined to remain, your humble servant." the yellow flag, with the rattlesnake in the middle, and the words underneath, "don't tread on me," (see fig. , plate ii.,) the standard for the commander-in-chief of the american navy, was probably the flag referred to by paul jones, in his journal. paul jones was commissioned first of the first lieutenants in the continental navy. "this commission, under the united colonies, is dated the th of december, , as first lieutenant of the alfred. on board that ship, before philadelphia, mr. jones hoisted the flag of america, with his own hands, the first time it was ever displayed, as the commander-in-chief embarked on board the alfred." (page , _life and correspondence of paul jones_.) from the foregoing account, it will be perceived that the first flag adopted by the army of the colonists before boston, was a red flag, with the mottoes, _qui transtulit sustinet_, and "an appeal to heaven." by the combination of these mottoes, the union of massachusetts and connecticut, in defence of their outraged liberties, was doubtless intimated; and, taken in connection with those mottoes, the color of the flag indicated that, trusting in the god of battles, they defied the power of the mother country. about this time, too, the floating batteries, the germ of the navy subsequently organized, bore a white flag, with a green pine-tree, and the motto, "appeal to heaven." these flags were adopted before the union of the _thirteen_ colonies was effected. after that union, and upon the organization of the army and fleet, these flags were supplanted by one calculated to show to the world the union of the north american colonies among themselves, and as an integral part of the british empire, and as such demanding the rights and liberties of british subjects. and a flag combining the crosses of st. george and st. andrew united (the distinctive emblem of the united kingdom of great britain), with a field composed of thirteen stripes, alternate red and white, the combination of the flags previously used in the camp, on the cruisers, and the floating batteries of the colonies, was adopted for this purpose, and called the great union flag. the union implied both the union of the colonies represented in the striped field, which was dependent upon it, and the nationality of those colonies. the thirteen stripes, alternate red and white, constituting the field of the flag, represented the body of that union, the number of the members which composed it, as well as the union of the flags, which had preceded this great union flag. we assume that the colors of those stripes were alternate red and white, inasmuch as those were the colors in the first flag of the united states, and we presume no change, not absolutely necessary, was made, in altering the flag of the united colonies to that of the united states. there is no evidence of their being of that color, except the universally received tradition that such was the case. the colors of those stripes, alternate red and white, indicated on the part of the colonies, thus represented as united, the defiance to oppression, symbolized by the red color of the flag of the army, and red field of the flag of the continental cruisers together, with the purity implied by the white flag of the floating batteries, of which the motto was, "appeal to heaven." lest these conclusions should seem far fetched, we would again advert to the fact, that in the present union, or national flag of the united kingdom of great britain and ireland, not only are the crosses of st. george, st. andrew, and st. patrick united, but the colors of the fields of the banners of st. george, of england, st. andrew, of scotland, and st. patrick, of ireland, are preserved. in the case of the colonies, everything that tended to call to mind previous triumphs would have been studiously preserved, and the red and white flags were identified with the successes of bunker hill, (for tradition says the flag on that occasion was red, and that a whig told general gage that the motto was, "come, if you dare,")[ ] and the various successes of the siege of boston, prior to jan. , . [ ] frothingham's siege of boston. the use of the stripes, besides indicating the union of the above flags, for the purpose before indicated, would, as a badge of distinction for the great union flag of the colonies, have carried the minds of those who were marshalled under it back to the moment when the tocsin of war sounded at lexington--called them, "generals" as well as "private men,"--in the garbs in which they were pursuing their peaceful avocations, to arms in defence of liberty. and we of the present day should regard them as hallowed, by having been employed by general washington as the first step towards introducing subordination into the army, which achieved our independence. in those stripes we may perceive the necessity indicated of the subordination of each state to the union, while their equality under the union is also intimated, by there being nothing to indicate that any particular state was represented by any particular stripe. there being seven red stripes, doubtless arose from that being the color of the principal flags represented in the combination of colors, for certainly the flags of the army and cruisers must have had pre-eminence over that of the floating batteries. the striped union flag was the colonial colors, both at sea and land, but there was also, as we have seen, a standard such as was used by the commander-in-chief of the american navy, being a yellow field, with a lively representation of a rattlesnake in the middle, in the attitude of going to strike, and the words underneath, "don't tread on me." the color of the snake, as represented, was dark. this circumstance goes strongly to prove the correctness of our conclusion, that the example of the mother country was followed in the preparation of the flags of this period--for the quarantine flag of the mother country was a _yellow_ flag with a dark spot, a representation of the plague-spot in the middle--those colors were, doubtless, chosen for the rattlesnake flag, to indicate the deadly character of the venom of the rattlesnake, and the danger of treading on it. but we have before stated that the rattlesnake first appeared as a snake divided into thirteen parts, each part marked with the initials of the colony to which it corresponded, and beneath them the motto, "join, or die," indicating the necessity of union. and that, the union being effected, the initials on the parts were dropped (thus indicating the equality of the colonies under the union), and the parts were united in the form indicated in this standard, and beneath it the words, "don't tread on me," implying the consciousness of strength derived from that union, of which, we have seen, the rattlesnake was an emblem indigenous to america, while at the same time the serpent implies eternal duration. this, then, may properly be called the rattlesnake union standard, and the other, the great union, or striped union flag; and together they indicated that existence as a people was inseparable from union--the strength resulting from that union--the necessary subordination of each colony to the whole union, the intimate connection of the colonies composing the union, their equality and perpetuity under it, and the power of fascination in the union and harmony in the colonies, which would draw everybody to america, and cause those who had once tasted the liberty and blessings she enjoys, never to leave her, but to "spend their lives with her." having thus described the flags of the united colonies, and shown that they were emblematic of union, and hence called union flags, in imitation of the prevailing custom of the mother country, we now proceed to consider the flag of the united states, described in the following resolution of congress, passed june , :-- "_resolved_, that the flag of the thirteen united states be thirteen stripes, alternate red and white: that the union be thirteen stars, white in a blue field, representing a new constellation." this resolution was made public september , ; and colonel trumbull represents the flag made in pursuance of it as used at burgoyne's surrender, october , . from the above resolution and what has preceded, it is apparent that the object of that resolution was simply to give the authorization of congress to a color existing, so far as the stripes and part of the flag called the union were concerned; but it is worthy of remark that the character of the new emblem for that union is specially described as representing "a new constellation." the use of some emblem of union different from the british crosses, the united states having declared themselves free and independent states, was eminently natural, but the description of the emblem substituted for them as "representing a new constellation," involves the idea that some constellation, in some way emblematic of union, had been presented to the minds of those adopting this resolution. it may be said that the adoption of a star, as the representative of a state, would naturally lead to the idea of a constellation; but, as the emblem to be altered was one of union, we are inclined to think that the first idea suggested was that of some constellation, which of itself implied union, and that the representation of a state by a star was involved in it. the question that now arises is, was there any constellation which implied union? the answer is, there was the constellation lyra. the next point is, to ascertain if the first flag displayed under this resolution bore that constellation. if not, in what form the stars were presented on that flag, and whether any connection can be traced between it and the constellation lyra. let us first consider the fitness of the constellation lyra to indicate union. in charles anthon's _dictionary of greek and roman antiquities_, we find the following account of the lyra. he says:-- "lyra. the latin name _fides_, which was used for a lyre as well as a cithara, is probably the same as the greek [greek: sphides], which, according to hesychius, signifies gut-strings; but festus takes it to be the same as _fides_ (faith), _because the lyre was the symbol of harmony and unity among men_." the quotation from the astronomicon of manilius, presented in the following letter from mr. charles francis adams, grandson of mr. john adams, confirms the attributes above ascribed to the lyre, and its corresponding constellation "lyra." quincy, may , . dear sir: your letter of the fourth came upon me unprepared to answer it without investigations, which i have ever since been hoping to pursue, but thus far in vain. not a moment has been at my command since i received it, and as i am now expecting every moment to depart for washington, i fear that i must give up all idea of doing more hereafter, at least in season for any object of yours. with the exception of a few letters to and from generals green, sullivan, parsons, and ward, there are no memorials remaining in my hands of my grandfather's services while chairman of the board of war. he had no time to copy or record papers, so that very few are left. i am not aware of the existence of any journal or other record of the action of the body, nor of any further history of it than is given in his lately published diary. i am, therefore, wholly unable to give you any light upon the question of the origin of the american colors. with regard to the other design, of the eagle, with the lyre on its breast, and the stars of the constellation lyra, i can only say that i possess the seal which was the original form in which the device was presented. there it has the motto, _nunc sidera ducit_, taken from the astronomicon of manilius, describing the effect of the lyre of orpheus, "at lyra diductis per coelum cornibus inter sidera conspicitur, qua quondam ceperat orpheus omne quod attigerat, cantu, manesque per ipsos fecit iter, domuit que infernas carmine leges. hinc coelestis honos, similisque potentia causæ: tunc silvas et saxa trahens, nunc sidera ducit, et rapit immensum mundi revolubilis orbem." ii. - . it is my opinion that, although this last line does not appear, my father had it in his mind when applying the device to the american passport, but i have not had the leisure to look for any explanation he may have himself left of it. his papers are voluminous, and i have barely as yet glanced at any part of their contents. this must be my apology for sending you so unsatisfactory a reply. i am, very respectfully, your obedient servant, (signed,) charles francis adams. the following is a translation of the above quotation:-- conspicuous among the stars, its horns wide spread over the heavens, is the lyre, with which orpheus was wont to captivate everything to which he addressed his song, and even made a journey through hades itself, and put to sleep the infernal laws. hence, its celestial honor; and, by the same power with which it then drew rocks and trees along, it now leads the stars, and _whirls along the immense orb of the revolving world_. this last line shows that the constellation lyra, as an emblem of union for the united states, would have been an amplification of the attribute of "fascination" ascribed to the rattlesnake, as an emblem of union for the united states, in the account we have already given of the rattlesnake as such, in describing the standard of the commander-in-chief of the american navy; for the constellation lyra would not only imply "that those who consider the liberty and blessings which america affords, and once come over to her, never afterwards leave her, but spend their lives with her," but that by their union and harmony the united states would "whirl along the immense orb of the revolving world," to follow their example in their forms of government. having thus shown how appropriate the constellation lyra would have been as an emblem of the union of the united states, we proceed to ascertain if the first flag displayed under the resolution of june , , bore that constellation. in trumbull's picture of the surrender of burgoyne, and peale's picture of washington, the thirteen stars are represented as arranged in a circle; it now remains to show the existence of some record exhibiting a connection between the constellation lyra and the circle of thirteen stars. we find this record on a form for a passport of the united states, prepared under mr. john quincy adams, when secretary of state, in , which form is now in use. in adopting the form in question, the arms of the united states, previously used on u.s. passports, were replaced by a circle of thirteen stars surrounding an eagle, holding in his beak the constellation lyra, and the motto, _nunc sidera ducit_. mr. w. j. stone, of washington city, gives the following account of the preparation of the device above described, and presented in the vignette to the title-page. in it, the constellation lyra is represented as radiating into a circle of thirteen stars. mount pleasant, washington city, may , . my dear sir: i find, on examination, that on the th of august, , i engraved for the department of state, by order of j. q. adams, secretary of state, a plate for a passport, at the head of which was a spread eagle, drawn to encompass the constellation lyra. the drawing was made by me, according to particular verbal directions given by mr. adams. i have a distinct recollection of having submitted the drawing to mr. adams, for approval, previous to engraving. very respectfully, your obedt. servt. (signed,) w. j. stone. had not this device been substituted, on the form for a united states passport, for the arms of the united states, by mr. john quincy adams, we should not consider the constellation lyra, radiating into a circle of thirteen stars, as having any special meaning; but as, at the time the circle of thirteen stars was introduced into the flag of the united states as an emblem of union, his father, mr. john adams, was chairman of the board of war, we think it has. on page , vol. iii. of the _life and writings of john adams_, we find the following entry in his journal:-- "the duties of this board kept me in continual employment, not to say drudgery, from the th of june , till the th of november ." again: "other gentlemen attended as they pleased, but, as i was chairman, or as they were pleased to call it, president, i must never be absent." a change being contemplated in the emblem of union in the flag, the board of war would, doubtless, have had charge of the preparation of the substitute; and from the above, we perceive the chairman must have been particularly connected with its preparation. we have thus presented the data upon which is based the conclusion that the constellation lyra was originally proposed for the union of our flag, in , at the time the circle of thirteen stars was adopted. the reasons for that conclusion are the following:-- [illustration: pl. iii.] it was a union flag that was to be altered. the united states having become independent of great britain, the british emblem of union was no longer appropriate; some other emblem of union was to be substituted. the constellation lyra was a time-honored emblem of union. the language of the resolution of june , , evidently has reference to such an emblem, representing a constellation. the lyra was not adopted. a circle of thirteen stars was. at this time, mr. john adams was chairman of the board of war. mr. john adams's son became secretary of state in . striking out the arms of the united states, he presented on the passport a device, representing the constellation lyra radiating into a circle of stars--the stars thirteen in number. at this time there were twenty-one states in the union--hence this circle of thirteen stars referred to an earlier day. the first instance of a circle of thirteen stars being used as a national device, was in the u. s. flag, and its being presented on the passport must have referred to that use of it, as constituting it a well-known emblem of the united states, indicative of their union, while the constellation lyra, occupying the centre of this circle, indicates the origin of the circle of stars, as an emblem of union "representing a new constellation," in that time-honored emblem of union. the other circumstances we have adduced point to mr. john adams as the source from which his son derived his information. we suppose the circle of stars was preferred to the lyra because it indicated the perpetuity of the union, which was distinctly intimated by the rattlesnake standard, laid aside when the flag of the united states, commonly called the stars and stripes, was adopted. it may not be improper to observe that these deductions are in keeping with the general rules, presented in our introduction, as deduced from the practices of nations relative to national emblems. compare fig. , plate ii., the flag of the united states, as first presented under the resolution of june , , with fig. , plate iii., the flag as we suppose it to have been proposed when mr. john adams was chairman of the board of war, and both of the above with the vignette to the title-page, the device introduced into the passport in _lieu_ of the arms of the united states, by mr. john q. adams, when secretary of state. in making these comparisons, the eagle, only adopted for the arms of the united states in , must be kept out of view, or rather considered as having no part in the question about the stars. in the preceding pages, we have established the origin of the part of the flag called "the union," also that of the circle of stars as an emblem for that union, together with that of the stripes, as clearly as analogy will enable us so to do. as corroborating the views we have advanced, we now present to the reader the reports on the adoption of the arms of the united states, copied by permission from unpublished records of the state department, from which it appears that certain of those who prepared the devices for the flag of the united states, were also engaged in the preparation of the device for a great seal. "journals of congress." " --_page_ . "_july ._ dr. franklin, mr. j. adams, and mr. jefferson, be a committee to prepare a device for a great seal for the united states of america. " --_page_ . "_aug. ._ the committee appointed to prepare the device for a great seal for the united states brought in the same, with an explanation thereof; ordered to lie on the table. "no. . _copy of a report made aug. , ._ "the great seal should on one side have the arms of the united states of america, which arms should be as follows:-- "the shield has six quarters, parts one, _coupé_ two. the st or, a rose, enamelled gules and argent for england; the d argent, a thistle proper, for scotland; the d verd, a harp or, for ireland; the th azure a _flower-de-luce_ or, for france; the th or, the imperial eagle, sable, for germany; and the th or, the belgic lion, gules for holland, pointing out the countries from which the states have been peopled. the shield within a border gules entwined of thirteen scutcheons argent, linked together by a chain or, each charged with initial letters sable as follows: st, n.h.; d, m.b.; d, r.i.; th, c.; th, n.y.; th, n.j.; th, p.; th, d.e.; th, m.; th, v.; th, n.c.; th, s.c.; th, g., for each of the thirteen independent states of america. "supporters dexter the goddess liberty, in a corselet of armor, alluding to the present times; holding in her right hand the spear and cap, and with her left supporting the shield of the states, sinister, the goddess justice, bearing a sword in her right hand, and in her left a balance. "crest. the eye of providence in a radiant triangle, whose glory extends over the shield and beyond the figures. motto: _e. pluribus unum_. "legend round the whole achievement. seal of the united states of america, mdcclxxvi. "on the other side of the said great seal should be the following device:-- "pharaoh sitting in an open chariot, a crown on his head and a sword in his hand, passing through the divided waters of the red sea in pursuit of the israelites. rays, from a pillar of fire in the cloud, expressive of the divine presence and command, beaming on moses, who stands on the shore, and, extending his hand over the sea, causes it to overthrow pharaoh. motto: _rebellion to tyrants is obedience to god_." in regard to this report, we observe mr. john adams was one of those engaged in preparing it. the emblems to represent countries were the rose for england, the thistle for scotland, the harp for ireland, &c. may not this train of ideas have suggested to his mind the lyre and its corresponding constellation to mark the union of the united states of america in the flag of those states? we observe the reference to the sacred volume in the device for the reverse of the proposed seal. may not the idea of stars, as the representatives of dependent states, have been borrowed from the same source, and applied in the case of the flag as states dependent upon union, and thus constituting a constellation? "_march , _--_page_ . "_ordered_, that the report of the committee on the device of a great seal for the united states, in congress assembled, be referred to a committee of three--lovell, scott, houston." this committee made a report, may . _vide no. ._ "original report of may , . no. ." "the seal to be four inches in diameter. "on one side, the arms of the united states, as follows: the shield charged on the field, with thirteen diagonal stripes, alternate red and white. supporters dexter, a warrior holding a sword; sinister, a figure representing peace, bearing an olive-branch. the crest, a radiant constellation of thirteen stars. the motto: _bello vel pace_. the legend round the achievement, _seal of the united states_. "on the reverse: the figure of liberty, seated in a chair, holding the staff and cap. the motto: _semper_. underneath, mdcclxxvi." "_may , _--_page_ . "the report of the committee on the device of a great seal was taken into consideration, and, after debate, "ordered that it be recommitted." "report no. , on the great seal, as altered after recommitment. "the committee to whom was referred, on the th of march last, the report of a former committee on the device of a great seal of the united states, in congress assembled, beg leave to report the following description:-- "the seal to be three inches in diameter. "on one side, the arms of the united states, as follows: the shield charged in the field azure, with thirteen diagonal stripes, alternate rouge and argent, supporters; dexter, a warrior holding a sword; sinister, a figure representing peace, bearing the olive-branch. the crest, a radiant constellation of thirteen stars. the motto. _bello vel pace_. the legend round the achievement, _the great seal of the united states_. "on the reverse: the figure of liberty, seated in a chair, holding the staff and cap. the motto: _virtute perennis_. underneath, mdcclxxvi. "a drawing of the seal is annexed. no. , may , . "a miniature of the face of the great seal to be prepared, of half the diameter, to be affixed as the less seal of the united states." we have not thought it worth while to present the drawing above referred to. "_device for an armorial atchievement for the united states of north america, blazoned agreeably to the laws of heraldry, proposed by mr. barton, a.m._ "arms.--paleways of [ ]thirteen pieces, argent and gules; a chief azure: the escutcheon placed on the breast of an american (the bald-headed) eagle, displayed proper; holding in his beak a scroll, inscribed with the motto, viz.:-- '_e pluribus unum_'-- and in his dexter talon a palm or an olive-branch; in the other a bundle of thirteen arrows; all proper. [ ] "as the pales or pallets consist of an uneven number, they ought in strictness to be blazoned--argt. pallets gules; but as the thirteen pieces allude to the thirteen states, they are blazoned according to the number of _pieces paleways_." "for the crest.--over the head of the eagle, which appears above the escutcheon, a glory, or, breaking through a cloud, proper, and surrounding thirteen stars forming a constellation, argent on an azure field. "in the exergue of the great seal-- "jul. iv. mdcclxxvi." "in the margin of the same-- "_sigil. mag. reipub. confoed. americ._" "_remarks._--the escutcheon is composed of the chief and pale, the two most honorable ordinaries; the latter represent the several states, all joined in one solid compact entire, supporting a chief, which unites the whole and represents congress. the motto alludes to the union. the colors or tinctures of the pales are those used in the flag of the united states. white, signifies purity, innocence; red, hardiness and valor. the chief denotes congress. blue is the ground of the american uniform, and this color signifies vigilance, perseverance, and justice. "the meaning of the crest is obvious, as is likewise that of the olive-branch and arrows. "the escutcheon being placed on the breast of the eagle is a very ancient mode of bearing, and is truly imperial. the eagle _displayed_, is another heraldric figure; and, being borne in the manner here described, supplies the place of supporters and crest. the american states need no supporters but their own virtue, and the preservation of their union through congress. the pales in the arms are kept closely united by the chief, which last likewise depends on that union, and strength resulting from it, for its own support--the inference is plain. w. b." "_june , ._" mr. barton also presented the following:-- "a device for an armorial atchievement for the great seal of the united states of america, in congress assembled, agreeably to the rules of heraldry, proposed by william barton, a.m. "arms.--barry of thirteen pieces, argent and gules, on a canton azure, and many stars disposed in a circle of the first; a pale or, surmounted of another, of the third; charged in chief, with an eye surrounded with a glory proper; and in the fess-point, an eagle displayed on the summit of a doric column, which rests on the base of the escutcheon, both as the stars. "crest.--or, an helmet of burnished gold damasked, grated with six bars, and surmounted of a cap of dignity, gules, turned up ermine, a cock armed with gaffs proper. "supporters.--on the dexter side; the genius of america (represented by a maiden with loose auburn tresses, having on her head a radiated crown of gold encircled with a sky-blue fillet, spangled with silver stars; and clothed in a long loose white garment, bordered with green. from her right shoulder to her left side a scarf, _semé_ of stars, the tinctures thereof the same as in the canton; and round her waist a purple girdle, fringed or embroidered argent, with the word 'virtue'--resting her interior hand on the escutcheon, and holding in the other the proper _standard of the united states_, having a dove argent perched on the top of it. "on the sinister side: a man in complete armor, his sword-belt azure, fringed with gold, his helmet encircled with a wreath of laurel, and crested with one white and two blue plumes; supporting with his dexter hand the escutcheon, and holding in the interior a lance, with the point sanguinated, and upon it a banner displayed, vert., in the fess-point an harp stringed with silver, between a star in chief, two _fleurs-de-lis_ in fess, and a pair of swords, in saltier, in basses, all argent. the tenants of the escutcheon stand on a scroll, on which is the following motto:-- '_deo favente_,' which alludes to the _eye_ in the arms, meant for the eye of providence. "over the crest, in a scroll, this motto:-- '_virtus sola invicta_,' which requires no comment. "the thirteen pieces, barways, which fill up the field of the arms, may represent the several states; and the same number of stars, upon a blue canton, disposed in a circle, represent a new constellation, which alludes to the new empire formed in the world by the confederation of those states. their disposition in the form of a circle, denotes the perpetuity of its continuance, the ring being the symbol of eternity. the eagle displayed, is the symbol of supreme power and authority, and signifies the congress; the pillar upon which it rests is used as the hieroglyphic of fortitude and constancy, and its being of the doric order (which is the best proportioned and most agreeable to nature), and composed of several members, or parts, all taken together, forming a beautiful composition of strength, congruity, and usefulness, it may, with great propriety, signify a well-planned government. the eagle being placed on the summit of the column is emblematical of the sovereignty of the government of the united states; and as further expressive of that idea, those two charges, or five and six azure, are borne in a pale which extends across the thirteen pieces into which the escutcheon is divided. the signification of the eye has been already explained. the helmet is such as appertains to sovereignty, and the cap is used as the token of freedom and excellency. it was formerly worn by dukes; says guillien, _they had a more worthy government than other subjects_. the cock is distinguished for two most excellent qualities, viz., _vigilance_ and _fortitude_. "the genius of the american confederated republic is denoted by the blue scarf and fillet glittering with stars, and by the tag of congress which she displays. her dress is white edged with green, colors emblematical of innocence and truth. her purple girdle and radiated crown indicate her sovereignty; the word "virtue," on the former, is to show that that should be her principal ornament; and the _radiated_ crown, that no earthly crown shall rule her. the dove, on the top of the american standard, denotes the mildness and purity of her government. "the knight in armor, with his bloody lance, represents the military genius of the american empire, armed in defence of its just rights. his blue belt and blue feathers, indicate his country, and the white plume is in compliment to our gallant ally. the wreath of laurel round his helmet is expressive of his success. "the green field of the banner denotes youth and vigor; the harp[ ] [with thirteen strings], emblematical of the several states acting in harmony and concert; the star _in chief_ has reference to america, as _principal_ in the contest; the two _fleurs-de-lis_ are borne as a grateful[ ] testimony of the _support_ given to her by france, and the two swords, crossing each other, signify the state of war. this tenant and his flag relate totally to america at the time of her revolution. (signed,) "wm. barton." [ ] the pen is run through the words, "with thirteen strings," in the original. [ ] "in the arms of scotland, as manifested in the royal atchievement, the double fressure which surrounds the lion is borne _flory_ and _counter-flory_ (with _fleurs-de-lis_), which is in consequence of a treaty that was entered into between charlemagne, then emperor and king of france, and achius, king of scotland; to denote that the french lilies should guard and defend the scottish lion." mr. middleton, mr. boudinot, and mr. rutledge, reported a modification of this, june , , which was referred to the secretary of the united states, in congress assembled, to take order. device for a great seal, as adopted june , . "the secretary of the united states in congress assembled, to whom was referred the several reports of committees on the device of a great seal to take order, reports:-- "that the device for an armorial atchievement, and reverse of a great seal for the united states in congress assembled, is as follows:-- "arms.--paleways, of thirteen pieces, argent and gules, a chief azure. the escutcheon on the breast of the american bald eagle, displayed proper, holding in his dexter talon an olive-branch, and in his sinister a bundle of thirteen arrows, all proper, and in his beak a scroll, inscribed with this motto: _e pluribus unum_. "for the crest.--over the head of the eagle, which appears above the escutcheon, a glory, or, breaking through a cloud proper, and surrounding thirteen stars forming a constellation, argent on an azure field. "reverse.--a pyramid unfinished. in the zenith, an eye in a triangle, surrounded with a glory proper. over the eye these words, _annuit coeptis_. on the base of the pyramid, the numerical letters, mdcclxxvi., and underneath the following motto: '_novus ordo seclorum._' "_remarks and explanations._--the escutcheon is composed of the chief and pale, the two most honorable ordinaries. the pieces paly, represent the several states all joined in one solid compact entire, supporting a chief, which unites the whole and represents congress. the motto, alluding to this union. the pales in the arms are kept closely united by the chief, and the chief depends on that union, and the strength resulting from it, for its support, to denote the confederacy of the united states of america, and the preservation of their union through congress. "the colors of the pales are those used in the flag of the united states of america; white, signifies purity and innocence; red, hardiness and valor; and blue, the color of the chief, signifies vigilance, perseverance, and justice. the olive-branch and arrows denote the power of peace and war, which is exclusively vested in congress. the constellation denotes a new state taking its place and rank among the sovereign powers. the escutcheon is borne on the breast of the american eagle, without any other supporters, to denote that the united states of america ought to rely on their own virtue. "reverse.--the pyramid signifies strength and duration. the eye over it, and the motto, allude to the many and signal interpositions of providence in favor of the american cause. the date underneath is that of the declaration of independence; and the words under it signify the beginning of the new american era, which commences from that date." in most of the above reports, a reference will be perceived to the devices and colors of the flag of the u. states, and many of the ideas presented in them are drawn from it, viz., the chief azure corresponding to the union of the flag, the pales corresponding to the stripes, which together constitute a whole; the constellation of stars also taken from the flag, and indicating a new state (composed of thirteen states) dependent upon their union. as these are the principal ideas presented in the arms of the united states, may we not reasonably conclude that, being borrowed from the flag, they are the views that prevailed at the time of its adoption, presented under another guise? the reference to eternity, in the arms, was indicated by the circle of stars in the flag; the reference to providence, in the eye, was in the flag presented in the field of thirteen stripes, a combination of the red and white flags, which bore the mottoes: "_qui transtulit sustinet_," and an "appeal to heaven." it is intimated, in some of these reports, that the colors for the flag were adopted apart from other reasons, as implying certain virtues; of the fact of their implying them there can be no doubt, but that they were not immediately adopted into the flag for that reason, but rather because they were already in use, with these meanings attached to them, at least so far as the red and white colors were concerned, we think we have conclusively shown. we shall presently offer some suggestions relative to the blue color, which will indicate a more direct reason for its adoption than the virtues implied by it. but to return to the account of the flag. we remarked, under the head of the great union flag of the colonies, that the stripes in the field of the flag were not only designed to show the union of the thirteen colonies, but also the number of members which composed it, and their dependence as a whole upon the union. the first change in the flag of the united states, shows that this conclusion was a correct one. it was directed in the following resolution:-- "_be it enacted_, &c., of may, anno domini one thousand seven hundred and ninety-five, the flag of the united states be fifteen stripes, alternate red and white. that the union be fifteen stars, white in a blue field." approved january , . (see fig. , plate iii.) this was the flag of the united states during the war of - . in , the flag of the united states was again altered, and, as we are informed, on the suggestion of the hon. mr. wendover, of new york, a return was made to the thirteen stripes; as it was anticipated the flag would become unwieldy if a stripe was added on the admission of each state; and, moreover, by the plan proposed, the union of the old thirteen states, as well as the number of members composing the existing union, would be presented by the flag of the united states. mr. w. also proposed the arrangement of the stars in the union into the form of a single star. in this, there was a departure from the original design, as the perpetuity of the union ceased to be indicated by the flag, as it had previously been in the circle of stars, except so far as indicated by the several stars forming one large star. the resolution of was as follows:- "_be it enacted_, &c., that from and after the fourth day of july next, the flag of the united states be thirteen horizontal stripes, alternate red and white; that the union be twenty stars, white, in a blue field. "and, that, on the admission of a new state into the union, one star be added to the union of the flag; and that such addition shall take effect on the fourth day of july next succeeding such admission." approved april , . the flag planted on the national palace of the city of mexico had thirty stars in the union. the following compliment was paid to this flag. june , , "mr. drayton submitted the following resolution; which was considered, by unanimous consent, and agreed to:-- "_resolved_, that the vice-president be requested to have the flag of the united states first erected by the american army upon the palace in the capital of mexico, and now here presented, deposited for safe-keeping in the department of state of the united states."--page , journal of the senate - . the union of the united states flag at present contains thirty-one stars. (see fig. , plate iii.) we have, in the preceding pages, offered many reasons for concluding that the devices in the flag, its colors, and the manner in which they were combined, originated in some circumstance directly connected with the history of the colonies, or in some practice which prevailed in the mother country. particularly was this the case in the adoption of the emblem of union from the mother country. this leads us to make a few remarks as to the prominence given to the color blue in the reports on the adoption of the device for a great seal of the united states, and in its being the ground of the uniform of the united states. we have previously stated that its adoption was due to other circumstances directly, than its being typical of the virtues of perseverance, vigilance, and justice, though indirectly this meaning was involved in its adoption. first, blue was a favorite color in the colonies, as is proved by the fact of its being the uniform of the south carolina troops in . for we have seen that colonel moultrie caused a large blue flag to be made, with a crescent in one corner, to be uniform with the troops; and by the fact that the pine-tree flag of new england was a blue field, containing in the upper canton, next the staff, a st. george's cross on a white ground, and a pine-tree represented in the upper square formed by the cross. a reason for this color being a favorite in new england, may perhaps be found in the circumstance, that, in , when the banner of the league and covenant was raised in scotland, it was a red flag, the borders of which were edged with blue.[ ] borders of different color from the body of the flag, or from the shield of the coat of arms, are in heraldry, a common distinction, and as such was doubtless applied by the covenanters (blue being the color of the field of the banner of scotland, as we have seen), to indicate by whom this red flag was raised, and thus the blue color became identified with the league and covenant. after the defeat of bothwell's bridge, many of those people fled to the colonies, particularly to new england and new jersey. [ ] walter scott's old mortality, vol. ii. p. . that feelings kindred to those excited among the covenanters were aroused among the colonists, is shown by the mottoes on "the union flag with a red field," already spoken of as displayed on a liberty-pole in new york city in . those mottoes were, "no popery," and "george rex and the liberties of america." it was probably in reference to his being commander of the armies of the colonies, united in a solemn league and covenant in defence of civil and religious liberty, that general washington adopted as his badge a light blue riband, which had already been identified with a similar league and covenant in scotland. at a later day, on the adoption of an union flag as the flag of the united colonies, the color of the field of the union (derived, as was the blue border of the red flag of the covenanters, from the banner of scotland) being blue, this color became identified with that which gave nationality to the colonies, viz., their union, and on this account was adopted as the ground of the national uniform, and as the color for the chief or union, both in the arms of the united states and in their flag. that the prevailing colors of the uniforms of the army at that time corresponded to the colors of the flag, is a well-known fact. thus the facings of the blue coats were red, the color of the plumes white, tipped with red, &c. the buff and blue, commonly regarded as the continental uniform, was that of the general officers, and not of the body of the troops. in the navy, the same was the case. the prevailing colors of the uniform of the officers of the navy were blue and red; those of the uniform of the marine officers, green and white: the colors of the flag of the united states, and of the flag of the floating batteries, before given, viz., white, with a green tree in the middle, &c. &c. that such considerations operate in the selection of colors for uniforms, is proved by the fact that the uniform of the united states corps of cadets, a corps instituted and kept up with a view to foster and preserve military knowledge in our country, instead of being of the national color, blue, is gray trimmed with black. this color for the uniform of that corps was chosen in , out of compliment to the services of the brigade commanded by general scott at chippewa, &c., in the war of - . the embargo and the war having cut off the supply of blue cloths, the commissary-general of purchases was forced temporarily to supply that brigade with a substitute of gray, trimmed with black. as this, then, was the origin of the color of the uniform of the corps of cadets, may we not conclude that, for the reasons assigned, blue was adopted as our national color, out of compliment to the union, with which, as we have shown, it was intimately connected. having given the preceding account of our national flag, we now add the names of those connected with its different phases. st. general washington. d. benjamin franklin, mr. lynch, and mr. harrison; the committee of conference, with general washington, on the organization of the army, of which colonel joseph reed was secretary. d. the marine committee; mr. bartlett, mr. hancock, mr. hopkins, mr. deane, mr. lewis, mr. crane, mr. r. morris, mr. read, mr. chase, mr. r. h. lee, mr. hewes, mr. gadsden, and mr. houston. th. the board of war; mr. j. adams, mr. sherman, mr. harrison, mr. wilson, and mr. e. rutledge. with this array of names before us, of those who, with others, established our liberty and union, and the idea we have developed, that the devices adopted by them for the national ensign of our country were intended to intimate the perpetuity of that country's union, may we not truly say of washington and his compeers, now resting in their graves, as connected with those devices, there is neither speech nor language, but their voices are heard among them. their sound has gone out into all lands, and their words into the ends of the world, proclaiming their trust in providence, that that union should only perish, when the sun and moon shall be darkened, and the stars shall withdraw their light. flags: some account of their history and uses. _of this large-paper edition only copies have been printed for sale._ _this copy is no. _ [illustration: plate i standard presented by napoleon i to his guards at elba a short time before he invaded france in ] flags: some account of their history and uses. by a. macgeorge, author of "old glasgow," "the armorial insignia of glasgow," etc. blackie & son: london, glasgow, and edinburgh. . prefatory note. in a nation like ours, with a dominion so extended, and with communication by sea and land with all parts of the world, the flags under which ships sail and armies and navies fight, cannot be without interest. yet there are few subjects in regard to which the means of information are less accessible. the object of the present volume is to give, in a popular form, some account of our own flags, and of those of other nations, ancient and modern, with some notices regarding the use of flags, in naval warfare and otherwise. i have taken occasion to point out certain heraldic inaccuracies in the construction of our national flag, and also in the design on our bronze coinage. i shall be glad if what i have written be the means, by directing public attention to the subject, of effecting the correction of these errors. a. m. _glenarn, december, ._ contents. page introductory, ancient standards, different kinds of flags--gonfanon, pennon, penoncel, banners, standards--the royal standard, standards borne by nobles, flags of the covenanters, national flags, the union flag, the union jack, the ensign, special flags, the pendant, signals and other flags, use of flags in naval warfare, international usage as to flags, flags of the british army, use of flags by private persons, foreign flags--france, the american flag, other foreign flags, conclusion, index, list of illustrations. coloured plates. plate page i. standard presented by napoleon i. to his guards at elba, a short time before he invaded france in , _frontispiece_ ii. the "bluidy banner" carried at bothwell brig, a.d. , iii. union flags and pendant, iv. national flags and standards, v. do. do. vi. do. do. woodcuts. fig. . ancient egyptian standards, . other forms of egyptian standards, . do. do. . assyrian standard, . another form of assyrian standard, . assyrian standards and standard-bearers, . other varieties of assyrian standards, . persian standard, . turkish horse-tail standard, . standard of turkish pacha, . roman eagle, . the roman wolf on standard, . group of roman standards, . roman standard--various devices on same staff, . another form with different devices, . other roman standards, . roman labarum, . standard of constantine, . dragon used as roman standard, . standard of earl of warwick, , . flag of the earl marshall, . standard of earl douglas, , . later banner of the douglas's, . the "blue blanket," , . flag of the covenanters, , . the union flag as now borne, . the union on the bronze penny, . regimental colours of th regiment, . queen's colours of th regiment as presented to the queen, . the oriflamme, circa a.d. , . the french eagle, during the empire, . united states flag, as used in , flags. on that morning when the news arrived from south africa of the disaster at isandlana, there was general mourning for the loss of so many brave men; but there was mourning also of a different kind,--with some perhaps even deeper--for the loss of the colours of the th regiment. and yet, after all, it was only a bit of silk which had been lost, having on it certain devices and inscriptions--a thing of no intrinsic value, and which could be replaced at a cost merely nominal. but it possessed extrinsic qualities which could be measured by no money value, and every one felt that the loss was one to redeem which, or rather to redeem what that loss represented, demanded, if necessary, the putting forth of the strength of a great nation. and so, when it was found that the colours never had been really lost--that they had been saved by brave men who had laid down their lives in defending them--there was throughout the nation a feeling of intense relief that national honour had been saved; a feeling of rejoicing far beyond what was evoked by the news of the capture of the zulu king and the termination of the war. so at sea. in our great wars in which the navy of great britain played so prominent a part, we became so accustomed to see the flag of the enemy bent on under our own ensign, that if an exceptional case occurred where the position of the two flags was reversed, it went home to the heart of every loyal subject with a pang which the loss of many ships by storm and tempest would not have produced. yet how few of us know what the national colours are, what the union is, what the royal standard is. not to speak of civilians, are there many officers, in either the army or the navy, who, without a copy before them, could accurately construct or describe the flag of the nation under which they fight, or tell what its component parts represent? i doubt it. and, after all, they would not be so much without excuse, for even at the horse guards and the admiralty, there is some confusion of ideas on the subject. i have before me "the queen's regulations and orders for the army," issued by the commander-in-chief, in which flags which can be flown only on shore are confounded with flags which can be flown nowhere but on board ship. yet the subject is really an interesting one, and, connected as it is with national history, it is deserving of a little study. flags are of many kinds, and they are put to many uses. they are the representatives of nations; they distinguish armies and fleets, and to insult a flag is to insult the nation whose ensign it is. we see in flags, says carlyle, "the divine idea of duty, of heroic daring--in some instances of freedom and right." there are national flags, flags of departments, and personal flags; and as signals they are of the greatest value as a means of communication at sea. ancient standards. it is chiefly of our own flags that i intend to speak, but it may be interesting to say something of those which were in use among the peoples of ancient history. from the earliest times of which we have authentic records, standards or banners were borne by nations, and carried in battle. it was so in old testament times, as we know from the mention of banners as early as the time of moses. they are repeatedly referred to by david and solomon. the lifting up of ensigns is frequently mentioned in the psalms and by the prophets, while the expression, "terrible as an army with banners," shows the importance and the awe with which they were regarded. [illustration: fig. .--egyptian standards.] we find representations of standards on the oldest bas-reliefs of egypt. indeed, the invention of standards is, by ancient writers, attributed to the egyptians. according to diodorus, the egyptian standards consisted generally of the figures of their sacred animals borne on the end of a staff or spear, and in the paintings at thebes we find on them such objects as a king's name and a sacred boat. one prominent and much used form was a figure resembling an expanded semicircular fan, and another example shows this form reversed and surmounted by the head of the goddess athor, crowned with her symbolic disk and cow's horns. another figure also used as a standard resembles a round-headed table-knife. examples of these, and of the sacred ibis and dog, are shown in fig. .[ ] but on the egyptian standards--those which were no doubt used in pharaoh's army--there were various other figures, including reptiles such as lizards and beetles, with birds crowned with the fan-like ornament already referred to. a group of these is given in fig. ; but they had many other forms. those represented in fig. , and which show some curious symbolic forms, are taken from the works of champollion, wilkinson, and rosellini. [ ] for this, and figures , , and , i am indebted to the courtesy of messrs. a. and c. black. they appear in the _encyclopædia britannica_, vol. ix. p. . [illustration: fig. .--egyptian standards.] [illustration: fig. .--egyptian standards.] that the hebrews carried standards after the exodus is, as i have already said, certain, and the probability is that they derived the practice from the egyptian nation, from whose bondage they had just escaped, for they bore as devices figures of birds and animals, and also human figures, just as the egyptians did. one of the earliest of the divine commands given to moses was that "every man of the children of israel shall pitch by his own standard with the ensign of their father's house."[ ] the _ensign_ probably meant the particular device borne upon the standard by each tribe; and tradition has assigned as these the symbolic cherubim seen in the visions of ezekiel and john--judah bearing a lion, reuben a man, ephraim an ox, and dan an eagle. this is the opinion of the later jews. the targumists believe that, besides these representations, the banners were distinguished by particular colours--the colour for each tribe being analogous to that of the precious stone in the breastplate of the high-priest. they consider also that each standard bore the name of the tribe with a particular sentence from the law. the modern opinion, however, is that the hebrew standards were distinguished only by their colours, and by the name of the tribe to which each belonged. [ ] numbers ii. . apart from the direct scripture evidence on the subject, this bearing of distinguishing standards is what might be expected in a military organization such as that of the israelites, just as we find them using warlike music. it is interesting to note that even the particular trumpet signals to be used for the assembling and advance of the troops, and in cases of alarm in time of war, are carefully prescribed,[ ] while the association of their military standards with the trumpet is indicated in the exclamation of jeremiah: "how long shall i see the standard and hear the sound of the trumpet?"[ ] [ ] numbers x. . [ ] jer. iv. . [illustration: fig. .--an assyrian standard. fig. .--another assyrian standard.] as the standard was among all nations regarded with reverence, so the standard-bearer was selected for his strength and courage. so important was this considered that isaiah, in describing the ruin and discomfiture that was about to fall on the king of assyria, could find no stronger expression than to say that his overthrow would be "as when a standard-bearer fainteth."[ ] [ ] isa. x. . [illustration: fig. .--assyrian standards and standard-bearers.] the standards of the assyrians, like those of the egyptians, consisted of figures fastened on the end of spears or staffs; but of these very few varieties have been yet discovered. layard says[ ] that "standards were carried by the assyrian charioteers. in the sculptures they have only two devices [figs. , , ]: one a figure, probably that of a divinity, standing on a bull and drawing a bow; in the other, two bulls running in opposite directions. these figures are inclosed in a circle and fixed to a long staff ornamented with streamers and tassels. the standards appear to have been partly supported by a rest in front of the chariot, and a long rope connecting them with the extremity of the pole. in a bas-relief of khorsabad this rod is attached to the top of a standard." the interesting illustration given in fig. is from a sculpture in which these standards are represented with the figures of the standard-bearers, and in which also the ropes or supports of the staff are indicated. [ ] _nineveh and its remains._ [illustration: fig. .--assyrian standards.] there were, however, varieties in the forms of the assyrian standards other than those mentioned by layard. in the annexed cut (fig. ) the one to the left is from a sculpture in the british museum. the others are given on the authority of botta. [illustration: fig. .--persian standard. fig. .--turkish horse-tail standard.] the persians, like the assyrians, carried their standards, in battle, on staffs or spears attached to chariots. their royal standard was a golden eagle with wings expanded carried on the end of a spear. they had also a figure of the sun which they used on great occasions when the king was present with the army. quintus curtius describes one of these figures of the sun, inclosed in a crystal, as making a very splendid appearance above the royal tent. but the proper royal standard of the persians for many centuries, until the mahommedan conquest, was a blacksmith's leather apron, around which the people had been at one time rallied to a successful opposition against an invader (fig. ). many other national standards have had their origin in similar causes. something which was at hand was seized in an emergency, and lifted up as a rallying point for the people, and afterwards adopted from the attachment which clung to it as an object identified with patriotic deeds. in this way originated the horse-tails borne as a standard by the modern turks (fig. ). under the old system, among that people, the distinction of rank between the two classes of pachas was indicated by the number of these horse-tails, the standards of the second class having only two tails, while those of the higher had three. hence the term a pacha of two tails or three. a further mark of distinction appears to have been the elevation of one of the tails above the others, and the surmounting of each with the crescent, as shown in fig. . [illustration: fig. .--standard of pacha.] the romans had various forms of standards, some composed entirely of fixed figures of different devices, including figures of animals. the eagle, according to pliny, was the first and chief military ensign. in the second consulship of caius marius (b.c. ) the eagle (fig. ) alone was used, but at a subsequent period some of the old emblems were resumed. these were the minotaur, the horse, and the wild boar; and on the trajan column we find as one of their standards the historic wolf (fig. ). [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .--roman standards.] one of the most ancient of the roman standards had an origin similar to that of the apron of the persians and the horse-tails of the turks. it was derived from a popular rising which took place in the time of romulus, and was composed of a wisp of hay attached to the end of a pole (as seen in fig. ), and carried into battle. from its name, _manipulus_, the companies of foot soldiers, of which the _hastati_, _principes_, and _triarii_ of each legion were composed, came to be called maniples--_manipuli_. another standard borne by the romans was a spear with a piece of cross wood at the top with the figure of a hand above, and having below a small round shield of gold or silver, as shown in fig. . on this circle were at first represented the warlike deities mars and minerva, but after the extinction of the commonwealth it bore the effigies of the emperors and their favourites. from these coin-shaped devices the standards were called _numina legionum_. the eagle was sometimes represented with a thunderbolt in its claws, of which an example will be seen in fig. . under the later emperors it was carried with the legion, which was on that account sometimes termed _aquila_. the place for this standard was near the general, almost in the centre. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] another common form of the roman standard consisted in a variety of figures and devices exhibited on the same staff, one over the other. on the top of one of these will be seen a human hand (fig. ). this by itself, or inclosed, as here, within a wreath, was, as i have mentioned, a frequent device, and was probably of oriental origin. it is also found as a symbol in ancient mexico; and at the present day the flagstaffs of the persians terminate in a silver hand. among the pieces composing this form of standard are also found the eagle, and figures of the emperors inclosed in circles, with other devices (fig. ). a common form is that numbered in fig. . this example is taken from the arch of titus. the eagle surmounting the thunderbolt with the letters s p q r (no. ) was also a common form. the letters indicate _senatus populusque romanus_. the examples nos. and in fig. are from montfaucon. no. is given by mr. hope. the _vexillum_ of the romans was a standard composed of a square piece of cloth fastened to a cross bar at the top of a spear, sometimes with a fringe all round as shown in fig. , and sometimes fringed only below (no. , fig. ), or without a fringe, but draped at the sides (fig. ). when placed over the general's tent it was a sign for marching, or for battle. [illustration: fig. .--roman standards.] [illustration: fig. .] the _labarum_ of the emperors was similar in form, and frequently bore upon it a representation of the emperor, sometimes by himself and sometimes accompanied by the heads of members of his family. it has been said that the emperor constantine bore on the top of his standard the sign of the cross, but this was not so. the cross at that time was known only as a heathen emblem, and was not adopted by the christians till afterwards. that which constantine bore was what in his time was the only recognized christian emblem--the first two letters of our lord's name (fig. )--the greek x (english ch) and p (in english r). the _labarum_ was made of silk. the term is sometimes used for other standards, and its form may still be recognized in the banners carried in ecclesiastical processions. the _labarum_, like the _vexillum_, had sometimes fringes with tassels or ribbons. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] the dragon, an ensign of the parthians, was adopted by the romans as the standard of their cohorts. it appears as such on the arch of severus. it was also the device of the dacians, and indeed seems to have been a general ensign among barbarians. besides being carried as a separate figure in metal--as shown in fig. --it was frequently embroidered in cotton or silk on a square piece of cloth borne on a cross bar elevated on a gilt staff; the bearer being called _draconarius_. from the romans the dragon came to the western empire. it was borne by the german emperors. in england also it was for some time the chief standard of the kings, and of the dukes of normandy, and according to sir richard bacon it was the standard of utor pendragon, king of the britons.[ ] the golden dragon was in the eighth century the standard of wessex, and it was displayed in a great battle in when ethelbald, the king of mercia, was defeated. it was also borne on a pole by king harold as a standard. it was borne by henry vii. at bosworth field, and at a later date it was carried as a supporter by henry viii. and edward vi., and also by elizabeth. in many of the illuminations of mss. in the fifteenth century we also find a gold dragon on a red pennon, as one of the ensigns in the french armies. [ ] nisbet's _heraldry_, vol. i. p. . the infantry flag of the romans was red, that of the cavalry blue, and that of a consul white. the banners of the parthians resembled those of the romans, but they were more richly decorated with gold and silk. in early times the greeks carried as a standard a piece of armour on a spear, but although they had an ensign, the elevation of which served as a signal for giving battle either by land or by sea, they were not regularly marshalled by banners. in their later history their different cities bore different sacred emblems. thus the athenians were distinguished by the olive and the owl, and the corinthians by a pegasus. at what time the form of standard which we call a flag was first used is not known. it was certainly not the earliest but the ultimate form which the standard assumed. the original form was some fixed object such as we have seen on the egyptian and roman examples, and the vexillum and labarum were transitional forms. the waving flag is said to have been first used by the saracens. another account is that the flag first acquired its present form in the sixth century, in spain. the banners which bede mentions as being carried by st. augustine and his monks, when they entered canterbury in procession, in the latter part of the sixth century, were probably in the form of the roman labarum. he calls them little banners on which were depicted crosses. of our own national flags the earliest forms were those which bore the cognizance of the ruler for the time being. the well-known ensign of the danes at the time of their dominion in britain was the raven. the dragon, as we have seen, was in the eighth century the cognizance of wessex, and the saxons had also on their standards a white horse. of our later royal standards and those of other nations i shall speak afterwards. the forms of flags in our own country have varied very much. it was not till the time of the crusades, when heraldry began to assume a definite form, that they became subject to established rules. up to that period flags were, as a rule, small in size, and they usually terminated in points, like the more modern pennon. such were the standards of the normans. at the battle of the standard in the staff of the english standard was in the form of the mast of a ship, having a silver pyx at the top, containing the host, and bearing three sacred banners dedicated respectively to st. peter, st. john of beverley, and st. wilfrid of ripon, the whole being fastened--like the standards of the persians and assyrians--to a wheeled vehicle. from an early period the practice has prevailed of blessing standards, and this has continued to our own day in the british army when new colours are presented to a regiment--there being a special form of service at the consecration. the banner of william the conqueror was one blessed and sent to him by the pope. indeed, it has been the practice of the popes in every age to give consecrated banners where they wished success to an enterprise. different kinds of flags--gonfanon--pennon--penoncel. in the middle ages almost every flag was a military one. a very early form, borne near the person of the commander-in-chief, was the gonfanon. it was fixed in a frame made to turn like a modern ship's vane. that of the conqueror, as depicted in the bayeux tapestry, had three tails, and was charged with a golden cross on a white ground within a blue border. of other forms of flags the principal varieties were the penoncel, the pennon or guidon, the banner, and the standard. the pennon was a purely personal flag, pointed, borne below the lance-head by a knight-bachelor, and charged with the arms, or crest, and motto of the bearer. but in early times no knight displayed a pennon who had not followers to defend it--the mounting of this ensign being a matter of privilege, not of obligation. the order of knight-bachelor was the most ancient and originally the sole order, being the degree conferred by one knight on another without the intervention of prince, noble, or churchman, and its privileges and duties approached nearly to those of the knight-errant.[ ] [ ] sir walter scott, _essay on chivalry_, p. . the penoncel, which was carried by the esquire, was the diminutive of the pennon, being one-half its breadth. it was borne at the end of a lance, and usually bore the cognizance or "avowrye" of the bearer. this flag was not carried by the esquire after the fight began, but was then either held by an inferior attendant, or put up by the owner's tent. banners. the banner was the flag of a troop, and was borne by knights, called after it bannerets, an order which held a middle rank between knights-bachelors and the barons or great feudatories of the crown. the flag of a knight-banneret was square at the end, but not an exact square on all the sides. the perfectly square banner was the flag of a baron, and of those of higher rank. it was only on the field of battle, and in presence of the royal standard, that a knight-banneret could be created. it was the custom for the commander of the host thus to reward the distinguished services of a knight-bachelor bearing a pennon, and he did so by tearing off the "fly," or outer part of that flag, and by so doing giving it a square form, thus making it a banner, and its bearer a knight-banneret. the ceremony is thus described by blome.[ ] "the king (or his general), at the head of the army, drawn up into battalia after a victory, under the royal standard displayed, attended with all the field-officers and nobles of the court, receives the knight led between two renowned knights or valiant men-at-arms, having his pennon or guydon of arms in his hand; and before them the heralds, who proclaim his valiant achievements, for which he deserves to be made a knight-banneret, and to display his banner in the field. then the king (or general) says unto him _advances toy, bannaret_, and causes the point of his pennon to be rent off; and the new knight, having the trumpets before him sounding, the nobles and officers accompanying him, is remitted to his tent, where they are nobly entertained." [ ] _analogia honoria_. london, ; p. . but knights were thus promoted before a battle as well as after it. froissart relates the manner in which the celebrated sir john chandos was made banneret by the black prince before the battle of navarete. the whole scene forms a striking picture of an army of the middle ages moving to battle. upon the pennons of the knights, penoncels of the squires, and banners of the barons and bannerets, the army formed, or, in modern phrase, dressed its line. the usual word of the attack was, "advance banners in the name of god and saint george." "when the sun was risen," writes froissart, "it was a beautiful sight to view these battalions, with their brilliant armour glittering with its beams. in this manner they nearly approached to each other. the prince, with a few attendants, mounted a small hill, and saw very clearly the enemy marching straight towards them. upon descending this hill he extended his line of battle on the plain, and then halted. the spaniards, seeing the english halted, did the same, in order of battle; then each man tightened his armour and made ready as for instant combat. sir john chandos then advanced in front of the battalions, with his banner [pennon] uncased in his hand. he presented it to the prince, saying 'my lord, here is my banner; i present it to you that i may display it in whatever manner shall be most agreeable to you, for, thanks to god, i have now sufficient lands that will enable me so to do, and maintain the rank which it ought to hold.' the prince, don pedro being present, took the banner in his hands, which was blazoned with a sharp stake gules, on a field argent; and after having cut off the tail to make it square, he displayed it, and, returning it to him by the handle, said, 'sir john, i return you your banner: god give you strength and honour to preserve it.' upon this sir john left the prince, and went back to his men with the banner in his hand."[ ] [ ] johnes' _froissart_, vol. i. p. . a banneret was expected to bring into the field at least thirty men-at-arms--that is, knights or squires mounted--at his own expense; and each of these, again, besides his attendants on foot, ought to have had a mounted crossbow-man, and a horseman armed with a bow and axe--forming altogether a large troop. the same force might be arrayed by a knight under a pennon, but his accepting a banner bound him to bring out that number at least. after the reign of charles iv. this obligation fell into disuse in france, and in england, soon after that time, it also ceased to be observed.[ ] judging, however, from the contemporary heraldic poem of the "siege of carlaverock" (june, ), it would appear that early in the fourteenth century there was a banner to every twenty-five or thirty men-at-arms. at that period the english forces comprised the tenants _in capite_ of the crown, who were entitled to lead their contingent under a banner of their arms--either by themselves or under a deputy of equal rank. thus at carlaverock the bishop of durham sent of his men-at-arms, with his banner intrusted to john de hastings. but his banner on this occasion bore, not the cognisance of the see, but simply his paternal arms. having mentioned this old poem--in which the arms of every banneret in the english army are accurately blazoned--it may be interesting to give one of the opening verses, as an example of the norman french of the period-- "la ont meinte riche garnement brode sur cendeaus et samis, meint beau penon en lance mis, meint baniere desploie." in english--there were many rich caparisons, embroidered on silks and satins, many a beautiful penon fixed to a lance, and many a banner displayed. [ ] sir walter scott, _essay on chivalry_. in the scottish wars, the banner of st. cuthbert was, in the english army, carried by a monk. this continued to be done so late as the reign of henry viii. in the same way the banner of st. john of beverley was carried by one of the vicars of beverley college--who, by the way, received eight pence halfpenny per diem as his wages, to carry it after the king--a large sum in those days--and a penny a day to carry it back.[ ] the bearer of a banner, or bannerer as he was called, was in these early times a very important personage. in the old paintings in mss. the persons holding the national or royal banners are generally represented in the same kind of armour as the chief leaders. and they were liberally rewarded for their services. in edward iii. granted sir guy de bryon marks a year for life for having discreetly borne the king's banner at the siege of calais in .[ ] [ ] prynne's _antiquæ constitutiones angliæ_, vol. iii. p. . [ ] _calend. rot. patent._ p. . we learn from the "siege of carlaverock" that a pennon hung out by the besieged was the signal for a parley. when the castle surrendered there were placed on its battlements, we are told, the banners of the king, of st. george, of st. edmund, and st. edward, together with those of the marshall and constable of the army. to these were added the banner of the individual to whose custody the castle was committed. but it is doubtful whether in the fifteenth century any others but those of the king and st. george were affixed to captured fortresses. in france the office of custodier of national banners--such as the oriflamme--was hereditary. it was the same in ireland, which claims a higher antiquity in the use of banners than any other european nation; and in scotland the representative of the great house of scrymgeour enjoys the honour of being banner-bearer to the sovereign.[ ] [ ] _vicissitudes of families and other essays_, by sir bernard burke, st series, p. . it was the custom in early times to have banners suspended from trumpets. at the battle of agincourt the duke of brabant, who arrived on the field towards the close of the conflict, is said, by st. remy, to have taken one of the banners from his trumpeters, and, cutting a hole in the middle, made a surcoat of arms of it. to this circumstance shakespeare thus alludes-- "i will a banner from my trumpet take and use it for my haste." chaucer, too, notices banners being suspended from trumpets-- "on every trump hanging a brod banere, of fine tartarium full richly bete, every trumpet his lorde's armes bere."[ ] [ ] _flour and the leafe_, . at coronations banners were also used; and in the fifteenth century heralds, when despatched on missions, appear to have carried a banner bearing their sovereign's arms. banners were also for a long time used at funerals. it was not till about the period of the revolution that the practice fell into comparative desuetude. standards--the royal standard. the standard was a large long flag, gradually tapering towards the fly. according to the representation of a standard, in a heraldic ms. at least as early as the reign of henry vii., in the british museum, it was not quite so deep but very much longer than a banner,[ ] and it varied in size according to the rank of the owner. in england that of a duke was seven yards in length, of a banneret four and a half, and of a knight-bachelor four yards. [ ] _harleian mss._ , f. . the royal standard of england, when the sovereign in person commanded the army, appears to have been of two sizes. according to the ms. referred to, one of these standards is to be "sett before the kynges pavillion or tente, and not to be borne in battayle, and to be in length eleven yards." the other--"the kynges standard _to be borne_"--is to be "in lengthe eight or nine yards." the royal standard is a flag personal to the sovereign. it was not always exclusively so, for in the seventeenth century the lord high admiral, when personally in command of the fleet, and sometimes also other commanders-in-chief, flew as their flag of command, not the union, but the standard. it was so flown at the main by the duke of buckingham as lord high admiral, on the occasion when he disgraced the english flag in the unfortunate expedition against the isle of rhé in . but now the royal standard is used only by the sovereign in person, or as a decoration on royal fête days. there are depicted on it the royal arms, which have had various forms in different periods of our history. the standard of edward the confessor was azure a cross floré between five martlets, or. the arms of william duke of normandy, emblazoned on his standard, were two lions, and they were borne by him and his successors, as the royal arms of england, till the reign of henry ii. that monarch married eleanor, daughter and co-heiress of the duke of aquitaine, whose arms--one lion--henry added to his own. hence the three lions _passant gardant in pale_, borne ever since as the ensigns of england. these now occupy the first and fourth quarters of the standard, but they did not always do so. the fleurs-de-lis of france were, till a comparatively recent period, quartered with the english arms, having been first borne by edward iii. when he assumed the title of king of france. many noble families, both in this country and on the continent, have quartered the french lilies to show their origin, or in acknowledgment of the tenure of important fiefs there. among the last may be mentioned the arms of sir john stewart of darnley, who obtained from charles vii. the lands and title of aubigny, and the right to quarter the arms of france with his own. but in all these instances the fleurs-de-lis occupied a secondary place. so if henry ii. had desired merely to show his french connection, by maternal descent, he would have placed them in the second and third quarters. but he placed them in the first quarter, as arms of dominion, to indicate that he claimed the kingdom by right, and our sovereigns continued this idle pretence till so late as the reign of george iii. it was not till the union with ireland that it was discontinued. some of the english kings bore personal standards besides the flag of their own arms. edward iv., besides his royal standard, generally bore a banner with a white rose. henry vii. at the battle of bosworth field had three personal standards, in addition to the standard of his own arms. the blazon of these three, and how the king disposed of them after the battle, are thus described in a contemporary manuscript:--"with great pompe and triumphe he roade through the cytie to the cathedral church of st. paul where he offered his iij standards. in the one was the image of st. george; in the second was a red firye dragon beaten upon white and green sarcenet; the third was of yellow tarterne [a kind of fine cloth of silk] in the which was painted a donne kowe."[ ] [ ] _lansdowne mss._ , f. . the royal standard of scotland was a red lion rampant on a gold field within a red double tressure, floré counterfloré, of which the origin is veiled in the mists of antiquity. our great heraldic authority, nisbet, in common with earlier writers, adopts the tradition which assigns the assumption of the rampant lion to fergus i., who is alleged to have flourished as king of scotland about years before christ. he also refers to the celebrated league which charlemagne is said to have entered into in the beginning of the ninth century with achaius, king of scotland, on account of his assistance in war, "for which special service performed by the scots the french king encompassed the scots lion, which was famous all over europe, with a double tressure, flowered and counterflowered with flower de luces, the armorial figures of france, of the colour of the lion, to show that it had formerly defended the french lilies, and that these thereafter shall continue a defence for the scots lion and as a badge of friendship."[ ] on the other hand chalmers observes that these two monarchs were probably not even aware of each other's existence, and he suggests that the lion--which first appears on the seal of alexander ii.--may have been derived from the arms of the old earls of northumberland and huntingdon, from whom some of the scottish kings were descended. he adds, however, that the lion was the cognisance of galloway, and perhaps also of all the celtic nations. chalmers also mentions an "ould roll of armes," preserved by leland, said to be of the age of henry iii. ( ), and which the context shows to be at least as old as the reign of edward i. ( ), in which the arms of scotland are thus described: "le roy de scosce dor a un lion de goules a un bordure dor flurette de goules."[ ] in the parliament of james iii. "ordanit that in tyme to cum thar suld be na double tresor about his armys, but that he suld ber hale armys of the lyoun without ony mar." if this alteration of the blazon was ever actually made, it did not long continue.[ ] [ ] _system of heraldry_, vol. ii. part iii. p. . [ ] _caledonia_, i. , note (i.). [ ] seton's _law and practice of heraldry in scotland_, p. . with one noted exception scotland never quartered the arms of any kingdom with her own. the exception was when mary stuart claimed the arms and style of england, and quartered these arms on her standard. this was perhaps the first, and, as it proved, an inexpiable provocation to elizabeth.[ ] mary's mode of blazoning was peculiar. she bore scotland and england quarterly--the former being placed first, and, over all, _the dexter half_ of an escutcheon of pretence, charged with the arms of england, the sinister half being obscured in order to intimate that she was kept out of her right.[ ] [ ] hallam's _constitutional history_, th edit. i. . [ ] strype's _annals_, quoted by mr. seton, p. . on the accession of james i. the royal standard of england was altered. the arms of france and england quarterly appeared in the first and fourth quarters, those of scotland in the second, and in the third the golden harp of ireland, which had taken the place of the three crowns. but an exception occurred in the case of william iii., who, on his landing in england, had a standard bearing the motto, "the protestant religion and liberties of england," and, under the royal arms of england, instead of "dieu et mon droit," the words "and i will maintain it." afterwards he impaled on his standard the arms of mary with his own. they are represented in this form in a ms. of the harleian library, on a banner per pale orange and yellow. after his elevation to the throne william placed over the arms of the queen, which were those of her father james ii., his own paternal coat of nassau.[ ] [ ] willement's _regal heraldry_, p. . george iii. when he left out the ensigns of france marshalled on his standard those of his germanic states in an escutcheon of pretence--a small shield in the centre point. this was omitted on the accession of queen victoria, who bears on her standard the arms of england in the first and fourth quarters, scotland in the second, and ireland in the third. (see plate iv. no. , p. .) but while the royal standard was, on the accession of james i., altered for england in the way i have described, it was displayed according to a different blazon in scotland. for a long period, whenever the standard was used to the north of the tweed, the scottish arms had precedence by being placed in the first and fourth quarters. on the great seal of scotland this precedence is still continued, and the scottish unicorn also occupies the dexter side of the shield as a supporter. but on the standard the arms of scotland have now lost their precedence, those of england being placed in the first quarter, and although there has been much controversy on the subject, i agree with mr. seton[ ] that it is better that the arrangement should be so. the standard is the personal flag of the sovereign of one united kingdom, and heraldic propriety appears to require that only one unvarying armorial achievement should be used on it--that of the larger and more important kingdom taking precedence, although nisbet[ ] claims precedence for the scottish arms on the achievement of great britain as those of "the ancientest sovereignty."[ ] i certainly do not agree with mr. seton, however, that either in the arms or supporters precedence ought to be granted to england "in accordance with the sentiment of certain well-known classical lines:-- "'the lion and the unicorn were fighting for the crown, the lion beat the unicorn all round the town.'"[ ] [ ] _scottish heraldry_, p. . [ ] vol ii. part iii. p. . [ ] sir george mackenzie says: "the king of scotland being equal in dignity with the kings of england, france, and spain, attained to that dignity before any of these." he therefore claims precedence for scotland over all these kingdoms. _treatise on precedency_, p. . [ ] _scottish heraldry_, p. . i do not know where mr. seton got that version, inconsistent as it is alike with patriotism and with historical accuracy. it is certainly not the correct one. the true version, familiar to every boy in scotland, is more impartial, and it has more fun in it. it runs thus:-- "the lion and the unicorn, fighting for the crown: up came a little dog and knocked them both down." --the "little dog" being the small lion which stands defiantly on the crown, and constitutes the royal crest at the top of the achievement. the supporters of the scottish arms were two unicorns. in england, previous to the accession of the stuarts, the supporters of the royal arms were changed at the caprice of the sovereign, and almost every king or queen adopted new ones. from these, and from the royal badges, came many of the curious names which may be found in old lists of ships. such as the "antelope," which refers to one of the supporters of henry vi.; the "bull" of edward iv.; the "dragon" of henry viii. and of elizabeth. so also the badges: the "sun," "rose in the sun," and "falcon in the fetterlock," were all worn by edward iv. the "double rose" speaks for itself, and the "hawthorn" belonged to henry viii.[ ] the supporters assumed by king james, and continued to all his successors, were a lion on the dexter side, and on the sinister one of the scottish unicorns--the latter displacing the red dragon of the tudor family. [ ] _heraldry of the sea_, by j. k. laughton, m.a.r.n., . in ships the royal standard is never hoisted now except when her majesty is on board, or a member of the royal family other than the prince of wales. when the latter is on board his own standard is hoisted. it is the same as that of the queen, except that it bears a label argent of three points, with the arms of saxony on an escutcheon of pretence. the standard of the duke of edinburgh is the same as that of the prince of wales, except that the points of the label are charged, the first and third with a blue anchor, and the second with the st. george's cross. wherever the sovereign is residing the royal standard is hoisted; and on royal anniversaries and state occasions it is hoisted at certain fortresses or stations--home and foreign--specified in the queen's regulations. standards borne by nobles. standards borne by subjects were, in early times, according to the tudor ms. to be "slitt at the end," but they appear to have been also borne square. this is the form in an old standard of richard, earl of warwick--circa --bearing his badge of the bear and ragged staff (fig. ). shakespeare[ ] alludes to this device when he puts into the mouth of warwick the words-- "now by my father's badge, old neville's crest, the rampant bear chained to the ragged staff." [illustration: fig. .--standard of the earl of warwick, a.d. .] but shakespeare was out in his heraldry here, first in confounding the badge with a crest, and secondly in calling it neville's, for the bear and the ragged staff had been the badge not of the nevilles but of the beauchamps, who preceded warwick in the earldom.[ ] this old earl of warwick had a similar device on the flag which he flew in his ship. it was a long flag, having the cross of st. george on the upper part--then the bear and ragged staff, and the remainder covered with ragged staffs. it is interesting to note that the account for this and other flags made for the earl in , is preserved. the one just referred to is described as "a great stremour for the ship of xi yerdis length and viij yerdis in brede," and the price for making it was "j^{li} vi^s viii^d."[ ] [ ] _king henry vi._ part ii. act v. sc. . [ ] seton's _scottish heraldry_, p. . [ ] _antiquities of warwickshire._ in the advocates' library there is preserved an interesting flag, which is said to have been the standard borne by the earl marshall at the battle of flodden (fig. ). it is thus described in the paper which accompanies it: "the standard of the earl marshall of scotland, carried at the battle of flodden, , by _black_ john skirving of plewland hill, his standard-bearer. skirving was taken prisoner, having previously, however, concealed the banner about his person. the relic was handed down in the skirving family, and presented to the faculty of advocates by william skirving of edinburgh, in the beginning of the present century. the arms and motto are those of the keith family." [illustration: fig. .--flag of the earl marshall.] the flag may have been borne by the earl at flodden, but the devices on it are certainly not his _arms_. the arms of the earl marshall were, argent, on a chief gules three pallets or; or, as it is otherwise given by nisbet, pallé of six, or and gules. the _crest_ of the earl, however, was a hart's head, and he had for supporters two harts. his motto also was that which appears on the banner, "veritas vincit." that the full arms should not appear on the standard i can understand, for it was not common to place them there, and in england the tudor ms. prescribes that, besides the cross of st. george, standards and guidons are to have on them not the arms, but only the bearers "_beast_ or crest, with his devyce and word." it is possible, therefore, that the earl may have placed on his flag his well-known crest with the heads of the two harts forming his supporters, though such an arrangement would be unusual. [illustration: fig. .--standard of earl douglas, a.d. .] the relic of a still older fight than that of flodden is still preserved in scotland in the standard borne by earl douglas at otterburn--one of the most chivalrous battles, according to froissart, that was ever fought. the story, as told in all the histories,[ ] is that shortly before the battle, in a skirmish before newcastle, douglas, in a personal encounter with percy, won the pennon of the english leader, and boasted that he would carry it to scotland and plant it on his castle of dalkeith; and till lately this standard was supposed to be the flag so captured. but recent investigation has shown that the flag--which, by the way, is not a pennon but a standard thirteen feet long--is that of douglas himself, which of course his son would be careful to preserve and bring back. the flag is now much faded, and the second word of the motto was, when i saw it lately, not legible, but the motto is undoubtedly that of earl douglas, "jamais arriere" (fig. ). the devices are not the arms as borne by his descendants the dukes of douglas;--indeed they are not arranged as a coat of arms at all. but the lion rampant for galloway, the saltire for the lordship of annandale, and the heart and the star, are all douglas bearings. curiously enough, there are two hearts, while the later earls bore only one, and there is only one star, while on their shields they carried three. the real trophies, the capture of which, in all probability, precipitated the battle, are to be found in two other relics which are preserved along with the flag. they consist of two lady's gauntlets, fringed with filigree work in silver, on each of which is embroidered the white lion of the percys. the gloves are of different sizes, and were perhaps love pledges, carried by percy suspended from his spear or helmet, as was the fashion of the time; and the loss of such tokens was quite as likely as the loss of a personal flag, to cause the northumbrian knight to pursue douglas and force him to battle.[ ] these relics are in the possession of the family of douglas of cavers in roxburghshire, descended from the earl who was slain at otterburn. [ ] tytler's _history of scotland_, ii. , &c. [ ] paper read by mr. j. a. h. murray of hawick to the hawick archæological society. [illustration: fig. .--banner of the douglas's.] along with them is preserved another old flag of the douglas's, but evidently of a later date. it is a good example of the square banner borne by knights of noble rank. it is about inches square, and bears on a shield the douglas arms, but with the heart as originally borne before it was ensigned with a crown, and the chivalric motto still used by the cavers family, "doe or die" (fig. ). flags borne by trades. besides national and personal flags, those of trades and companies were frequently carried in armies, and of these many examples occur in the illuminated copies of froissart. on one occasion we find on a banner azure a chevron between a hammer, trowel, and plumb. on another there is an axe and two pairs of compasses. and on the painting of the battle between philip d'artevel and the flemings, and the king of france, banners occur charged with boots and shoes, drinking vessels, &c. in scotland an interesting example is preserved of a trades flag which was borne at flodden, and which was presented in by james iii. to the trades of edinburgh (fig. ). it is familiarly known as the _blue blanket_, and is in the possession of the trades' maidens' hospital of edinburgh. in an accompanying memorandum it is described thus: "the blue blanket or standard of the incorporated trades of edinburgh. renewed by margaret, queen of james iii., king of scots: borne by the craftsmen at the battle of flodden in , and displayed on subsequent occasions when the liberties of the city or the life of the sovereign were in danger." the field of the flag has been blue, but it is now much faded. in the upper corner is the white saltire of scotland, with the crown above and the thistle in base. on a scroll in the upper part of the flag are the words, "fear god and honor the king with a long life and a prosperous reigne;" and, in a scroll below, the words, "and we that is tradds shall ever pray to be faithfull for the defence of his sacred majestes royal persone till death." the flag is about ten feet in length. [illustration: fig. .--the "blue blanket," a.d. .] flags of the covenanters. of the flags borne in scotland by the covenanters, in their noble struggle for liberty, several are extant, and connected as they are with so important a part of scottish national history, they are replete with interest. one of these, which is preserved by the antiquarian society of edinburgh, bears the national cross, the white saltire of scotland, with five roses in the centre point, and the inscription "for religion, covenants, king, and kingdomes" (fig. ). [illustration: fig. .--flag of the covenanters, a.d. .] for the description of another of these flags of the covenanters, to which a more than usual interest attaches, we are indebted to the late distinguished artist and archæologist mr. james drummond, r.s.a.[ ] mr. drummond says it was known as "the bluidy banner," and it is important as confirming a statement which had been disputed, namely, that hamilton of preston, who commanded the covenanters at the battle of bothwell brig, gave out "no quarter" as the word of the day. hamilton himself, in his "vindication," not only acknowledges this, but boasts of it--"blessing god for it," he says, and "desiring to bless his holy name that since he helped me to set my face to his work, i never had nor would take a favour from mine enemies, either on the right or left hand, and desire to give as few." but wodrow denies the statement--characterizing it as an unjust imputation on the covenanters, and in this he is followed by dr. m'crie. the discovery of the flag, however, puts the matter beyond doubt. mr. drummond found it in the possession of an old gentleman and his sister in east lothian, and it was only after much persuasion that he was allowed to see it and take a drawing of it. on his asking the old lady why she objected to show it to strangers, she said: "it's the bluidy banner, ye ken, and what would the roman catholics say if they kenned that our forbears had fought under such a bluidy banner." by roman catholics mr. drummond understood her to include episcopalians and all others of a different religious persuasion from her own. the flag is of blue silk. the first line of the inscription, which is composed of gilt letters, is in the hebrew language--"jehovah nissi"--the lord is my banner. the next line is painted in white--"for christ and his truths;" and then come the words, in a reddish or blood colour, "no quarters for y^e active enimies of y^e covenant." the detailed account given by the custodiers to mr. drummond, left no doubt as to the authenticity of this flag. (see plate ii.) [ ] paper read before the society of antiquarians of scotland, th june, . [illustration: plate ii. "the bluidie banner" carried at bothwell brig. a.d. .] national flags. but i must proceed to speak of our national flags. for a long time the distinguishing flag of england has been a red cross on a white field. the flag of scotland is a white saltire (or st. andrew's cross) on a blue field, and what has come to be called the flag of ireland is a red saltire on a white field. but ireland, strictly speaking, never had till lately a national flag. the kings of ireland previous to were not hereditary but elective. they were chosen from among the petty kings, and each king, when elected, brought with him and continued to use his own standard. after the invasion of the standard of ireland bore three golden crowns on a blue field, and the three crowns appear on ancient irish coins. henry viii. relinquished this device for the harp, from an apprehension, it is said, that the three crowns might be taken for the triple crown of the pope; but the harp did not appear in the royal standard till it was placed there by james i. neither had st. patrick a cross. the cross-saltire, so far as it belongs to any saint, is sacred to st. andrew only. the origin of the scottish saltire, however, may possibly be found in the sacred monogram--the greek x (ch), the initial letter of our lord's name as borne by the emperor constantine, to which i have already referred. i do not know when the irish saltire was first introduced, as a national flag, but from the early conquest of ireland the fitzgeralds have borne as their arms a red saltire on a white field.[ ] [ ] _heraldry of the sea._ the union flag. in , on the union of the _crowns_ of england and scotland, the first union flag was formed by the combination of st. george's cross with the saltire of scotland; but this flag appears to have been used for ships only. the order by the king for its construction and use bears to have been made "in consequence of certain differences between his subjects of north and south britain anent the bearing of their flags;" and in the proclamation issued in , king james appoints that "from henceforth all our subjects of this isle and kingdom of great britain shall bear in the maintop the red cross commonly called st. george's cross, and the white cross commonly called st. andrew's cross, joined together according to a form made by our heralds, and sent by us to our admiral to be published to our said subjects." this was the first union flag. the scots being, however, sensitively jealous of england, insisted on using their own national flag as well as the union, and it was no doubt owing to this that the proclamation goes on to provide that "in their foretop our subjects of south britain shall wear the red cross only as they were wont, and our subjects of north britain in their foretop the white cross only, as they were accustomed." in the ensign the union was not worn till a considerable time afterwards--the union by itself being then as now worn by the king's ships as a jack at the bowsprit. on the death of charles i. the commonwealth parliament, professing to be the parliament of england only, and of ireland as a dependency, expunged the scottish cross from the flag with its blue field. the flag of command ordered to take the place of the union, and to be borne by the admirals of the respective squadrons, at the main, fore, and mizen, is described[ ] as "the arms of england and ireland in two escutcheons on a red flag within a compartment or,"--that of the admiral, according to mr. pepys, being encircled by a laurel wreath, while those of the vice and rear-admirals were plain. the ensigns showed the irish harp on the fly.[ ] [ ] order dated th march, . [ ] _heraldry of the sea_, p. . on the restoration in the union flag was reintroduced, and when england and scotland became constitutionally united in , this was confirmed, with an order that it should be used "in all flags, banners, standards, and ensigns, _both at sea and land_." the order in council bears "that the flaggs be according to the draft marked c, wherein the crosses of st. george and st. andrew are conjoined;" but none of the drafts appear in the register. a representation of this flag will be found in plate iii. no. i., and there being no draft to copy, i have given it according to the verbal blazon, viz. azure a saltire argent surmounted by a cross gules fimbriated of the second--that is, the st. george's cross with a narrow white border. on the union with ireland in the beginning of the present century the irish saltire was introduced. the st. george's cross remained as it was, but the saltires of scotland and ireland were placed side by side, but "counterchanged"--that is, in the first and third divisions or quarters, the white, as senior, is uppermost, and in the second and fourth the red is uppermost. the "verbal blazon," or written direction, is very distinct, but in making the flag, or rather in showing pictorially how it was to be represented, a singular and very absurd error occurred, which, in the manufacture of our flags, has been continued to the present day, and which it may be interesting to explain. the verbal blazon is contained in the minute by the king in council, and in the proclamation which followed on it, issued on st of january, . i need not give the technical words; suffice to say that the flag is appointed to be blue, with the three crosses, or rather, the one cross and two saltires combined. and, in order to meet a law in heraldry, that colour is not to be placed on colour, or metal upon metal, it is directed that where the red crosses of england and ireland come in contact with the blue ground of the flag, they are to be "fimbriated"--that is, separated from the blue by a very narrow border of one of the metals--in this case silver, or white. of heraldic necessity this border of both the red crosses fell to be of the same breadth. to use the words of the written blazon, the st. george's cross is to be "fimbriated _as the saltire_;" a direction so plain that the merest tyro in heraldry could not fail to understand it, and be able to paint the flag accordingly. let me premise another thing. it is a universal rule in heraldry that the verbal blazon, when such exists, is alone of authority. different artists may, from ignorance or from carelessness, express the drawing differently from the directions before them, and this occurs every day; but no one is or can be misled by that if he has the verbal blazon to refer to. now, in the important case of the union flag it so happened that the artist who, according to the practice usual in such cases, was instructed to make a drawing of the flag on the margin of the king's order in council, was either careless or ignorant or stupid. most probably he was all three, and here is how he depicted it. the horizontal lines represent blue and the perpendicular red; the rest is white. (see fig. .) [illustration: fig. .--union flag as depicted a.d. .] now here, it will be observed, the red saltire of ireland is "fimbriated" white, according to the instructions; and this is done with perfect accuracy, by the narrowest possible border. but the st. george's cross, instead of being fimbriated in the same way--which the written blazon expressly says it shall be--is not fimbriated at all. the cross is placed upon a ground of white so broad that it ceases to be a border. the practical effect of this, and its only heraldic meaning, is, that the centre of the flag, instead of being occupied solely by the st. george's cross, is occupied by _two crosses_, a white cross with a red one superinduced on it. so palpable is this that mr. laughton, the accomplished lecturer on naval history at the royal naval college, in a lecture recently published, suggests that this is perhaps what was really intended. "a fimbriation," he says, "is a narrow border to prevent the unpleasing effect of metal on metal or colour on colour. it should be as narrow as possible to mark the contrast. but the white border of our st. george's cross is not, strictly speaking, a fimbriation at all. it is a white cross of one-third the width of the flag surmounted of a red cross." and his hypothesis is that this may have been intended to commemorate a tradition of the combination of the red cross of england with the white cross of france.[ ] the suggestion is ingenious and interesting, but it has clearly no foundation. there might have been something to say for it had there been only the drawing to guide us. in that case, indeed, the theory of mr. laughton, or some one similar, would be absolutely necessary to account for the two crosses. but mr. laughton overlooks the important facts, first, that we possess in the verbal blazon distinct written instructions; secondly, that where such exist no drawing which is at variance with them can possess any authority; and lastly, that in this case the verbal blazon not only is silent as to a second cross, but it expressly prescribes that there shall be only one, that of st. george. to that nothing is to be added--nothing, that is, but the narrow border or fimbriation necessary to meet the heraldic requirement to separate it from the blue ground of the flag, the same as is directed to be done, and as has been done, with the saltire of ireland. [ ] _heraldry of the sea_, . some years ago i called the attention of the admiralty to this extraordinary blunder, and i pointed out then, just what mr. laughton has done in his recent lecture, that the flag, as made, really shows two crosses in the centre. the admiralty referred the matter to garter king of arms, but sir albert woods, while he did not say a word in defence of the arrangement, would not interfere. "the flag," he said, "was made according to the drawing,"--which was too true--"and it was exhibited," he added, "in the same way on the colours of the queen's infantry regiments;" and, naturally enough, he declined the responsibility of advising a change. and so it remains. i may observe, however, that in one, at least, of the horse guards' patterns, the arrangement of the tinctures is not, as sir albert supposes, according to the original drawing, and it is different from the pattern prescribed by the admiralty. i refer to the flag prescribed for the use of military authorities "when embarked in boats or other vessels." in that flag, of which an official copy is now before me, the fimbriation of the irish saltire is of much greater breadth than it is in the admiralty flag, while that saltire itself is considerably reduced in breadth. besides the error in the border of the st. george's cross, the breadth of the irish saltire in all our flags, as now manufactured, is less than that of the white cross of scotland, which is clearly wrong. for obvious reasons, and according to the written blazon, they ought to be the same. indeed, all the three crosses ought to be of the same breadth. so great, however, is the difference in practice, that in the official admiralty directions for the construction of a flag of given dimensions, while the st. george's cross is appointed to be inches in breadth, that of st. andrew is to be only inches, and the irish cross only --this last being exactly the same as the breadth appointed for the border of the cross of st. george! figure ii. of plate iii. shows the flag as made according to the erroneous pattern now in use. figure iii. shows it as it ought to be, and as it is appointed to be made by the distinct terms of the verbal blazon, in the order by the king in council. but the breadth of the st. george's cross i have left unaltered. it is to be hoped that heraldic propriety will prevail over a practice originating in obvious error, and that our national flag will be flown according to its true blazon. the correction would be very easily made. the reduction of the breadth of the border of st. george's cross and the slight increase in the width of the irish saltire would be little noticed, while, besides correcting obvious errors, it would have the advantage of bringing the flag, in one important respect, into conformity with the design as represented on the coinage. on the reverse of our beautiful bronze coins the st. george's cross on britannia's shield is fimbriated as it ought to be, that is, by the narrow border prescribed by the written blazon. [illustration: union flags and pendant. plate iii.] [illustration: fig. .] but if the penny is right in that respect, it exhibits another extraordinary example of our slipshod heraldry, by a variation of a different and more startling kind. my complaint against the flag, as made, is, that it represents four crosses, but on the penny there are only two. this was all right when the design was first made in the reign of charles ii., but when the third cross was added to the flag the three crosses should have appeared on the coin. a desire to adhere to the original design cannot certainly be pleaded, for there have been many changes in this figure of britannia. she was first placed there by charles ii. in honour of the beautiful duchess of richmond, who sat to the sculptor for the figure. but her drapery on the coin of those days was very scanty, and her semi-nude state was hardly in keeping with the stormy waves beside which she was seated. queen anne, like a modest lady as she was, put decent clothing on her, and made her stand upright, and took away her shield, crosses and all. in the subsequent reigns she was allowed to sit down again, and she got back her shield, with the trident in her left hand and an olive-branch in the right. on the present coinage--a copy of which (the penny) is shown in fig. --the drapery of queen anne is retained, but the figure is entirely turned round, and faces the sinister side of the coin, instead of the dexter, as at first, and the olive-branch (_absit omen_) has been taken away. but with all these changes there remain only two crosses on the shield. the reader will naturally suppose, however, that the omission consisted in not adding the irish saltire to that of scotland, which had been there from the first. but no. in this instance there was certainly no "injustice to ireland," for the extraordinary thing is, that the st. andrew's cross has been taken away altogether, and the saltire of ireland, distinguished by its fimbriated border, has been put in its place, scotland being not now represented on the coin at all. of course this has arisen from mere carelessness at the mint, but it is an error which ought to be at once corrected. the union jack. but to return to our flags. the union jack is a diminutive of the union. it is exclusively a ship flag, and, although of the same pattern as the union, it ought never to be called the union _jack_ except when it is flown on the jack-staff,--a staff on the bowsprit or fore part of a ship. it is extraordinary how little this distinction is understood. for example, in the queen's regulations for the army a list of stations is given at which it is directed that "the national flag, _the union jack_, is authorized to be hoisted." and in a general order issued from the north british head quarters as to the arrangements to be observed on a recent occasion of the sitting of the general assembly in edinburgh, it was stated that "the union jack" would be displayed from the castle and at the palace of holyrood. but the _union jack_ is never flown on shore. the proper name of the national flag is _the union_. it is the shore flag, and, except personal flags, the only one which is displayed from fortresses and other stations. at the royal arsenal and a few other stations the union flag is displayed daily. at others, such as sandgate castle and rye, it is flown only on anniversaries. at tilbury, edinburgh castle, and other places, it is hoisted on sundays and anniversaries. and there are similar rules for foreign stations. on board her majesty's ships the union is sometimes displayed, but only on special occasions. it is hoisted at the mizen top-gallant-masthead when the queen is on board, the royal standard and the flag of the lord high admiral being at the same time hoisted at the main and fore top-gallant-mastheads respectively. and an admiral of the fleet hoists the union at the main top-gallant-masthead. the army regulations, however, referring to the presence of the queen on board ship, again confound the two flags, and prescribe that a salute shall be fired by forts whenever a ship passes showing the flags which indicate the presence of the sovereign, and among these is specified "_the union jack_ at the mizen top-gallant-masthead." if the commandant of a fortress acted on this, her majesty might pass every day of the year without a salute, as he would certainly never see the union _jack_ in that position. the mistake is the more curious as the regulations elsewhere distinguish the union jack from the union by speaking of the latter as the "great union." the jack when flown from the mast with a white border is the signal for a pilot. in this case it is called the pilot jack. when flown from the bowsprit of a merchant ship it must also have a white border. it has been said that the term "jack" is derived from the name of the sovereign james i. (_jacques_), in whose reign it was constructed. this is the legend at the admiralty, but it is of doubtful authority. the oxford glossary says there is not a shadow of evidence for it, and traces the word to the surcoat worn of old by the soldiery called a _jacque_--whence jacket. but this also is doubtful. the union, or junction of the three crosses, is used in other cases in the royal navy, and also in the merchant service, not by itself, but in certain combinations. the ensign. the flag under which all our ships now sail is the ensign. in early times every chieftain or knight, whether serving in the field or on board ship, had his own distinguishing flag, and if several knights were embarked in one ship, the ship carried the flags of them all. in one of the illuminations of the reign of henry vi., the sides of a ship are covered with shields, and in other examples armorial devices are even shown painted on the sails. when engaged in any active service, a ship would carry also the flag of the leader or admiral, and, in addition to this, the emblem of some patron saint, depending in this on the caprice or superstition of the owner. besides these a ship usually bore the flag of her port--a usage which, so far as merchant ships are concerned, still holds among us in the practice of carrying what are known as "house flags," though now strictly subordinated to that of carrying the national ensign. with ships of other countries the usage continued till comparatively lately. in france, down to the revolution, merchant ships flew the flag of their port more commonly than the flag of france; as for instance, of marseilles, white with a blue cross; or of dunkirk, barry of six argent and azure, with the alternative of the old english white ensign, white with a small st. george's cross in the upper corner next the hoist, derived from the english sovereignty in the seventeenth century.[ ] in the same way in the baltic: in the netherlands almost every port had its own flag, and the free towns of germany till quite recently followed the same practice. it was the same in england in early times--a sailor being more a sailor of his port than of his country. [ ] laughton's _heraldry of the sea_. now, as a rule, the ships of all countries sail under their national colours. with us the flag under which all our ships sail is the ensign, of which there are three--the white, the blue, and the red. it is a large flag of one of the colours named, with the union in a square or canton at the upper part of the hoist. i may explain that the portion of a flag next the staff or rope from which it is flown is called the hoist, the next is called the centre, and the outer portion the fly. besides the union in the canton, the white ensign has the st. george's cross extending over the whole field. although the union flag of great britain was appointed by royal order in , it was not inserted in the ensign till . previous to that the ensign bore only the english cross in the canton. in the royal navy, not always, but for some time previous to , the fleet consisted of three divisions called the white, the blue, and the red squadrons, each carrying its distinctive ensign, and, latterly, each having its admiral called after the colour of his flag. but till there was no admiral of the red. previous to that the admiral commanding in the centre flew at the main, not the red flag, but the union. the first notice of the division of the fleet appears in a ms. report by mr. pepys, secretary to the admiralty, in which it is stated that in the duke of buckingham's expedition against the isle of rhé in the fleet was thus divided. the notice is interesting:--"the duke now lying at portsmouth divided his fleete into squadrons. himselfe, admirall and generall in chiefe, went in y^e triumph, bearing the standard of england in y^e maine topp, and admirall particular of the bloody colours. the earle of lindsay was vice-admirall to the fleete in the rainbowe, bearing the king's usual colours in his fore topp, and a blew flag in his maine topp, and was admiral of the blew colours. the lord harvey was rear admirall in y^e repulse bearing the king's usual colours in his mizen, and a white flag in the maine topp, and was admirall of y^e squadron of white colours." in this instance it will be observed the blue flag took precedence of the white. under the commonwealth the blue was put down to the third place, and when on the restoration the union flag was reintroduced, the precedence of the three colours remained as it had been determined by the commonwealth. the arrangement of the fleet into three divisions continued till ; but it often proved puzzling to foreigners, and it was found inconvenient in action. it was for this last reason that lord nelson, on going into action at trafalgar, ordered the whole of his fleet to hoist the white ensign, and it was under that flag that that great victory was gained. during the wars of the seventeenth century the dutch fleets were also divided into three squadrons, distinguished, like the english, by the three colours--orange or red, white, and blue, and both with them and in our own service this was perhaps necessary when fleets consisted of such a large number of ships--our own numbering often as many as sail. latterly, when fleets were comparatively so much smaller, the distinctive colours became of less importance, and in the classification was discontinued. now the white ensign only is used by all her majesty's ships in commission. previous to this it had been ordered by royal proclamation, in , that merchant ships should fly only the red ensign, and this is still the rule; but since the three divisions of the fleet were abolished, the blue ensign is allowed to be used by british merchant ships when commanded by officers of the royal naval reserve, provided one-third of the crew be men belonging to the reserve. by permission of the admiralty the blue ensign is also allowed to be used by certain yacht clubs; and the members of one club--the royal yacht squadron--have liberty to use the white ensign. special flags. the flag of the lord high admiral is crimson, having on it an anchor and cable, and it is hoisted on any ship of which that high officer is on board. it is also hoisted at the fore top-gallant-masthead of every ship of which the queen may be on board. the flag of an admiral is white with the cross of st. george on it. it is only flown by an admiral when employed afloat, and then at the main, fore, or mizen top-gallantmast-head, according as he is a full, vice, or rear admiral. the union flag and the blue ensign are, with the addition of certain distinctive badges, used as personal flags by certain high officers, and also in particular departments of the service. for example, the flag of the lord-lieutenant of ireland is the union with a blue shield in the centre, charged with a golden harp. the governor-general of india has the union with the star of india in the centre surmounted by a crown, and this also is the flag of british burmah. british ministers, chargés d'affaires, fly the union with the royal arms in the centre within a circle argent surrounded by a wreath. our consuls have the blue ensign with the royal arms in the fly. there are also differences in the union or ensign with distinctive badges for other offices and departments, and for the colonies. the pendant. the pendant is a well-known flag in ships of war. it is of two kinds, the long and the broad. the first is a long, narrow, tapering flag--the usual length being twenty yards, while it is only four inches broad at the head. an admiralty memorandum regarding the history of our flags bears that the origin of the long pendant is generally understood to have been this:--after the defeat of the english fleet under blake, by the dutch fleet under van tromp, in , the latter cruised in the channel with a broom at the mast-head of his ship, to signify that he had swept his enemies off the sea. in the following year the english fleet defeated the dutch, whereupon the admiral commanding hoisted a long streamer from his mast-head to represent the lash of a whip, signifying that he had whipped his enemies off the sea. hence the pendant, which has been flown ever since. this certainly has been the popular tradition, and the english admiral may, on the occasion referred to, have adopted a flag of the description and for the purpose mentioned, but it was not altogether a new form of flag. in the tudor ms. we find a description of a long tapering flag of somewhat the same description. it is called a streamer, and is appointed to "stand in the top of a ship or in the forecastle, and therein is to be put no armes but a man's conceit or device, and may be of length , , , or yards, and is slitt as well as a guydhomme or standard." from this description the streamer would appear to have been a personal flag bearing "the conceit or device"--crest, badge, or motto--of the owner. as now used in our navy the long pendant is of two colours--one white with a red cross in the part next the mast; the other blue with a red cross on a white ground. the first is flown from the mast-head of all her majesty's ships in commission, when not otherwise distinguished by a flag or broad pendant. the other is worn at the masthead of all armed vessels in the employ of the government of a british colony. (see plate iii. no. iv.) the broad pendant or "burgee" is a flag tapering slightly and of a swallow-tailed shape at the fly. it is white with a red st. george's cross, and is flown only by a commodore, or the senior officer of a squadron, to distinguish his ship. if used by a commodore of the first class it is flown at the main top-gallant-masthead. otherwise it is flown at the top-gallant-masthead. signals and other flags. signal flags are those which are used for communication between ships at sea. in the system instituted by james ii. intelligence was communicated or messages interchanged by a confused number of flags exhibited at different parts of the ship. now, signalling has been reduced to a complete system. the flags are of various shapes and colours, each flag representing a letter or number, and by a recent arrangement a universal code has been adopted by which vessels of different nations can now communicate. a flag of truce is white, both at sea and on land, but on board ship it is customary to hoist with it the national flag of the enemy--the white flag at the main and the enemy's ensign at the fore. on one occasion during the war in when the french frigate _clorinde_ was about to be attacked by the british frigate _dryad_, the commander of the former, being desirous to ascertain what terms would be granted in case he surrendered, hoisted french colours aft and english colours forward. under cover of this the french frigate sent a boat with the message. the answer was a refusal to grant any terms, but the boat was allowed to return to the french frigate in safety before the _dryad_ filled and stood towards her. the ensign and pendant at half-mast are the recognised signs of mourning. sometimes also it is an expression of mourning to set the yards at what seamen call "a-cock-bill," that is all the yards topped up different ways on each mast; but this is chiefly done by foreigners, who, on good friday and other occasions, set their yards thus. it is also customary as a sign of mourning to paint the white lines of a ship of a blue colour. in older times, when ships were more gaudily painted and gilded than they are now, they were painted black all over as a sign of mourning. the red or bloody flag is a signal of mutiny, and as such it was displayed in our own navy on two noted occasions in the end of last century, when the fleet at spithead mutinied, and afterwards that at the nore. in the latter case the mutineers hauled down the flag of vice-admiral buckner and in its stead hoisted the red flag. it is a singular fact, however, and characteristic of the british seaman, that on the th of june, the king's birth-day, while the mutiny was at its height, the whole fleet, with the exception of one ship, evinced its loyalty by firing a royal salute, and displaying the colours usual on such occasions, the red flag being struck during the ceremony, and only re-hoisted when it was over.[ ] [ ] james' _naval history_, ii. p. . the yellow flag is the signal of sickness and of quarantine. use of flags in naval warfare. such are the principal naval flags. of the circumstances in which they may or may not be legitimately used, especially in naval warfare, some interesting stories might be told. although it is prohibited to merchant ships to carry the colours used in the navy, this may be done in time of war to deceive an enemy. i may mention one instance when it was practised with happy effect. in the french war in the french rear-admiral sarcy, when cruising with six frigates in the bay of bali, came in sight of five of our indiamen--one of them, the _woodford_, captain lennox. they were homeward bound, and all richly laden, and to all appearance they had no chance of escape, when captain lennox rescued them by an act of great judgment and presence of mind. he first of all hoisted in his own ship a flag which the french admiral knew well--that of the british admiral rainier, blue at the mizen, and he made all the other ships in his company hoist pendants and ensigns to correspond. but he did more. he detached two of the indiamen to chase and reconnoitre the enemy; and as these advanced towards the french reconnoitring frigate the _cybèle_, the latter, completely deceived, made all sail to join her consorts with the signal at her mast-head--"the enemy is superior in force to the french." on this the french admiral, believing that he was in the presence of a powerful british squadron, made off with his frigates under all sail, and captain lennox and his consorts completed their voyage in safety. when admiral sarcy discovered afterwards the ruse that had been practised on him, and which had lost him a prize of such great value, his mortification may be imagined. in going into action it is the custom with the ships of all nations to hoist their national colours. nelson at trafalgar carried this to excess, for he hoisted several flags lest one should be shot away. the french and spaniards went to the opposite extreme, for they hoisted no colours at all, till late in the action, when they began to feel the necessity of having them to strike.[ ] nelson on that occasion ran his ship on board the _redoubtable_, a large seventy-four gun ship, and fought her at such close quarters that the two ships touched each other. twice nelson gave orders to cease firing at his opponent, supposing she had surrendered, because her great guns were silent, and as she carried no flag there was no means of instantly ascertaining the fact. it was from the ship which he had thus twice spared that nelson received his death wound. the ball was fired from the mizen-top, which, so close were the ships, was not more than fifteen yards from the place where he was standing. soon afterwards the _redoubtable_, finding further resistance impossible, hoisted her flag, only to haul it down again in sign of surrender, within twenty minutes after the fatal shot had been fired. in this great battle each of the spanish ships had in addition to her ensign a large wooden cross hung to the end of her spanker boom. [ ] southey's _life of nelson_. when a ship surrenders the fact is usually intimated by her hauling down her flag, but in lord cochrane's spirited attack on the french fleet in basque roads in , two of the french ships, the _varsovie_ and _aquilon_, made the token of submission by each showing a union jack in her mizen chains; and in other instances during the war french ships hoisted a union jack as the signal of their having struck. of course when a ship has surrendered the fire of both ships ceases. in an action off lissa between british ships and a franco-venetian squadron, the french ship _flore_ surrendered to the british frigate _amphion_. immediately afterwards the venetian frigate _bellona_ bore up and commenced a heavy fire against the _amphion_, and some of the shot struck the captured ship on the other side. supposing, erroneously, that the shot came from the british ship, one of the officers of the _flore_, in order to make more clear the fact of her having absolutely surrendered, took the french ensign, halliards and all, and holding them up in his hand over the taffrail to attract the attention of the _amphion's_ people, threw the whole into the sea. having captured the _bellona_ also, the captain of the _amphion_ temporarily left the surrendered ship while he pursued another of the enemy, the _corona_, which he also captured. when thus engaged, however, he was mortified to see his first prize, the _flore_, notwithstanding her emphatic act of submission, dishonourably stealing away, and she actually effected her escape into the harbour of lessina. captain hoste, who commanded the british squadron, afterwards sent a letter by a flag of truce to the captain of the _flore_, demanding restitution of the frigate in the same state as when she struck her flag and surrendered to the _amphion_; but the commander of the french squadron replied by a letter, neither signed nor dated, denying that the _flore_ had struck, and falsely asserting that the colours had been shot away. the letter was sent back and the demand repeated, but no answer was returned. i may mention another instance in which captured colours were thrown into the sea in token of surrender under different circumstances, but not more creditable to the vanquished party. in the war between america and the barbary states in the early part of the century, the united states schooner _enterprise_, under the command of lieutenant sterrett, fell in with and engaged a tripolitan polacre ship, and in the course of the action the colours of the latter were either shot away or struck--in all probability the latter, for the americans believed she had surrendered and quitted their guns. the corsair, however, re-hoisted her flag and continued the action. thereupon the _enterprise_ poured in so destructive a fire that her opponent this time unequivocally hauled down her colours, and lieutenant sterrett ordered her under his lee quarter. this order was obeyed, but the tripolitan, when he got there, thinking his position favourable, re-hoisted the red flag, and having poured another broadside into the _enterprise_, prepared to board. the americans, justly incensed at this treacherous act, delivered a raking broadside which effectually terminated the affair. the tripolitan captain now abjectly implored the quarter which he had justly forfeited, and bending over the waist barricade of his ship, and as an indication of his sincerity, raised his colours in his arms and threw them into the sea. in contrast to the conduct of the captain of the _flore_ in carrying off his ship after he had surrendered, may be mentioned the very different course taken by the officer in command of a french -gun frigate, the _renommée_, which was captured off madagascar in , after an action between a french squadron, and a british squadron under captain schomberg. from the state of the british ships after the action, captain schomberg, when night was coming on, could only send on board the prize a lieutenant of marines and four seamen, in a sinking boat. at this time the _renommée_ had a crew of nearly effective officers and men, and they could have had at once retaken the ship and got off during the night. the crew wished to do so, but colonel barrois, who--the captain having been killed--was now, according to the etiquette of the french service, the commanding officer, acting on a high principle of honour, refused to give his sanction, as they had surrendered by striking their flag. the lieutenant and his few hands remained accordingly in quiet possession of the prize, till the prisoners were taken out next morning, and a proper prize crew placed on board. when an action takes place at night, when flags cannot be seen, other modes of intimating surrender have to be reverted to. in the war with america, in , when a british ship in a disabled state found she had no alternative but to surrender at midnight to an american ship of superior force, she did so by firing a lee gun and hoisting a light. in another case a french frigate, the _néréide_, after a severe action during night with the british frigate _phoebe_, surrendered to the latter by hauling down a light she had been carrying, and hailing that she surrendered. in another case a french ship intimated the fact of her surrender by hoisting a light and instantly hauling it down. when a ship has surrendered and is taken possession of, the captor hoists his ensign over that of the enemy. in one instance a mistake in this produced disastrous results. in the celebrated capture of the _chesapeake_ off boston in , when the american flag was struck, the officer of the _shannon_ who was sent on board the _chesapeake_ to take possession, inadvertently--owing to the halliards being tangled--bent the english flag below the american ensign instead of above it. by this time the two ships were drifting apart, and when the _shannon's_ people saw the american stripes going up first they concluded that their boarding party had been overpowered, and at once reopened their fire, by which their first-lieutenant and several of their own men were killed. the mistake was discovered before the flags had got halfway to the mizen peak, when they were hauled down and hoisted properly. in this brilliant but short action--for between the discharge of the first gun and the conclusion of the fight only fifteen minutes elapsed--the american ship, by way of display, carried more than the ordinary number of flags. she flew three ensigns, one at the mizen, one at the peak, and one, the largest of all, in the starboard main rigging. she had besides, flying at the fore, a large white flag inscribed with the words "sailors' rights and free trade," with the intention, it was supposed, of damping the energy of the _shannon's_ men by this favourite american motto. the _shannon_ had the union at the fore and an old rusty blue ensign at the mizen peak, and besides these she had one ensign on the main stay and another in the main rigging, both rolled up and "stopped" ready to be cast loose in case either of the other flags should be shot away. a similar display of flags occurred on the occasion of the encounter off valparaiso in between the british -gun frigate _phoebe_ and the united states -gun frigate _essex_, which resulted in the capture of the latter. captain porter, who commanded the american ship, made an attempt, as in the case of the _chesapeake_, on the loyalty of the _phoebe's_ seamen, by hoisting at his fore top-gallant-mast head the stock motto, "free trade and sailors' rights." this, in a short time, the british ship answered with the st. george's ensign and the motto, "god and country--british sailors' best rights: traitors offend them." subsequently the _essex_ hoisted her motto flag at the fore, and another on the mizen mast, with one american ensign at the mizen peak and a second lashed on the main rigging. not to be outdone in decorations the british ship hoisted her motto flag with a profuse display of ensigns and union jacks, and all these were flying when the american ship was captured. to hoist false colours in time of war in order to entice an enemy within reach has always been considered legitimate, but it is not allowable to engage, or to commit any hostile act, under them. while it is considered legitimate to mislead, however, it is not legitimate to cheat. an example of what might appear to be a distinction without a difference is afforded by a case which occurred in , when the french ship _sybille_, a powerful -gun frigate, was sighted off cape henry by the _hussar_ of guns. the _sybille_ had, a few days before, had a drawn fight with one of our ships of the same force, and, in consequence of injuries she had then received, had been dismasted in a puff of wind, and was under jury masts. as she was unable to chase the _hussar_, she sought to entice her alongside, in order to take her by boarding, and accordingly she hoisted at the peak the french ensign under the english, as if she had been captured. all this was legitimate, and the _hussar_ might or might not have been deceived by it. but the french captain did something more. he hoisted in the main shrouds an english ensign reversed, and tied in a weft or loop. now this was a well-known signal of distress--an appeal to a common humanity, which no english officer was ever known to disregard, and the _hussar_ closed at once. but fortunately her crew were at quarters, and the _sybille_, hauling down the english flag at the peak and hoisting the french above, endeavoured to run her on board. her extreme rolling, however, steadied by no sufficient sail, exposed her bottom, and several shots from the _hussar_ went through her very bilge. by this time another of our ships, the _centurion_ of guns, had come up, and the _sybille_ struck her flag--the reversed ensign with its weft, so dishonourably hoisted, remaining in the main shrouds. the english officer who took possession sent the french captain on board the _hussar_, and he presented his sword to captain russell on the quarterdeck. russell took the sword, broke it across, and threw it on the deck; and sending the frenchman below, kept him in close confinement in the hold till his arrival in port some days later.[ ] [ ] laughton's _heraldry of the sea_. i may mention another case where a legitimate ruse was successfully practised on an enemy by our great naval commander, lord cochrane. it occurred in the early part of his brilliant career, when he was cruising in the mediterranean in his little brig the _speedy_. this small craft, under her daring and skilful commander, had made herself so much an object of terror by the many captures she had made that a spanish frigate, heavily armed, was fitted out and sent after her. in order to get near the _speedy_ the spaniard was disguised as a merchantman. for the same reason, lord cochrane, to lull suspicion and enable him to get near the merchant craft of the enemy, had also disguised his small vessel, and was sailing as a merchant brig under danish colours. perceiving the supposed spanish merchantman, lord cochrane at once gave chase, and he only discovered his mistake when his formidable antagonist opened her ports and showed her teeth. at the same time the spaniard lowered a boat to go on board the _speedy_ and see what she was. discovery and capture were apparently now unavoidable, but lord cochrane was equal to the occasion. hoisting the yellow flag--the dreaded signal of sickness and quarantine--he made straight for the frigate, and, having dressed a petty officer in danish uniform, on the gangway, he ordered him to hail the boat with the intimation that they were out just two days from algiers, where it was well known the plague was then violently raging. this was enough. the boat pulled back, and the frigate at once filled and proceeded on her course. it was a narrow escape; yet the crew of the _speedy_ complained loudly that they had not been allowed to fight the frigate! they had been admirably trained, and had implicit confidence in their brave commander, and thought he was equal to anything. lord cochrane was not a man to disregard murmurs uttered in such a direction, and he told them that if they really wanted a fight they would get it with the first enemy they came across, whatever she might be. they had not long to wait before they fell in with a large spanish zebec, the _gamo_, which, to the astonishment of the big ship, lord cochrane immediately attacked. a fight with the guns could not have lasted long, for the spanish ship carried heavy guns with a crew of upwards of men, while the _speedy_ had only four-pounders and a crew of all told. lord cochrane, therefore, notwithstanding this immense disparity of force, determined, as his only chance, to board the frigate, and this he succeeded in doing, taking his entire crew with him and leaving only the surgeon at the wheel. a deadly hand-to-hand conflict ensued, when, just as his small band were nearly overpowered, lord cochrane ordered one of his men to haul down the spanish colours. this was promptly done, and the spaniards--their commander having been killed--thinking that their own officers had struck, ceased fighting, and lord cochrane became master of the frigate. how to take care of his numerous prisoners was not a small difficulty, but he succeeded in doing so, and brought his prize safely into port mahon. it was one of the most brilliant affairs in the glorious life of this great seaman. another interesting example of an enemy's ship being taken in consequence of her colours being hauled down, not by her own officers but by the party assailing, occurred at a much earlier period in an action between the british and dutch fleets off the english coast. a runaway boy--thomas hopson--an apprentice to a tailor in the isle of wight, had just before come on board the admiral's ship as a volunteer. in the midst of the action he asked a sailor how long the fight would continue, and was told that it would only cease when the flag of the dutch admiral was hauled down. the boy did not understand about the striking of colours, but he thought if the hauling down of the flag would stop the fight it might not be difficult to do. as the ships were engaged yard-arm and yard-arm, and veiled in smoke, hopson at once ran up the shrouds, laid out on the mizen-yard of his own ship, and having gained that of the dutch admiral he speedily reached the top-gallant-mast head and possessed himself of the dutch flag, with which he succeeded in returning to his own deck. perceiving the flag to be struck the british sailors raised a shout of victory, and the dutch crew, also deceived, ran from their guns. while the astonished admiral and his officers were trying in vain to rally their crew the english boarded the ship and carried her. for this daring service the boy was at once promoted to the quarter-deck, and he rose to be a distinguished admiral under queen anne. international usage as to flags. in time of peace it is considered an insult to hoist the flag of one friendly nation over that of another. this has given rise to an order that national flags are not to be used for decoration or in dressing ships. this order has reference more particularly to two flags, which are in ordinary use as signal flags. one of these is the french tricolour, but with the red and blue transposed; the other is the dutch flag turned upside down, and there are two pendants to match. an unintentional departure from this rule gave rise to some unpleasantness on one occasion in the early part of this century. on the d of april, , the english frigate _euryalus_, lying at st. thomas in the west indies, had dressed ship in honour of st. george's day--the fête of the prince regent--and in doing so had made use of the blue, white, and red flag, which four years before had been the national flag of france. a three-coloured pennant hung down from the spanker boom and trailed in the water, and another three-coloured flag was at the lower end of the line pendant from the flying boom. this was observed by the french rear-admiral duperré, who was there in the _gloire_, and he demanded and received apologies for what he conceived to be an insult offered to a flag which had lately been the flag of france, and under which he and many of his officers and men had served.[ ] [ ] _heraldry of the sea_, p. . if a foreign flag is hoisted on shore--as it often is in compliment to some distinguished stranger--it must have the staff to itself. in , when the queen of louis philippe visited oban, the proprietor of the caledonian hotel, at which she resided, in compliment to his visitor, and in ignorance, no doubt, of the proprieties of the case, hoisted the french flag over the union. this excited the indignation of an old pensioner, john campbell, who had been a sergeant in the st highlanders--the regiment of campbell of lochnell--and he went to the innkeeper and demanded that matters should be put right. as no attention was paid to his remonstrance, he then and there cut down the french flag, and dared the innkeeper to hoist it again in that manner. the residents in oban were so pleased with campbell's spirited conduct that they presented him with a silver-headed stick. in gun practice it is also held to be an insult to take as a mark the flag of another nation, and sometimes unintentional offence has been given through mistakes about the flags in such circumstances. for the following i am indebted to a distinguished naval officer who was cognizant of the circumstances. some twenty years ago, when the french had an army of occupation in syria, and their fleet and ours were lying amicably together at beyrout, some of the english ships having occasion to practise the men with their rifles, put out their respective targets--which generally consisted of bits of old flags fastened to a stick, and stuck in a small cask anchored off at the required distance--and commenced firing. presently a boat with a superior officer was seen pulling in hot haste from the french flagship. it afterwards transpired that the boat was conveying a polite request that the english would refrain from firing on the french flag--the officer at the same time pointing to an exceedingly dirty piece of bunting which was being riddled by the bullets from one of her majesty's ships. "that's not the french flag," was the answer of the english. "yes, i assure you," the frenchman replied, "we are nearer than you are, and can see the colours. and, pardon me," he added, "another of your ships is at the present moment, in this turkish port, firing on the turkish flag"--pointing at the same time to another target, consisting of a faded bit of red bunting. inquiries were made, and what had been taken for the tricolour was found to be a piece of an old condemned union jack, that had unfortunately been nailed on to the staff without due regard to the position of the colours, while the so-called turkish flag was discovered to be a fragment of an old english red ensign. to the same naval officer i am indebted for the following amusing incident, which i am glad to give in his own words, as he was personally concerned in it. "about the same time," he writes, "another occurrence of the same kind took place at larnaca, in cyprus. it happily ended well, but at one time it looked quite serious. one of our surveying vessels had taken advantage of a lull in the work to practise her crew with her formidable armament of two twenty-four pounders, and on a bright calm mediterranean morning the gunner was sent for by the senior lieutenant, and directed to prepare a target. but here there arose a difficulty. the ship had been a long time from malta, stores of all kinds were scarce, and of old bunting there was absolutely none. the gunner was in despair, but a marine came to the rescue, and offered his pocket-handkerchief as a substitute. it was about the usual size of such articles, and as it had been bought at malta while disturbances were pending at naples, it had the italian colours, green, white, and red, together with a pendant, printed on it, and on the white part some patriotic sentences in italian. the whole presented an ancient and faded appearance, but the gunner accepted it with thanks. "so it was duly nailed on a staff stuck into a small cask, and anchored about yards to seaward. after the firing from the howitzers was finished the men were ordered to fire on it with rifles, which for a time they did. while this was going on a small french brig happened to be lying in the roads, and during the forenoon a boat was observed pulling from her in the direction of the target, but it did not venture very close; the firing was not suspended, and nothing further was thought about it. before going to dinner in the middle of the day, a boat was sent to examine the target to see if it would float, as it was intended to continue the practice in the afternoon, and although it was reported to have been knocked about a good deal, it was thought it might remain afloat as long as it would be required, and so it was left. about an hour afterwards, however, it disappeared, and went to the bottom. "the lieutenant, who had been weary with his work and had gone to bed early, was much astonished at being sent for by the captain about midnight. a formal despatch from our consul had come on board, inclosing a communication from the french representative giving a detailed account of what was described as a gross insult to the french flag, perpetrated by h.m.s. ----, and demanding all kinds of apologies. the prime mover in the affair, it appeared, was a certain captain napoleon something, the commander of the little brig. his story was that he had seen with indignation the flag of his country--in size six feet square by his account--carried out by an english man-of-war boat, and deliberately fired upon. he and his crew, he said, had got into their boat determined to rescue the desecrated ensign, 'even at the risk of their lives,' but on getting near they had thought better of it, and pulled ashore instead. here he had collected all the french residents he could get, whom he harangued, and having persuaded them that the scarcely visible speck was in truth their national flag, he got them to sign a strongly worded protest, and go with it along with him in a body to the french consul. reparation, they said, must be made--the insulted flag must be saluted. so great was the excitement and so plausible the story that the french consul, pending negotiations, sent to beyrout requiring the immediate presence of a french man-of-war. in fact there was all the groundwork of a very pretty row. meantime the cause of all the commotion was lying at the bottom of the sea, with five or six fathoms of water over it. a written explanation of the circumstance was sent from the ship, and a meeting arranged for next day at the english consulate; and in the meantime a number of boats were sent early in the morning to try and fish up the bone of contention, as without it there was only the english word against the french. at the consulate there was a stormy meeting--much hard swearing and vociferation on the part of the french captain and his crew, with the affidavits of any number of respectable french residents, formally drawn up and signed. everybody was getting very angry, and prospect of an amicable settlement there was none, when in a momentary lull the english lieutenant asked the french captain--who had for the fiftieth time declared that it _was_ a french flag, and six feet square at least--'whether it was likely that he knew more about it than the marine who had blown his nose with it for the last six months.' this in some measure restored good humour. the meeting separated in a more friendly spirit than had at first seemed possible, and when, on the following day, a lucky cast of the grapnel brought to the surface the innocent cause of the disturbance, there was an end of the matter. torn by bullets, draggled and wet as it was, the wretched handkerchief was borne in triumph to the french consulate, and of course there was no more to be said. the consul made the proper _amende_, and the man-of-war, which actually appeared from beyrout a few hours afterwards to vindicate the honour of the french flag, returned to her anchorage." i shall just add one more incident of the same kind, for which i am indebted to another naval officer. in an english corvette visited tahiti. the island, being under french protection, flies a special flag, and as it is one which is not supplied to english men-of-war, it is usual, when it is necessary for them to salute, to borrow a protectorate flag from the authorities. on the occasion in question, accordingly, the flag was sent off by the governor's aide-de-camp (a naval officer) on the evening of the corvette's arrival at papeite, and the flag having been hoisted on the following morning, the salute was duly fired. but the display of the flag caused a terrible commotion on shore. on such occasions the whole population turns out to see the salute, and the beach of the beautiful land-locked, or rather reef-inclosed, harbour was crowded with french and tahitians watching the corvette, which was moored close under the town. the cause of the commotion was that the flag had been improperly made, so that in hoisting it the french ensign, by pure inadvertence, appeared underneath that of tahiti. the indignation of the french was great, and they hastened to complain to the governor that their flag had been deliberately insulted by her majesty's ship. the mistake, fortunately, lay entirely with the authorities on shore. it was only on hauling it down that the officer in command found it had been caused by the flag being improperly constructed, the technical explanation being that the distance line had been sewed in, the wrong way, with the taggle towards the bottom of the flag--a very trifling thing in itself, but which, if unexplained, might have led to serious consequences. of course the flag was immediately sent to the governor with the explanation, and there was an end of it. so much for naval flags. flags of the british army. i have already noticed incidentally some of the flags used in the armies of england in early times. those used in the latter part of the thirteenth century, and early in the fourteenth, were, besides those of the knights and bannerets, the royal standard and the banners of st. george, of st. edmund, and of st. edward. subsequently various changes took place which it is unnecessary to follow. at present in the british army every regiment of infantry has two flags. they are both made of silk, in this differing from sea flags, which are usually made of bunting. with the exception of the foot guards, the first or queen's colours of every regiment is the union or national flag, with the imperial crown in the centre, and the number of the regiment beneath in gold. the second or regimental colours are, with certain exceptions, of the colour of the facing of the regiment, with the union in the upper corner. the second colours of all regiments bear the devices or badges and distinctions which have been conferred by royal authority. fig. is a representation of the regimental or second colours of the first battalion of the th regiment, for which i am indebted to the courtesy of sir albert woods. it will serve as an example of the regimental colours of other regiments. the pole, it will be observed, is surmounted by the royal crest, and this is common to all regiments carrying colours. the ground of the flag is grass green. the crown and wreath are "proper," that is of the natural colours. the scrolls are gold with black letters. [illustration: fig. .--regimental colours of first battalion of th regiment.] the first or royal colours of the foot guards are crimson, and bear certain special distinctions besides those authorized for the second colours--the whole surmounted by the imperial crown. the second, or regimental colours, of the foot guards is the union, with one of the ancient badges conferred by royal authority. the first battalion of the scots fusilier guards possesses the high distinction of carrying on their first colours the royal arms of scotland. [illustration: fig. .--queen's colours of the first battalion of th regiment.] the colours of infantry are as a rule carried by the two junior lieutenants, and our military annals present many examples of devoted heroism by the standard-bearers in defence of their charge. among such incidents few are more interesting than the loss and recovery of the queen's colours of the first battalion of the th regiment in the african campaign of - , to which i have already referred. it will be recollected that lieutenants melville and coghill, after crossing the river tugela with the queen's colours, were overtaken and attacked by overwhelming numbers and shot down. they died bravely, revolvers in hand, but their pursuers failed to get possession of their precious charge--the colours having been found near them when the bodies were recovered. the queen was much affected by this incident, and bestowed on the young heroes after death the highest distinction for valour in her power--the victoria cross. on the arrival of the colours in england the queen expressed a wish to see them, and they were taken to osborne, where her majesty tied on them a small wreath of immortelles as a mark of her deep sense of the heroism of the two young officers who gave their lives to save the flag. fig. shows the colours in the state in which they were, when presented to the queen, with the wreath placed upon them by her majesty. the colours of the second battalion of the th had been left in camp when the troops advanced to meet the zulus, and they were consequently captured. no trace of them could be found till some time afterwards when the pole with its crown was recovered by a party of the th lancers in a zulu kraal near ulundi. this remnant continued to be carried by the regiment for upwards of a year, when new colours were presented to them at gibraltar on behalf of the queen by lord napier of magdala. the old colours, or rather their pole with the crown, were first trooped. the new colours were then uncovered, and, after consecration, presented--lord napier stating that her majesty knew very well that the flag had not been lost through any default of the battalion, but only in consequence of their having been placed in camp when the battalion went to the front under the general commanding. the presentation of new colours with the accompanying consecration service is an interesting ceremony. as the form may not be generally known, i shall describe a recent one when new colours were presented by the prince of wales to the first battalion of the d regiment (the royal welsh fusiliers) on their embarkation for india. it is specially interesting in connection with the history of the old ragged colours which were then superseded. they had been presented by the late prince consort thirty-one years before, and in the crimea they were the first which were planted on the heights of the alma. two lieutenants were successively shot while holding them, and they were finally seized by sergeant o'connor, who, though wounded, held them aloft and rallied the regiment. for this service he was decorated with the victoria cross. shortly afterwards he received his commission, and subsequently he became colonel of the battalion. on the recent arrival of the troops at portsmouth they were drawn up on the military recreation ground, and the prince and princess of wales having taken their place at the saluting point, the regiment marched past, headed by the goat which always accompanies it. the old colours were then trooped and conveyed to the rear, and three sides of a square having been formed, with a pyramid of the drums in the centre, the new colours were uncased. the royal party then advanced, and the senior chaplain of the regiment read the consecration service. the queen's colours and the regimental colours were then handed to the prince, and he presented them to the two lieutenants who received them kneeling. the prince having spoken a few appropriate words, and the colonel having replied, the colours were saluted by the whole regiment. another march past, and the presentation of the officers to the prince, concluded the ceremony. in the cavalry the standards of regiments of dragoon guards are of crimson silk damask, embroidered and fringed with gold, and their guidons, anciently called "guydhomme"--a swallow-tailed flag--are of crimson silk. each is inscribed with the peculiar devices, distinctions, and mottoes of the regiment. the standards and guidons of cavalry are carried by troop sergeant-majors. the hussars and lancers have no standards. they were discontinued, for what reason i do not know, by william iv., and their badges and devices are now borne on their appointments. neither the royal engineers nor the rifles have colours. neither have the royal artillery; nor is it necessary that they should have any on which to record special services, for the artillery is represented in every action. their appropriate motto, _ubique_, is borne on their appointments. none of the volunteer regiments carries colours. the queen's and regimental colours always parade with the regiment. on march they are cased, but they are always uncased when carried into action. for military authorities "when embarked in boats or other vessels," there is, as we have seen, a special flag. it is the union with the royal initials in the centre on a blue circle, surrounded by a green garland, and surmounted by the imperial crown. use of flags by private persons. in regard to the use of the national flag by private persons, there is a positive rule as to marine flags, but none, so far as i am aware, as to its use on shore. i have occasionally seen it flown on shore with a white border, under an impression, apparently, that this difference was necessary, but it is unmeaning, and there is no authority for it. in numberless instances we see one or other of the marine ensigns hoisted on shore over gentlemen's houses, or used in street decoration on the occasion of public rejoicings; but nothing could be more absurd, as the ensign is exclusively a ship flag. any private individual entitled to armorial bearings may carry them on a flag. in such cases the arms should not be on a shield, but filling the entire flag. the flags and banners represented in works on heraldry have almost invariably a fringe; but this is optional. if a fringe is used it should be composed of the livery colours, each tincture of the arms giving its colour to the portion of the fringe which adjoins it. in the british army the colours of the different regiments are fringed. foreign flags: france. my notice of foreign flags must be short. those of france and america have naturally most interest for us. previous to the revolution the french can hardly be said to have had a national flag. the colours of the reigning families--changing as they did with each fresh dynasty, as was the case in our own early history--were accepted in the place of national standards, while each regiment in the army followed colours of its own. the celebrated _chape de saint martin de tours_ and the _oriflamme_ of the abbey of saint denis, were, like the labarum of constantine, ecclesiastical banners, symbolic of the two patrons of christian france watching over her in her battles. the chape de saint martin was a banner imitating in form a cape or cloak, and was of blue. the oriflamme was red with a green fringe. by the end of the tenth century this had become the royal standard. in one of the windows of the cathedral of chartres (of the thirteenth century) there is a representation of henri sieur de argentin et du mez, marshall of france under st. louis, receiving from the hands of st. denis a banner which is supposed to be the oriflamme. fig. is a copy of this interesting old work of art. the banner, it will be observed, has five points; but in other examples it has only three, each having attached to it a tassel of green silk. [illustration: fig. .--the oriflamme, circa .] the royal banner of st. louis was blue powdered with fleurs-de-lis in gold, and these fleurs-de-lis have remained since the eleventh or twelfth century a peculiarly french and royal device. it is indeed one of extreme antiquity, the emblem of a long-forgotten worship--older by many ages than any record of the doctrine of the trinity, of which some have supposed this flower to be an emblem.[ ] [ ] laughton's _heraldry of the sea_. in the reign of charles vi. the blue field ceased to be _powdered_ with fleurs-de-lis, and was charged with three only--two and one. the white flag which became the standard of the kings of france was probably not introduced till the reign of henry iv. but there is great confusion in the history of the french flags, and this is increased by the use of personal colours at sea, which continued among the french to a much later period than among the english. in the colours of the french regiments there has been great variety of design. under the old monarchy the regimental colours were of two kinds--one was the _drapeau-colonel_, or royal; the other, called _drapeau d'ordonnance_, took its device from the founder of the particular regiment which carried it, or from the province of its origin. a common form of the royal colours was a white cross on a blue field. in other examples, sometimes the cross and sometimes the field were powdered with fleurs-de-lis. in some instances the field was green. the flag displayed by the french in was a white cross on a blue ground, with one fleur-de-lis at each corner of the field, and the motto "patrie et liberté." the tricolour was introduced at the revolution, but the origin of the design is unknown. possibly a trace of it may be found in an illumination in one of the ms. copies of froissart. it represents the king of france setting out against the duke of brittany, and his majesty is preceded by a man on horseback bearing a swallow-tailed pennon, the first part containing the ancient arms of france, and each of the tails--composed of three stripes--red, white, and green. for some time after the revolution the white field was retained. when the three colours came to be used there appears to have been at first no fixed order in arranging them, and in some cases they were placed vertically, and in others horizontally. by a decree in it was ordained that in the navy the flag on the bowsprit--the jack--should be composed of three equal bands placed vertically, that next the staff being red, the middle white, and the third blue. the flag at the stem was to have in a canton the jack above described (occupying one fourth of the flag), and to be surrounded by a narrow band, the half of which was to be red and the other blue, and the rest of the flag to be white. in this flag was abolished, and it was ordered "that the national flag shall be formed of _the three national colours_ in equal bands placed vertically, the hoist being blue, the centre white, and the fly red." it would appear, however, that this arrangement was not for some time universally adopted, and that old flags continued to be used. thus, in the great picture by de loutherbourg at greenwich, the french ships are represented as wearing the suppressed flag of ; while, in a rare print preserved in the bibliotheque nationale at paris, representing the magnificent ceremony at which the first napoleon distributed eagles to the troops in , the banners suspended over the ecole militaire in the champ de mars, where the ceremony took place, show the three colours in fess, that is, in horizontal lines. but the vertical arrangement must have been soon afterwards generally adopted, and this continued to be the flag both of the french army and navy during the empire. on the return of the king in , and again in , it was abolished, and the white flag restored; but the tricolour was reintroduced in , and it has remained in use since.[ ] [ ] see french imperial standard, and national flag, plate iv. nos. and . when the emperor napoleon assumed the sovereignty of elba he had a special flag made. it will be recollected that he was allowed to retain the title of emperor, and although the island which comprised his dominions was only sixty miles in circumference, the inhabitants barely , , his household persons, and his entire army only infantry and cavalry, he considered it necessary to have a "national flag." according to sir walter scott, it bore on a white field a bend charged with three bees. but the emperor was preparing another and very different flag for his small army, of which i am able to give a representation from a very rare coloured engraving.[ ] it was the tricolour of france, composed of the richest silk with the ornaments elaborately embroidered in silver. it bore the imperial crown with the letter n, and the eagle, on each of the blue and red portions, with the imperial bees; and over all the inscription, "l'empereur napoléon à la garde nationale de l'lle d'elbe." to the staff, the top of which was surmounted by a golden eagle, was suspended a tricoloured sash also richly embroidered in silver. this splendid standard was presented by napoleon to his guards in elba shortly before his invasion of france in . on the reverse side there was subsequently embroidered the inscription, "champ de mai"--the flag having been a second time presented by the emperor to his guards at that celebrated meeting, a short time before they marched for waterloo. the standard was captured by the prussians, and on their entering paris was sold to an english gentleman who brought it to england.[ ] [ ] see frontispiece. [ ] when the drawing of it was taken it was in the possession of bernardbrocas, esq., at wokefield. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: national flags and standards. plate iv] the lately-abolished eagle (fig. ) was borne as a standard in the french army during the empire only. it was introduced by napoleon i., who adopted it from the romans. the ribbon attached was of silk five inches wide and three feet long, and richly embroidered. after napoleon's fall the eagles were abandoned, but they were again introduced by napoleon iii. in consequence of their intrinsic value, they proved in the franco-german war a much-coveted prize among the germans, who captured a considerable number of them on the successive defeats of the french. the first napoleon was very careful of the eagles. he himself tells us, in one of the conversations at st. helena, that he established in each regiment two subaltern officers as special guardians of the eagle. "ils n'avaient d'autre arme," he says, "que plusieurs paires de pistolets: d'autre emploi que de veiller froidement a bruler la cervelle de celui qui avancerait pour saisir l'aigle." the dutch and russian ensigns have the same tinctures as those of the present french flag, but borne fess ways--that is horizontally. the former has the red uppermost. the latter has _the metal_, the white, uppermost, and the two _colours_, the blue and the red--against all our notions of heraldic propriety--placed together below. (see dutch and russian flags, plate iv. nos. and .) the belgian colours adopted in are arranged as the french, but the colours are black, yellow, and red. (plate iv. no. .) the flag of prussia is also composed of three stripes-black, white, and red, but arranged horizontally. (plate iv. no. .) the flag of mexico is arranged like that of france, but the colours are green, white, and red. (plate iv. no. .) the american flag. the history of the american flag is interesting. previous to the declaration of independence the different colonies retained the standards of the mother country with the addition of some local emblem. massachusetts, for example, adopted the pine-tree, a device which was also placed on the coins. in "the union with a red field"--a red ensign--was displayed at new york on a liberty poll with the inscription, "george rex and the liberties of america;" and it is interesting to note that the first flag adopted as a national ensign by the ships of the united states consisted of the horizontal stripes with which we are familiar, but with the british union still retained in a canton. this was replaced by the stars on a blue ground. some of the flags first used--at the time when only twelve states had ratified the articles of convention--bore only twelve stars. on the th of august, , congress resolved "that the flag of the united states be thirteen stripes alternately red and white, and that the union be thirteen stars, white in a blue field, representing a new constellation." (see fig. .) it has been said that the design of the flag was derived from arms borne by the family of washington; but there is no foundation for this. an american writer--with probably as little ground for the statement--says: "the blue field was taken from the covenanters' banner in scotland, likewise significant of the league and covenant of the united colonies against oppression, and incidentally involving vigilance, perseverance, and justice. the stars were then disposed in a circle symbolizing the perpetuity of the union, as well as equality with themselves. the whole was a blending of the various flags used previous to the war, viz. the red flags of the army and white colours of the floating batteries--the gem of the navy."[ ] [ ] article on "flags," by h. k. w. wilcox, new york, _harper's magazine_, july, . [illustration: fig. .] in it was ordained that the stripes should be increased to fifteen and the stars to the same number; but in congress ordered a return to the thirteen stripes but with twenty stars, and that on the admission of any new state a star should be added. thus the old number of stripes perpetuated the original number of the states forming the union, while the added stars show the union in its existing state. in consequence of the greatly increased number of stars, the circular arrangement had to be abandoned, and they are now disposed in parallel lines. (see flag of the united states, plate v. no. .) the construction of the first national standard, from which the stars and stripes were afterwards adopted, took place at philadelphia in under the personal direction of washington aided by a committee of congress. the flag of the american admirals is composed of the stripes alone, and the stars are used separately as a jack. one of the first american flags used at sea, and bearing only the twelve stars, is still preserved. it is the flag which was flown by the celebrated paul jones from his privateer, the _bon homme richard_, in his engagement with the english ship _serapis_ on d september, . in the course of the action the flag having been shot away from the mast-head, lieutenant stafford, then a volunteer in paul jones' ship, leaped into the sea after it, and recovered and replaced it, being severely wounded while performing this action. the flag thus saved was afterwards presented to him by the marine committee of congress, and it now ( ) belongs to his son.[ ] [ ] letter in _daily telegraph_, th march, , by mr. w. stafford northcote. [illustration: national flags and standards. plate v.] i may mention that the white and red stripes are not peculiar to the american flag. a flag of similar design was for a long time a well-known signal in the british navy, being that used for the red division to draw into line of battle. other foreign flags. the flag of liberia is very like that of the united states, being composed of red and white stripes with a blue canton. the only difference is that the latter bears only one star. (see the flag of liberia, plate v. no. .) the flag of bremen is also composed of red and white stripes. spain from the first period of her greatness bore the castilian flag, quartering castile and leon. in an old illumination representing the coronation of henry, son of john, king of castile, there are on the king's left hand two men, unarmed, the one holding a banner of castile and leon quarterly, the other a blue pennon charged with three kings' heads-the banner of the three kings of cologne. on his majesty's right hand a man, also unarmed, holds a shield with the arms of castile and leon. it was this last device, as a national flag, that was carried by the ships of columbus. but columbus had also as a personal flag one given to him by queen isabella--a white swallow-tailed pennon bearing a latin cross in green between the letters fy crowned. these two flags are noteworthy as the first that crossed the atlantic. the present royal standard of spain is of very complicated construction (see plate v. no. ), embracing among its bearings the arms of castile and leon, of aragon, sicily, burgundy, and others. the national ensign is in marked contrast by its simplicity. it is composed of yellow and red stripes--derived from the bars of aragon. (see plate v. no. .) austria at first bore on her flag the roman eagle. now her war ensign is red, white, and red placed horizontally, and in the centre a shield of the same within a gold border (the arms of the dukes of austria), surmounted by the royal crown. (see plate v. no. .) the merchant flag is the same without the shield and crown. the austro-hungarian flag has the lower stripe half red and half green, with two shields, one on the right containing the arms of austria, and the other bearing the arms of hungary. (see plate v. no. .) the flag of italy was designed by napoleon i. on his declaration of the kingdom of italy. it is a modification of the french, the division of the field next the staff being, instead of blue, green, which, it is known, was a favourite colour of the emperor. in the centre is a red shield charged with a white cross--the arms of the dukes of savoy, now borne by italy. a representation of the italian merchant flag will be found on plate v. no. . the war ensign is the same, except that the shield is surmounted by the royal crown. in the construction of the flag of norway, curiously enough, the same blunder has been committed as in our own union. it is "described" as a blue cross _fimbriated_ white; but the border, as the flag is worn, is too broad, and it really represents two crosses, a blue cross superimposed on a white one--just as our st. george's cross, as represented in our national colours, is nothing but a red cross superimposed on a white one. mr. laughton accordingly looking at the norwegian flag in this light, calls it the white flag of denmark with a blue cross over it,[ ] which it was certainly not intended to be. the flag is shown in plate v. no. . the swedish-norwegian union in the canton was introduced in , when the two countries were united under one king. [ ] _heraldry of the sea_, p. . the danish flag (see plate v. no. ) is the oldest now in existence. the tradition is that it descended from heaven ready made in the year in answer to the prayer of king waldemar, as he was leading his troops to battle against the pagans of the baltic. be that as it may, it certainly dates from the thirteenth century. the flag of portugal has borne a conspicuous part in history, and the devices in it carry us back to a very early period. the present royal standard is red with a red shield in the centre charged with towers or castles for the kingdom of algarve, which alphonsus iii. got from the king of castile when he married the daughter of the latter in ; and in the centre there is a white shield bearing on it the shields of the five moors placed crossways. the portuguese national flag is per pale, blue and white, and in the centre point is the same device as appears on the royal standard. the present flag, however, is only a modification of the old flag which was carried by the early discoverers, and which brought glory to portugal in the days of prince henry the navigator. (see the national flag of portugal, plate v. no. .) the royal standards of norway and sweden, and also the ensign of these kingdoms, are peculiar in preserving the ancient form of having the fly ending in three points. (see the swedish standard, plate v. no. .) greece has adopted the colours of bavaria in compliment to her first king. (see plate vi. no. .) the devices on some of the asiatic flags are peculiar. that of burmah bears a peacock; siam, a white elephant; and china, a hideous-looking dragon. (see these flags, plate vi. nos. , , .) on the flag of bolivia (plate vi. no. ) is the representation of a volcano, suggested in all probability by the great volcano of serhama, which rises in western bolivia to the height of , feet. japan, the land of the far east, the source of the sun, as her name signifies, has adopted for her flag the sun rising blood-red. (see plate v. no. .) [illustration: national flags and standards. plate vi.] the flag of brazil, which is very inartistic in its construction, bears among other devices the armillary sphere of portugal. (see plate vi. no. .) in plates iv. v. and vi. will be found representations of the flags of other kingdoms and republics. these speak for themselves, and do not call for particular description. but i must now bring these notices to a close. to the true patriot of every country the national flag must be a subject of pride. if, as a french writer observes, it does not always lead him to victory, it inspires him to fight well, and if need be to die well. "we pay to it," says the same writer, "royal honours. when it is paraded--in rags it may be, and with faded colours, bearing in letters of gold the names of victories--the troops present arms, the officers salute it with the sword, and the white heads of veteran generals are uncovered and bent before the ensign." to the soldier its loss is one of the greatest calamities. in napoleon's disastrous retreat from moscow in not many of his flags remained with the russians. of those which were not carried off most were burned, and of some of these the officers drank the ashes. more recently the same thing is said to have been done at metz and sedan. so a french writer tells us, and he characterizes the act as "_communion sublime_!" what the flag is, indeed, to the sailor and the soldier, whether when shaken out in battle or when displayed in memory of great victories, none but the soldier and the sailor can realize. at the interment of lord nelson, when his flag was about to be lowered into the grave, the sailors who assisted at the ceremony ran forward with one accord and tore it into small pieces, to be preserved as sacred relics. "i know," says charles kingsley--in those _brave words_ which he addressed to our soldiers then fighting in the trenches before sebastopol, "i know that you would follow those colours into the mouth of the pit; that you would die twice over rather than let them be taken. those noble rags, inscribed with noble names of victory, should remind you every day and every hour that he who fights for queen and country in a just cause is fighting not only in the queen's army but in christ's army, and that he shall in no wise lose his reward." index. a. armenian flag, . army, british, flags of, . artillery--have no colours, . assyrian standards, , . austria, flag of, . austro-hungary, flag of, . b. banner of st. cuthbert, . banner-bearers, . bannerets, . ---- their following, . banners, . belgian flag, . beverly, sir john of, his banner, . black prince at navarete, . "blue blanket," , . "bluidy banner" of covenanters, . bolivia, flag of, . brazil, flag of, . bryon, sir guy de, banner-bearer of edward iii., . burmah, flag of, . ---- british, flag of, . c. carlaverock, siege of, . chandos, sir john, made banneret, . china, flag of, . cochrane, lord, , . colours of british army, . colours of th regiment, , . ---- of foot guards, . ---- of cavalry, . ---- presentation of new, . columbus, his flag, . commonwealth, flag of, . constantine, standard of, . consuls, flags of, . coronations, banners borne at, . covenanters, flags of, , . custodiers of banners, . d. danish flag, . ---- standards, . ---- flag, . deceiving enemy, use of flags in, . douglas. see earl douglas, , , . dragon--standard of romans and dacians, . dragon--standard of germany and england, . dragoon guards, colours of, . dutch fleets, . e. eagle, roman, . ---- french, . earl douglas, his standard, , . earl marshall, his standard, . earl percy--love pledges, . edward iii., his banner, . ---- his standard, . egyptian standards, , , . engineers, royal--have no colours, . ensign, the, . f. false colours, when may be used, . firing at colours of a friendly nation, . flag, waving, first introduction of, . flag of mutiny, . flags, first forms of, . ---- different kinds of, . ---- hauling down enemy's, . ---- usage, international, as to, . ---- of british army, . ---- of military authorities embarked in boats, . flags, special, . ---- of private persons, . fleurs de lis of france in arms of england, . flodden, battle of, . foreign flags, . ---- ---- use of at home, . french flags, . funerals, banners borne at, . g. george iii., his standard, . gonfanon, . greece, flag of, . greeks, standards of, . h. hauling down enemy's colours, , . hebrew standards, . henry ii., his standard, . henry vii., his personal standard, . hopson, admiral, . hussars--have no colours, . i. india, governor-general of, his flag, . international usage as to flags, . ireland, national flag of, . ---- lord-lieutenant of, his flag, . isandlana, , . italy, flag of, . j. jack, union, . ---- pilot, . james i., his standard, . japan, flag of, . k. knights bannerets, . l. labarum, roman, . lancers--have no colours, . liberia, flag of, . lord-lieutenant of ireland, his flag, . m. marshall. see earl marshall, . mary stuart, queen, her standard, . moscow, flags destroyed in napoleon's retreat from, . mourning, flags signifying, . mutiny, flag hoisted in, . n. napoleon i., standard presented by to his guards, . national flags, . navarete, battle of, . norman standards, . norway, peculiar form of flag of, , . o. otterbourne, battle of, . p. pacha, standard of, . parley, signal for, . parthians, banners of, , . paul jones, his flag, . pendant, the, . ---- long, . ---- broad, . pennon, . penny, design of union on, . penoncel, . percy. see earl percy, . persian standards, . portugal, flag of, . private persons, use of flags by, . prussian flag, . q. quarantine, flag of, . r. rifle brigade--has no colours, . roman standards, , . royal standard of england, , . ---- of scotland, . russian flag, . s. saxons, standards of, . scottish arms, their precedence on royal standard, . sedan, flags destroyed by french at, . siam, flag of, . sickness, flag intimating, . signal flags, . spain, flag of, . special flags, . squadrons, division of navy into, . standard, battle of, . standard, the royal, , . ---- ---- when hoisted in ships, . standard-bearers, , . standards, ancient, . ---- of egypt, - . ---- of the hebrews, . ---- of the assyrians, , . ---- of persians, . ---- of turks, . ---- of pachas, . ---- roman, , , . ---- of greeks, . ---- parthian, . ---- of danes, . ---- of saxons, . ---- of normans, . ---- suspended from trumpets, . ---- at coronations and funerals, . ---- personal, of sovereigns, . ---- borne by nobles, . ---- borne by trades, . supporters of royal arms, . surrender, signal of, at sea, , . ---- of a fortress, . swedish-norwegian flag, . t. trades, standards borne by, . truce, flag of, . trumpets, banners suspended from, . turkish standards, . u. union, design of, on penny, . ---- flag, the first, . ---- under commonwealth, . ---- on restoration, . ---- present form, . ---- error in construction of, . ---- as it ought to be made, . ---- how and when displayed, , . ---- in ensign, . ---- jack, . united states flag, . usage, international, as to flags, . uses of flags in naval warfare, . v. volunteer regiments--have no colours, . w. warwick, earl of, his standard, . william iii., his standard, . wolf, on roman standard, . y. yellow flag, . ---- successful use of, by lord cochrane, . transcriber notes: passages in italics were indicated by _underscores_. small caps were replaced with all caps. throughout the document, the oe ligature was replaced with "oe". throughout the document, the superscripted letters are preceeded by a carot. if there is only one superscripted letter it is placed directly after the carot, and if there is more than one superscripted letter they are enclosed by curly brackets. thus, the word "y^e" represents a word where the "y" is normal and the "e" is superscripted; and the word " ^{st}" represents a word where the " " is normal and the "st" is superscripted. the illustrations have been moved so that they do not break up paragraphs and so that they are next to the text they illustrate. thus the page number of the illustration might not match the page number in the list of illustrations, and the order of illustrations may not be the same in the list of illustrations and in the book. errors in punctuations and inconsistent hyphenation were not corrected unless otherwise noted. on page , "andrews" was replaced with "andrew's". on page , "top-gallantmast-head" was replaced with "top-gallant-masthead". on page , two instances of "top-gallantmast head" were replaced with "top-gallant-masthead". on page , "buntin" was replaced with "bunting". [illustration: i. english jack--st. george's crosse scotch jack--st. andrew's crosse irish jack--st. patrick's crosse] history of the union jack and flags of the empire their origin, proportions and meanings as tracing the constitutional development of the british realm, and with references to other national ensigns by barlow cumberland, m.a. past president of the national club, and of the sons of england, toronto; president of the ontario historical society, canada with illustrations and nine coloured plates third edition, revised and extended, with index toronto william briggs booksellers' row, richmond street west copyright, canada, , by barlow cumberland. to the flag itself this story of the union jack is dedicated with much respect by one of its sons. preface to second edition. this history of the union jack grew out of a paper principally intended to inform my boys of how the union jack of our empire grew into its present form, and how the colours and groupings of its parts are connected with our government and history, so that through this knowledge the flag itself might speak to them in a way it had not done before. a search for further information, extended over many varied fields, gathered together facts that had previously been separated, and grouped them into consecutive order; thus the story grew, and having developed into a lecture, was afterwards, at the suggestion of others, launched upon its public way. the chapters on the history of the jacks in the thirteen american colonies and in the united states are also new ground and may be of novel interest to not a few. the added information on the proper proportions of our union jack, and the directions and reasons for the proper making of its parts, may serve to correct some of the unhappy errors which now exist and may interest all in the observation and study of flags. an index has been added, and a record of the "diamond anthem" is also appended. i would acknowledge the criticisms and kindly assistance of many, particularly of mr. james bain, public librarian of toronto, who opened out to me the valuable collection in his library; of mr. j. g. colmer, c.m.g., secretary to the canadian high commissioner, london, who assisted in obtaining material in england; and of mr. w. laird clowes, sir james le moine, sir j. g. bourinot and dr. j. g. hodgins, historiographer of ontario, who have made many valuable and effective suggestions. barlow cumberland. toronto, _october , _. preface to third edition. the celebration of empire day and of other national and historic anniversaries, accompanied by appropriate addresses, has greatly developed at home and abroad. the instructing value of flags as the visible evidences of the progressive periods of national history, and the concentration of patriotic remembrance, having become more appreciated, have led, no doubt, to the request for a re-issue of this book, which had been for some time out of print. for such purposes, and as an assistance to readers and teachers, the material has been practically recast and new matter incorporated, so that with the collations in the index the phases of the various portions of the flags, both of the british and other nationalities, may be more conveniently traced and connected. much additional information, particularly in the designing and creation of the flags, has been sought out and, with additional illustrations, recorded with a view that the intentions expressed in their forms may be more clearly evidenced, their meanings realized, and their connection with constitutional movements developed. the suggestions and assistance of many correspondents, to this end, has been much availed of and is thankfully acknowledged. during the interval since the last issue the liberties and methods of the british constitution have still further expanded. additional daughter-parliaments in the dominions over-seas have been empowered, and their union flags created. to these, as also added information on other ensigns, is due the addition to the title. the references in stating the progress of our national flag are, of necessity, much condensed, but the writer trusts that with the instructing aid and narrations of its exponents, the information here put together may be found of help in causing the study of flags, and the stories which they voice, to be of increasing interest, and their union jack and ensigns more intimately known to our youth as the living emblems of our british history and union. port hope, _september, _. contents. chapter page a poem--the union jack notes on flags i. emblems and flags ii. the origins of national flags iii. the origin of the jacks iv. the english jack v. the supremacy of the english jack vi. the scottish jack vii. the "additional" union jack of james i. viii. the english jack restored ix. the evolution of the red ensign x. the sovereignty of the seas--the fight for the flag xi. the sovereignty of the seas--the fight for the trade xii. the union jack of queen anne, xiii. the two-crossed jack in canada xiv. the irish jack xv. the jacks in the thirteen colonies of north america xvi. the union flags of the united states xvii. the jack and parliamentary union in britain xviii. the jack and parliamentary union in canada xix. the union jack of george iii., xx. the lessons of the crosses xxi. the proportions of the crosses xxii. under the three crosses in canada xxiii. the flag of freedom xxiv. the flag of liberty xxv. the union jack as a single flag xxvi. the jacks in red, white and blue ensigns xxvii. the union ensigns of the british empire appendix a. the maple leaf emblem appendix b. letters from the private secretary of his majesty king edward vii. appendix c. canadian war medals appendix d. a record of the "diamond anthem" index list of illustrations. no. page . assyrian emblems . eagle emblems . tortoise totem . wolf totem . the hawaiian ensign . a red cross knight . colours of th royal grenadiers, canada . st. george's jack . the borough seal of lyme regis, . brass in elsing church, . the _henri grace à dieu_, . st. andrew's jack . scotch "talle shippe," th century . royal arms of england, henry v., , to elizabeth . royal arms of james i., . jack of james i., . the _sovereign of the seas_, . commonwealth twenty-shilling piece . commonwealth boat flag . the _naseby_. charles ii. . medal of charles ii., . whip-lash pennant, british navy . union jack of anne, . draft "c," union jack, . the red ensign in "the margent," . fort niagara, . the assault at wolfe's cove, quebec, . st. patrick's jack . labarum of constantine . harp of hibernia . seal of carrickfergus, . royal arms of queen victoria . medal of queen's first visit to ireland . the throne of queen victoria in the house of lords, . arms of the fitzgeralds . medal of louis xiv., "_kebeca liberata_," . new england ensign . the louisbourg medal, . the first union flag, . the pennsylvania flag, . arms of the washington family . washington's book-plate . washington's seals . fort george and the port of new york in . royal arms of george ii. . the great seal of upper canada, . upper canada penny . draft "c" of union jack, . royal arms of george iii., . union jack of george iii., . outline jack--the proper proportions of the crosses . the union jack and shackleton at farthest south . square union jack . oblong union jack . flag of a french caravel, th century . the colonial jack, . jack of england, . jack in carolina, . the combat between _la surveillante_ and the _quebec_, . ensign of th royal fusiliers, . "king's colour," . the war medal, - . the service medal, canada, - . the north-west canada medal, . flag of the governor-general of canada . flag of the lieutenant-governor of quebec . australian emblems . australian federation badge . suggested canadian union ensign coloured plates. plate i. _frontispiece_ . english jack--st. george's crosse. . scottish jack--st. andrew's crosse. . irish jack--st. patrick's crosse. plate ii. . germany. . italy. . greece. . hawaii. . champlain, . . french from . plate iii. . the percys' ensign, . . union jack of james i., . . colonial union jack, . plate iv. . commonwealth ensign, . . cromwell's "great union," . . ensign red--charles ii., . plate v. . union jack of anne, . . red ensign of anne, . . union jack of george iii., . plate vi. . grand union, . . united states, . . united states, . plate vii. . present union jack upside down. . jack wrongly made. . jack wrongly made. plate viii. . red ensign. . white ensign. . blue ensign. plate ix. . canadian union ensign. . australian union ensign. . new zealand union ensign. [illustration: st. george.] the union jack. "it's only a small bit of bunting, it's only an old coloured rag, yet thousands have died for its honour and shed their best blood for the flag. "it's charged with the cross of st. andrew, which, of old, scotland's heroes has led; it carries the cross of st. patrick, for which ireland's bravest have bled. "joined with these is our old english ensign, st. george's red cross on white field, round which, from king richard to wolseley, britons conquer or die, but ne'er yield. "it flutters triumphant o'er ocean, as free as the winds and the waves; and bondsmen from shackles unloosened 'neath its shadows no longer are slaves. "it floats over cypress and malta, o'er canada, the indies, hong kong; and britons, where'er their flag's flying, claim the rights which to britons belong. "we hoist it to show our devotion to our queen, to our country, and laws; it's the outward and visible emblem of advancement and liberty's cause. "you may say it's an old bit of bunting, you may call it an old coloured rag; but freedom has made it majestic, and time has ennobled the flag." --"st. george." notes on flags. names of parts. particular names are given to the several parts of a flag. the part next the flagstaff, or width, is called the "_hoist_." the outer part, or length, is termed the "_fly_," and also the "_field_." these parts are further divided into "_quarters_," or "_cantons_": two "_next the staff_," two "_in the fly_." these descriptive terms should be noted, as they will be in constant use in the pages which follow. usage. a flag at half-mast is a sign of mourning. a flag reversed is a signal of distress. the lowering of a flag is a signal of surrender. the raising of the victors' flag in its place is a signal of capture. the nationality of a country is shown by its flag. the nationality of a vessel is made known by the flag she flies at the stern. to hoist the flag of one nation under that of another nation, on the same flag-staff, is to show it disrespect. history of the union jack and flags of the empire. chapter i. _emblems and flags._ there is an instinct in the human race which delights in the flying of flags--a sentiment which appears to be inborn, causing men to become enthusiastic about a significant emblem raised in the air, whether as the insignia of descent, or as a symbol of race, or of nationality; something which, being held aloft before the sight of other men, declares, at a glance, the side to which the bearer belongs, and serves as a rallying point for those who think with him. the child chortles at a piece of riband waved before him; a boy marches with head erect and martial stride as bearer of the banner at the head of his mimic battalion; the man, at duty's call, rallies to his national standard, and leaving home and all, stakes his life for it in his country's cause; and when the battle of life is closing and steps are homeward bound, the gray-beard, lifting his heart-filled eyes, blesses the day that brings him back within sight of his native flag. at all ages and in all times has it been the same. the deeper we go into the records of the past the more evidence do we find that man, however varied his race or primitive his condition, however cultured his surroundings or rude his methods, has universally displayed this innate characteristic instinct of delighting and glorifying in some personal or national emblem. to search for and discover the emblems which they bore thus discloses to us the eras of a people's history, and, therefore, it is that the study of a nation's flag is something more than a mere passing interest, and becomes one of real educational value, meriting our closest investigation, for _the study of flags is really the tracing of history by sight_. in ancient africa, explorations among the sculptured antiquities on the nile have brought to light a series of national and religious emblem-standards, which had meaning and use among the egyptians long before history had a written record. the fans and hieroglyphic standards of the pharaohs are the index to their dynasties. the israelites, at the time of the exodus, had their distinctive emblems, and in the book of numbers (ch. ii. ), it is related how moses directed that in their journeyings, "_every man of the children of israel shall pitch by his own standard, with the ensign of their father's house_." so it came that to every jewish child, in all the subsequent centuries, the emblem on the standard of his tribe recalled the history and the trials of his ancestors and fortified his faith in the god of their deliverance. from the lost cities of nineveh have been unearthed the ensign of the great assyrian race, the "twin bull" ( ), sign of their imperial might, and the records of their warriors are thus identified. [illustration: . assyrian emblems.] in europe in later times there were few parts of the continent which did not become acquainted with the metal ensigns of the great roman empire. the formidable legions of their armies, issuing from the centre of the realm, carried the imperial eagle at their head, and setting it in triumph over many a subjugated state, established its supremacy among the peoples as a sign of the all-conquering power of their mighty empire. to this eagle of the roman legions may be traced back the crop of eagle emblems ( ), which are borne by so many of the nationalities of europe at the present day. the golden eagle of the french battalions, the black eagle of prussia, the white eagle of poland, and the double-headed eagles of austria and russia, whose two heads typify claim to sovereignty over both the ancient eastern and western sections of the roman empire, are all descendants from the imperial eagle of ancient rome. [illustration: . eagle emblems. _austrian._ _roman._ _russian._ _prussian._ _french._] as these nationalities of modern europe have successively arisen and developed into their separate existence, the emblem of their ancient subjugation has been raised by them as the emblem of their power, just as the cross, which was once the emblem of the degradation and death of the christ, has been accepted as the signal and glory of the nations which have come under the christian sway. as on the eastern, so also on the western hemisphere. on all continents the rainbow in the heavens is a perpetual memorial of the covenant made between god and man--the sign that behind the wonders of nature dwells the still more wonderful first cause and author of them all. the peruvians, far back in the centuries of existence on the continent of south america, had preserved a tradition of a great event which, although it had taken place on another hemisphere, yet had been, by some means, transmitted to theirs, and, tracing from it the story of their national origin, they carried this emblem as sign of the lineage which they claimed as being, as they called themselves, "_the children of the skies_." thus it was that under the standard of a "_rainbow_" the armies of the incas of peru valiantly resisted the invasions of pizzaro when, in the sixteenth century, the south american continent came under the domination of spain. national emblems were borne farther north on the northern continent by another nation, even yet more ancient than the peruvians. embedded in the ruins of buried cities of the aztecs, in mexico, are found the memorials of a constructive and artistic people, whose emblem of the "_eagle with outstretched wings_," repeated with patriotic iteration in the stone carvings of their buildings, has thus come down to us the mute declarant of their national aspirations. the nation itself as a power has long since passed away, but the outlines of their emblem still preserve the ideals of the vanished race. [illustration: . tortoise totem.] a living instance of much interest also evidences the adherence to national emblems among the earlier inhabitants of north america. long before the invading europeans first landed on the shores of the north atlantic coasts, the nomad red indian, as he travelled from place to place through the fastnesses of the forests, along the shores of the great lakes, over the plains of vast central prairies, or amid the mountains that crown the pacific slope, everywhere attested the story of his descent by the "totem" of his family. this sign of the tortoise ( ), the wolf ( ), the bear, or the fish, painted or embroidered on his trappings or carved upon his weapons, was displayed as evidence of his origin, and whether he came as a friend or advanced as a foe, its presence nerved him to maintain the reputation of his family and the honour of his tribe. [illustration: . wolf totem.] to-day the red man slowly yields to the ever-advancing march of the dominant and civilizing white; his means of sustenance by the chase, or of livelihood by his skill as a trapper, have been destroyed. the indian tribes are, under the indian treaties, required to remain within large blocks of territory called "reserves," so that now in his poverty he is maintained upon these "reservations" solely by the dole of the peoples by whom his native country has been absorbed; yet, though so changed in their circumstances, his descendants still cling with resolute fortitude and pathetic eagerness to these ancient insignia of their native worth. these rudely-formed emblems, in outline and shape mainly taken from the animals and birds of the plain and forest, are the memorials in his decadence of the long past days when his forefathers were the undisputed monarchs of all the wilds and possessors of its widest domains. they are the indian patents of nobility, and thus are clung to with all the pride of ancient race. this instinct in man to attach a national meaning to some vital emblem, and to display it as evidence of his patriotic fervour, is thus found to be all-pervading. the accuracy of its form may not be exact--it may, indeed, be well-nigh indistinguishable in its outlines--but whenever it be raised aloft, the halo of patriotic meaning, with which memory has illumined it, is answered by the flutterings of the bearer's heart; self is lost in inspiring recollection; clanship, absorbing the individual, enfolds him as one of a mighty whole, and the race-blood that is deep within him springs quick into action, obedient to the stirring call. the fervour of this manifestation was eloquently expressed by lord dufferin in narrating some incidents which had occurred during one of his official tours through canada, when governor-general of the country, the greatest daughter-nation among the children of the union jack: "wherever i have gone, in crowded cities, in the remote hamlets, the affection of the people for their sovereign has been blazoned forth against the summer sky by every device which art could fashion or ingenuity invent. even in the wilds and deserts of the land, the most secluded and untutored settler would hoist some cloth or rag above his shanty, and startle the solitude of the forest with a shot from his rusty firelock and a lusty cheer from himself and his children in glad allegiance to his country's queen. even the indian in his forest and on his reserve would marshal forth his picturesque symbols of fidelity in grateful recognition of a government that never broke a treaty or falsified its plighted word to the red man, or failed to evince for the ancient children of the soil a wise and conscientious solicitude."[ ] [ ] lord dufferin, toronto club, . of all emblems, a flag is the one which is universally accepted among men as the incarnation of their intensest sentiment, and when uplifted above them, concentrates in itself the annals of a nation and all the traditions of an empire. a country's flag becomes, therefore, of additional value to its people in proportion as its symbolism is better understood and its story is more fully known. its combinations should be studied, its story unfolded--for in itself a flag is nothing, but in its meaning it is everything. "what is a riband worth? its glory is priceless!"[ ] [ ] bulwer lytton. so long, then, as pride of race and nation exists among men, so long will a waving flag command all that is strongest within them, and stir their national instincts to their utmost heights. chapter ii. _the origins of national flags._ with such natural emotions stirring within the breasts of its people, one can appreciate the fervid interest taken by each nation in its own national flag, and understand how it comes that the associations which cluster about its folds are so ardently treasured up. flags would at first sight appear to be but gaudy things, displaying contrasts of colour or variations of shape or design, according to the mood or the fancy of some enterprising flagmaker. this, no doubt, is the case with many signalling or mercantile flags. on the other hand, there is, in not a few of the flags known as "national flags," some particular combination of form or of colourings which, if they were but known, indicates the reason for their origin, or which marks some historic memory. there has been, perhaps, some notable occasion on which they were first displayed, or they may have been formed by the joining together of separate designs united at some eventful epoch, to signalize a victorious cause, or to perpetuate the memory of a great event. these great stories of the past are thus brought to mind and told anew by the coloured folds each time they are spread open by the breeze; for of most national flags it can be said, as was said by an american orator[ ] of his own, "it is a piece of bunting lifted in the air, but it speaks sublimity, and every part has a voice." it is to see these colours and hear these voices in the british national flags that is our present undertaking. [ ] sumner. before tracing the history of our british union jack, some instances may be briefly mentioned in which associations connected with the history of some other nations are displayed in the designs of their national flags. the colours of the german national banner are black, white and red (pl. ii., fig. ). since , when, at the conclusion of the french war, the united german empire was formed, this has been the general standard for all the states and principalities that were then brought into imperial union; although each of these lesser states continues to have, in addition, its own particular flag. this banner of united germany introduced once more the old german colours, which had been displayed from until the time when, in , the empire was broken up by napoleon i. tradition is extant that these colours had their origin as a national emblem at the time of the crowning of frederic i. (barbarossa) in , as ruler of the countries which are now largely included in germany. on this occasion the pathway to the cathedral at aix-la-chapelle was laid with a carpeting of black, gold and red, and the story goes that after the ceremony this carpet was cut by the people into strips which they then displayed as flags. thus by the repetition of these historic colours in their ensign the present union of the german empire is connected with the early history of more than seven centuries before. [illustration: plate ii. germany italy greece hawaiian champlain french from ] the national ensign of united italy (pl. ii., fig. ) is a flag having three parallel vertical stripes, green, white and red, the green being next the flagstaff. upon the central white stripe there is shown a red shield, having upon it a white cross. this national flag was adopted in , after the italian peoples had risen against their separate rulers, and the previously separated principalities and kingdoms had, under the leadership of garibaldi, been consolidated into one united kingdom under victor emmanuel, the then reigning king of sardinia. the red shield here displayed on the centre of the italian flag designates the arms of the house of savoy, to which the royal house of sardinia belonged, and which had been gained by the following ancient and honourable event: the island of rhodes, an italian colony in the eastern mediterranean, had, in , been in deadly peril from the attacks of the turks. in their extremity the then duke of savoy came to the aid of the knights hospitallers of st. john, who were defending the island, and with his help they were able to make a successful resistance. in record and acknowledgment of this great service the knights of st. john granted to the house of savoy the privilege of wearing upon their royal arms the white cross on a red shield, which was the badge of their order of st. john. so it happened when, nearly six centuries afterwards, the sardinians again came to the aid of their southern brethren, and the king of sardinia was crowned as ruler over the new united italian kingdom, the old emblem won in defence of ancient liberties was further perpetuated on the banner of the new kingdom of liberated and united italy. the colours of the greek flag preserve the memory of a dynasty. in , the greeks, after rising in successful rebellion, had freed their land from mohammedan domination and the power of the sultan of turkey. the several states formed themselves into one united kingdom, and seeking a king from among the royal houses of europe, obtained, in , otho i., a scion of the ruling house of bavaria. the dynasty at that time set upon the throne of greece has since been changed, the bavarian having parted company with the kingdom in . the throne was then offered to prince alfred of england, but declined by him. the present king, chosen in , after the withdrawal of his predecessor, is a member of the royal house of denmark; yet, notwithstanding this change in the reigning family, the white greek cross upon a light blue ground in the upper quarter, and the four alternate stripes of white on a light blue ground in the field, which form the national flag of greece (pl. ii., fig. ), still preserve the blue and white colours of bavaria, from whence the greeks had obtained their first king. the tri-colour as displayed by the present republic in france (pl. ii., fig. ) has been credited with widely differing explanations of its origin, as its plain colours of blue, white and red admit of many different interpretations. one story of its origin is, that its colours represent those of the three flags which had been carried in succession in the early centuries of the nation. the early kings of france carried the plain blue banner of st. martin. to this succeeded, in a.d. , the flaming red flag, or oriflamme, of st. denis, to be afterwards superseded, in the fifteenth century, by the white "cornette blanche," the personal banner of the heroic joan of arc. it was under this royal white flag (pl. ii., fig. ), bearing upon it the lilies of ancient france, that cartier, in , had sailed up the st. lawrence, and champlain, in , had founded quebec. under this flag canada was colonized; to it belonged the glories of the jesuit fathers and dollard; with it la salle and marquette explored the far west, planting three _fleur-de-lis_ as the sign of their discoveries. under it frontenac, montcalm and levis[ ] achieved their renown, and all the annals of early canada are contained under its régime until, in , after the assault by wolfe, it was exchanged, at the cession of quebec, for the british union flag. [ ] the colours carried by the royal french regiments are described by capt. knox to have been: "a white silk flag with three _fleur-de-lis_ within a wreath or circlet in the centre part of gold." ("the fall of new france"--hart.) the tri-colour of republican france was never carried by the forefathers of the french canadians of the province of quebec, nor has it any connection with the french history of canada. in fact, it did not make its appearance as an emblem until the time of the revolution in france in , or thirty years after the original french régime in canada had closed its eventful period. more detailed evidence of the origin of this flag states that the creation of the tri-colour arose from the incident that, when the revolutionary militia were first assembled in the city of paris, at the revolution of , they had adopted blue and red, which were the ancient colours of the city of paris, for the colours of their cockade; between these they placed the white of the soldiery of the bourbon régime, who afterwards joined their forces, and thus they had combined the blue, white and red in the "tri-colour" as their revolutionary signal.[ ] [ ] thiers: "history of the french revolution," vol. i., p. . whether or not its colours record those of the three ancient monarchical periods, or those of the revolution, the tri-colour as a french ensign for use by the people of france, as their national flag both on land and sea, was not regularly established until a still later period, in . then it was that the republican convention passed the first decree[ ] authorizing an ensign and directing that the french national flag (pl. ii., fig. ) shall be formed of the three colours placed vertically in equal bands--that next the staff being blue, the centre white, and the fly red. [ ] decree of feb. , . this was the flag under which napoleon i. won his greatest victories, both as general and emperor; but whatever glories may have been won for it by france, yet many years before it had been even designed, or the prowess of napoleon's armies had created its renown, the french canadian had been fighting under the union jack as his patriotic ensign and adding to the history of its valiant glory by victory won by himself in defence of his own canadian home.[ ] when in canada the tri-colour is seen flying it is raised solely out of compliment and courtesy to the french-speaking friends in modern france. the fact that the tri-colour has received any acceptance with the french-speaking canadian may have arisen from the reason that, side by side with the union jack, it had participated in all the struggles and glories of the crimea, when the two flags, the tri-colour and the union jack, were raised together above sebastopol. [ ] defence of quebec, . it is interesting to note how it is stated to have first arrived.[ ] the _canadiens-français_ being, by lineage and temperament, monarchists, had shown no regard or liking for the early revolutionary and republican emblem, and had never raised it in canada. [ ] benjamin suite: "le drapeau tri-colore en canada." in , under victoria and napoleon iii., an _entente cordiale_ had been established between england and france, and in that same year arrangements had been completed with the allan line to build new steamers and perform a regular service direct between liverpool and montreal. actuated, no doubt, by the prevailing fervour, they had selected as the distinguishing, or "house," flag of their line one of the same shape and colours as the french flag, but with the broad bands reversed, the red being next the mast instead of the blue as in the french ensign. in the spring of , as their first steamer was seen entering the st. lawrence, this flag so nearly resembled the french ensign as to cause surprise to be expressed. "what," said the older heads, "the flag of the revolution on an english ship!" it was a novel sight, but great were the rejoicings over the establishment of the new line. their second ship came in dressed with many french and english flags, for war had been declared by the alliance of england and france against russia, this being the first announcement in canada, for there were no telegraph cables in those days. following this came the exploits of the allied armies in the crimea, bringing with them the consequent profusion and intertwining of the english and french flags with which ships and business buildings were decorated to celebrate their combined victories. such was the entry of the tri-colour into canada, not being introduced by the canadians, speaking french, but by their english friends. a quaint suggestion has been made to the writer by no less an authority than sir james le moine, the historian of quebec: "the french canadian is very partial to display, but is primarily economical. while the simple colours of the tri-colour can be conveniently made by the most inexperienced, the details of the union jack are very difficult to cut and to correctly sew together. the _bonne mère_ can easily provide out of her household treasures the materials for the one, but she must purchase the other, and this, therefore, is the reason why the tri-colour is so frequently seen in french-speaking quebec." the tri-colour, having never been the flag of his forefathers, carries neither allegiance nor loyalty to the french canadian. his people have never fought under it, while many a gallant french canadian son has poured out his blood for the union jack at home in defence of canada or upon foreign shores in service in the british armies. it has never brought him liberty or protection as has his union jack, which has been his british flag for a century and a half, and for more than a quarter of a century before the tri-colour of the european french ever came into existence. another flag--although it has ceased to be a national flag, and is now the flag of a possession of the united states--should yet be mentioned by reason of the history which was told in its folds. the hawaiian national ensign ( ) was at first composed of nine horizontal stripes of equal width, alternating white, red and blue, the top stripe being white and the bottom blue.[ ] [ ] preble: "history of the flag of the united states," p. . afterwards the lowest stripe was taken off and the new flag (pl. ii., fig. ) adopted, in which there are eight stripes, the bottom stripe being red and the british union jack placed in the upper corner. the sandwich islands, made known to the world mainly by the tragic death of captain cook, in , and now known as the hawaiian islands, had been fused into a single monarchy by the impetuous valour of king kamehama, who, in , admitted christian missionaries to his kingdom. its existence as an independent monarchy was thereafter maintained and was recognized by the great powers. internal difficulties having arisen in the kingdom and an insult been given to a british consul, the islands were ceded and the sovereignty offered to great britain in , when, on th february, the union jack was raised on all the islands, the understanding being that the natives were to be under the protection of the flag of great britain, and internal order to be guaranteed pending the final disposition which might be arrived at in england between the representatives of the hawaiians and the british government.[ ] [ ] the annual register, , vol. . [illustration: . the hawaiian ensign.] the british did not accept the proffered transfer of the islands, but returned the sovereignty to the native government, which was thereafter to continue as an independent monarchy under the protection of great britain; and by an accompanying treaty all british manufactures and produce were to be admitted duty free. on july st, , the british flag was lowered and the new hawaiian ensign raised in its place.[ ] it was in recognition of this event that the union jack was placed in the hawaiian ensign. [ ] bird: "six months among the sandwich islands," . in the same year france and england agreed never to take possession of the islands either by protectorate or in any other form. the natives steadily decreased in number and in power, and the trade and commerce of the islands had passed almost entirely into american hands. dissensions had afterwards arisen under the subsequent native sovereigns, and in the queen, liliuokalani, was deposed by a revolution, and a republican government formed under president dole, an american citizen. cession of the islands was offered in to the american government and was refused, but in the islands were finally annexed to the united states and the american ensign raised; but the hawaiian flag, with its union jack in the upper corner, continued as a local flag, and was so displayed on june th, , at the inauguration of president dole as governor of the new-formed "territory of hawaii," among the territories of the united states. these instances of the origin of some of the national flags of other nations show how history is interwoven in their folds, and how they perpetuate the memories of past days or of the men who have dominated vital occasions. a singularly similar origin is associated with the creation of the stars and stripes, the ensign of the united states of north america (pl. vi., fig. ), which is treated of in chapter xvi. chapter iii. _the origin of the jacks._ it is quite evident, then, that national flags are not merely a haphazard patchwork of coloured bunting, nor by any means "meaningless things." their combinations have a history, and, in many cases, tell a story; but of all the national flags there is none that bears upon its folds so interesting a story, nor has its history so plainly written in its parts and colourings, as has our british "union jack." our present enterprise is to search out whence it got its name, how it was built up into its present form, and what is the meaning of each of its several parts. this is not only an enquiry of deepest interest, but is of practical and educational value, for to trace the story of the successive combinations of our national flags is to follow the history of the british race. the flags of other nations have mostly derived their origin from association with some dominant personage, or with a particular epoch. they are, as a rule, the signal of a dynasty or the record of some revolution; but our british union jack records in its folds the steady and continuous growth of a great nation, and traces, by the changes made in it during centuries of adventure and progress, and by the flags in which it has been successively combined, the gradual extension of its union and methods of constitutional government over a world-wide empire. the origin of the name "union jack" has given rise to considerable conjecture and much interesting surmise; in the proclamation of charles i., , it is called the "union flagge"; in the treaty of peace made with the dutch in , in the reign of charles ii., it is mentioned as "his majesty of great britain's flag or jack," and in the proclamation of queen anne, in , as "our jack, commonly called the union jack." the most generally quoted suggestion given for the origin of the name is that it was acquired from the fact that the first proclamation which authorized a flag, in which the national crosses of england and scotland were for the first time combined, was issued by james vi. of scotland, after he had become james i. of england, and that as king james frequently signed his name in the french manner as "jacques," this was abbreviated into "jac," and thus his new flag came to be called a "jack." the derivation suggested is ingenious and interesting, but cannot be accepted as correct, for the simple reason that there were "jacks" long before the time and reign of james i., and that their prior origin may be clearly traced. in the earliest days of chivalry, long before the time of the norman conquest of england, both the knights on horseback and the men on foot of the armies in the field wore a surcoat or "jacque" (whence our word "jacket"), extending over the body from the neck to the thighs, bearing upon it the blazon or sign either of their lord or of their nationality. numberless examples of these are to be seen in early illuminated manuscripts, or on monuments erected in many cathedrals and sanctuaries. in the time of the crusaders, during the eleventh and twelfth centuries, when the christian nations of europe were combined together to rescue jerusalem and the holy land from the rule of the mohammedan, the warrior pilgrims, recruited from the different countries, wore crosses of different shapes and colours upon their surcoats, to indicate the nationalities to which they belonged, and to evidence the holy cause in which they were engaged. it was from wearing these crosses that they gained their name of "crusaders," or cross-bearers. the cross worn by each of the nationalities was of a different colour--that of france being red; flanders, green; germany, black, and italy, yellow. in the earlier crusades the cross worn by the english was white, but in later expeditions the red cross of st. george was adopted and worn upon the jacque as the sign of the english, in the same way as shown in the accompanying knightly figure ( ). the continuing use of this st. george cross, and the reason for wearing it as an identification of english forces is well shown in the following extracts from the "ordnaunces," issued to the army with which richard ii. of england invaded scotland in : "... also that everi man of what estate, condicion or nation thei be of, so that he be of oure partie, bere a signe of the armes of saint george, large, bothe before and behynde upon parell, that yf he be slayne or wounded to deth, he that has so doon to hym shall not be putte to deth for defaulte of the crosse that he lacketh, and that non enemy do here the same token or crosse of saint george, notwithstanding yf he be prisoner upon payne of deth."[ ] [ ] harleian mss. [illustration: . a red cross knight.] a fuller understanding is afforded of the character of this "parell," as also of the early adoption of its name by references to it given in : "at those days the yoemen had their lymmes at lybertie, and their jackes were longe and easy to shote in."[ ] [ ] fabyan, . the sailors of the "cinque ports" of hastings, sandwich, hythe, romney and dover, on the east of england, to which winchelsea and rye were subsequently added, and by whose municipalities, in consideration of certain privileges granted them, the royal navies were in early days principally manned, are recorded to have worn as their uniform, in , "_a cote of whyte cotyn, with a red crosse and the armes of ye ports underneathe_." in the time of queen mary the continuation of the custom is further evidenced by entries in a contemporary diary of : "... the x day of january hevy news came to london that the french had won cales _(calais)_, the whyche was the hevest tydings to england that ever was herd of. "the xj day of january the cete of london took up a thousand men and made them whytt cotes and red crosses and every ward of london found men. * * * * * "the xviij day of may there was sent to the shyppes men in whytt cotes and red crosses, and gones to the queen's shyppes."[ ] [ ] machyn's diary. these "surcoats" or "jacques" came in time to be known as the "jacks" of the various nationalities they represented, and it was from the raising of one of these upon a lance or staff at the bow of a ship, in order that the nationality of those on board might be made known, that a single flag bearing on it only the cross of st. george, or the cross of st. andrew, came to be known as a "jack." from this origin, too, the small flag-pole at the bow of a ship is still called the "jack-staff," and similarly the short flag-pole at the stern of vessels, upon which the distinguishing ensign of the nationality of the ship is displayed, is called the "ensign-staff." this custom of wearing the national jack at the bow had not only been early established by usage, but had also been officially recognized. on the great seal of the first lord admiral of england, in , under henry iv., a one-masted galley is shown.[ ] at the stern of the ship is the royal standard of the king, and at the bow a staff bearing on it the square banner or jack of st. george, the sign of england. [ ] bloomfleld: "the national flag." another instance of the use of these national jacks as a sign of national union is to be noted. during the feudal period of european history, when armed forces were called into the field, each of the nobles and leaders, as in duty bound, furnished to the cause his quota of men equipped with complete armament. these troops bore upon their arms and banners the heraldic device or coat-of-arms of their own liege lord, as a sign of "the company to which they belonged"; and in such way the particular locality from which they came, and the leadership under which they were marshalled could at once be recognized. the sovereigns also in their turn displayed the banner of the kingdom over which each reigned, such as the fleur-de-lis for france, the cross of st. george for england, the cross of st. andrew for scotland; and this banner of the king formed the ensign under which the combined forces of the royal adherents and their supporters served. as the forces collected together came to be more the national army of the nation and less the personal adherents of their chief, it was provided in england that the liege lord of each local force should bear on his banner the cross of st. george, as well as his own coat-of-arms, the ordinance being: "every standard, or guydhome, is to hang in the chiefe the crosse of st. george and to conteyne the crest or supporter and devise of the owner."[ ] [ ] harleian mss. an excellent example of this is given in the standard or ensign of the forces of the earls of percy in the sixteenth century (pl. iii., fig. ). in the chief is the red cross of st. george, as the sign of allegiance to king and nation; in the fly is the crest of the percys, a blue lion with other insignia, and their motto, "_esperance en dieu_," the signs of their liege lord and local country. this flag declared its bearers to be the men of the percy contingent, englishmen, and soldiers of the king. [illustration: . colours of the th royal grenadiers, canada.] a survival of this ancient custom exists to this day in our british military service, both in the colonial and imperial forces. rifle regiments do not carry "colours," but all infantry regiments are entitled, upon receiving the royal warrant, to carry two flags, which are called "colours" ( ). the "first," or "king's colour," is the plain "union jack," in sign of allegiance to the sovereign, and upon this, in the centre, is the number or designation of the regiment, surmounted by a royal crown. the "second," or "regimental colour," has a small union jack in the upper corner. the body of the flag is of the local colour of the facings of the regiment. if the facings are blue, as in all "royal" regiments, the flag is blue; if they are white, then the flag is white, having on it a large st. george's cross in addition to the small union jack in the upper corner. on the body of this colour are embroidered the regimental badge, the names of actions in which it has taken part, and any distinctive emblems indicating the special history of the regiment itself, and in territorial regiments the locality from which they are recruited. in this way both the national and local methods of distinction are to-day preserved and displayed in the same way as they were in original times; the union jack of the present day having been substituted for the st. george's cross of the first period. such, then, was the origin of the name jack, and it is from the combination of the three national "jacks" of england, scotland and ireland, at successive periods in their history, into one flag, that the well-known "union jack" of our british nation has gradually grown into its present form. chapter iv. _the english jack._ a.d. - . the original leader and dominant partner in the three kingdoms, which have been the cradle of the british race throughout the world, was england, and it is her flag which forms the groundwork upon which our union flag has been built up. the english jack (pl i., fig. ) is described in simple language as a white flag having upon it a plain red cross. [illustration: . st. george's jack.] this is the banner of st. george ( ), the patron saint of england, and in heraldic language is described as "_argent, a cross gules_" (on silver-white a plain red cross). the great christian hero, st. george, is stated by those who have made most intimate search into his legend and history[ ] to have been descended from a noble cappadocian christian family, and to have been beheaded for his faith on the rd april, a.d. , during the persecution of the christians by the emperor diocletian. the anniversary of that day is for that reason celebrated as st. george's day. he was a soldier of highest renown, a knight of purest honour, and many exploits of his heroism and courage are narrated in ancient prose and poetry. [ ] gordon: "saint george, champion of christendom." about three miles north along the shore of the mediterranean, from the city of beyrut (beyrout), there was in the time of the crusaders, and still remains, an ancient grotto cut into the rock, and famous as being the traditional place where the gallant knight st. george, "y' cladd in mightie armes and silver shielde, as one for knightly giusts and fierce encounters fitt."[ ] [ ] spenser: "faerie queene." was reputed to have performed one of his most doughty deeds, and had "_redeemed the king's daughter out of the fiery jaws of a dreadful dragon_.[ ] [ ] ludovicus patricius: "book of travels." the memory of st. george has always been greatly revered in the east, particularly by the christian greek church, by which he was acclaimed as the "victorious one," the "champion knight of christendom," and early accepted as the protector saint of soldiers and sailors. one of the first churches erected by constantine the great, about a.d. , and many other eastern churches, were dedicated to him. it is to be noted, however, that st. george has never been canonized by the roman church, nor his name placed in her calendar of sacred saints. his name, like those of st. christopher, st. sebastian and st. nicholas, was only included in a list issued in a.d. , by pope gelasius, as being among those "_whose names are justly reverenced among men, but whose actions are known only to god_.[ ] [ ] jameson: "sacred and legendary art." the form of his cross is that known as the greek cross, the four arms being at right angles to each other, and in this form is displayed in the upper corner of the national greek ensign, in this case as a white cross on a blue ground. (pl ii., fig. .) this greek religious connection has also caused the adoption of the cross of st. george in the insignia of other nations. the czar of russia is not only the "autocrat of the people of the empire of all the russias," but he is also the "supreme head of the orthodox faith," which in russia is represented by the greek church. his imperial standard is a yellow flag upon which is displayed a black two-headed eagle bearing upon its breast a red shield on which is emblazoned in white the figure of st. george slaying a dragon. this same colouring, white on red, is followed in the decoration of the order of st. george, which is the second order of knighthood in russia, and in the white cross of st. george, as shown in the official flags of the russian ambassadors. on the royal arms of austria the black two-headed eagle bears on its breast a shield with a red ground having on it a white st. george's cross. the insignia of eight nations bear the greek cross of the st. george shape, but in four different colours on grounds of three different colours: greece a white cross on a blue ground. russia a " " " red " austria a " " " " " denmark a " " " " " switzerland a " " " " " norway a blue " " " " sweden a yellow " " blue " england a red " " white " england is, however, the only nation which has adopted the _red cross of st. george_ as its special national ensign. the cry of "st. george for merrie england" has re-echoed through so many centuries that his place as the patron saint of the kingdom is firmly established. wherever ships have sailed, there the red cross of st. george has been carried by the sailor-nation who chose him as their hero. the incident from which came his adoption as patron saint is thus narrated in the early chronicles. in , richard i., _c[oe]ur de lion_, of england, had joined the french, germans and franks in the third great crusade to the holy land; but while the other nations proceeded overland to the seat of war, richard built and engaged a great fleet, in which he conveyed his english troops to palestine by sea. his armament consisted of " talle shippes and about three score galliots." sailing down the eastern shore with these and arriving off the coast, he won a gallant sea-fight over the saracens near beyrut, and the grotto of st. george, and by this victory intercepted the reinforcements which their ships were carrying to the relief of acre, at that time being besieged by the combined armies of the crusaders. st. george, the redresser of wrongs, the protector of women, the model of christian chivalry, and the tutelary saint of england, was not a seafaring hero, nor himself connected with the sea, but it was after and in memory of their sailors' victory near the scene of his exploits that the seafaring nation adopted him as their patron saint. the red cross emblem of st. george is stated by the chroniclers to have been at once thereafter adopted by richard i., who immediately placed himself and his army under the especial protection of the saint, raised his banner at their head, and is reported to have introduced the emblem into england itself after his return in . further evidence of its introduction and its continued use is given by the record that in st. george's day was ordered to be kept as a holiday in england.[ ] [ ] butler: "lives of the fathers and martyrs." some aver that the emblem was not generally accepted until under edward i., in . this prince, before his accession to the throne, had served in the last crusades, and during that time had visited the scene of the victory and the grotto of the saint. it is pointed out that this visit of prince edward to palestine coincided with the change made in their badge by the english order of the knights of st. john of jerusalem from an eight-pointed maltese cross to a straight white greek cross, and that at the time of this change came the appearance upon the english banners of the st. george's cross, but of the english national colour red,[ ] therefore they deduce that the further employment of the emblem as the national flag was then additionally authorized by edward i. [ ] bloomfield: "the national flag." [illustration: . the borough seal of lyme regis, .] from this last date ( ) onward the st. george's cross and the legend of "st. george and the dragon" in england are, at all events, in plain evidence. an early instance is that found in the borough of lyme regis, in dorset, to which edward i., in , granted its first charter of incorporation and its official seal. a photo reproduction of a wax impression of this borough seal ( ), taken from an old "toll lease" is here given. the flag of st. george is seen at the mast-head, and below it the royal standard of richard i., with its three lions for england, carried by edward in palestine during the lifetime of his father. at the bow of the ship is the figure of the saint represented in the act of slaying the dragon, and having on his shield the st. george's cross. "and on his breast a bloodie crosse he bore, the deare remembrance of his dying lord, for whose sweete sake that glorious badge he wore, and dead, as living, ever him adored: upon his shield the like was also scor'd, for soveraine hope which in his helpe he had. right faithful true he was in deede and word."[ ] [ ] spenser: "faerie queene." the religious and christian attributes of st. george are commemorated on the seal by the representation of the crucifixion and by the saint, the head of whose spear is a st. george's cross, being shown as in angel form. the sea tradition of his adoption is also sustained by the characteristic introduction of the "galley" into the design. around the edge of the seal is the rude lettering of the inscription in latin: "_sigillum: comune: de: lim_" ("the common seal of lyme"). near the top may be seen the "star and crescent" badge of richard i., adopted by him as a record of his naval victory, and which is still used as an "admiralty badge" upon the epaulettes of admirals of the british navy. this seal of lyme regis is said to be the earliest representation of st. george and the dragon known in england. the same form of cross was placed by edward i., in , upon the monumental crosses which he raised at cheapside, charing cross and other places, in memory of his loved queen eleanor, to mark the spots at which her body rested during the funeral procession when her remains were carried from lincoln through northampton to london. another instance of a later date is found on a "sepulchral brass" ( ), placed to the memory of sir hugh hastings in elsing church, norfolk, and dated . these plates of engraved brass, inserted in the stone coverings of so many graves in the interior of the churches in england, are most interesting examples of early memorial art. the figure of the deceased is usually drawn in full length upon them in lines cut deeply into the metal, and is accompanied by an inscription setting forth his deeds and his name. in the upper part of the architectural tracery surrounding the figure on the brass in question is a circle - / inches in diameter, in which the figure of st. george is as shown. the saint here appears as a knight, clad in full armour and mounted upon horseback, representing him in his character as the leader of chivalry and knightly manhood. a further development of the attribute of manly vigour will be noted in that, instead of being shown as piercing, as previously, the fiery dragon of the ancient legend, he is now represented as slaying the equally typical two-legged demon of vice. this representation still further exemplifies the teaching and allegory of the emblem of "st. george and the dragon." [illustration: . brass in elsing church, . ] st. george represents the principle of good, the dragon the principle of evil. it is the contest between virtue and vice, in which the knight by his virtues prevails--a splendid emblem for a christian people. this photo reproduction is from a "rubbing" in black lead recently taken from the brass, and shows, so far as the reduced scale will permit, the st. george's crosses upon the surcoat and shield of the knight and the trappings of his horse. in , on st. george's day, the "most noble order of the garter" was instituted by edward iii., with magnificent ceremony in the st. george's chapel, windsor castle. this is the highest order of knighthood in the kingdom. its jewel, called "the george," is a representation of st. george and the dragon, and in the centre of the "star" of the order is the red cross of st. george. so onward through all the centuries, and now st. george is the acclaimed patron saint of england and all englishmen. it was under this red cross banner of st. george that richard i., the lion-hearted, after proving their seamanship in victory and giving his men their battle-cry, "saint george--forward!"[ ] showed the mettle of his english crusaders in the battles of the holy land, and led them to the walls of jerusalem. with it the fleets of edward i. claimed and maintained the "lordship of the narrow seas." under this single red cross flag the ships of england won the epochal naval victory of _sluys_, where the english bowman shot his feathered shafts from shipboard as blithely as when afterwards on land the french battlefields resounded to the cry of "england and st. george," when the undying glories of cressy and poictiers were achieved, and again at agincourt when henry v. led on his men to victory. under it, too, cabot discovered cape breton, drake sailed around the world, frobisher sought the northwest passage, raleigh founded virginia, and the navy of elizabeth carried confusion into the ill-fated spanish armada. [ ] orton: "saint george." this is a "glory roll" which justifies the name of england as "mistress of the seas." her patron saint was won as a record of naval victory. with this red cross flag of st. george flying above them, her english sailors swept the seas around their white-cliffed coasts, and made the ships of all other nations do obeisance to it. with it they penetrated distant oceans, and planted it on previously unknown lands as signs of the sovereignty of their king, making the power of england and england's flag known throughout the circle of the world. all this was done before the time when the sister-nations had joined their flags with hers, and it is a just tribute to the seafaring prowess of the english people, and to the victories won by the english jack, that the single st. george's cross is in the british fleets the _admiral's flag_, and flies as his badge of rank; that it is in the _command pennant_ of all captains and officers in command of ships, and that the english red cross flag is the groundwork of the white ensign of the british navy (pl. viii. , fig. ). this is the "distinction flag" of the british navy, allowed to be carried only by his majesty's ships-of-war, and restricted, except by special grant, solely to those bearing the royal commission.[ ] [ ] a special permission has been granted to the yachts of the "royal yacht squadron," of england, to use the white ensign. a penalty of £ may by law be imposed for hoisting on any ship or boat belonging to any of his majesty's subjects any flag not permitted in accordance with the admiralty's regulations. (see art. , "admiralty instructions.") thus has the memory of richard i. and his men been preserved, and all honour done to the "mariners of england," the sons of st. george, whose single red cross flag, the english jack, has worthily won the poet's praise: "ye mariners of england! that guard our native seas, whose flag has braved a thousand years the battle and the breeze. * * * * * "the meteor flag of england shall yet terrific burn, till danger's troubled night depart, and the star of peace return."[ ] [ ] campbell. chapter v. _the supremacy of the english jack._ a.d. - . while it is true that flags and banners had grown up on land from the necessity of having some means of identifying the knights and nobles, whose faces were encased and hidden from sight within their helmets, yet it was at sea that they attained to their greatest estimation. there the flag upon the mast became the ensign of the nation to which the vessel belonged, and formed the very embodiment of its power. to fly the flag was an act of defiance, to lower it an evidence of submission, and thus the motions of these little coloured cloths at sea became of highest importance. the supremacy of one nation over another was measured most readily by the precedence which its flag received from the ships of other nationalities. national pride, therefore, became involved in the question of the supremacy of the flag at sea, and in this contest the english were not behindhand in taking their share, for the supremacy of the sea meant to england something more than the mere precedence of her flag. it meant that no other power should be allowed to surpass her as a naval power; not that she desired to carry strife against their countries, but esteemed it more for the protection of her own shores at home, and the preservation of peace along the confines of her island seas. this faith in the maintenance of the supremacy of the seas remains potent to this present day, as is shown by the demand of the british people that their navy shall be maintained at a two-power standard, and so be equal in strength to the navies of any other two of the nations which sail the oceans. it is no new ardour, nor the outcome of any modern development or exigency, but is the outgrowth of the determination of the nation from its earliest days to maintain the supremacy of its flag, and is strengthened by the lessons learned in those centuries. alfred the great of england ( - ) was the first to establish any supremacy for the english flag, and to him is attributed the first gathering together of a royal navy, the creation of an efficient force at sea being a portion of that sea-policy which he so early declared, and which has ever since been the ruling guide of the english people. the true defence of england lay, alfred considered, in maintaining a fleet at sea of sufficient power to stretch out afar, rather than in trusting to fortifications for effective land resistance when the enemy had reached her shores; that it was _better to beat the enemy at sea before he has a chance to land_, and thus to forestall invasion before it came too near--a policy which in these days of steam is simply being reproduced by the creation of "dreadnoughts," swift and strong, to hit hard on distant seas. the bulwarks of england were considered in his time, as they are still considered, to be her ships at sea rather than the parapets of her forts on land. "britannia needs no bulwarks, no towers along the steep; her march is o'er the mountain waves, her home is on the deep."[ ] [ ] campbell. introducing galleys longer and faster than those of the danes,[ ] alfred kept his enemies at a respectful distance, and, dwelling secure under the protection of his fleet, was thus enabled to devote himself with untrammelled energy to the establishment of the internal government of his kingdom. [ ] "sax. chron." his successors followed up his ideas, and under athelstane ( ) the creation of an english merchant navy was also developed. every inducement was offered to merchants who should engage in maritime ventures. among other decrees then made was one that, "_if a merchant so thrives that he pass thrice over the wide seas in his own craft he was henceforth a thane righte worthie_."[ ] thus honours were to be won as well as wealth, and in pursuit of both the merchants of england extended their energies to wider traffic on the seas. [ ] "canciam," iv. king edgar ( - ), by virtue of his navy, won and assumed the title of "supreme lord and governor of the ocean lying around about britain." thus did the english flag, carried by its navies, sail the seas. but harold, the last of the saxon kings, instead of maintaining his ships in equipment and fitness to protect his shores, allowed them, for want of adequate provisions, to be dispersed from their station behind the isle of wight, and so, forgetting the teachings of alfred, left his southern coasts unguarded and let the norman invader have opportunity to land, an opportunity which was promptly seized. the norman monarchs of england held in their turn to the supremacy which the early saxon kings had claimed for her flag at sea. when the conquest of england, in , had been completely effected by the norman forces, the shores on each side of the "narrow seas" between england and normandy were combined under the rule of william the conqueror, communication by water increased between the two portions of his realm, and the maritime interests of the people were greatly extended and established. richard i. showed england to the other nations, during the crusades, as a strong maritime power. king john followed in his footsteps, and in , the second year of his reign, issued his declaration directing that ships of all other nations must honour his royal flag: "if any lieutenant of the king's fleet in any naval expedition, do meet with on the sea any ship or vessels, laden or unladen, that will not vail and lower their sails at the command of the lieutenant of the king or the king's admiral, but shall fight with them of the fleet, such, if taken, shall be reported as enemies, and the vessels and goods shall be seized and forfeited as the goods of enemies." the supremacy which king john thus claimed, his successors afterwards maintained and extended, so that under edward i., spain, germany, holland, denmark, and norway, being all the other nations, except france, which bordered on the adjacent seas, joined in according to england "possession of the sovereignty of the english seas and the isles therein,"[ ] together with admission of the right which the english had of maintaining sovereign guard over these seas, and over all the ships of other dominions, as well as their own, which might be passing through them. [ ] southey: "british admirals." edward ii. was given, in , the title of "lord of the seas."[ ] [ ] sir harris nicholas. edward iii., himself a sailor-king and commander of his fleets, was fully imbued with the force of the alfred maxim, so that when invasion threatened england he said, "_he deemed it better with a strong hand to go seek the enemy in his own country than wait ignobly at home for the threatened danger_."[ ] putting his maxim into action he led his fleet across the channel, and his victory over the french fleet at sluys, off flanders, on the th june, , was the trafalgar of its day, and the resulting supremacy of the english jack on the narrow seas enabled him to land his forces on the foreign shores, when he subsequently invaded france to establish his claim to the french throne. the prowess of himself and of his seamen in their victory over the french and spanish fleets won for edward the proud title of "king of the seas," in token of which he was represented upon his gold coinage standing in a ship "full royally apparelled."[ ] [ ] rymer. [ ] aubrey: "gold noble, ed. iii." during the wars of the roses less attention was given by the nation to maritime matters, and while the english were so busily engaged in fighting amongst themselves, the dutch of the netherlands, under the duke of burgundy, developed a large carrying trade, and so increased their fleets that, in , at the accession of henry vii., they had become a formidable shipping rival of england, and were a thorn in the side of france. over the ships of the french the dutch so lorded it on the narrow seas that, to quote philip de commines, their "navy was so mighty and strong, that no man durst stir in these narrow seas for fear of it making war upon the king of france's subjects and threatening them everywhere." two flags, the striped standard of the dutch and the red cross jack of the english, were now rivalling each other on the adjacent seas and on the atlantic. the contest for the supremacy which had begun was continued for nearly two hundred years thereafter. in the time of henry vii. more attention was given to merchant shipping and foreign adventure. cabot carried the english flag across the atlantic under the license which he and his associates received from henry vii., empowering them "to seek out and find whatsoever isles, countries, regions, or provinces of the heathen and infidels, whatsoever they might be; and set up his banner on every isle or mainland by them newly found." with this authority for its exploits the red cross of st. george was planted, in , on the shores of newfoundland and florida, and the english jack thus first carried into america formed the foundation for the subsequent british claim to sovereignty over all the intervening coasts along the atlantic. under henry viii. england began to bestir herself in making provision for a regular navy. a drawing in the pepysian library gives the details of the _henri grace à dieu_ ( ), built in by order of henry viii., which was the greatest warship up to that time built in england, and has been termed the "parent of the british navy." at the four mastheads fly st. george's ensigns, and from the bowsprit end and from each of the round tops upon the lower masts are long streamers with the st. george's cross, very similar in form to the naval pennants of the present day. the castellated building at the bow, and the hooks with which the yards are armed, tell of the derivation of the nautical terms "forecastle" and "yard arm" still in use. with such improved armament the cross of st. george continued to ruffle its way on the narrow seas, and widened the scope of its domain. the supremacy claimed for the english jack never lost anything at the hands of its bearers, and an event which occurred in the reign of queen mary gives a vivid picture of the boldness of the sea-dogs by whom it was carried, and of how they held their own over any rival craft: [illustration: . the "henri grace À dieu," . (from the pepysian collection.)] the spanish fleet, of one hundred and sixty sail, was escorting philip ii., of spain, when coming to his marriage with the english queen, in . it was met off southampton by the english fleet, of twenty-eight sail, under lord william howard, who was then "lord high admiral in the narrow seas." the spanish fleet, with their king on board, was flying the royal flag of spain, and was proceeding to pass the english ships without paying the customary honours. the english admiral promptly fired a shot into the spanish admiral's ship, and the whole fleet was obliged to strike their colours and lower their topsails in homage to the english flag. not until this salute had been properly done would howard permit his own squadron to salute the spanish king.[ ] [ ] preble: "flag of the united states." under elizabeth seamanship mightily increased. her merchant fleets, from being mere coasters, extended their ventures to far distant voyages, in some of which the queen herself was said to have had an interest; and while before her time soldiers had exceeded seamen in numbers, the positions were now reversed. the defeat of the spanish armada, in , was one of the crowning achievements of the supremacy of the english jack, yet it would almost seem as though the glorious flag had, in the never-to-be-forgotten action of the undaunted _revenge_, kept for the closing years of its single cross period the grandest of all the many strifes in which it had been engaged. england and spain were then at open war. the english fleet, consisting of six queen's ships, six victuallers of london, and two or three pinnaces, was riding at anchor near the island of flores, in the azores, waiting for the coming of the spanish fleet, which was expected to pass on its way from the west indies, where it had wintered the preceding year. on the st september, , the enemy came in sight, numbering fifty-three sail, "the first time since the great armada that the king of spain had shown himself so strong at sea."[ ] [ ] monson. the english had been refitting their equipment, the sick had all been sent on shore, and their ships were not in readiness to meet so overwhelming an armament. on the approach of the spaniards, and to save the fleet from being penned in by them along the coast, five of the english ships slipped their cables, and together with the consorts sailed out to sea. sir richard grenville, in the _revenge_, was left behind to collect the men on shore and bring off the sick, and so, after having done this duty, came out alone to meet the enemy, which was marshalled in long extended line outside the port. he might have sailed around their wing, but this would have been an admission of inferiority, and, bold to recklessness, he thrust his little ship right through the centre of their line. rather than strike his flag, he withstood the onset of all the spanish fleet, which closed in succession around him, and thus this century of the red cross jack closed with a sea-fight worthy of its story, and one which has been preserved by a poet laureate in undying verse, whose lines ought to be known by every british boy: "he had only a hundred seamen to work the ship and to fight, and he sailed away from flores till the spaniard came in sight, with his huge sea-castles heaving upon the weather bow. 'shall we fight or shall we fly? good sir richard, tell us now, for to fight is but to die! there'll be little of us left by the time this sun be set,' and sir richard said again: 'we be all good english men. let us bang these dogs of seville, the children of the devil, for i never turn'd my back upon don or devil yet.' * * * * * and the sun went down, and the stars came out far over the summer sea, but never a moment ceased the fight of the one and fifty-three. ship after ship, the whole night long, their high-built galleons came, ship after ship, the whole night long, with her battle-thunder and flame; ship after ship, the whole night long, drew back with her dead and her shame. for some were sunk, and many were shatter'd, and so could fight us no more-- god of battles, was ever a battle like this in the world before?"[ ] [ ] tennyson: "the revenge." in such way, audacious in victory and unconquered in defeat, the english sailors, beneath their english jack, held for the mastery of the oceans from alfred to elizabeth, and laid the foundations of that maritime spirit which still holds for great britain the proud supremacy of the seas. chapter vi. _the scottish jack._ from a very early period st. andrew has been esteemed as the patron saint of scotland, and held in veneration quite as strong as that entertained in england for st. george. the "saltire," or diagonal cross of st. andrew ( ), shaped like the letter x is attributed to the tradition that the saint, considering himself unworthy to be crucified on a cross of the same shape as that on which his saviour had suffered, had, by his own choice, been crucified with legs and arms extended upon a cross of this shape, and, therefore, it has been accepted as the emblem of his martyrdom. [illustration: . st. andrew's jack.] the "scottish jack" (pl i., fig. ) is a white oblong cross upon a blue ground. this is the banner of st. andrew ( ), and in heraldic language is described as "_azure, a saltire argent_" (on azure blue, a silver-white saltire). how st. andrew came to be adopted as the patron saint of scotland is a subject of much varying conjecture. it is said that in the early centuries, about a.d. , some relics of the apostle st. andrew were being brought to scotland by some greek monks, and although the vessel carrying them was wrecked and became a total loss, the sacred bones were brought safe to shore at the port in the county of fife, still called _st. andrews_, where a church was erected to his memory. the most favoured tradition as to the date of his authorized adoption as a patron saint is that it occurred in a.d. , when hungus, king of the picts, was being attacked by athelstane, the king of the west saxons,[ ] achaius, king of the scots, with , of his scottish subjects, came to the relief of hungus, and the two kings joined their forces to repel the southern invaders. the scottish leaders, face to face with so formidable a foe, were passing the night in prayer to god and st. andrew, when upon the background of the blue sky there appeared, formed in white clouds, the figure of the white cross of the martyr saint. reanimated by this answering sign, the scottish soldiers entered the fray with enthusiastic valour, and beset the english with such ardour as to drive them in confusion from the field, leaving their king, athelstane, behind them dead among the slain. since that time the white saltire cross, upon a blue ground, the banner of st. andrew, has been carried by the scots as their national ensign. [ ] sir harris nicholas: "history of the order of the thistle." this was the flag carried by the great scottish national hero, robert-the-bruce, whose valour won for him the crown of scotland, and whose descendants, the earls of elgin, still bear his banner on their coatof-arms. at bannockburn, in , this emblem of bruce rose victorious over edward ii. and his stolid englishmen. its use was continued in , when the scots, stirred up and aided by charles vi. of france, invaded and despoiled the border counties of england, in which expeditions both they and their french auxiliaries wore a white st. andrew's cross upon their jacques, both before and behind, in order that they might distinguish the soldiers of their combined companies from the forces of the foe.[ ] [ ] perry: "rank and badges." but st. andrew's flag was not always victorious. at chevy chase and flodden field it suffered defeat, but only in such wise as to prove the truth of the warning motto of the prickly scotch thistle, "_nemo me impune lacessit_"--(no one may touch me with impunity). the scottish jack in all these early centuries, unlike its english compeer, does not appear to have been carried by scotsmen far afield, nor in expeditions across the seas. on land, the scots used it mainly as a sign of recognition during the forays which they kept up with unceasing vigour on the neighbouring kingdoms of england and ireland; and at sea its scene of action was kept measurably near to their own shores. scotland, being so far removed from the fleets of the southern nations of europe, did not need a regular navy, and never had one of any size,[ ] but her far northern coasts, indented with deep bays and bordered by wild fastnesses, adapted themselves admirably to the use to which they were mainly put, of being the lair from which hardy, venturesome freebooters, in those times called "sea rovers," sailed forth in their "talle shippes" ( ), and pounced down upon the vessels of the passersby. the exploits of some of these sailors, under the st. andrew's jack, crop out from time to time with splendid audacity in the history of the centuries. one "mercer, a scottish rover," during the reign of richard ii. of england, so harried the merchant shipping of england that, in , alderman john philpot, "a worshipful citizen of london," equipped an expedition at his own expense to cramp the energies of the marauder, and meeting mercer and fifteen spanish ships, which were acting with him, brought the whole fleet, "_besides great riches which were found on board_," in triumph into port at scarborough in yorkshire. philpot was haled before the english royal authorities for having dared "_to set forth a navy of men-of-war without the advice of the king's council_," but the end was considered to have justified the means, and the bold citizen, who by his own action had put down the annoyance with which the officers of the realm should have dealt, was, after having himself stoutly berated the council for their sluggishness, let go free. [ ] in , when, at the time of the completed union under queen anne, the whole navy of the scots was transferred to the navy of great britain, it consisted of only "three small ships." [illustration: . scotch "talle shippe," th century. (from a painting by vandyck.)] sir andrew wood, of leith, who for a long time pillaged the english ships and set the navy of henry vii. at defiance, was another doughty champion of the st. andrew's cross. growing bolder in his defiance, he challenged the english royal navy to a contest. the challenge was accepted, and three chosen ships were sent to meet him. these he overmastered, and carried off his prizes and their crews to dundee, from where, after the wounded had been cared for, and the damages of the vessels repaired, james iv. of scotland returned the ships and their men to henry, saying, "_the contest had been for honour, not for booty_."[ ] [ ] pinkerton: "history of scotland." but the greatest hero of them all, the one whose deeds have woven themselves into the folklore of the scottish race, was sir andrew barton, who in the time of henry viii. not only plundered his english neighbours, but also took toll of the ships of all other nations without regard to their flag, making himself the terror of the north seas. an old ballad tells in quaint style what an english merchant of newcastle, whose ships had fallen into the hands of barton, is said to have reported to the english admiral, who was in charge of the "narrow seas": "hast thou not herde, lord howard bold, as thou hast sailed by day and by night, of a scottish rover on the seas? men call hym sir andrewe barton, knyte? "he is brasse within and steel withoute, with bemes on his toppe-castle strong, and eighteen piece of ordnaunce he carries on each side along. "and he hath a pinnace derely dight, st. andrew's cross yat is his guide; his pinnace bereth nine score men and fifteen cannons on each side. "were ye twenty ships and he but one, i swear by kirk, and bower and hall, he would overcome them every one if once his bemes they do down fall." sir andrew was the last of the freebooters, as the rise of the navy of henry viii., and the union of the two kingdoms of england and scotland by james i. under one crown, put an end to these reprisals by the subjects of the one nation on the other; yet, as we shall see, it was the remnants of these very rivalries thus engendered between the single cross flags of st. andrew and st. george which led to these national jacks of the two nations being afterwards joined together to form one flag. st. andrew is also venerated by the russians as a national saint, their tradition being that it was through the apostle st. andrew that the gospel of christianity had been brought to their people. their highest order of knighthood, created by peter the great, in , is the order of st. andrew, and the national flag of russia, borne by all their people and on their imperial navy, is the st. andrew's cross. it is also used on the masthead of their war vessels to indicate the rank of an admiral. it will be remembered that the russians have transposed the colours of the banner of st. george from a red cross on a white ground, as on the english jack, to be on theirs a white cross on a red ground. so also they have transposed the colours on their st. andrew's flag to be a blue cross on a white ground instead of a white cross on a blue ground as on the scottish flag. chapter vii. _the "additional" union jack of james i._ a.d. - . [illustration: . royal arms of england, henry v., , to elizabeth.] the kingdoms of england and scotland had passed through their centuries of dissension and conflict when at length, in march, , upon the death of his second cousin, elizabeth, queen of england, james vi., king of scotland, succeeded to her throne, and became also king james i. of england. before entering upon the subject of the joining of the two national jacks in one flag, it may be well to consider the changes then made in the royal standard in consequence of this union of the crowns. the royal standard is the special personal flag of the sovereign, and wears upon it his royal arms emblazoned with "devise" or insignia of the kingdoms over which he rules. james, upon ascending the throne of england, immediately issued a proclamation instructing a change to be made in its then existing form ( ). richard i., _c[oe]ur de lion_, had displayed on his royal standard the three golden lions on a red ground, the sign of england. to these henry v. had added three golden _fleur-de-lis_ on a blue ground, typifying his right to the throne of france. this standard was used thereafter by all his successors, the sovereigns of england, and by elizabeth. a change was now made by james to represent his additional sovereignties. to the standard of elizabeth he added the lion rampant of scotland and also the harp of ireland, which had not previously been included in the royal arms ( ), thus placing the three lions for england and three _fleurs-de-lis_ for france in the first and fourth quarters; the lion rampant for scotland in the second, and the harp for ireland in the third quarter. [illustration: . royal arms of james i., .] while he changed the english royal standard, no change was instructed to be made, nor was evidently considered to be necessary, in the english national flag of st. george, which continued to be used as previously on the english ships by his new subjects. thus in the early years of the reign of james, the english and scotch ships continued to use their respective "red crosse" and "white crosse" jacks, exactly as they had done prior to his accession to the english throne. the nations had now been brought into closer contact, and the movement of shipping along their shores much increased as each was relieved from any fear of attack by the other. each nation, no doubt, retained a predilection for its own national flag--a preference which its adherents expressed each in their own way, and most probably in terms not untinged by caustic references to controversies and contentions of previous days. when james had ascended the throne of england, it was his great desire to be styled king of "great britain," as well as of "france and ireland." he had caused himself at the outset to be so proclaimed, and afterwards used the phrase in his proclamations, but without due authority. during the first year of his reign opinions on the point were asked of the judges of the courts, and also of the lords and commons of england, but the replies of all were unanimously against his right to the assumption of any such title, as being one which might seem to indicate a fusion of the two kingdoms. the fact was, that although the two kingdoms of scotland and england had been joined in allegiance to the same sovereign, who was equally king of each, yet as each kingdom still retained its own separate parliament, their union had not been made adequately complete. the king had particularly desired to complete this union. in a proclamation he issued, he states he had found among the "better disposed" of his subjects "a most earnest desire that the sayd happy union should be perfected, the memory of all preterite discontentments abolished, and all the inhabitants of both the realms to be the subjects of one kingdom." he says he will himself use every diligence to have it perfected, "with the advice of the states and parliament of both the kingdoms, and in the meantime till the said union be established with due solemnite aforesaid, his majesty doth repute, hold and esteem both the two realms as presently united, and as one realm and kingdome, and the subjects of both the realms as one people, brethren and members of one body." but charm he never so wisely, the king could not get his subjects to see matters in the same light as himself, nor was he able to get their parliaments to unite. thus it occurred that in , in the fourth year after the joining of the two thrones, the king, finding that difficulties kept arising about their flags between the subjects of his two adjacent kingdoms, considered it advisable to issue a proclamation declaring the manner in which they were in future to display their national jacks, and also authorizing a new flag, which was to be used by each in addition to their own national flag. this flag was the "additional" jack of james i. ( ). [illustration: . jack of james i., .] it is probable that the english sailor had objected to seeing the scottish cross raised on the mast above his english flag, and the scotsman, on his part, too, did not like to see st. andrew below st. george. the additional flag was designed for the purpose of meeting this difficulty, and was ordered to be raised by itself upon the mainmast. it is evident that some ships had been flying both the national flags, for, as a further precaution, particular instruction was given that each ship should fly only one national cross, and this was to be only the cross of its own nationality. all controversy as to the precedence of the respective jacks was thus intended to be brought to an end. this proclamation of , as copied from an original issue in the british museum, reads as follows: "_a proclamation declaring what flagges south and north britaines shall beare at sea._ "by the king: "whereas, some difference hath arisen between our subjects of south and north britaine travelling by seas, about the bearing of their flagges: for the avoiding of all such contentions hereafter wee have, with the advice of our councell, ordered: that from henceforth all our subjects of this isle and kingdome of great britaine, and all our members thereof, shall beare in their _maine toppe_ the red crosse, commonly called st. george's crosse, and the white crosse, commonly called st. andrew's crosse, _joyned together according to the forme made by our heralds_, and sent by us to our admerell to be published to our subjects; and in their _fore-toppe_ our subjects of south britaine shall weare the red crosse onely as they were wont, and our subjects of north britaine in their _fore-toppe_ the white crosse onely as they were accustomed. "wherefore wee will and command all our subjects to be conformable and obedient to this our order, and that from henceforth they do not use to beare their flagges in any other sort, as they will answere to contrary at their peril. "given at our palace of westminster, the twelfth day of april, in the fourth yere of our reine of great britaine, france and ireland, etc. god save the king." this king's jack, which subsequently came to be commonly known as the "union flagge," was, it will be noted, not intended to supersede the existing national jacks, for it was directed to be displayed in addition to, and at the same time with, the jack of each nation. the new flag of the king was to be raised by itself on the mainmast, and the old national flag on the foremast, so that each of these flags should be kept separate from one another. the reason for this separate use of two flags is evident, one which is fully confirmed in the creation of the union jacks which succeeded one another in subsequent reigns. the reason was that the two parliaments of the nations had not been united in one, and, therefore, it was that each nation continued to retain its own distinctive national cross, which it flew on the flagstaff as the sign of its own particular nationality, and which was, therefore, not displaced by the king's newly created flag. [illustration: plate iii. the percys' ensign union jack of james i- colonial union jack- ] the position of the flag was, in , regulated to be: a.d., . royal navy-- maintop, king's jack. merchantmen-- _english subjects_--maintop, "additional" king's jack. foretop, english jack. _scottish subjects_--maintop, "additional" king's jack. foretop, scottish jack. the construction of the new flag presents some peculiarities. in this "additional" jack of james i. (pl. iii., fig. ), the red cross of st. george and its white ground, being the "st. george's crosse," had been ordered by the proclamation to be united with the white cross of st. andrew and its blue ground, being the "st. andrewe's crosse," the two flags being "_joyned together according to the forme made by our heralds_." in this "joining" the white ground of st. george's flag was reduced almost to a nullity. as the form was the creation of heralds, it was made according to the strict heraldic rules of their highly technical craft. in heraldry, a narrow border of white or gold, termed a "fimbriation," is always introduced where colour would otherwise touch on colour for the purpose of keeping the colours separate, the technical statement of the rule being, "metal cannot be placed upon metal, nor colour upon colour." the heralds, therefore, in conformity with their tendencies, reduced the white ground of the st. george flag until it became only a narrow margin of white, just sufficient to keep the red of the cross of st. george from touching the blue ground of st. andrew's flag upon which it was laid, or so that the white ground became simply "_a fimbriation to the red cross of st. george_." the union of the two flags resulted in the scotsman getting a good share of all that was going. it is true the crosses of the two flags were given equal display, but the white ground of the st. george's english jack had entirely disappeared, while the blue ground of the st. andrew's had been left in occupation of all the remaining space. no wonder that an english admiral of the "narrow seas," hankering after his old st. george jack, says, a few years afterwards, of this new flag: "though it may be more honour to both the kingdoms to be thus linked and united together, yet, in view of the spectators, it makes not so fair a show, if it would please his majesty."[ ] [ ] sir william monson. the scotsmen also raised objection to the cross of st. george having been placed over and in front of that of st. andrew.[ ] with, what appears to us now, much quaintness of language, the scottish privy council made its formal complaint to his majesty in a letter of th august, , saying that, "the forme and patrone of the flagges of schippis sent down heir and commandit to be ressavit and used be the subjectis of both kingdomes is vereie prejudicial to the fredome and dignitie of this estate, and wil gif occasion to reprotche--becaus as your sacred majestie may persave, the scottis croce, callit sanctandrois croce, is troyse dividit, and the english croce, called sanct george, drawne through the scottis croce, which is thereby obscurit." [ ] hulme: "flags of the world." either one or the other of the crosses had to be in front, but as the whole of their blue ground had been retained, while the englishman had lost all the white ground of his flag, the objection was not entertained. this two-crossed jack of james i., , continued in use in the royal navy for over a century, with the exception of its retirement during the changes which, as we shall hereafter note, were made under cromwell. during its term the british kingdom, which had already under the english jack colonized the mainland of america from massachusetts to virginia, became more than ever an american power; for, under this new jack, the islands which surrounded the coast, namely, the west indies, barbadoes, bermuda, the bahamas, antigua and jamaica, were added to the british crown. on the continent of europe as well, the victorious movements of the flag did not slacken, for under it gibraltar was pounced upon and taken by admiral rooke, and blenheim, the master victory of the great marlborough, was won. this was a record and "glory roll" on both the continents worthy of the two races, whose forces had been joined at its creation. its position was, however, not throughout continuous, for successive changes were introduced in the regulations regarding its use during the century within which it achieved its varied career. all these changes, its alternating disappearances and reappearances, show that this king's jack of james i. was not a flag which denoted a completed union, although by habit it came to be called the "union flagge," and subsequently the "union jack," of the nations, but was one which was introduced for another purpose, and carried a different signification, being that of the union of the thrones in one sovereign. usage has, however, so long attached the name to this two-crossed flag of james i., that it may be well to consider it our first union jack. chapter viii. _the english jack restored._ as a single jack - in the corner of the ensign red - the new two-crossed flag of king james had, in , been authorized to be used by the ships of all his subjects, by the merchantmen as well as on the men-of-war. this order caused many heart-burnings among the admirals of the royal navy, and especially to the admiral of the narrow seas, whose particular right it was to fly his majesty's ensign on these much-frequented waters, and whose principal prerogative it was to see that the ships of other nations observed the courtesies and accorded the privileges due to the british flag in its claim to the sovereignty of the seas. under this new arrangement other ships, as well as the ships of the royal navy, were carrying the king's jack at the main, and the officers of the navy felt that their official prominence was thereby much diminished, for, as they said, how were foreigners to distinguish a merchantman from a man-of-war? sir john penington, narrow seas admiral, in , sent in his remonstrances, and pressed for the "altering the coullers, whereby his majestie's own ships may be known from the subjectes." it will be remembered that the ships of foreign nations were required, when meeting any of the royal ships of the king of england, to dip their colours and topsails. this change the admiral, therefore, considered, "to bee very materiale and much for his majestie's honour; and, beside, will free dispute with strangers; for when they omitt doing theyr respects to his majestie's shippes till they be shott att, they alledge they did not know it to be ye king's shippe." the royal navy kept up a constant agitation for the repeal of the order, until at length, in , being the thirty-eighth year of the flag from its first establishment by james i., their claim was acceded to by charles i., and a proclamation was duly issued: "by the king: "_a proclamation appointing the flags as well for our navie royall as for the ships of our subjects of south and north britaine._ "we taking into our royal consideration it is meete for the honour of oure shipps in our navie royall and of such other shipps as are or shall be employed in our immediate service that the same bee, by their flags distinguished from the shipps of any other of our subjects doe herebye straitly prohibite and forbid that none of our subjects of any of our nations and kingdoms shall from henceforth presume to carry the union flagge in the maintoppe or other part of any of their shipps that is the st. george's crosse and the st. andrew's crosse joyned together upon pain of our high displeasure; but that the same union flagge be still reserved as an ornament proper for _our owne shipps_ and shipps in our immediate service and pay and none other. and likewise our further will and pleasure is that all the other shipps of our subjects of england or south britaine bearing flags, shall from henceforth carry the _red crosse_ commonly called _st. george his crosse_ as of olde time hath been used; and also that all the other shipps of our subjects of scotland or north britaine shall from henceforth carry the _white crosse_ commonly called _st. andrew's crosse_. whereby the several shippes may be distinguished, and wee thereby better discerne the number and goodness of the same; wherefore wee will and straitly command all our subjects foorthwith to be conformable and obedient to this our order, as they will answer the contrary at their perill. "given at our court at greenwich this th day of may in the tenth yeare of oure reigne of england, scotland, france and ireland, defender of the faith, etc. god save the king." imprinted at london by robert barker, printer to the king's most excellent majestie, and by the assignee's of john bill, . this proclamation of charles i. made a very great change in the position of the "union flagge" of james, by restricting its use to one class of ships. that it had never been intended at that time to serve as a "national" flag is again clearly evidenced by the renewed declaration that it was the special signal of the sovereign, to be used exclusively on the ships of the royal navy. further, the merchant vessels owned by "subjects of any of our nations and kingdoms," which had thus lost the "additional" jack, were ordered to continue to use, as of "olde time hath been used," their distinctive national flags. for the continued preservation of the peace, it was again required that each ship should display only the flag of the nation to which it belonged, namely, the st. george's crosse, or old english jack, on english merchant ships, and st. andrew's crosse, or scotch jack, on the scotch merchant ships. the position of the three flags at this time was thus clearly distinguished: a.d. . _the royal navy_ the two-crossed jack. _english merchantmen_ the st. george crosse. _scotch merchantmen_ the st. andrew crosse. this first change in the position in the using of this first two-crossed jack is shown in a drawing given of the "king's ships." the battleship _sovereign of the seas_, which was built in , was the glory of the fleet of charles i., and proved herself, during her sixty years of active service, one of the best men-of-war of the time, and "so formidable to her enemies that none of the most daring among them would willingly lie by her side."[ ] [ ] phineas pett: "journal," . [illustration: . the "sovereign of the seas," . (from a painting by vandervelt.)] the drawing ( ) here shown of this ship is copied from a contemporary painting by vandervelt. at the stern is the royal standard of charles i.; on the two masts ensigns with royal ciphers; and the two-crossed "union flagge," which from was to be the "ornament proper for our owne shipps," is flying on the "jack staff" at the bow. it was the "king's flag" calling for the obeisance of foreign vessels. but another change was yet to come, and after fourteen more years had passed away another jack was flying at the bow, and the royal standard of the king had disappeared from the stern of the gallant vessels. premonitory symptoms of this impending change had been given even so early as january, , when the headings of the official lists of the ships of the navy had been altered by order of parliament, so that the ships were officially entered as "the parliament's ships," instead of being described, as previously, "his majesty's ships."[ ] [ ] hallam. in february, , the revolutionary parliament of england abolished the office of king, and by this and the subsequent execution of king charles they cancelled the allegiance of scotland and dissolved the connection between the kingdoms. a change was made in the jacks which were to be worn on the men-of-war. the parliament did not consider the stuart kingdom of scotland to be a portion of their state, and ordered that its recognition should be removed from the flags then used on their ships. an order of the council was therefore passed, february rd, , signed by john bradshaw, "in ye name of ye counsell of state," which was communicated in a letter to the commissioners of the navy, directing the change and ordering that "_the ships that are in the service of the state shall beare the red crosse only in a white flagg, quite through the flagg_." up to that time carvings of the royal arms had been carried on the stern of all royal ships, so the order further directed that these also should be altered, and that "_upon the sterne of the shippes there shall be the red crosse in one escotcheon and the harpe in one other, being the armes of england and ireland, both escotcheons joined according to the pattern herewith sent unto you_." [illustration: . commonwealth twenty-shilling piece.] the form of these escutcheons is well shown in the twenty-shilling piece ( ) issued during the commonwealth, and also on a parliamentary flag ( ) then in use which had on the fly the same two emblems. one of these flags is still preserved in the house of the admiralty superintendent at chatham, the colour of the ground of the flag being red.[ ] [ ] w. laird clowes: "history of the english navy." thus the two-crossed union jack of james ceased to be used and disappeared from the navy, as it already had from the merchantmen, and the single red cross jack of england was restored to its position as the only jack carried on the men-of-war of the state, or on any english ship sailing the seas. the merchant vessels of the two nationalities continued to use their english and scottish national jacks as before, but the scottish ships were especially warned that they must not carry either the king's arms or the red cross of st. george, and in case any of these scottish ships should be met so doing, the state's colonel-admirals were ordered to "_admonish them not to do it in future_." [illustration: . commonwealth boat flag.] the position of the jacks was now: a.d. . _the state ships_ the st. george crosse. _english merchantmen_ the st. george crosse. _scottish merchantmen_ the st. andrew crosse. this position the english st. george jack continued to hold on the ships of the state navy until , when another change took place, and, at the "restoration" of charles ii., the two-crossed "union flagge" returned, without any proclamation, to the places where it had been displayed before the change made by the commonwealth parliament. on the _naseby_ ( ) it will be noticed that the two-crossed jack is flying at the bow and on the mizzen, instead of the single red cross flag ordered by parliament. how this came about is told in the next chapter. here, then, ended the period during which the english jack, having been restored as a single flag, had continued to be, from to , the only jack authorized to be used on the men-of-war. after the return of the king his subjects evidently began, in their enthusiasm, to make such indiscriminate use of this "king's jack" instead of the single st. george jack that they needed, a few years afterwards, to be reminded of the special instructions respecting the flag which had been given in the previous reign. in consequence of this, in , another proclamation was issued, under charles ii., from which the following extract is made: "_a proclamation for the regulating the colours to be worn on merchant ships.--charles r._ "whereas by ancient usage no merchants' ships ought to bear the jack, which is for distinction appointed for his majesty's ships: "his majesty strictly charges and commands all his subjects, that from henceforth they do not presume to wear _his majesty's jack, commonly called the union jack_, on any of their ships or vessels, without particular warrant for their so doing from his majesty, or the lord high admiral of england. and his majesty doth further command all his loving subjects without such warrant they presume not to wear on board their ships or vessels any jacks made in imitation of his majesty's, or any other flags, jacks or ensigns whatsoever, than those usually heretofore worn on merchants' ships, viz., the flag and _jack white_, with a red cross, commonly called st. george's cross, passing quite through the same, and the _ensign red_ with the like cross in a canton white at the upper corner thereof next to the staff." the distinctive order of the flags was this time arranged to be: a.d. . the royal navy-- "his majesty's jack," commonly called "the union jack." all merchantmen-- i. the "jack white," or plain st. george jack. ii. the "ensign red," or red flag, with the "jack white" in the upper corner. from the time of this proclamation of charles ii. the jack of king james regained its officially authorized position, but only as a single flag, and even then was ordered to be used only on the royal men-of-war. the merchant ships, however, began again so frequently to fly this jack instead of their single-cross jacks, that in the reign of william iii., and again in the reign of queen anne (prior to the creation of her own two-crossed jack), it was found necessary to issue special proclamations reiterating the official restriction of this two-crossed jack of james to the ships of the royal navy, and forbidding any other ships to use it. although the merchantmen were not always using the single st. george jack, which had been restored to them, and it had given way in the royal navy to the two-crossed jack, yet it had always continued to be used in the ensign red referred to in the proclamation. the creation of this ensign flag, in , is told in the next chapter, and in this form the restoration of the english jack was extended for a further period to , and reserved for a special further honour in later times. in the british navy of the present day the st. george jack has become, and is ordered to be, the distinctive flag of an admiral. according to the mast upon which it is raised his rank is indicated, and the ship on which it is carried is termed the "flag ship." these flags are displayed as follows: admiral st. george at main. vice-admiral st. george at fore. rear-admiral st. george at mizzen. thus has the english jack been once more restored, and being the signal of command in the british navy, it is a continuing memorial of the prowess of the seamen of england, whose ships so early won the sea command for the united empire. chapter ix. _the evolution of the red ensign._ the history of the jacks as single flags having been traced through these periods, we may revert to the changes brought about by their being made part of a larger flag, and note how the exalted position at the stern of the ships was transferred to a new flag, a national ensign, in the upper corner of which the english jack was placed alone, when this flag was first created. under james i. and charles i., as also under the previous sovereigns of england, the flag flown at the stern of the men-of-war had been the royal standard of the sovereign, of which an example is given in the drawing of the _sovereign of the seas_ ( ). the royal standard bearing upon it then, as it does now, the armorial bearings or "arms" of the sovereign, was the banner of the king, and, as then placed at the stern of the ships, signified his direct management and control of the royal fleet. before the close of the reign of charles i. the money control of the royal navy had been jealously assumed by parliament, and the ships had been enrolled as "the parliament ships." with the advent of the commonwealth the ships of the navy were no longer the ships of the king, but became the ships of the state. [illustration: plate iv. commonwealth ensign cromwell's "great union" ensign red--charles ii.-- ] it was to take the place of the king's standard at the stern that the commonwealth parliament created a flag, called the commonwealth ensign (pl. iv., fig. ), to be carried on their men-of-war. this was a red flag, having in the fly a yellow irish harp, and in the upper corner next the staff the st. george cross upon a white ground. ireland had early been overrun by the commonwealth armies, so her emblem was included in the flag, but scotland had warmly espoused the cause of the stuarts, and was, therefore, not recognized. cromwell, after he had been raised to the position of protector, and had dragooned scotland into submission, put out, in , another flag as the "great union," or banner of the commonwealth (pl. iv., fig. ), in which the crosses of st. george and st. andrew were shown for england and scotland, and the harp, on a blue ground, for ireland; but they were each placed in separate quarters of the flag, instead of being joined together in one union, and on a black shield in the centre he caused to be displayed a lion rampant, as representing his own coat-of-arms and himself. this "great union" of cromwell does not appear to have entered into much use, although it certainly was displayed at his funeral. the fleets of the navy were then flying ensigns of three different colours--red, blue and white--according to the rank of the admirals who were in command, red being the colour of the admirals of highest rank and the typical colour of england.[ ] [ ] langton: "heraldry of the sea." contemporary paintings also show that red, blue and white ensigns were in use under the commonwealth, with a single harp in the fly, and a dutch medal, struck to commemorate the death of admiral tromp, also shows the same design of flag. the "commonwealth ensign," now having the irish harp inserted in the flag, was the official flag flown at the stern of the ships of the states navy during the period of the commonwealth. the rule of the commonwealth party having, shortly after the death of cromwell, come to its sudden termination, the royalist supporters of the absent king did not take time or wait for any formal proclamation authorizing a change in flags which had come into existence under the order of the commonwealth council. pepys tells in his "diary" of how this change was begun. being "clerk of the acts of the navy," he had been deputed to read the proclamation of parliament declaring the restoration of the king to the crews on board those ships of the navy which had been appointed to cross over to the hague and bring charles ii. to england. under the commonwealth successful generals and officers on land had been appointed to commands as admirals and officers in the navy, and the military titles were still retained, the official title of the officers in highest command in the navy of the commonwealth being "admirals and generals at sea." while lying at anchor in the downs, waiting for the high officials who were to accompany the fleet, pepys records how the "general of the fleet" went from ship to ship in a small boat, telling them to "alter their arms and flagges." [illustration: . the "naseby." charles ii. (from a painting by vandervelt.)] on th may, , being on board the _london_, one of the ships of this squadron, he makes the following entries of his day's doings, and tells of the making of these changes: "to their quarterdeck, at which the taylers and painters were at work, cutting out some pieces of yellow cloth in the fashion of a crown and 'c.r.' to be put up instead of the state's arms." he also records that meetings of the officers were held, and that he had attended "in the afternoon a council of war only to acquaint them that the harp must be taken out of all their flags, it being very offensive to the king." when, therefore, the harp had been removed from their flags, there remained the simple "ensign red," having the st. george cross in the upper white canton. the _naseby_ ( )--afterwards re-named the _royal charles_--was one of the ships of the squadron which crossed to the hague, and the actual ship on which charles ii. came over to england. the drawing shows the ensign red flying at the stern. there had not been sufficient opportunity for the obtaining of new flags, and, therefore, those which they had in use were altered on board the ships, as pepys has told, and this flag is a commonwealth "ensign red," with the irish harp cut out (pl. iv., fig. ). a very great deal of dependence cannot, as a rule, be placed on the form of the flags introduced into their pictures by artists even of the highest rank. when painting flags more attention is frequently given by them to the colour effect desired to be produced than to the accurate drawing of the details. some instances of unworthy errors in the drawing of national flags may be mentioned. in a painting by leutze, now in the metropolitan museum of art, new york, a representation is shown of "washington crossing the delaware, on december th, ." in this a flag with the stars and stripes is prominently shown, although no such flag had any existence until a year and a half afterwards,[ ] an error which has been perpetuated by a copy of this painting on a series of the national bank-notes issued by the united states government. in the capitol of the united states at washington there is a picture of the "battle of lake erie," fought in , in which the flag on commodore perry's boat has only thirteen stars and thirteen stripes, although the united states ensign had been changed twenty years before, in , to have fifteen stars and fifteen stripes. on the walls of the commons corridor in the british houses of parliament at westminster is a fresco representing the landing of charles ii., in , in which the union jack is depicted as having three crosses, the red cross of st. patrick being included, although it was not entered in the flag until , or years afterwards. [ ] the united states national ensign has at the different dates been composed as follows: --the union jack of queen anne and thirteen stripes. --thirteen stars and thirteen stripes. --fifteen stars and fifteen stripes. --fifteen stars and thirteen stripes. thereafter an additional star was added as each new state was created out of the western territories, the stripes for the original thirteen colonies remaining the same. --forty-five stars and thirteen stripes. --forty-six stars and thirteen stripes. in each of these instances the artist was painting from his imagination, but vandervelt, who painted the picture from which our illustration of the _naseby_ is taken, was himself present on the occasion he recorded, and, seeing that he was the most celebrated marine artist of his day, the details of the flags can be taken to be correct. the subsequent proclamation of charles ii., in (page ), shows that this flag not only continued to be used on the royal ships, but that also all the merchant ships had adopted it and were flying the "ensign red" at the stern in the same way as on the _naseby_, and thus it was that this flag, having become established by usage as the national ensign, was then confirmed in its position by the proclamation of the king. [illustration: . medal of charles ii., .] further confirmation of its use is given by the medals issued in by charles ii., which he granted to his followers in recognition of service. one of these is given in fig. . on the reverse is a ship in full sail. on the flag at the mainmast head are the letters "c.r.," being the abbreviation of carolus rex, and intended to indicate that the flag was the royal standard; at the bow the two-crossed jack, and at the stern the red ensign with the st. george jack in the upper corner. the place of distinction at the stern had been occupied, as under charles i., by the royal standard of the reigning kings. to this position the commonwealth ensign had been installed as being the ensign of the state, and then by the unpremeditated transition at the "restoration" the red ensign succeeded to the post of honour as the ensign of the nation. the story of this flag again exemplifies its harmony with the peculiar genius of the british constitution, for it attained to its position, not by a single verbal enactment, but by force of unwritten usage, and its gradual acceptance by the will of the people, after which it was confirmed by the act of the sovereign. it will also be noted in the drawing of the _naseby_, and on the medal, that the royal standard of charles ii. is shown flying at the main. this was the position at which it had, under previous sovereigns, been displayed by the lord high admiral of the navy to indicate his rank. the earl of warwick, who was lord high admiral under charles i., continued to fly it at the main even after the death of the king; but when warwick was dismissed from his post by the commonwealth, the royal standard was no longer used as the distinction flag of the royal high admiral. when the commonwealth ended and a new king returned, it was again raised to the place where it had been displayed by the last royalist admiral. at the present day the royal standard, being the personal flag of the sovereign, is only shown to indicate the royal presence or that of some member of the royal family, or raised in recognition of some special royal day. on shipboard it is raised on the mainmast immediately the royal personages come alongside, and is lowered the moment that they leave, the national ensign being still displayed at the stern. it was the st. george cross which had been placed in the upper corner of the commonwealth ensign; from here it had passed into the ensign red of charles ii., thereafter borne at the stern on both merchantmen and men-of-war. in the paramount ensign of the nation the single-cross english jack was thus carried from to , when its place in the national ensign was taken for the first time by a two-crossed jack, and then only by the first _real_ union jack, the jack of queen anne. in all the series of changes mentioned in this and the previous chapter direct evidence is given that the "commonly called union jack" of james was only an "additional" flag; that having been considered the "king's jack," it had not officially displaced the local national jacks, and that, although it had superseded them as a single flag on the royal navy, it had never been introduced into the paramount and national ensign of the nation. such, then, was the origin and evolution of the ensign red, the national ensign of the british people, and which formed, with the changes made in the jack in the subsequent reigns of queen anne and george iii., the basis of the present "red ensign" of the british empire. our national ensign tells us how from its very origin it signified the progress of constitutional rule. the royal standard of charles i. at the stern was the expression of absolute rule by the king without the control of parliament; the commonwealth ensign told of the absolute rule of parliament without the king; the ensign red at the stern recorded the coming of constitutional government by both king and parliament; and so our red ensign still tells the story of british constitutional rule by sovereign and people, represented in their united power by this union ensign flying at the stern of all british ships and over all the british lands which bear it united allegiance. chapter x. _the sovereignty of the seas._ the fight for the flag. at the close of the first historic period of the st. george jack we saw it reigning supreme upon the seas around the shores of england. the great armada had, in , been met and shattered, and its squadrons so relentlessly pursued around the british isles that but a remnant remained to struggle back to spain and tell the story of their defeat. after such a victory as this the red cross flag of the "navie royall" sailed the narrow seas with more assurance than ever, claiming and receiving the obeisance of all vessels that were passing by. the ancient policy of alfred and of john had been as much esteemed during this elizabethan period, and its principles adhered to as earnestly and for the same reason as in the earliest days; but the increase of merchant shipping and the rise of the business fleets of england now gave a new reason for its being maintained beyond the old one of self-defence. with the advent of long-distance voyages riches were now to be found beyond the confines of the narrow seas. sir walter raleigh stated the new reason with a terseness which four centuries of phrase-making has not since excelled. said he: "_whosoever commands the sea commands the trade; whosoever commands the trade of the world commands the riches of the world, and consequently the world itself_." the sovereignty of the seas had in this way developed a trade value; yet, whatever may have been the real and underlying causes, the contests for the supremacy which for the next hundred years kept simmering between the nations, bursting out at times into blasts of open war, arose ostensibly from disputes between the guardians of the rival fleets regarding the honourable precedence to be accorded to their respective flags. the sea-rovers of elizabeth had developed into something very like "gentleman-buccaneers." they ranged the oceans, preying upon the spanish and portuguese ships wherever they were to be found, and returned in joyousness, bringing home their booty. the maritime eagerness of the people was whetted by these prizes, and it is said that even the queen herself was not averse to accepting from her good subjects, drake and hawkins, a share of the proceeds of their prowess. the reign of the jack of james i. had scarce begun when a neighbouring maritime rival arose to assume formidable proportions. nurtured in the hardy school of their fishing fleets, and practised in distant voyages by traffic with their possessions in the east indies, the dutch merchantmen not only copied the english methods of preying abroad on the ships of other nations, but also began to employ themselves actively in carrying the water-borne business of their own merchants, and next, which was an intrusion much more objectionable, to enter into competition with the english ships in carrying the merchandise for the other nations of europe. thus the passage of the dutch fleets along the coasts of europe greatly increased. as soon as the spanish war was over, sir william monson, the admiral of the narrow seas, demanded that the ships of all other nations should, as of old, lower their flags in the presence of his own, "a courtesy which could not," he announced, "be challenged by right, but now that the war was ended, his majesty james i. demanded the full recognition of such rights and duties as belonged to his predecessors."[ ] [ ] monson's "naval tracts." these old rights the admiral and his officers accordingly proceeded to enforce. the spirit of the british sailors under the king's new two-crossed jack was still the same as under the english jack, and one is reminded of the old pride in the flag by an instance which is narrated as having occurred under james i. one of the ministers of henry iv. of france had embarked at calais to cross to england in a french ship wearing the french flag at the main. the commander of the english despatch boat, which had been sent to escort him, on meeting him in the channel, ordered the french ship to lower her flag. "the duke of sully, considering that his quality freed him from such an affront, boldly refused, but this refusal was followed by his receiving three cannon shots which pierced his ships. might forced him to yield what right forbade, and for all the complaints he made he could get no better reply from the english captain than this: '_that just as his duty obliged him to honour the ambassador's rank, so it also obliged him to exact the honour due to the flag of his master as sovereign of the seas_.'"[ ] [ ] richelieu. the "rufflings" increased in frequency, and the contest went merrily on, as the dutch, increasing in enterprise and volume of shipping, chafed still more under the domination of the english admirals. in this restlessness they were encouraged by the differences which were raging between king charles i. and his parliament. the latter thwarted the king's efforts at sea and refused to contribute to the levy of "ship-money," declaring it to be an "insufferable tax"; while he, without their concurrence, was attempting to strengthen the navy, which he had created to assert the king of england's right to the sovereignty of the seas and for the protection of his shores, by the maintenance of the old alfred policy. the king's sailors felt keenly the increasing insolence of the passing dutch ships, as wrote one old salt: "what affront can be greater, or what can make a man valianter, than a dishonour done to prince and country, especially by a people that was wont to know no more than how to catch, pickle, and feed fish."[ ] [ ] monson. notwithstanding the parliament's objections, an english navy was at one time collected of sufficient strength that, when the dutch and french fleets joined together in with the avowed intention of contesting the command of the sea, its simply sailing out to meet them overawed their forces, as reports monson: "it is to be observed that the greatest threateners are the least fighters; and so it fared with them; for they no sooner heard of our readiness to find them, but they plucked in their horns and quitted our coast, never more repairing to it." the king's opponents averred that the quarrels with the dutch over the honour due to the flag were fomented only for the purpose of forming an excuse for extorting more money by the objectionable ship-money, whose proceeds, they alleged, were expended for very different purposes than the maintenance of the navy. so the people resisted, while the king persisted. later on, during the civil war, english ships, manned by royalist supporters of the king, were engaged in fighting against english ships manned by supporters of the parliament, and each party was preying upon the merchant adherents of the other. meantime, the dutch maritime power continued to grow. the struggle between the parliament and the king resulted in the defeat and execution of charles, and the weakening of the fleet by these dissensions brought on the humiliation of the english flag during the first dutch war. under cromwell, in , the st. george cross had been restored. the council of state took heart, and showed by their actions that once more the homage due the national flag was held by them in as great esteem as it had been by the king and his party in the royal days. the orders to their naval commanders were explicit: "and, whereas, the dominion of these seas has, time out of mind, undoubtedly belonged to this nation, and the ships of all other nations, in acknowledgment of that dominion, have used to take down their flags upon sight of the admiral of england, and not to bear it in his presence, you are, as much as in you lies, to endeavour to preserve the dominion of the sea, and to cause the ships of all other nations to strike their flags and not to bear them up in your presence, and to compel such as are refractory therein by seizing their ships and sending them to be punished, according to the laws of the sea, unless they yield obedience and make such repair as you approve."[ ] [ ] bloomfield: "the national flag." the commonwealth of england, in self-defence of their shipping, and as a direct blow against the dutch, enacted the celebrated navigation act of , directing that all goods imported into the kingdom of britain, or into her colonies, must be carried either in english ships or in those of the country whence the cargo was obtained. the dutch and english navies sailed the seas watching the movements of each other's flags, and minding the welfare of their merchant marine. bickerings were frequent, but in may, , off dover, tromp brought the right to salute to a crisis. the nations were then at peace, when the dutch fleet bore down in strength upon the english without lowering their colours. as soon as tromp was within musket-shot the english admiral gave orders to fire at his flag. at the third shot tromp answered by a broadside. in such way, through an episode regarding a flag, the first dutch war began.[ ] although the parliament had become alive to the value of a navy, yet the unpreparedness of the previous years now told its tale, for when the season of had closed, the dutch had swept the english flag from the narrow seas, and tromp is traditionally reported to have triumphantly carried a broom at his masthead as a sign of his complete success. [ ] hannay: "short history of the royal navy." [illustration: . whip-lash pennant, british navy.] tromp's glory was of but short duration, for the roundhead dragoon, blake, nicknamed "the cavalryman at sea," soon clipped his wings. in return for the compliment of the previous year, blake, after his victory, ran up a pennant on his mast, long and narrow like a whiplash, to show that he had in his turn driven the dutchman off the seas; and the whiplash masthead pennants, with the st. george cross in the white ground at the head ( ), borne on all his majesty's ships in commission, serve as reminders of the story of this exploit to the present day.[ ] [ ] these masthead pennants, with the st. george cross at the head, are worn on all his majesty's ships in commission. they vary in length from to feet, and in width - / inches to inches, and are worn as a sign of command both night and day. peace followed in . in this treaty of peace the dutch agreed that: "the ships of the dutch--as well in ships of war as others--meeting any of the ships of war of the english commonwealth in the british seas, shall strike their flags and lower their topsail in such manner as hath ever been at any time heretofore practised under any form of government." thus had the old sea supremacy of the nation of england, claimed by king john, been again acknowledged; but on this occasion it was for the first time accorded to england by the terms of a formal treaty. it was the red cross jack of st. george, introduced by richard i., and raised as his "royal flag" by king john, which had in previous times received the honour of the "sovereign lordship of the seas." we have seen how for a while its place had been shared by the additional two-crossed jack of james: but now, by the incident of the temporary dissolution with scotland under the commonwealth, the english jack was once more reigning in sole possession of the flag-staff, to receive by the terms of this treaty the renewal of that proud homage which its single red cross had received four centuries before. it was a happy coincidence which the flag of the seafaring englishman most fully deserved. afterwards when the jack of queen anne had taken its place in the union ensign, the same claim of supremacy was upheld. under george iii. the instructions issued to the british navy for salutes to be given and received stated: "when any of his majesty's ships shall meet with any ship belonging to any foreign prince or state within his majesty's seas (which extend to cape finisterre), it is expected that the said foreign ships do strike their topsail, and take in their flag in acknowledgment of his majesty's sovereignty in those seas."[ ] [ ] regulations and instructions relating to his majesty's service at sea, . this sovereignty so valiantly for so many centuries maintained was again gloriously achieved when nelson at trafalgar swept the combined forces of the french and spanish navies from the seas, and made his nation the dominant power on the oceans--a dominance since maintained, not by conflict in attack, but by power and preparation for defence, in which the parent kingdom is now being joined by the daughter dominions in the outer empire for maintaining inviolate the supremacy of the seas. chapter xi. _the sovereignty of the seas._ the fight for the trade. notwithstanding the check which they had received in their career, the marine power--both naval and merchant--of the dutch kept on increasing. the hostilities against spain, conducted under cromwell, had transferred the spanish carrying trade to the dutch from the english ships, which had previously enjoyed it. the dutch had also challenged the english merchantman in his own carrying trade, as well as becoming general carriers for all europe; so much so that they were termed "the wagoners of all the seas." it was the contest for the money value of the "command" of the seas which was really being waged, and the commerce of distant continents was the prize which would fall to the victor's share. vessels of the dutch and other nations were ordered to heave to, or were stopped by a shot across their bows, not only to compel observance of the supremacy of the flag, but also for opportunity to search their holds for the goods which the searchers might consider should have been carried in english ships. the dutch had agreed to acknowledge the english flag in the british seas, but the english claimed it should be saluted on all. in , de ruyter and admiral lawson had almost come to cannon shots in the mediterranean over salutes claimed for the flag, and recriminations and searchings had extended to the waters of the far east indies, where the dutch, who had taken the cape of good hope from the portuguese, were competing with the english ships for the merchant trade. soon, under charles ii., another dutch war ( - ) blazed out, during which de ruyter sailed up the thames to gravesend and destroyed the ships at chatham and in the medway, and london was for the first time startled by the sound of an enemy's guns. again the success was but temporary, for at the close of the war new amsterdam in america, and with it the command of the hudson river, was ceded to the english. the name of the new territory then obtained was changed to new york, in honour of the duke of york, the king's brother, which english and royal name it still retains, although now forming the principal maritime city of the republic of the united states. with the booty came, in the articles of peace, the old-time ascription of sovereignty to the british flag. it was again agreed by one of the articles of the treaty: "that the ships and vessels of the so united provinces, as well men-of-war as others, meeting any man-of-war of the said king of great britain in the british seas, shall strike their flag and lore the topsail in such manner as the same hath been formerly observed in any times whatsoever."[ ] [ ] treaty of breda, . but the rivalry was too intense to continue much longer without coming to a definite climax. the "command" foreseen by raleigh was at stake. both nations had the maritime instinct, and both the genius of colonizing power, so that one or the other of them must give place and leave to the survivor the supreme possession of all that this command implied. formal negotiations between the governments had been rife, but the vital test was the supremacy due to the flag. an english royal yacht was ordered to sail through the dutch men-of-war in the channel and to fire on them if they did not strike their flags. an ultimatum was sent summoning holland to acknowledge the right of the english crown to the sovereignty of the british seas and to order its fleets to lower their flags to the smallest english man-of-war.[ ] [ ] mahan. thus the third and final war came on in and continued until . the plain red fighting flag of the english navy of the day was flying at the fore on the men-of-war as the signal to "engage the enemy," and the ensign red was at the stern of both men-of-war and merchantmen as the national ensign. war immediately commenced, and while the royal navy was battling with its guns, the merchant navy of england was cutting into the carrying trade of the dutch, so much so that at its close the british merchant ships had captured the greater part of the foreign business of the enemy, and by thus exhausting their earnings, and reducing the fighting resources of the dutch, contributed to the final victory almost equally with the exploits of the men-of-war. the contest, though short, was very sharp. the strife had been for the merchant carrying trade of the world, and when it was won, whole colonies were transferred with it to the victorious english. during the interval which had followed since the previous war the english had returned to the dutch their newly-acquired possession of new york in exchange for the dutch possessions in guiana, the boundaries of whose territories then transferred formed the subject of the venezuela excitement of ; but now they took both these countries back, while the island of st. helena, which, in the beginning of the war had been captured by the dutch by an expedition sent from their colony at the cape of good hope, was again recovered to the british flag. these possessions formed only a portion of the victor's spoil. above all of these and other great money results, the old sea spirit again asserted itself, and setting into inferior position the additions to the realm, or the compensations exacted for the expenses of the war, the final treaty declares among its first clauses the lordly renewal of the centuries-old right of the respect and salute due to the nation's flag: "in due acknowledgment on their part of the king of great britain's right to have his flag respected in the seas hereafter mentioned, shall and do declare and agree, that whatever ship or vessels belonging to the said united provinces, whether vessels of war or others, or whether single or in fleets, shall meet in any of the seas from cape finisterre to the middle point of the land van staten, in norway, with any ships or vessels belonging to his majesty of great britain, whether these ships be single or in great number, if they carry his majesty's of great britain flag or jack, the aforesaid dutch vessels or ships shall strike their flag and lower their topsail in the same manner and with as much respect as hath at any time, or in any place, been formerly practised towards any ships of his majesty of great britain or his predecessors, by any ships of the states general or their predecessors."[ ] [ ] treaty of westminster, charles ii. and holland, . the "jack" of his majesty charles ii., which was the sign of his majesty's ships, was the two-crossed "additional" jack of his father, which had been restored to the navy at the restoration, and as shown on the _naseby_ ( ). this jack was flying at the bow and on the mizzen of the ships of war, and at the stern was the sign of nationality, the "ensign red" with the st. george cross. the ensign red which the ships of that royal navy bore when they thus won the final supremacy of the sea from the navy of holland, was the flag worn also by the british merchantmen of the time, and on them witnessed the obtaining of that other command, then won from the dutch, "_the command of the trade, which is the command of the riches of the world_." to this victory the merchant mariner, by his seamanship and energy, had done his full share, and had won his right to wear it as his own. worthily, therefore, at this present day do the merchant ships of britain wear the red ensign on every sea, in every clime, in rightful acknowledgment of the part their predecessors played in the gaining of the supremacy of the sea. this supremacy, and still more the spirit of sea supremacy, has ever remained dominant in the souls of british seamen. when in march, , the harbour of apia, in samoa, was devastated by a terrific cyclone, and all the ships of other nations dragged their anchors and were driven ashore, it was with this native spirit that the british sailors slipped their cables and set out for their ocean home on the open sea. as the british man-of-war breasted the hurricane and battled through the breakers at the harbour mouth, the american sailors on their flagship _rodney_, sinking with fires extinguished[ ] inside the bar, cheered her as she passed, a cheer which rang round the world, and the bold _calliope_, with her british ensign above her, and her "hearts of oak" within, won her way to safety far out in the wildest storm. [ ] r. l. stevenson: "letters from samoa." with such widespread venture in her people, such spirit in her ships and record in her flag, no wonder is it that the british navy and the british merchant marine exceed in number and in power those of any other nation on the globe. well, therefore, with lusty throats and cheerful hearts, britannia's children sing: "_rule, britannia; britannia rules the waves!_" chapter xii. _the union jack of queen anne, ._ the second union jack. the story of the flag now brings us to the creation of the second two-crossed jack, being the first _real_ "union jack" ( ). [illustration: . union jack of queen anne, .] in the year , being the sixth year of the reign of queen anne, the parliaments of england and scotland were at length brought into union in one parliament. up to this time there had not been one distinctive "union jack" to represent both the kingdoms--no one flag taking the place of the separate national jacks of st. george and st. andrew, which the english and scotch subjects of the sovereign had each been instructed and continued to use, according to their nationality. in acts of parliament which had been passed in the parliaments of england and scotland, prior to their ceasing to act and becoming merged in the one "union parliament of great britain," authority had been given to the queen to create a flag, in which the two national flags, the "_crosse of st. george_" and the "_crosse of st. andrew_," should be joined together to form a _union flag_. [illustration: plate v. union jack of anne-- red ensign of anne-- . union jack of george iii.-- ] the queen accordingly called her councillors together, and a committee of the lords of the privy council was appointed "_to consider of several matters in execution of the act lately pass'd for the uniting of the two kingdoms of england and scotland_." instructions were given by this committee to the right honourable the earl of bindon, deputy earl marshal of england, "to give direction to the kings of arms and ye heralds to consider of the alterations to be made in the ensigns armorial and the conjoyning the crosses of st. george and st. andrew to be used in all flags, banners, standards and ensigns at _sea and land_, and that they lay before the committee drafts of the present flags of england and of scotland, and of such alterations as they propose for the flags of the united kingdom."[ ] [ ] minute of council, march, . these directions were carried out and various designs prepared by the heralds and the committee were thereafter presented for final adjudication and authority at a meeting of the privy council, as recorded in the minutes: "at the court at kensington, the day of april, . "present: "the queen's most excellent majesty in council: "whereas upon a report from the lords of her majesty's most honourable privy council appointed to consider of divers matters in execution of the late act for uniting the two kingdoms, who were attended by the kings of arms and heralds with divers drafts proposed by them relating to the ensigns armorial for the united kingdom and for adjoining the crosses of st. george and st. andrew pursuant to the said act, her majesty is pleased to approve of the following particulars, viz.: "that the draft marked a be made use of for the manner of bearing arms for the said united kingdom. * * * * * "that the flaggs be according to the draft marked c, wherein the crosses of st. george and st. andrew are conjoyned."[ ] [ ] minute of the privy council, april, . copies of the minute and of the drafts were transmitted under seal to the college of arms, london. a careful copy of the drawing of draft c, as attested by a certificate of the york _herald_, is given (fig. ). formal and important promulgation of the orders and flags was ordered by another paragraph of this same minute of april: "and her majesty is pleased to order, that these minutes be put into the hands of her majesty's principal secretarys of state, who are to receive her majesty's pleasure thereupon, and to signify the same within the united kingdom of great britain and in ireland, her majesty's plantations in america, the islands of jersey and guernsey and all other her majesty's dominions."[ ] [ ] minute of the privy council, april, . [illustration: . draft "c," union jack, .] this _draft c_, so prepared by the committee and heralds, and selected and approved by her majesty the queen and her privy council, was duly transmitted to be the form of the new "_flagg_," which was to be used on all "_flags and ensigns at sea and on land_," and not only by her majesty's subjects in the home kingdoms, but in all the islands and dominions beyond the seas. thus was formed the "union jack" of queen anne, which, taking the place of the jack of james i., "_commonly called the union jack_," was the second two-crossed jack, and the first fully authorized "union jack." in the july following, the queen issued a proclamation regarding "our jack" and the "ensign" of the now completely united kingdom, and defining more particularly how these flags were to be used at sea: royal arms. _three lions for england_, _red lion for scotland_, _harp for ireland_, _three fleurs-de-lis for france_, _and the motto, "semper eadem."_ "by the queen. "_a proclamation_--_declaring what ensign or colours shall be worn at sea in merchant ships or vessels belonging to any of her majesty's subjects of great britain and the dominions thereunto belonging._--anne r. "whereas, by the first article of the treaty of union, as the same hath been ratified and approved by several acts of parliament, the one made in our parliament of england, and the other in our parliament of scotland, it was provided and agreed that the ensigns armorial of our kingdom of great britain be such as we should appoint, and the crosses of saint george and saint andrew _conjoyned in such manners as we should think fit_, and used in all flags, banners, standards and ensigns both at sea and land; we have, therefore, thought fit, by and with the advice of our privy council, to order and appoint _the ensign described on the side or margent hereof_, to be worn on board all ships or vessels belonging to any of our subjects whatsoever; and to issue this, our royal proclamation, to notifie the same to all our loving subjects, hereby strictly charging and commanding the masters of all merchant ships and vessels belonging to our subjects, _whether employed in our service or otherwise_, and all other persons whom it may concern, to wear the said ensign on board the ships or vessels." after creating the _ensign_, which was to be used by all ships, warning was given, so that her majesty's ships might be the more easily distinguished, against the using of the single jack, or of any of the distinctive flags of the royal navy, without permission. "and whereas, divers of our subjects have presumed on board their ships to wear our flag, jacks and pendants, which, according to ancient usage, have been appointed as a distinction for our ships, and have worn flags, jacks and pendants in shape and mixture of colours so little different from ours as not without difficulty to be distinguished therefrom. we do, therefore, with the advice of our privy council, hereby strictly charge and command all our subjects whatsoever, that they do not presume to wear in any of their ships _our jack, commonly called the 'union jack_,' nor any pendants, nor any such colours as are usually worn by our ships without particular warrant for their so doing from us." the proclamation then stated that no other ensign was to be used, and that it was to take the place of the ensign red up to that time used by merchant ships: "and to hereby further command all our loving subjects that without such warrant as aforesaid they presume not to wear on board their ships _any other ensign_ than the ensign described on the side or _margent hereof_, which shall be _worn instead of_ the ensign before this time usually worn on merchant ships. "given at our court at windsor, the th day of july, in the sixth year of our reign. "_god save the queen._" [illustration: . the red ensign in "the margent," .] here, then, we have the establishment of a new flag in accordance with the intention of the treaty of union. in this flag the "crosses" of st. george and st. andrew were conjoined; the new flag was called "our jack" (pl. v., fig. ), which in its simple form, as a single jack, was not to be used afloat on any other ships than her majesty's royal navy without particular warrant. a notable change was now made in the ensign. we have seen how, in , the english st. george cross had remained alone in possession of the upper corner of the "ensign red." although the st. george cross continued, as it still does, in the "command pennant" of all officers of the royal navy, its place in the ensign was now taken by the new "union jack," in the form as shown "in the margent" ( ). the "red ensign," thus formed, was authorized to be worn thereafter on all ships, both merchantmen and those in her majesty's service; and, further, that no other ensign was to be worn except this "red ensign," with the new union jack in the upper corner, which was to take the place of the separate national jacks and of the "ensign red" previously used on the merchant ships of the subjects of the sovereign. here, then, ceased the official authority on ships as national flags of the separate crosse-flags of st. george and st. andrew, and began the reign of the first "union jack" of the united kingdoms. then, too, was first raised the british union ensign, the "meteor flag" of the realm, to be worn by all subjects of britain's queen, whether on land or on sea, at home or abroad, on merchant ships or on men-of-war, so that wherever the blood-red flag should fly the world would know the nation to which its bearers belonged. in this _red ensign_ (pl. v., fig. ), the paramount flag of the nation, the new "union jack" was placed; a position which, although so long enjoyed by the "english jack," had never been occupied by the "additional" jack of james i., whose term was now brought to a close. the proclamation and drawing of the ensign, as shown ( ), are taken by photo reproduction from the upper corner of an original in the british museum, london, and verified with the copy of the flag in the college of arms. a very noticeable difference will be seen to exist between "our" new jack of queen anne, of , and the "additional" jack of james, of , as usually given. the white border surrounding the st. george cross has been enlarged, and is no longer a mere margin or "fimbriation," but has become a broad white border, distinctive in size and appearance. in the king james i. flag the crosses were "_joyned according to the forme made by our heralds_";[ ] in the queen anne flag they are to be "_conjoyned in such manners as we should think fit"_,[ ] in accordance with the request of the parliaments of the two kingdoms. this time the designers of the "drafts," to whom the two then "_present flags of england and of scotland_"[ ] had been committed, were not thinking so much of heraldry as of making, as they were instructed, a union flag, and, while combining the two crosses, of making the two flags into one. [ ] proclamation, p. . [ ] proclamation, p. . [ ] instructions, p. . we have seen with what carefulness the combined committee of the privy council and of the heralds had proceeded, and when the new flagmakers thus broadened the white, they did it, it has been considered, for the purpose of representing in the union flag a part of the white ground of the st. george jack, which had previously been entirely effaced, but which by the broad white border was now given its place in the new "union," as well as, and in company with, that of the blue ground of the st. andrew flag. [illustration: . fort niagara, . (reproduced from an old print.)] a confirmation of this intention will be found in the annals of the next change in the union jack, which was made almost a century later. it is possible, too, that the views of the designers were affected by the relative proportions of some of the king james jacks, which were in official use and will be referred to later. it may have been that some of the queen's advisers and designers were sailors, who had carried the red cross of st. george, and now that it was being withdrawn from the ensign of the nation in favour of the newcomer, felt, like the admiral of old, that it was but due to its centuries of glorious service that evidence of the whole english jack--its white ground as well as its red cross--should be displayed in the new national emblem. there the broad white band appeared in this two-crossed jack, and has ever since remained, showing the red cross and white ground of st. george's jack, combined, with the white cross and blue ground of st. andrew's jack, into one "union jack," which was hereafter to be the "sole ensign" of british rule. it was this two-crossed union jack of queen anne which was raised at plassey, when clive won india, and at pondicherry and at seringapatam. nova scotia and newfoundland were early ( ) transferred to it from the _fleur-de-lis_, and sir william johnson raised it in canada above the old fort niagara, on the shores of lake ontario[ ] ( ), when [ ] the artist would appear to have altered the flag shown on the flagstaff in a sketch which he had made the previous year. the sketch was made in , and the fort taken in . a "colonial escutcheon" will be noted in the centre union. "the last day came, and bois le grand beheld with misty eyes the flag of france run down the staff, and that of england rise."[ ] [ ] kirby: "spina christi." under it wolfe stormed _louisbourg_, the key fortress of cape breton, and, following up his victory, climbed the heights, and died victorious on the plains of abraham ( ), when, in , _quebec_ was gained and all canada came under the realm of british law. [illustration: . the assault at wolfe's cove, quebec, . (from an old print published in london, .)] the youthful nelson saw it fly aloft when he served as captain's coxswain on a british man-of-war searching for the north pole, and twenty-five years later when in glorious action he won his title as baron nelson of the nile. the _cape colony_ was first acquired, and the _west coast of africa, new south wales and vancouver island_ were all added under its display, showing how the mariners of britain were carrying it far across the distant seas, more distant then than now, for those sea-dogs of the "sceptred isles," boldly raising their new union jack upon the mast, braved the unknown oceans, and sailed their ships wherever billows rolled or winds could waft them. so it came that, as its "glory roll" so vividly tells, it was under this second union jack the colonial possessions which dot the world around were either occupied by doughty britons or were wrested from the flags of other nations to form the foundation of that greater britain which, from these beginnings, has since grown up in all the regions beyond the seas. chapter xiii. _the two-crossed jack in canada._ although the union jack has been built up on the local jacks of the three island kingdoms, its greatest glories have been won in expeditions sent far across the seas to other lands. the people of the parent isles have never needed to raise it as their signal in driving invaders from their own shores, and in this way it does not bear that added vitality to them which it bears to the resident canadian, that of being associated with brave defence of home and native land. to the englishman, irishman or scotsman, in his own island home, it is an emblem of foreign conquest; to the immigrant and to the canadian-born it is much more, as being the patriot signal of his national defence. after the events of and of , when levis at st. foy nearly won back quebec, and the cession of the rule of france in canada had been agreed upon, canada had settled down into the paths of peace; soldier and _habitant_ vied in binding up one another's wounds, and evidencing all the pleasantries of reconciliation.[ ] [ ] the nuns of the convents of quebec sewed together blankets to make trousers for the th fraser highlanders, who otherwise would have had no protection against the snows during the first winter of their occupation of the citadel of quebec. the soldiers of this regiment were given grants of land, and settled on the north shore of the st. lawrence, below quebec, where they intermarried with the french canadians. it is a striking instance of the amalgamating influence of the _habitant_ that the descendants of the frasers are now _frasiers_, and speak french as their native tongue. a memorial, the like of which has never been known elsewhere, either in history or the world, has been erected in the square of "the governor's garden," at quebec, to the two heroes, montcalm and wolfe, equal in valour, equal in fame. a united sentiment raised this single monument to their united memory, bearing upon it the noble inscription: mortem, virtus, communem famam, historia monumentum, posteritas dedit. "valour gave them a common death, history a common fame, posterity a common monument." as the glory of their champions was thus intertwined, so the patriotism of the old french occupants and of the newcomers to canada began from this splendid example to blend more closely in fraternal union. the treaty of paris, in , confirmed the union jack in its position of being the successor to the _fleur-de-lis_ of france and the three castles of castile of spain over all the territory on the continent of america, stretching from labrador along the atlantic coast southward to florida, and inland westward as far as the waters of the mississippi from their highest sources to its mouth on the shores of the gulf of mexico.[ ] [ ] the treaty of paris was concluded at paris, th february, , by george iii. of great britain, louis xv. of france, charles iii. of spain, and joseph of portugal. france ceded to britain all countries east of the mississippi except the town of new orleans; and spain, in consideration of the return to her of havana and the island of cuba--which had been captured during the war by the english--ceded florida with the bay of pensacola and all her territories in north america to the east or south-east of the mississippi. in pursuance of this treaty, king george iii. issued his proclamation (october, ) creating four provinces and governments, named quebec, east florida, west florida, and granada, this last consisting of the islands of the west indies. of these four the province of quebec comprised the territory lying adjacent to the st. lawrence river system, along its whole length to the head waters on the watersheds of the farthest inland lakes. by this proclamation french canada ceased to be a conquered country, and became a fully established colony of the british king. it was to be governed by a governor and an assembly, entitled to arrange its own taxation, have control of its own internal welfare and local government, and empowered to institute its own courts of law; but to every subject, new or old, of the king, there was reserved the right of appeal to the foot of the throne itself in the privy council of great britain, should any person think himself aggrieved by the decision of his own locally appointed courts.[ ] [ ] royal proclamation under treaty of paris, . the french canadian subject soon began to find for himself the beneficent character of british rule. he was no longer harried by an irresponsible governor nor a grasping "intendant" for the enrichment of a far-distant court, but was assisted in every way in the local development of his country. his personal property was assured, and he soon became sensible of the certainty of english law. an act of parliament followed, formally and still further guaranteeing to the french-speaking subjects the quiet continuance of their most cherished customs.[ ] [ ] quebec act, , section . the quebec act of confirmed the _habitant_ in the free exercise of his roman catholic religion, and restored to him his old french civil law (_code civile_), but provided that in all criminal matters the law of england, which had been found so satisfactory, was to remain in force. content with his lot, secure in his home, and sure that good faith would ever be kept with him and his descendants, the french canadian proved loyal to the trust which was now confided to him. after having been for sixteen years an english colony, canada was invaded in by the forces of the thirteen older english colonies to the south, which, after a series of altercations and misunderstandings, due largely to their refusal in the past days to contribute toward the expense of the military forces which had been maintained on their frontiers "at england's cost to defend her american children against the french and their indian allies",[ ] had consorted together in revolution against their parent state. after entering montreal, which had been abandoned to them, the revolutionary forces concentrated around the walls of quebec for an assault upon the citadel. below were the rebels against the british crown; above, upon the king's bastion on cape diamond, flew the two-crossed union jack, and within the fortress, under sir guy carleton, the friend and fellow-soldier of wolfe, was a garrison of , men, one-third of whom were french canadian militia, headed by colonel lecompte dupré. the invaders from new york were, however, reckoning without their host. they had expected to find the french canadians dissatisfied with their lot; but, instead, they found them standing side by side with their british friends, and joining with them in common defence of their native canadian land. [ ] goldwin smith: "the united states' political history." the assault commenced on the night of december st, . at the point of attack at près-de-ville, in lower town, the guard was under the command of captain chabot and lieutenant picard, of the french canadian militia, and the guns were served by sailors from the british ships, with sergeant hugh mcquarters, of the royal artillery, in charge. the attack was boldly met. general montgomery, the leader of the united states forces, was killed; general arnold, his second in command, wounded, and the whole invading force was put to rout. thus were the historic heights and ramparts of old quebec again crowned with a british victory, but this time with one in which the french canadians were themselves the brave defenders of the union jack. no wonder the french-speaking canadian looks upon his british flag with pride, and, as one of his compatriots, sir adolphe chapleau, the lieutenant-governor of quebec in , has so well said, "is french in nationality, but british in patriotism"--for beneath the union jack he dwells secure in possession of his dearest rights, and under it has victoriously driven the united states invaders back each time they have ventured to attack his loved canadian soil. while such loyalty to the national flag was shown in eastern canada, so was it also displayed later on in nova scotia and new brunswick, and in the country of canada yet farther to the west. the thirteen southern colonies had completed their revolution in . immediately thereafter the "coming of the loyalists" had commenced to the districts of nova scotia and new brunswick, but was principally directed to the western province of upper canada, all three of these provinces being now in the dominion, or union, of canada. these western lands were then uninhabited save by the native indian tribes and a few white settlers who had been attracted to the districts by the chances of trapping for furs or of trading with the indians. the gallantry of the french-speaking britons at quebec, in , had kept the union jack flying above canadian soil, and to canada's unbroken forests the english-speaking loyalists therefore came, leaving the old colonies because they would have their loved flag once more float above them. never does history relate such devoted loyalty to a flag as was shown by this migration of the u. e. loyalists[ ]--men giving up homes, farms, companionship and wealth, and with their wives and little ones following a flag for conscience' sake into an undeveloped and almost unknown land. [ ] "united empire loyalists," so called because they preferred to remain united with the parent empire rather than become citizens of another state. "right staunch and true to the ties of old, they sacrificed their all, and into the wilderness set out, led on by duty's call. the aged were there with their snow-white hair, and their life-course nearly run, and the tender, laughing little ones whose race had just begun."[ ] [ ] jakeway: "the lion and the lilies." it was enough for them that the union jack was the flag of canada; so they followed it to the far north. here they lived out the balance of their days, and, dying, have been buried in the sacred soil beneath its folds. certain it is that their descendants will ever prove true to their loyal faith, that no other realm shall possess their bones nor other nation's flag fly above their graves. such, then, was the esteem in which canadians of both races held the two-crossed union jack. before the century of had commenced, the french-speaking loyalist of quebec had laid down his life in its defence; and having, by this loyalty, preserved it to the country, the english-speaking loyalist here sought a new home in the far-off forests of canada, so that he and his loved ones might continue to live again beneath its sway. truly was this two-crossed union jack the flag of canada and the canadians, and as truly is its three-crossed successor, our present union jack, the native birthright of the sons of its defenders and the successors of those patriot pioneers. chapter xiv. _the irish jack._ the lineage of the irish jack is not so clearly defined as is that of the other jacks. although "paddy" has always been so ready for a shindy that fighting has come to be considered his "natural diversion," he has never found himself particularly at home on the sea. it is on land that he has found play for his fierce delight in mingling where the fray is thickest. it is as a soldier that the irishman has always excelled. wellington, wolseley and roberts attest his power in command, and in many a forlorn hope the wild energy of the irish blood in the ranks has scaled the breach and carried the stormers past the anxious moments of the onset, displaying that same "eager, fierce, impetuous valour" with which, in the charge of the heavy brigade at balaclava, the "inniskillings went into the massive russian column with a cheer."[ ] [ ] kinglake: "invasion of the crimea." it may be that as ireland was at no time distinguished as a maritime nation, and its local shipping not developed to any great extent, the display of her national jack had not been so much in evidence among the sailors of the early days as were the jacks of the two sister nations. the banner of st. patrick ( ), which is the "irish jack," is a white flag, having on it a red cross of the same saltire or diagonal shape as st. andrew's cross, the heraldic description being, "_argent, a saltire gules_," red saltire cross on a white ground (pl. i., fig. ). [illustration: . st. patrick's jack.] st. patrick was the christian apostle of the irish, and thus became their traditional patron saint. the story of his life is that he was born in scotland, at kilpatrick, near dunbarton on the clyde, and being taken prisoner by pirates when a child, was carried into ireland and sold there as a serf. having acquired the native language, he escaped to the continent, and afterwards becoming a christian and having been ordained to service in the church, returned to ireland for the purpose of converting the people. the british name said to have been given him in his youth was _succeath_ (valiant in war), a temperament which he certainly impressed upon the irish. this name was afterwards, when he returned to ireland, changed to _patricius_, in evidence of his noble family descent, and to add importance to his mission.[ ] [ ] smith: "religion of ancient britain." the legends of the saint date back to a.d. , when he is reported to have commenced his mission, and to have afterwards devoted his life to the increase of the well-being of the people and the spread of christianity throughout ireland. tradition reports, although some do not put much faith in it, that the saint suffered martyrdom upon a cross of the shape of this red cross, and thus, when he became the patron saint of ireland, it was held in recognition as his emblem, and for that reason was adopted as the irish cross. on the other hand, some people declare that the cross of the saltire shape is sacred only to st. andrew. [illustration: . labarum of constantine.] another suggestion is that the shape of the saltire cross, both of the irish and the scotch, is derived from the labarum ( ), or sacred standard, which was raised by constantine the great, the first christian emperor of rome, as the imperial standard of his armies. on this he had placed a monogram composed of the first two letters, [greek: chr] (chr), of the greek form of the sacred name of christ ([greek: christos]), and the saltire cross is reputed to be the repetition of the [greek: ch] of the lower part of the christian emblem. the labarum was the official standard of the emperor of rome, and upon it were displayed the "insignia" of the emperor of the day. constantine, after his conversion to christianity, had changed his previous insignia to the christian emblem. should this latter suggestion of the origin of the cross of the saltire shape be accepted as the preferable one, this saltire cross has yet a most interesting and particular connection with the early history of ireland. the roman governor of britain, under the emperor diocletian, when, in a.d. , the pacification of ibernia (ireland) had been completed, was constantius chlorus, the father of constantine. [illustration: . harp of hibernia.] the goddess of the pagan islanders was the goddess hibernia, whose emblem was a harp, and this hibernian irish harp ( ) constantius had in testimony of his success adopted as the insignia for his standard. after the resignation of diocletian, constantius chlorus and galerius were created joint emperors of rome, and, dividing the empire between them, galerius took the east and constantius the west. the death of constantius occurred soon afterwards in england, at the city of york (eboracum), and there he was succeeded as emperor of rome by his son constantine. constantius had in some degree restrained the persecution of the christians in britain, which had raged under diocletian, but it was now completely suppressed by the new emperor. carrying with him his faith in christianity, which he had learned in britain, constantine removed to the continent to engage in the contest for the command of the empire to which he had fallen heir, and in the battle of the milvian bridge, near rome, in a.d. , he defeated the opposing eastern forces under maxentius, and entered into undisputed possession of his position as sole emperor. it was just before this engagement that constantine is reported to have seen a cross shining in the heavens at midday, having on it the inscription, [greek: en toutÔ nika] ("in this conquer"--"_in hoc signo vinces_"), and, therefore, recognizing the christian emblem, he adopted the christian cross as his standard and placed the sacred monogram upon his labarum. this victory resulted in the official recognition of the christian religion, and the attaching to it of all the political power of the emperor of rome. constantius had lived, and constantine the great had been born and brought up, in the north of england, which, during the roman occupation, had been converted to christianity by missionaries from scotland, whence st. patrick afterwards also went to ireland; and as it was to constantine that the christians owed their rescue from persecution, his insignia would, therefore, be heartily received. the early christians, through this source, may have adopted the x cross, the lower part of constantino's christian monogram, as their emblem, and thus it had become associated in ireland with the christian labours of st. patrick, their apostle and patron saint. in this "story of the irish jack," it is a notable transition that the harp emblem of hibernia, carried by constantius, and transmitted by him to his son, and by constantine changed to the christian labarum, should in this diagonal cross of st. patrick have been returned to become the emblem of ireland. whichever may have been the source of its origin, the saltire cross, in its form of the red cross of st. patrick, is by both lines of descent intimately associated with the history of ireland, and is rightfully claimed as one of its national emblems. the harp, too, has its story much later than that of st. patrick's cross, but yet bringing an interesting connection with the patron saint. the ancient arms of ireland, from the time of henry ii., in , had been three golden crowns set upon a blue ground.[ ] [ ] "the book of public arms." these ancient arms of ireland are the arms of the province of munster, and are now worn on the helmet plate and glengarry of the royal munster fusiliers regiment of the british army. henry viii. was the first english king who used an irish emblem. when he was proclaimed king of ireland, he placed the harp of hibernia upon the coinage which he then issued, instead of the "three crowns" which had been used under his predecessors, but he did not introduce the harp into his royal arms, nor place the red cross of st. patrick upon his banner. the first english monarch to insert an irish emblem in the official insignia of the sovereign was queen elizabeth, who introduced one in the design of her "great seal." instead of using the three irish crowns, she inserted a harp as the emblem of the irish nation, and among the banners displayed at her funeral ireland was represented by a blue flag having upon it a golden harp surmounted by a crown.[ ] james i., her successor, was the first king to introduce an irish emblem into the "royal standard," and from that time onward the golden harp of hibernia, on the ancient blue ground of the three irish crowns, has been shown in one of the quarters of the british standard as the emblem of ireland. in the arms of all the sovereigns, from james i., ( ), to and including william iv., , the front of the harp was formed by the female figure representing the goddess hibernia. during the victorian period a change was introduced in the shape of the harp, which has been altered to that of the ancient irish harp, connected in form and legend with king brian boru (boroimhe). [ ] hulme: "flags of the world." the exploits of this most noted of the early kings of ireland had been mainly devoted to the defence of his kingdom against the invasions of the danes during the period when, under canute, they had well-nigh conquered all england. although in the main successful, he was slain in battle, according to some, in ,[ ] or, as others report, in the hour of victory over the danes at clontarf, near dublin, in .[ ] [ ] king: "national arms." [ ] "hadyn's index." the king, having accepted christianity, presented, in , a golden votive offering upon the altar of the church at armagh, and here, in accordance with his dying request, his body was buried after the battle of clontarf.[ ] [ ] "ulster journal of archæology," vol. i., september, . this city of armagh is reputed to have been founded about a.d. , by st. patrick, and to this account is accredited the ecclesiastical pre-eminence which has always enshrined the city, for the bishop of armagh is the "archbishop and primate of all ireland" of the protestant church, and it is the see city also of the "primate of ireland" of the roman catholic church. of all the traditional patrons of irish music, king brian boru was the most renowned, and thus in poetry and song his name became identified with the irish harp. the minstrelsy of the irish harper has held sway and been cherished through all the ages by the irish people, whose temperament may have been affected, or else has been most touchingly expressed, by its strange and mystic cadences. the sweet pathos of these ancient melodies has given tone and inspiration to most of the irish songs, markedly to those of the sweet singer moore, whose music has installed in affectionate memory, "the harp that once through tara's halls the soul of music shed." in the old seal of carrickfergus ( ), granted by james i., the form of this ancient harp of brian boru is excellently displayed. within the circle are the initials of the king, i.r. (_jacobus rex_), and the date , and on the shield in the centre are three irish harps, having the rounded front pillar and the curious upper sweep of the neck, termed the "harmonic curve," of the type known as the irish harp of brian boru. [illustration: . seal of carrickfergus, .] although this irish harp was introduced in the seal of the irish city during his reign, the emblem which had been placed in his royal arms by james i. as the emblem of ireland was the angelic harp of hibernia, and in this form it remained on the royal standards of all the succeeding sovereigns until queen victoria, in whose royal arms ( ) the irish harp was displayed. [illustration: . royal arms of queen victoria.] in , when queen victoria first visited ireland, being the first occasion upon which a british queen had ever visited the island, a medal was struck to commemorate the event. on this are the profiles of her majesty the queen and the prince consort, and on the reverse ( ) is the old irish harp surmounted by the royal crown. it is true that the angelic harp is frequently to be seen upon the flags flown as royal standards, but the irish harp is most beautifully shown in the coat-of-arms upon the back of her majesty's royal throne in the house of lords at westminster ( ). as the harp of the pagan goddess hibernia had been changed to the christian cross of st. patrick, so now again it had been followed by the irish harp of the christian king, brian boru, and through his grave at st. patrick's ancient city of armagh is again connected with ireland's patron saint. thus, whether it be cross or harp, both the official emblems of ireland are associated with st. patrick. [illustration: . medal of queen's first visit to ireland.] during only one period in the early story of our flag had ireland been represented on its folds, as is shown in cromwell's jacks and in the commonwealth ensign (pl. iv., figs. and ), but it had not been by a cross, as were the other nationalities, but by a golden harp on a blue ground. another emblem of ireland, the green shamrock, is also connected in legend with st. patrick, as having been used by him, through the lesson of its three leaves joined in one, in explaining the doctrine of the trinity. thus both the shamrock and the red saltire cross form the salient features of the insignia of the "most illustrious order of st. patrick," the irish order of knighthood. [illustration: . the throne of queen victoria in the house of lords, .] the irish red cross on a white ground had been the ancient banner of the irish family of the fitzgeralds before the time of the conquest of ireland under henry ii., and it still appears in the arms of their descendants ( ). it appears to have been used as a flag at cromwell's funeral, but notwithstanding its still earlier associations the red cross of st. patrick does not seem to have been formally recognized as the general national emblem for ireland until about the close of the seventeenth century. its entrance into the union jack had long been delayed for reasons which will be pointed out. [illustration: . arms of the fitzgeralds.] though the kings of england had, since henry ii., in , been "lords paramount," and since henry viii. been "kings of ireland," the national jack of ireland had not been joined with the other jacks. when the crosses of st. george and st. andrew were combined in the "additional" jack of james, in , it was not included, nor was it afterwards, in the first union jack of queen anne, in ; so that for all these centuries the red cross of st. patrick had continued alone. at length, the time was coming when another change was to be made in the union jack, and it was in , under george iii., that the red saltire cross of ireland first joined the two sister crosses. for the immediately previous two hundred years the irishman had gallantly contributed his prowess to the glories won under the two-crossed jack, in which his nation had not been represented; but from this time onward his own irish cross entered into its proper place in the national union jack, and received its acknowledged position as the emblem of the irish kingdom. chapter xv. _the jacks in the thirteen colonies of north america._ we now turn to the history of the jacks in the country to the south of canada, where immigration from england had been building up the thirteen english colonies which subsequently became the united states of america. the spanish flag had been planted in by columbus upon san salvador in the bahamas. in , cabot had placed the st. george cross, the english jack of henry vii., on the north atlantic shores, and the english claim by right of first discovery was thereafter laid to newfoundland, labrador, and the coast of america, from cape breton to maine. under elizabeth, raleigh, in , expanded the claim of the st. george cross in virginia far to the south, and in , under the same flag, bartholomew gosnold, sailing out for the merchant adventurers of bristol, exploited the shores of nantucket, martha's vineyard, and elizabeth, which still retain the names he then gave them. other adventurers, too, there were, who were searching the unknown resources of the new continent. jacques cartier, in his second voyage, had, in , occupied stadacona (quebec), and the french flag had been established on the shores of the st. lawrence, the permanent settlement at quebec being founded by champlain, in . for more than two hundred years the cross of st. george had been prospecting along the atlantic coasts and laying claim to their possession, but no settlements were permanently established on these shores by any except the frenchman, de monts, who raised the white flag of france at port royal, on the bay of fundy, and laid the foundations of the town in , and from this time on began the contest for their final ownership. the sovereigns of france and england had with profuse liberality given royal grants of american territory to their venturesome merchant seamen, and in this manner james i., in , partitioned off the larger part of these shores to the two merchant-adventurer companies of london and plymouth. the plymouth company was granted the country between what is now known as new brunswick and long island, to be called northern virginia, and the london company from the potomac to cape fear in carolina, to be called southern virginia--the two hundred miles intervening between them being left unoccupied in order to separate their boundaries, and so ensure peace between the rival companies, each company being warned not to make any occupation beyond the limits of the territory so allotted to them. the london company in established themselves in virginia, where their capt. newport, after a weary and wave-tossed voyage, named their first shelter and landing place "point comfort," and the river the "james," and their settlement "jamestown," in honour of his king. it was into this interval between the two english companies that hendrick hudson sailed in , and planted the dutch flag, with its three lengthwise stripes of orange, white and blue, the orange being the uppermost, over new amsterdam (now new york). to these english colonists fell the honour of the first contest for the flag. the french had occupied acadia, and were quietly extending southward, when, in , commander samuel argall, of southern virginia,[ ] finding them trading off mount desert, in what is now maine, captured and destroyed their new shore settlement of st. sauveur, and next year, heading an expedition sent out by his colony, advanced farther northward, and destroyed their headquarters at port royal. thus the colonists of virginia, acting for their nation, defended the english claim, and repelled the interference made with the cross of st. george in its rights of prior discovery under cabot. [ ] afterwards governor of virginia in . the plymouth company had not been so energetic as were the london company in the occupying of their "plantations," but, in , captain john smith, on their behalf, settled a port which he called "new plymouth," and gave the name of "new england" to the surrounding country. while these things were going on in america the migration of the puritans from england to holland had taken place. these non-conforming independents left their homes in england, in , not from any disloyalty to their native land, but because their religious views forbade them to bend to what they considered were the unbiblical church requirements of james i. to his ritual regulations they would not conform, so they removed themselves and their families to holland. strong in their english nationality they remained for ten years at leyden, an isolated and unsettled colony in a foreign land. to england they could not return, no place in europe was open to them for settlement without losing their language and changing their flag, and they must, therefore, leave holland and seek the new world lands across the ocean. the dutch offered them assistance and favourable arrangements for colonization in their dutch possessions in america. they were also offered inducements by the london company to settle on the delaware, in their colony of virginia. as it was considered that complications might arise if an english colony were to proceed across the seas under the dutch flag, they declined the offer of holland and accepted the english proposition, and the consent of king james was obtained to their repatriation in the english territory in america without conforming to the religious conditions to which they had so devotedly objected in the old land. thus they sought the new land, not as rebels, but as loyalists returning in gladness to their nation's flag. forming the "pilgrim company," in which they all took shares, a vessel named the _speedwell_ was purchased at delft-haven in holland, and another named the _mayflower_ in london. the two parties joined at southampton. after leaving the shores of england the _speedwell_ was found to be unseaworthy, and the two vessels, therefore, returned to england, when it was determined that the _mayflower_ should proceed alone. there not being sufficient accommodation on the one ship for the combined expeditions, a number were left behind. the _mayflower_, a vessel of only tons, sailed from plymouth with about of the "pilgrims" crowded on board. on reaching the shores of america in november, , after a voyage of two months and five days, they found that they were far to the north of the virginia colony to which they had been commissioned. tired of the sea, but being hopeful that they would receive, as they subsequently did, a grant of land from the plymouth company, and being without a charter for the territory on which they were about to land, it became necessary to make a new agreement between themselves for the government of their colony. a "_compact_" was accordingly drawn up on board the _mayflower_ "off cap-codd," and signed by all the heads of families. in this document they described themselves as " ... the loyall subjects of our dread soveraigne lord king james by the grace of god of gt. britaine, france and ireland, king-defender of ye faith, &c., having undertaken for the glory of god, and advancement of ye christian faith and honour of our king & countrie a voyage to plant ye first colonie in ye northerne parts of virginia," and the date of the year is given as "the eighteenth of 'our soveraigne lord king james.'"[ ] [ ] macdonald: "charters illustrative of american history, - ." as the _mayflower_ was an english ship she would carry the st. george cross flag on the foremast, and as they declared themselves to be loyal subjects of king james it is most probable that the "additional" union jack of james i. was also displayed at the main. such was the beginning of the migration of the puritans from england, which, following this first colony, continued during the remainder of the century. that the pilgrims carried the english jack is plainly shown by the controversies which arose from time to time in this "new england" district upon the subject of the use of the cross of st. george, not for want of any loyalty to it, but from their strict religious views. john endicott, and the puritans who subsequently settled at salem, objected to the cross in the flag as being an "_idolatrous emblem_," and, in , "_defaced the ensign by taking out one part of the red cross_."[ ] [ ] _winthrop's journal_, november , , vol. i., p. . much discussion ensued upon these conscientious scruples, and the offenders were summoned to appear before the court of assistants, but decision was deferred for several meetings, "_because the court could not agree about the thing, whether the ensigns should be laid by, in regard that many refused to follow them_." it was, however, ordered by the commissioners for military affairs that all the ensigns should in the meantime be laid aside. endicott was finally tried at a general court held at newtown, and "_his offence found great; he judging the cross to be a sin, did not content himself to have it reformed at salem, not taking care that others might be brought out of it; also laying a blemish on the other magistrates, as if they would suffer idolatry, and giving occasion to england to think ill of us_." he was, however, lightly sentenced by suspension for one year of right to hold civil office, because "_he did it out of tenderness of conscience and not of any evil intent_."[ ] [ ] _winthrop's journal_, march, . a suggestion was made that red and white roses should be inserted in the flag, instead of the cross, as being english emblems, and the ministers were "_to write to england and consult the most wise and godly_;" but nothing came of this suggestion. opinions must have continued strong in the controversy, for at the close of the year the commissioners appointed colours for the military companies, but left out the cross in them all, leaving the space blank, but they ordered that the king's arms were to be inserted in the flag which was to be used on the fort on castle island, at boston.[ ] [ ] _winthrop's journal_, december, . in the following year ( ) much heart-burning was occasioned by the masters of several ships trading to boston declaring that because the king's colours were not displayed at the fort the colonists were all traitors and rebels. this imputation was most warmly resented by the people, and the captains were promptly tried by the massachusetts court for this defamation of the loyalty of the colony. the offenders acknowledged their error and made humble apology in open court, but in doing so suggested that the king's colours ought to be shown on the fort. to this answer was made, "_that 'we had not the king's colours'; thereupon two of them did offer them freely to us. we replied that, for our part, we were fully persuaded that the cross in the ensign was idolatrous, and, therefore, might not set it in our ensign, but because the fort was the king's and maintained in his name, we thought that his own colours might be spread there._"[ ] [ ] _winthrop's journal_, march, . the king's own colours would be the two-crossed jack of james, which charles i. had, in , declared as his majesty's jack to be the "ornament proper for our owne ships." this jack was ordered to be thereafter displayed at the fort, lest it might again be thought that the colony had abated its allegiance. in , the colonies of plymouth, massachusetts bay and connecticut formed themselves for defence against the french and the dutch into an alliance as the "united colonies of new england." that their forces had continued to use the two-crossed "king's jack" of charles i. is proved by the fact that they found it necessary, owing to the change of sovereignty in the mother country, to pass an order authorizing a change in their own flag. the commonwealth of england had, in , abolished the use of the two-crossed jack. in , the fleet of cromwell which crossed the atlantic was to be seen flying the single english jack of st. george and the new commonwealth ensign at barbadoes and in virginia. following the action of the home government, the general court of massachusetts overcame their local scruples and passed an order adopting the english ensign: "forasmuch as this court conceives the old english colours now used by the parliament of england to be a necessary badge of distinction between the english and other nations in all places in the world, till the state of england shall alter the same, which we much desire, we being of the same nation, have therefore ordered that the captain of the castle shall presently advance the aforesaid colours of england upon the castle upon all necessary occasions."[ ] [ ] massachusetts records, vol. i. order of general court at boston, may , . so the english jack took the place of the jack of james in america. under this st. george jack, with its red cross and white ground, the colonists not only organized and defended their own territories, but also carried on active operations against the french. as in its earlier years, so also throughout the century, the extensions southward of the french settlements in cape breton and acadia had been a menace to the colonies. the colony of massachusetts itself took the matter in hand, and organized an expedition which it sent out under the leadership of major sedgwick, in , when port royal was taken from the french, but, much to the chagrin of the colony, only to be restored to france, in , by the peace of breda. the old controversy about the cross in the flag had by no means been settled by the decision of the general court of massachusetts, in , and although it was so displayed officially, yet many individuals still held to the original religious objections. in , the "ensign red," with the plain red cross of st. george in the upper corner, had been ordered by charles ii. to be used. thomas singleton, master of the ship _charles_, notes (when off boston) in his diary of a voyage to the american coast in - : "_i observed that while the english flag or colour has a red ground with a small white field in the uppermost corner where there is a red cross, they have here dispensed with this cross in their colours and preserved the rest_."[ ] [ ] journal of voyage to the new netherlands, - , translated from the original manuscript, long island historical society, . the new england colonists were evidently flying the ensign red, but had taken the red cross out of the jack in its upper corner, leaving only the white ground. it was in this it had been suggested that the roses of england should be introduced, and in which the "pine-tree" emblem was afterwards placed. the importance of the particular flags which were to be used along these atlantic coasts, where the nationalities were constantly coming into contact, was eminently increased by the terms of a treaty, made in , between james ii. and louis xiv., providing "for rights and pre-eminences in the american seas." under this it was agreed that, "the british shall not trade nor fish in the havens, bays, creeks, roads, shoals or places of the french in canada," and _vice versa_, the french were not to interfere with the british; and further, "that whensoever the subjects of either king shall be forced to enter with their ships into the other's ports, they shall be obliged at their coming in to hang out their flag or colours of their nation, and give notice of their coming by thrice firing a cannon, and if they have no cannon by thrice firing a musket, which if they shall omit to do, and, however, send their boat on shore, they shall be liable to confiscation."[ ] [ ] treaty of whitehall, november, . governor andros brought out with him from england, in , his official flag as governor of new england. a drawing of this in the british state papers office[ ] shows it to have been a large st. george jack, having on the centre of the red cross a royal crown, and underneath the initials of the king, i.r. (_jacobus rex_), in gold. this governor's flag was officially used by governor andros in the colonies of massachusetts and connecticut. [ ] british state papers, new england. vol. . the united colonies of new england, moved, no doubt, by the necessities of the treaty of whitehall, passed an order-in-council, in , directing the cross to be restored to their colours. in this way the red cross of st. george came back into the blank white space which had been left in the upper corner of the ensign red. we get some glimpse of the mental difficulties of the times from the diary of samuel sewall, an officer in the colonial forces. on august th, , he writes: "i was and am in great exercise about the cross to be put into the colours, and afraid that if i should have a hand in it whether it may not hinder my entrance into the holy land." he even contemplated the necessity of retiring from the service, and enters: "sabbath day, august . "in the evening seriously discoursed with captain eliot and frary signifying my inability to hold, and reading mr. cotton mather's arguments to them about the cross, and say'd that to introduce it into boston at this time was much, seeing that it had been kept out more than my lifetime, and now the cross much set by in england and here; and it scarce could be put in, but i must have a hand in it. i fetch home the silk elizur holyoke had of me to make the cross, last friday morn, and went and discourse mr. mather. he judged it sin to have it put in, but the captain not in fault, but i could hardly understand how the command of others could wholly excuse them, at least me who had spoken so much against it in april, , and that summer and forward, upon occasion of captain walley's putting the cross in his colours."[ ] [ ] sewall papers, massachusetts historical collections, fifth series, vol. v. [illustration: . medal of louis xiv., "_kebeca liberata_," .] but the crosses were restored, and it was under this single cross ensign red that, during the war between william iii. and mary and louis xiv., the nine colonies[ ] united together, and, in , of their own motion and at their own expense,[ ] sent out a naval expedition from boston, under admiral william phips, against the french in canada. the fleet successfully attacked and again captured port royal,[ ] but arriving before quebec, above whose ramparts was flying the white flag and _fleur-de-lis_ of france, was repulsed by the redoubtable count frontenac. the records of the expedition, and of the episode of the capture of the flag of the admiral, which, being shot away from its halliards and falling into the water, was swum after and brought to shore by the venturesome french,[ ] attest that this fleet of the united colonies was sailing under the cross of st. george. a copy of the medal ( ), issued by louis xiv. of france in commemoration of the event, is given in the narrative,[ ] showing three _fleur-de-lis_ of france, and the cross of st. george on a flag reversed. [ ] massachusetts, virginia, maryland, the two jerseys, new york, connecticut, and plymouth and rhode island. [ ] sir wm. phips: "account of expedition against quebec." colonial entry books. london. [ ] acadie was restored to the french by the treaty of ryswick, th september, . [ ] it was afterwards placed, with much ceremony, in the cathedral. [ ] ernest myrand: "phips devant quebec," p. . [illustration: . new england ensign. (from a dutch publication of .)] while the forces of the united colonies thus used, in common, the english ensign, some of the colonies had distinctive flags. massachusetts at times displayed the red ensign with a "pine-tree" on the white ground in the upper corner instead of the cross to which so much objection had been made. the flag of new england ( ) was the english red ensign with the pine-tree, or else a globe signifying the new world, in the upper corner of the white canton bearing the cross of st. george. the instance given is taken from the old dutch publication of .[ ] [ ] p. schenk, amsterdam, . see p. . this new england ensign was in continuous local use from to . the change in the english flag, made under queen anne, from the cross of st. george to the two-crossed jack, brought a corresponding change in the union flag in america. the narrative of the change in massachusetts, in , is given in chapter xxvii. (page ). in , similar instructions were sent out to governor hunter for the province of new york, and the drawing of the flag[ ] which is attached to the documents is the same in as in the instructions of . [ ] new york colonial manuscripts, vol. v., p. . under this queen anne union jack, port royal was once more taken by the forces of the united colonies, sent out from boston under general nicholson, in , and its name changed in honour of their queen to annapolis, where both royal name and british ensign have ever since remained. the colonists had in all these expeditions stoutly proved their share in the prowess of the british jacks. acadia,[ ] by the treaty of utrecht ( ), had been ceded to britain, but cape breton had remained in the hands of the french, and louisbourg having been created by them the strongest fortress in the new world, the british colonists determined upon its reduction. [ ] practically our present nova scotia. [illustration: . the louisbourg medal, .] in , an expedition, entirely colonial, organized by general shirley, of massachusetts, and william vaughan, of new hampshire, sailed from boston under general pepperell. after a siege of forty days louisbourg surrendered. in , the fortress was again restored to the _fleur-de-lis_ by the treaty of aix-la-chapelle, but only to be retaken by wolfe, in , and the queen anne jack, which the united colonies had before placed above it, was restored and is shown again in the louisbourg medal,[ ] used to commemorate wolfe's victory ( ). [ ] bourinot: "island of cape breton." on yet another field the united colonists carried the union jack. in , when havana was captured from the spanish by lord albemarle, there were in his fleet of vessels, and among his land forces of , men, alongside the men from across the sea, colonial contingents sent by the colonies of connecticut, new york, rhode island, new jersey and maine.[ ] [ ] _graham's journal_, published by the society of the colonial wars, in new york. when cuba was thus gained for the union jack the colonists of america were joined with their british brothers from the old land in lowering the flag of spain, but the island was restored to spain by the treaty of paris, february th, .[ ] [ ] when, in the spanish-american war of , the forces of the united states placed the american ensign, containing the thirteen stripes of the old colonies, above the flag of spain, in cuba, great britain stood by the descendants of her men of and kept the field clear from interference by other nations. thus for over two and a half centuries ( - ) had the english jacks wrestled with the forests and battled along the shores of america, carried first by the merchant adventurers, and afterwards by the several and the united colonies, as sign of their origin and allegiance. for yet another long period was the two-crossed jack to be carried by those who had so manfully won competence and glory beneath it, so that at length, even when joining for contest with their parent realm, the thirteen colonies held its past and record in such esteem that they placed the union jack of queen anne in their new union ensign as a sign and remembrance of their common history. chapter xvi. _the union flags of the united states._ the thirteen english colonies which in succession had been planted in north america, along the shores of the atlantic from the french possessions in acadia to the spanish possessions in florida, had each its own "colony flag"; the "united colonies of new england" had devised the new england flag to distinguish their particular union; but the national flag which declared the union of all the colonies with one another, and with the motherland beyond the seas, was the "union jack" of great britain. it was under the union jack that the forces of the colonies of massachusetts, new york, pennsylvania and virginia had marshalled in , and with the english regulars had advanced, under the leadership of braddock and washington, to drive the french out of the ohio valley, but to meet with such signal disaster on the banks of the monongahela. in the same year, under the cross of st. george in their united colonies flag, the colonists of new england joined in the victories over the french, and changed the name of the lake, by whose shores they fought, from "st. sacrament" to "lake george." under the successive jacks the colonies had grown into commonwealths, had expanded their territories, and their sons had written their names in british history by gallant deed and notable achievement. thus the crosses in the union jack had a vivid meaning, and their local historic record had won for them the attachment of the people in the colonies. the occupation of quebec by wolfe in and the subsequent retirement of french rule from canada and the valley of the north mississippi had freed the colonies from conflict with the power which had hitherto opposed their expansion beyond the alleghanies. they were now free to exploit the west, which this victory of the parent realm had gained for them, and which was to be the wide field for their subsequent expansion. combining together for these adventures had brought the separate colonies more into contact with each other and created points of internal union. at length the time came when rifts in the methods of government on this continent began to show themselves. troubles had been brewing between the colonies and the home government ever since the passing of the obnoxious stamp act of , but, although the friction had at times been great, there was no intention on the part of the colonists of severing their allegiance from the parent realm. the cause of the colonists in america was largely espoused among the english people. lord effingham, upon his regiment (the nd) being ordered to america, resigned his commission in the british army, "rather than consent to bear arms against my fellow-subjects in america."[ ] [ ] letter to lord barrington, secretary of war, april , . no more ardent adherents or outspoken advocates for the self-government of the colonies were to be found in america than were chatham, burke, and charles james fox in the parliament of england, and under the later and better conditions which have since governed the relations between great britain and her outlying colonies there would, in all probability, have been no breaking of the old home ties. engaged in the throes of a great european war, britain had poured her men into spain and could spare but few of her own for service in america. forces, consisting largely of hired hanoverian and hessian soldiers, had been sent across the sea to enforce the objectionable enactments, and hostilities had broken out in june, , between the resident citizens and these imported "regulars"; but even after this entanglement, the flag, which was introduced for the "united colonies," was raised, not for the purpose of indicating any alteration in allegiance, but to evidence the local union of the still loyal colonies against the dictation of the impracticable home ministry. that these were their views towards great britain they most plainly stated in the address they sent to the king immediately after their armies had been placed in the field: "we not only most ardently desire that the former harmony between her and these colonies may be restored, but that a concord may be established between them as to perpetuate its blessings uninterrupted to succeeding generations in both countries."[ ] [ ] address of the general congress of the colonies in america to the king, september , . as in previous wars of defence or of adventure, the separate colonial forces were again brought together into one army. on their assembling at cambridge, in july, , they were mustered into one service under general washington. as was recorded in a local paper, "none of the men who have been raised by this (massachusetts) and several other colonies are in future to be distinguished as the troops of any particular colony, but as the forces of 'the united colonies of north america,' into whose joint service they have been taken by the continental congress."[ ] [ ] _new england chronicle_, july , . as early as october, washington found the necessity of having some "continental flag" which should identify the whole of the forces of "the united colonies of north america" thus assembled together under his command, instead of having the military detachment from each colony continuing to use its own individual flag. an existing ensign used by the colony of pennsylvania was at first proposed by him for this purpose, having a white ground with a tree in the middle, and the motto, "appeal to heaven."[ ] [ ] "washington letters," vol. i., p. . this was succeeded by a new design, devised for the continental union flag ( ), which, to the accompanying salute of thirteen guns, was raised by washington over the camp of his army at cambridge, massachusetts, on the st january, , being the occasion of its first appearance. [illustration: . the first union flag, .] this flag was called "the grand union" (pl. vi., fig. ). it was composed of thirteen stripes of alternate white and red--one for each colony--and in the upper corner was the british union jack of that period, displaying the two crosses of st. george and st. andrew, as introduced in . there existed at the time a flag which had been carried by the english east india company over their british possessions in india since . this was composed of thirteen stripes, red and white alternately, and had the single red cross of st. george upon a white ground (the old english jack) in the upper corner. this flag might have been seen on the vessels trading to america and exchanging products between the english east indian and the american colonies, and thus being recognized as a "colonial flag" it may, with the change of form of the union jack, have suggested the new ensign. [illustration: plate vi. grand union united states united states ] there is no direct evidence as to the flag which had been raised by general putnam at the outbreak of hostilities at bunker hill, june th, , but tradition reports[ ] that it was the ensign of the colony of new england ( ), which, like the east india ensign, had the st. george's cross on a white ground in the upper corner; but the whole fly of the flag was red. [ ] lossing. in the selection of a new flag for the combined forces of the united colonies, what design could be more reasonable or more appropriate than the selection of that union jack under which their united armies had so often fought, together with the addition of thirteen stripes to indicate the number of colonies then assembled together? this retention of the union jack in the new flag was designedly intended to signify that the american colonies retained their allegiance to their motherland of great britain, although they were contesting the methods of taxation promulgated by its government. by this flag the thirteen colonies testified that, though in arms, they still claimed to be britons, and were demanding for themselves all the rights of citizenship which such relation conferred. it was, as one of their orators has well said, "the flag of the british colonies in arms to secure the rights and liberties of british subjects."[ ] [ ] general schuyler hamilton: "addresses on the flag," p. . the first union flag raised by washington over the armies of the united colonies thus displayed the british union jack. another flag ( ) bearing the union jack is still extant.[ ] it is a crimson red flag, having a rattlesnake painted upon it, and in the upper corner is the union jack of . this was carried by a regiment of the colony of pennsylvania, and was used at the battle of trenton, december th, , and in subsequent engagements with the british regular forces. [ ] preble: "the flag of the united states." [illustration: . the pennsylvania flag, .] the intention to cure the troubles by constitutional means had become unhappily merged in the appeal to arms.[ ] as the hostilities proceeded rancour grew, and then a new flag was sought for, which should typify the changed conditions. the source from which arose the idea of this final design we shall presently see. [ ] benjamin franklin's only son bitterly resented his father's abandonment of peaceful and constitutional methods, and himself left the country in , and died a u. e. loyalist in . on july th, , the declaration of independence followed,[ ] but the "grand union" still continued to be used by the thirteen colonies, which had now become thirteen states. it was not until june th, , or almost a year after the declaration, that a new national flag was fully developed. [ ] carried in congress only by the casting vote of the chairman. the congress of the united states, then in session at philadelphia, approved of a report made by a committee[ ] which had been appointed to consider the selection of a union flag, and enacted, "that the flag of the thirteen united states be thirteen stripes, alternate red and white; that the union be thirteen stars, white in a blue field, representing a new constellation." [ ] franklin, adams and washington. the new enactment was not at once put in force and a still further delay ensued, but at length, on september rd, , this flag was officially proclaimed as the union ensign of the united states (pl. vi., fig. ), and was the first national flag which was officially adopted by the authority of congress. [illustration: . arms of the washington family.] as washington himself suggested the first design, and had introduced the second, it is not improbable, and, indeed, it is recorded that he actually had somewhat to do with the designing of the final one.[ ] however this last report may be, his friends and admirers most certainly had, and the similarity between the design of the final flag and the coat-of-arms of the washington family points to the source from which they deduced the completed design. [ ] preble: "ross episode." upon the tombstones of the family in sulgrave church, northamptonshire, england, and upon the old manor house occupied by them in the time of henry viii., is to be seen the shield ( ) of the weshyntons,[ ] or washingtons, an old english county family, who traced their lineage back into the fifteenth century. [ ] also spelled "wessingtons." [illustration: . washington's book-plate.] john washington, a descendant of this family, had been a loyal cavalier, standing staunchly by his king, charles i. when cromwell and the roundheads came into power, the royalist washington emigrated, in , to virginia, bringing out his family, and with them his family shield, on which are shown three stars, above alternate stripes of red and white. having settled upon considerable estates, he and his descendants kept up the old ways, and maintained the style and country standards of their english forefathers. george washington, the subsequent president, was the great-grandson of the old loyalist colonist. he, too, served in the forces of his sovereign, king george iii., and maintained the old family traditions and habits in the same way as did all the "first families" of virginia. on the panels of his carriage were painted his family coat-of-arms. it appeared on the book-plate ( ) of the books in his library, and the first commissions which, as commander-in-chief, he issued to the officers of the continental army were sealed with his family seal ( ). [illustration: . washington's seals.] thus the suggestion for the further alteration was ready to hand. the similarity of one portion of the design already existing could not fail to have been noticed, for the stripes on the washington coat-of-arms were alternately red and white, as were also those on the grand union. it had been suggested that the idea of the "new" constellation was derived from the analogy of the "old" constellation of orion containing thirteen stars, and that the form of the stars was taken from a seal said to have belonged to john adams, one of the committee for designing the flag.[ ] [ ] "magazine of american history," vol. xix., p. . reference to the details of this seal shows an eagle bearing in its claws the lyre of orion, both being surrounded by a circle of thirteen stars; but the stars on the seal are all shown as sidereal six-pointed stars, and not five-pointed as are the washington stars. the stars which were inserted in the flag when the union jack was withdrawn were not the six-pointed stars which would be used heraldically if representing a "sidereal constellation," but are the five-pointed stars of the washington armorial bearings. so it happened that the stars and stripes of the coat-of-arms of the old loyalist english family, to which the successful revolutionary general belonged, and of the seal with which he had attested the commissions which his officers had received from him, formed the basis for the design of the new american flag, and through them the memory of the great leader and first president of the united states is indissolubly connected with the stars and stripes, the national ensign (pl. iii., fig. ) of the nation which he brought into existence. the american had good right to be proud of that jack, in whose glories he had so valiantly borne his part, and when as englishmen battling for the rights of englishmen the united colonies formed their colonial ensign they had rightly placed the union jack in its upper canton as evidence of those glories and of that claim. afterwards, when their new nation had been framed, and the washington stars had marked the new allegiance, the thirteen stripes of the old thirteen english colonies still remained to attest to himself and to the world the americans' share in the preceding centuries of anglo-saxon adventure and their heritage in all the liberties and literature of the english tongue. the rights won by the barons from john, the works of chaucer, shakespeare, milton, are still theirs by hereditary right, and the thirteen anglo-saxon stripes in his national emblem proclaim this to the american of to-day as they did to his forefathers in the thirteen colonies who first placed them in his union ensign. the bitternesses arising out of a fratricidal contest fanned by the misrepresentations of fervid orators have for long decades misread the events and obscured the history of that dividing strife, but british law and the english tongue still speak in the flag of the old english colonies which continues to form part of the national ensign of the united states. chapter xvii. _the jack and parliamentary union in britain._ the history of the flag, so far as we now have followed it, has been the story of martial or naval prowess and of the extension of its power and command around the world; but there is another story told in its combinations which is even greater in power, and has still deeper meaning in the welfare of the peoples who have come beneath its sway. the kingdom of england for centuries had its own st. george's jack, and the kingdom of scotland its cross of st. andrew. these red and white crosses had been the accepted symbols of their respective nationalities. each of the kingdoms had its own separate parliament, differing, it is true, from that of the other in methods and in many details, but representing the constitutional machinery adopted in each community for consultation between the king and his subjects, who, through their representatives, were advised upon matters connected with the government of their country, whether in its internal laws or in its relations with foreign powers. in course of time the same sovereign, in the person of james i., had by virtue of his birth succeeded to the throne of england, as well as to that of scotland. the kingly office in both the kingdoms had thus been merged in the person of one and the same king. a new flag had been created representing the allegiance which had then been joined in the one sovereign. in this the crosses of the two kingdoms had been joined together in one design, but the separate national jacks of each had been still retained and their use continued in force. these separate national jacks were certainly intended to evidence the continued separate national existence of each kingdom, while the new personal jack or banner of the king would appear to have evidenced the union of the thrones in one person, and to represent the united fealty offered to the one king. yet it is fairly open to question whether this union jack of james i. was at first created to mean as much as this, or whether it was not, after all, introduced more for the purpose of avoiding trouble between the sailors of the two nations, and only intended at first to be a local convenience for the preventing of dissensions. the new union jack certainly did not represent a union of the nations, else why did the two national jacks still remain? if it had been intended to represent the fealty of his subjects to their king, why was it not introduced immediately upon his accession, and why was not the red cross of the irish included as well as the crosses of the english and scots, for the irish were equally at the time subjects of james i.? the irish had, in fact, been subjects of his predecessors for many centuries. in , after the conquest of the island had been effected by henry ii. of england, the native princes of ireland had declared fealty to the prince--not in his capacity as king, but in acknowledgment of his position as having become by conquest the "lord of ireland." the country had from very early days been governed by its own parliaments, whose meetings are recorded as having taken place as early as ; but it was not until that ireland was raised to the rank and designation of a kingdom. in this year an act was passed by the parliament of ireland declaring henry viii., the king of england, to be also the king of ireland, and it was by virtue of this act that the king of england first assumed the additional title of king of ireland. the flag of england was at this same time the single st. george jack; yet, although the crowns were thus formally united, the cross of st. patrick was not added to the red cross of st. george as a union jack in sign of fealty to the one sovereign. after this, the kingdom of ireland owned fealty to three more sovereigns of england in succession;[ ] yet under none of them were the crosses of the two national flags joined together. it was not until a scotch king, the great-grandson of henry viii., became king of england, that any of the three national crosses were combined. in , james i. became king of ireland and england, as well as of scotland; yet notwithstanding that the three sister kingdoms were thus united in allegiance under his united crown, the three separate crosses of the national jacks of each were not united in one flag. james i. on his accession had at once added the irish harp to the quarterings of his royal standard ( ), but three more years passed before he entered the red cross of st. george in the "additional" two-crossed union jack which he then created. all these incidents point, evidently, to the view that the union of the crosses of st. george and st. andrew in the new flag of did not arise as an emblem of the union of thrones, but was mainly devised, as the king's proclamation distinctly stated, for the special and local purpose of keeping the sailors of the two nations most interested in shipping at peace, and thus to prevent their crews from quarrelling with one another as they sailed their ships around the shores of great britain. [ ] edward vi., mary, elizabeth. it required, in fact, something more than a mere union of allegiance to create a real union jack, and to entitle the national crosses of the kingdoms to be entered upon its folds; and what this requirement was the history of the entry of the st. patrick cross into the union flag enables us to see even yet more clearly. it will be remembered that a change in the "additional" jack of james was made in the sixth year of the reign of queen anne, and that the occasion of this change was coincident with the union of the separate parliaments of england and scotland into one british parliament. it was so soon as this occurred, but not until then, that the flag in which the two national crosses were blended was made the sole national ensign. it was in that this first union jack was created. queen anne was at the time queen of ireland as well as queen of england and scotland. she had quartered the harp of ireland in her royal standard five years previously, at the time when she had commenced her reign; yet the queen, when forming the new flag, did not join the cross of st. patrick in her union jack any more than had king james when forming his. for ninety-four years longer the red cross irish jack continued in its separate existence. the reign of queen anne had come to its close; three more sovereigns[ ] in succession had ascended the united throne of great britain and ireland, and successive changes had been made in the emblazonings on the royal standard, yet in all these reigns the union jack, which had been declared to be the only flag of the realm to be worn by their subjects, and which was raised over the new dependencies which the united valour of all three nationalities won for the crown, contained only the crosses of st. george and st. andrew, representing but two of the kingdoms included under its rule ( ). [ ] george i., george ii., george iii. at last, in , during the forty-first year of the reign of george iii., the irish parliament was united with the union parliament of england and scotland, and then, and not till then, was the red cross of st. patrick blended with the other two national crosses. the emblem of scotland had not been blended with that of england in one union jack until their parliaments had been united; so the emblem of ireland was not added to the other two until her parliament had also been joined with theirs. so soon, then, as the three kingdoms were joined in union under one parliament, for the first time the three crosses of the three national jacks were united in one three-crossed union jack. [illustration: . fort george and the port of new york in . (from an old print.)] we thus have learned what was the necessary qualification to entitle a national cross to be entered in the union ensign. it needed a union of parliaments to create a real union jack--a flag in which the national crosses should each continue to retain their national significance, and, when joined together in union, be still accorded the same precedence which had previously attached to each when separately displayed. the history of these successive blendings shows most plainly that the triune flag arose, not from union under one sovereign, but from legislative union under one parliament. the union jack, therefore, has become the emblem of the british constitution and the british race. it is now the signal of loyalty to one sovereign and the existence of government under british parliamentary union, and, therefore, wherever displayed, it indicates the presence of british liberties and british law. chapter xviii. _the jack and parliamentary union in canada._ in addition to its harmony with the story of the union and the growth of the constitution in the motherland, the union jack has also an interesting connection with the extension of the powers and advantages of the british constitution in canada, and particularly with the establishment of responsible parliamentary government among its people. in , the seeds of the new nationality had been sown upon the plains of abraham, where the blood of wolfe and montcalm had mingled to enrich the soil, and the power of european france in canada became merged in the power of england. the french forefathers of the new subjects of king george ii. had come largely from those very portions of old france, whose people had crossed over to england with william the conqueror, and given the british their king. as says one of our french canadian historians: "the immigration of the french, extending from to , was almost entirely from among the normans of dieppe and rouen, so that the settled portion of canada was to all intents and purposes a reproduction of a norman province. the subsequent settlers were mainly selected in rochelle, poictou, paris and normandy, to the exclusion of persons from the south and east, and coming out single, they married the daughters of the settled normans. this accounts for the marked absence of any but the norman accent and form of speech throughout the french-speaking communities of canada at the present day."[ ] [ ] benjamin sulte: "the origin of the french canadians." [illustration: . royal arms of george ii.] thus the new french-speaking subjects in canada were only returning in allegiance to the sovereignty of a king whose ancestors had been placed upon the english throne by their own norman forefathers; upon whose royal arms ( ) were displayed the three _fleurs-de-lis_ as sign of his claim, through his ancestors, to the throne of france ( ); upon whose crown was the motto in their own french language, "_dieu et mon droit_,"[ ] and who by the retention of old customs still gave his consent to the laws enacted in his british parliament in the same old norman phrase, "_le roi le veult_" ("the king wills it"), which had been used by his norman forefathers.[ ] [ ] first used at gisors, in normandy, in . [ ] the custom is still continued. the consent of queen victoria to acts passed by parliament was given in norman french, "_la reyne le veult_." the french _habitant_ felt how easy was the renewal of the old relationship, and accepted the change in the way so well expressed in his canadian voyageur patois: "an' dat was de way we feel, w'en de ole régime's no more, an' de new wan come, but don't change moche; w'y its jus' lak' it be before, spikin' _francais_ lak' we alway do, an' de english dey mak' no fuss, an' our law de sam', wall, i don't know me, 'twas better mebbe for us."[ ] [ ] w. h. drummond: "the habitant." there now commenced in canada an evolution of internal government of the people similar to that which had taken place in the old land of england, but under reversed conditions, beginning here with the incoming of english rule, while there it had commenced with the norman conquest of england. an eminent french authority[ ] has stated his belief that england owed her liberties to her having been conquered by the normans, and to this we may add the statement of a no less important english author,[ ] that "assuredly england was gainer by the conquest." as the advent of norman rule to england had resulted in such privileges to the english people, so assuredly the cession of quebec and the introduction of english government into canada brought equal blessings to the descendants of those selfsame normans. [ ] guizot: "essais sur l'histoire de france." [ ] gibbon. the french canadian found that under his new union jack his property was secure. under the old régime the french canadian had practically no voice in the government of his country. there was no system of elective municipal government, no freedom for public meetings, all the legislative and executive power, even to its extremest details, being centralized through the governor and intendant in the person of the king of france, who was two thousand miles away. finding his religious faith untrammelled, his freedom unimpaired, his language preserved, the _habitant_ soon settled down without objection to his new sovereignty. in , the british parliament passed the act known as the "quebec act," which granted an increased share of local government to the people of the great province comprising all canada which was then set apart, and the greater portion of which is now within the present dominion. this measure of self-government still further assured the french-descended canadians of the protection of their liberties, so that when the english-descended colonists of the thirteen english state colonies to the south of them revolted from their british allegiance in , french canada stood firm by the british crown. the descendants of the normans in canada were true to the government which their forefathers had helped to create in england. the march of events now brought an additional set of new subjects to the british constitution as it had then been established in canada. the granting of separation to the thirteen united states, in , was followed by the immigration to canada of those loyal souls whose hearts revolted at the action of their old colonies in taking down the union jack, and who refused to separate themselves from the united empire, in whose ultimate justice they had unwavering faith. these "united empire loyalists" settled mainly in the parts now known as nova scotia, new brunswick and ontario. of the quarter of a million souls who then formed the total population of canada, about a hundred and forty thousand were of french language and descent, living in the counties adjacent to the st. lawrence river; and of the forty to fifty thousand loyalists who, it is estimated, reached the northern colonies during or immediately after the rebellion of , over twenty-five thousand had, by , settled along the western lakes. government in canada had hitherto been conducted by a governor and a legislative council appointed by the crown, there being no elected representative. a further advance in constitutional self-government was now considered desirable, and the "constitutional act of " was passed by the parent parliament in great britain. the ancient province of quebec was divided into two provinces, called lower canada and upper canada, very fairly representing the localities occupied, the one by the older or french-speaking subjects of his majesty, and the other by the newcoming english-speaking loyalists, who had followed their old flag into the forests of the northland. this act of gave the right of parliamentary government to the people of canada. a legislative council and a house of assembly were created for each province, the members of the latter house being elected by the votes of people in the counties and towns of each. the legislature of upper canada held its first session at newark (now niagara-on-the-lake) in , summoned, as said lieutenant-governor simcoe in his opening speech, "under the authority of an act of parliament of great britain, passed in the last year, which has established the british constitution in this distant country." to this he added: "the wisdom and beneficence of our most gracious sovereign and the british parliament have been eminently proved not only in imparting to us the same form of government, but in securing the benefit of the many provisions which guard this memorable act, so that the blessings of our invulnerable constitution, we hope, will be extended to the remotest posterity." as a sign of this self-government under the british crown, the king issued his warrant from the court of st. james on march th, , authorizing a "_great seal for the province of upper canada_," to be used in sealing all public instruments. the engraving ( ), which is a photo reproduction of the seal attached to the crown patent of a grant of one hundred acres of land near port hope, upper canada, made to a u. e. loyalist, shows the details of the design, being, as described in the royal warrant, "an anchor and sword crossed on a calumet of peace, encircled by a wreath of olives, surmounted by an imperial crown and the union of great britain." [illustration: . the great seal of upper canada, .] this "union," which will be seen in the upper right-hand corner of the seal, was the union jack of queen anne. the united empire loyalists sought their loved two-crossed union jack in canada. they found it not only flying on the flagstaff, but also impressed on the seals of the grants of land which were made to them in recognition of their loyalty. on these it came to them as a sign of the surety of their legal rights under british law and their full protection under the administration of british justice. the introduction of this union jack had been the result of an act passed by the british parliament, that "mother of parliaments," which continues to this day to have vested in it the ultimate political sovereignty of every local parliament which it has created. this union jack on the great seal is in this way the emblem of parliamentary union between great britain and canada, and the sign of the spread of british constitutional government to the continent of america. but the french canadian has also an interest in this same _great seal_, for on its reverse side it bore the royal coat-of-arms of the reigning sovereign, and in this were still shown the three lilies of france, in the same way as in the arms of his predecessor, george ii. ( ). what the union jack on the one side was to the english-speaking canadian, the "_fleurs-de-lis_" on the other was to the french-canadian--a visible sign of his own personal connection with the glories of his forefathers, and the evidence of his glad allegiance to the sovereign whose connection with the ancient realm of france was represented by these emblems, and with whose realm he was now reunited. in drawings of the arms of the province of ontario (the new name given to the province of upper canada at the time of confederation, in ), the jack has frequently been shown as containing three crosses. a reference to the impressions made by the seal itself upon the great pieces of white wax, four and a half inches broad by three-quarters of an inch in thickness, which were attached by bands of parchment or of tape to the official documents, shows, as is seen in the photograph, that the "union" contained two crosses only, namely, the cross of st. george and the cross of st. andrew. this union jack of was also shown in the arms of the department of education of upper canada, from to , during the régime of dr. ryerson as superintendent. in these the design was the same as on the great seal, but the union jack was removed from the upper corner and placed upon a shield in the centre, upon which the two crosses of queen anne are plainly shown. in earlier stained glass windows placed in the normal school, toronto, the head offices of the department of education of ontario, the three-crossed flag had been shown, but this, on the suggestion of the writer, has been corrected in the new windows placed in the library in . a further adoption of the national emblem is shown in the design on the early currency, which was coined for use in the province. the "penny" of the bank of upper canada ( ) shows on the one side st. george and the dragon, and on the other the arms of the great seal, having on it the union jack,[ ] which good national emblem, no doubt, made the money that the canadian loyalist earned more acceptable to him. these must have been happy reminders to the patriot, for on the coins which passed current among his people, and on the seal of the deed of the grant of land which his loyalist father or himself had received for his new home, was the imprint of the old union jack, placed there by an act of the union parliament of great britain, as the sign of his parliamentary union with that united empire which ever commanded his allegiance. [ ] the design of this bank of upper canada penny was made by f. w. cumberland, the father of the writer. [illustration: . upper canada penny.] chapter xix. _the union jack of george iii., ._ the present union jack. we come now to the formation of the first, and present, three-crossed jack, the "red, white and blue," of story and of song, being the third union jack. for forty years king george iii. had reigned as king of great britain and ireland. the union parliament, created under queen anne, had administered the affairs of england and of scotland, but the parliament of ireland had continued meeting separately, and the two-crossed union jack of had been the only union jack authorized to be raised in the british realm. in the forty-first year of the king's reign an act was passed in the parliament of ireland, whereby it became, as had the parliaments of the two other kingdoms, incorporated in the one union parliament of the united kingdom of great britain and ireland. as previously, so now again the parliamentary and completed union of the kingdoms having been arrived at, the irish jack was directed to be joined with the jacks of england and scotland. the same deliberate procedure for making an alteration in the union flag was followed as under queen anne: first, an act of parliament creating a further union, the call of the sovereign as the supreme head of the nations, the appointment of a committee of the privy council to consider the drafts of the changes to be made, then an order in council, and, finally, the issue of a proclamation by the king. the record[ ] states: "on the th november, , the king in council was pleased to approve the report of a committee of the privy council, that the union flag should be altered according to the draft marked 'c,' in which the cross of st. george is conjoined with the crosses of st. andrew and st. patrick." [ ] memorandum of the admiralty. [illustration: . draft "c" of union jack, .] this draft "c" ( ) was duly transmitted to the college of arms, london, and an exact tracing of it as recorded in the books of the college has been made.[ ] [ ] "genealogical magazine," . the designers of this new union jack of had this time to join three flags together, instead of, as in , only joining two; the problem set before them being the union of the three national jacks of the sister nations into one grand union jack (pl. v., fig. ). the three flags now to be formed into one union flag were the incoming irish jack, having a red diagonal saltire cross and white ground, to be joined with the "white crosse, commonly called st. andrew's crosse,"[ ] of scotland, with its blue ground, and the "jack white with a red cross, commonly called st. george's cross"[ ] of england, with its white ground. [ ] proclamation, charles i., , p. . [ ] proclamation, charles ii., , p. . the latter two had already been joined in the union jack of . the draft "c" ( ) gives the method in which the designers proposed the three flags should be combined, and the proportions to be given to each in the new flag, which then received the approval of the king in council. thereafter, on january st, , king george iii. issued his royal proclamation from st. james' palace, declaring his majesty's pleasure concerning the royal style and titles appertaining to the imperial crown of the united kingdom of great britain and ireland and its dependencies, and also the ensigns armorial, flags and banners thereof. the clause respecting the royal coat-of-arms states: "and that the arms or ensigns armorial of the said united kingdoms shall be quarterly; first and fourth england, second scotland, third ireland; and it is our will and pleasure that there shall be borne therewith on an escutcheon of pretence the arms of our dominions in germany." the result of this clause was that the lilies of france, which had been quartered in the royal arms since edward iii., , were altogether removed, and the whole four quarters were appropriated--two quarters to the three golden lions of england, and one quarter each to the red lion of scotland and the golden harp of ireland--and upon a shield on the centre was to be placed the arms and white horse of hanover, to indicate the other countries over which the king also reigned ( ). [illustration: . royal arms of george iii., .] the next clause refers to the royal standard or flag of the sovereign: "... and it is our will and pleasure that the standard of the said united kingdoms shall be the same quarterings as are hereinbefore declared to be the arms or ensigns armorial of the said united kingdoms...." although the royal arms contained a recognition of the king's hanoverian kingdom, the flag to be used as the "royal standard" is ordered to have on it only the arms of the three united kingdoms of england, scotland and ireland. in the clause of this proclamation the union flag ( ), which had already been designed and approved, was described as follows: "and that the union flag shall be azure, the crosses saltires of st. andrew and st. patrick, quarterly per saltire counterchanged, argent and gules; the latter fimbriated of the second, surmounted by the cross of st. george of the third fimbriated as the saltire." this description defines, with respect to the crosses, that the white cross of scotland and the red cross of ireland were joined together quarterly and "_counterchanged_" and that the red cross of st. george is to "_surmount_"--that is, to be laid upon the surface of them both. with respect to the grounds of the flag, it is described as being blue, and that the cross of st. george is "fimbriated as the saltire." much, and almost continuous, controversy early arose upon this heraldic description of the union flag, particularly with respect to the proportion of the crosses, and specially to the width of the white border to the st. george. [illustration: . union jack of george iii., .] it is to be remembered that heraldry does not, except when specifically given, deal with exact dimensions, but gives the general appearance and particular colourings of the shield or banner. if, as in this case, the arrangement of the flag selected may have been in the opinion of some of the heraldically inclined, "an extraordinary amalgamation,"[ ] and by others not made in accord with the heraldic "blazon" or description given of it in the proclamation, yet this division of its parts is not to be attributed to the "officers of arms" of that day, for it has been expressly put on record that "in this allotment they were not allowed the exercise of their own judgment."[ ] suggestions have constantly since been made that the forms in the flag should be changed, because, as is reiterated, "the guide to all heraldic devices is the verbal blazon of the heralds," and with this, they say, the flag does not agree, for the saltire crosses do not bear the appearance of having been "counterchanged"--that is, alternated, share and share alike; and that the "fimbriation" to the red cross of st. george is wider than an "heraldic fimbriation," which on an heraldic shield is only a very narrow edging or border for the purpose of separating one colour from another. [ ] _gentleman's magazine_, january. . [ ] _naval and military magazine_, , p. . these are objections arising only from the wording of the "blazon" and not from the flag itself; to the description given of it and not to the design. we have seen that, both in and in , the changes made in the "union jacks" proceeded by a regular and formal progression of, consideration by sovereign, committee of enquiry, order in council and registration of the drafts of design then selected and approved, and the promulgation of the royal proclamation for its use. _the design of the flags preceded the blazon_, or description given of them in the proclamations. we must, therefore, refer to the flags themselves as the guide to their proportions and to the intentions of their designers. it does not appear that any "draft" of the first flag of james i., , was fyled, but a formal proclamation authorizing it was made by the king "according to the form made by our heralds." on reference to the "draft c, ," of queen anne, for the conjoining of the two flags, it will be noted that the crosses of st. george and st. andrew are of _equal width_, and that the white border to the st. george is one-third of the width of either of the crosses. the red and white crosses of the two national flags are thus represented, and the whole of the "crosse-flags" by the blue ground of the scottish flag in the angles, and the white ground of the english flag in the broad white border. queen anne and her councillors had in mind the union of the two nations, but there was no "verbal blazon" made or issued, the order being that "the flaggs be according to the 'draft marked c,'" and as "shown on the margent" of the proclamation. this authorized union jack of was the basis upon which the designers of george iii. began when, in , they were instructed to conjoin the cross of st. patrick, which was to be added to the union flag. comparison of the "draft marked c, ," shows that the broad white border of st. george is retained of the same width as in the "draft c, ," being approximately _one-third_ of the width of the red cross of st. george and of the saltire cross, both of which remain of the same size as previously. the form authorized by the order in council of was adopted and repeated by the order in council of . in the bringing in of the additional red saltire cross of ireland, the diagonal space previously allotted in "draft c, ," to a saltire cross is now equally divided between the white and the red saltire crosses of the kingdoms, and to give them equal recognition and honour, the edging of white necessary to separate the red saltire of st. patrick from the blue ground of the flag is taken from its own half of the diagonal space allotted to it instead of from the scotland's blue, and this was duly balanced by the retention of the full broad white border space around the st. george, which in the new flag represented both the white grounds of the st. patrick and the st. george, as the blue ground did that of st. andrew's flag. thus the intentions of the designers of were followed, confirmed and extended by the designers of . the drafts and orders in council issued in pursuance of them are the authority which must be recognized in the making of the flag, and not the interpretation of a description or "blazon" given of it in the proclamation issued after the union jack had already been approved and adopted. it has been said that the wording of the blazon, "the cross of st. george fimbriated as the saltire," is to be taken as indicating the "width" as well as the "colour" of the fimbriation, and that, therefore, it should be reduced to a narrow heraldic edging. others consider that as heraldry does not deal with sizes as exact dimensions, the wording means simply, "of the same _colour_ as the saltire," and has no reference to the width, and some criticisms have described the "blazon" as being "very obscure."[ ] [ ] _naval and military magazine_, . in consequence of these interpretations, proposals have, at times, been made for altering the union jack, "so as to bring it more into accordance with the blazon and with heraldic rules," but as has been well said, "flag making is not pure heraldry; it is affected by considerations of symmetry, proportion and in no small measure of usage and prescription."[ ] [ ] _times_, september , . our union jack, in its present form, has unquestionably been made as it was ordered to be made in and in , and proclaimed in , whether the description in the proclamation be correctly expressed or not. but in addition to the general form of the design, as given in the "draft c, ," there were also detailed regulations issued for the making of the flag, which are the same as the rules prescribed by the admiralty of the present day[ ] for the several proportions of the union jack as always and now issued. [ ] admiralty memorandum relative to the union jack, . from these regulations it is clearly evident that the recognition which the white ground of st. george's jack had been given in the flag of was intended to be continued. while the pattern drafts of the councils were of square form, the admiralty adopted a longer form, as "the practice has been, in regard to the dimensions of flags generally, to make the length twice the breadth at the head." this is the usual length adopted for flags which are not square, although the flag of an admiral, which is the old english st. george, still continues to be one and a half times as long as it is broad. the dimensions are given in full detail in the regulations. an outline drawing ( ) of the flag of the same form as the admiralty pattern is given for convenience of reference. the proportions of the several crosses and borders are directed in the regulations to be made according to the measurement called the "width of the flag," being the measurement on the "halliard" or "hoist," which is the side next to the flagstaff, and are as follows: regulations for the sizes of the parts of the union jack, whether square or oblong, in which latter case the length to be twice as long as the width. red cross of st. george / of width of flag. white border to st. george / of red of st. george. red cross of st. patrick / " " " white border to st. patrick / " " " broad white of st. andrew / " " " the paramount cross of st. george is to be one-fifth of the width of the flag on the flagstaff, and its width is made the factor by which the measurements of all the other parts are to be regulated in flags of varying sizes. the crosses of the two other jacks, which were to be joined, are each allotted a proportion of _one-third_ the width of the cross of st. george. the divisions of the parts for the irish jack are stated separately, being _one-third_ for the red cross of st. patrick, and _one-sixth_ for its white border; the two measurements, when added together, amounting to a proportion of one-half. the proportion of one-half allotted to the "broad white of st. andrew" comprises the due share of _one-third_ for the scotch cross, and _one-sixth_ for its border, being an exact equality to the proportions given to the irish cross and its border. [illustration: . outline jack--the proper proportions of the crosses.] at first sight it would appear that the "broad white of st. andrew" was given a larger proportion of the flag, but the measurements of the "cross" and its "border" of the scotch jack are stated in one figure, because their colours are the same, while those of the irish jack are given separately, because the colours are different, the cross being red and its border white. the saltire space of the union jack of queen anne has been divided equally, and the national banners of st. patrick and st. andrew are thus given each a proportion of _one-third_ for its cross and _one-sixth_ for its border or "fimbriation." the description given in the "blazon" respecting the red cross of st. george, stated that it was "fimbriated as the saltire." the regulations defined this as "for the white border to the cross of st. george," and there was allotted, not simply a one-sixth proportion due a "fimbriation," but the full proportion of _one-third_, equal to that of a national cross, and in this way the white border to the cross of st. george is as wide as the cross of each of the other nations. the width of the border cannot this time, as was said of the change of , be the result of the "carelessness of a draughtsman,"[ ] for it is made with premeditated carefulness, and, more than that, the measurements are set down in exact figures. thus the reason for the broadening of the border in the flag of has been justified by the flag of and its authority confirmed. [ ] mcgeorge: "flags." this broad white border, given to surround the red cross of st. george, is not only the formal recognition of the white ground of the english jack, which had been placed in the flag of , but it is also a recognition of the white ground of the irish jack, which was now for the first time entering the union jack, so that the broad border in the flag of represents the grounds of two national jacks. the practical proportions of the pattern drafts are thus fully carried out in the admiralty pattern. some twenty years ago the garter king of arms had his attention drawn to the admiralty flag as used in the navy, and he was asked to suggest an alteration. he declined, because, he said, "the flag was made according to the drawing, and it was exhibited in the same way on the colours of the queen's infantry regiments." it is a serious thing to deface or alter the national flag of a nation, and if any changes have been made in any individual instances they are the result of error, and have not been made with such paramount authority of sovereign, parliament and council, as have been the union jacks of queen anne and king george iii. in this union jack of we have, then, plainly displayed a complete representation of the three separate crosses, and of the white and blue grounds of the three national jacks which were then combined together to form our union jack. since no change had been made in this union jack of george iii., which was the first three-crossed jack of its race, and is our present union jack. from onward dates this glorious flag, in which all three nations are represented. it was born when the power of great britain seemed almost wrecked. reverses had accumulated upon her. in america many of her possessions among the west indies and on the surrounding coasts[ ] had been wrested from her flag, and thirteen of her longest established and most populous colonies, becoming the united states, and aided by men, money and fleet from the french in europe, had revolted from her sway and abandoned their allegiance. in europe the nations of france, spain and holland were united in arms against her, and she was battling almost single-handed against the power of the great napoleon; yet, undaunted by these trials, the sons of the united nation ran their new union jack up aloft, and started out to frame that marvellous career which it has since achieved. [ ] in england lost tobago, st. eustachius, demerara, essequibo, st. christopher, nevis, and montserrat. "for england's courage flames the fiercest in defeat, and in the day she stands at bay most dangerous to meet."[ ] [ ] kirby: "canadian idylls." this third union jack flew at aboukir when abercrombie drove napoleon out of egypt; with it were won the triumphs of wellington, from assaye in india, through badajoz and spain, to the crowning victory at waterloo. it was the flag which floated in the "white ensign" on all the ships at trafalgar,[ ] and on the _victory_ when nelson sent aloft his british watchword: "england expects every man will do his duty." [ ] nelson, in order to have the british ships easily recognized by one another in the action, had ordered that instead of wearing (in accordance with regulations) the flags of their respective red, white or blue squadrons, all the ships should wear the same flag (the white ensign) as himself. the halo of that signal shone around it at balaclava, when the heroes of the valley-charge proved it was "theirs not to reason why, theirs not to make reply; theirs but to do and die"; and again above the _birkenhead_, at sea, when five hundred steadfast men went down beneath its folds, inspired by its duty-call. [illustration: . the union jack and shackleton at farthest south. (from a photograph taken at the spot.)] in africa, melville and coghill wrapped it around their bodies at isandula, and won death to save it from the foe; for it the forty mounted riflemen of matabeleland died in their tracks, singing "god save the queen," and yet again at the call of the race the sons of the flag from all around the world hastened to help it to hold its own upon the veldt. on the continent of america the impetuous brock, facing enormous odds, and leading his canadian volunteers in defence of their native land, gave up his life for it on the cedar-clad slopes of queenston heights, and beneath it the french canadians of beauharnois knelt on the battlefield, and rising, won, with the brave de salaberry as their leader, the victory of glorious chateauguay.[ ] [ ] "captain langtin caused his men of the beauharnois militia to kneel, went through a short prayer with them, and then, rising, said: '_now that they had fulfilled their duty to their god, they would fulfil that to their king._'"--lighthall: "the battle of chateauguay." it was carried far to the arctic north by sir john franklin, in , and in october, , shackleton planted this ancient union jack, with all its crosses and broad white border,[ ] upon the farthest antarctic south ( ). [ ] a union jack given him by her majesty queen alexandra. such a flag with such a history should be held sacred and inviolable. chapter xx. _the lessons of the crosses._ the combinations of the jacks have at length been completed, and the three crosses placed together in the one flag of . if some of the heralds are not entirely satisfied with the way the divisions are made, due honour has at least been done to each of the jacks of the three kingdoms, while at the same time the historical value of the "union" has been greatly enhanced, and its beauty as a flag most certainly increased. if the object of heraldry is the teaching of lessons by the combinations of colour and of forms, then the flag as made is yet more heraldically successful. in the heraldic and traditional interpretations of colours, red indicates courage, white is the emblem of purity, and blue the emblem of truth. "red, white and blue, brave, pure and true." by this better and more equal division of the colours in the flag much additional emphasis is given to the story which those colours tell. lessons are taught which may be deeply impressed upon the minds of our children, so that by reading the history of their nation in its folds they may endeavour to live lives worthy of the ideals of their national flag, and frame their own characters and the character of their empire by its lofty teachings. that it is a beautiful and easily distinguished flag is admitted on all hands, but it has the still further quality, of immeasurable value in a national flag, that its parts and colours tell the history of the nation whose emblem it is. to those who have acquainted themselves with the story of the three separate national flags, the union jack, with its three crosses, its broad white borders and eight blue triangles, tells the story of the influences under which the present empire has been built up by the three kingdoms which were combined to make it. laid broadly upon the whole combination, and "surmounting" it, and also forming the basis for all its measurements, is the plain red cross of st. george, indicating, in such a way as the simplest mind can understand, the leading part which the english nation has taken in the creation of the union, and the powerful position which it holds in its councils. under this cross, and supporting it, are the white and red crosses of the two junior nations, which are themselves, in their turn, supported on the white and blue grounds, which form the basis foundations of the flag, the whole being embraced and bound together by the broadspread arms of the plain red cross. thus clearly does the position of the crosses and their grounds teach the vivid lesson of how the three sister nations, supporting each other, are all united by _courage_ in building their realm upon the sure foundations of _purity_ and _truth_. the position of the red cross of st. george, in front and full view, tells plainly how england was the first of the nations to enter the lists and lead the way in acquiring the glories of the empire. another lesson there is which the crosses also plainly tell respecting the relations between the scotch and irish nations themselves. the flag is divided by the cross of st. george into four quarters, in all of which the saltire crosses of st. andrew and st. patrick, as the heraldic blazon of the proclamation says, are "quarterly per saltire counterchanged." discussions have arisen between heraldic experts as to whether the descriptive word in the blazon should be "countercharged" or "counterchanged." the latter is the word given in this proclamation, and although at first sight it looks as though the red cross only had been "charged"--that is, been placed upon the original white diagonal cross--it is to be remembered that the saltire cross has been equally divided between the two nations. it will be noted that the broad white of the cross of scotland occupies the higher position in the first and third quarters, which are next the flagstaff, and the red cross of ireland is in the higher position in the second and fourth, which are the quarters at the end or fly of the flag; the relative position of the irish and scotch crosses, as they are placed in the first and third quarters, are reversed in the second and fourth quarters; that is to say, the positions of the crosses are alternately changed about, or "counterchanged." the quarters of the flag next the flagstaff are considered to be of higher importance than the others, and in these more important quarters the cross of st. andrew and its border is thus given precedence over the red cross of st. patrick and its border. the lesson intended to be taught by the position of the crosses is plain. the kingdom of scotland had entered into the union with england before the kingdom of ireland, and, therefore, as being the senior, the white cross of st. andrew is given the precedence over the red cross of st. patrick, but this, in its turn, is given the upper position in the remaining quarters. the utmost care must, therefore, be taken to see that the union jack is correctly raised on the flagstaff, with the broad white of the st. andrew uppermost. when the red ensign, or any similarly quartered flag, is reversed on the flagstaff--that is to say, displayed with the union down--it becomes a signal of distress. union jacks are often seen hoisted upside down (pl. vii., fig. ). no more distressing act can be done to the union jack than to thus carelessly reverse its crosses by putting the wrong end next the staff, with the broad white saltire down, nor greater indignity be done to its supporters than by thus reversing the correct positions of their national jacks. flags are sometimes to be seen (pl. vii., fig. ) in which the white border around the red cross of st. george is reduced to the same narrow size as the border of st. patrick, and thus the white ground of the jacks of england and ireland has been wiped out. [illustration: plate vii. present union jack upside down jack wrongly made jack wrongly made] still more often the red cross of st. patrick is set full in the centre of the diagonal cross, and thus the cross of st. andrew is completely expunged, for its white is reduced to only two narrow white margins on both sides of the irish red cross. the broad white of st. andrew has thus been entirely lost. (pl. vii., fig. ). such errors as have been mentioned cannot be too greatly lamented, or be too carefully avoided, for by them dishonour is done to the memory of the nations whose prowess has ennobled their national emblems, and the beautiful story of the union jack is utterly marred; for the positions of the crosses and borders cease to tell the consecutive history of the empire nation whose combined union emblem they form. in pl. vii., fig. , a further error will be noted, that the opposite ends of the combined saltires are not in continuous line with one another, as in the correctly made jack (pl. v., fig. ). this has occurred from the centre lines of the combined saltires having been drawn directly from the inner corners of st. george to the outer corners of the oblong flag. we have seen that as the space of the one saltire of was to be divided equally between the two saltires of , the two ends of the saltire should be in line, and the division run equally through the centre. [illustration: . square union jack.] in view of these errors it may be well to give some simple instructions by which the flags may always be correctly made, and which are in accordance with the admiralty regulations. union jacks must be made either square ( ), or oblong ( ), in which latter shape the length must always be twice the width on the staff. [illustration: . oblong union jack.] it will be noticed that in the square jack ( ) the diagonal lines drawn from the opposite corners of the flag intersect the corners of the white border of st. george and of the cross, which latter is shown in dotted lines, and that in the oblong jack ( ) they do not. it is this difference which has usually created the difficulty. having decided the size, either square or twice as long as wide ( × ), then draw two diagonal lines from corner to corner upon the shape of flag selected, then place the st. george cross and its border upon the flag according to the measurements in the "outline jack" ( ), the red of st. george being one-fifth of the height or width of the flag. the diagonal lines will be the centre and dividing lines of the saltires, as shown by the dotted lines which are thus in continuous line from one corner to the other. the st. patrick and st. andrew saltires and their borders are then to be added according to the proportions shown in ( ), the red saltire being placed touching the diagonal, below it in the first and third quarters of the flag, and above it in the second and fourth. the st. andrew, being in one colour and above the diagonal in the first and third, and below it in the second and fourth, completes the combined saltire. by following these directions the making of a union jack is much simplified. that the utmost care should be exercised in the making of our flag is beyond all question. it is the record of our history, the flag of our british nation; to display one in incorrect form is to do dishonour to it, to our history and to our nationality. no patriot would do this intentionally, and yet some may do this ignorantly. it would be well for their help and the avoidance of error that they should be taught how to make their flag correctly, and be educated in the lessons which it conveys. once these have been learned, the amount of increased interest in our flags is immeasurably advanced. each flag as it comes before the eye becomes a study and a lesson, an historic reminder and a patriotic inspiration. if those crosses could themselves but speak, what glories they could tell; and yet the outlines of the flag, when they are properly displayed, signal the stories of their colours and their crosses as plainly and as eloquently as if they voiced it in burning words. chapter xxi. _the proportions of the crosses._ the division of proportions allotted to the crosses and to the white border of st. george in the union jack has hitherto been treated solely by inference and also by comparison of the "drafts" selected and regulations which were issued for the construction of the flag. it may be well now to revert to some actual examples showing the details of flags early in use, which will further substantiate the reasons which led to the proportionate division of the spaces when the union jack of was altered in , and our present union jack was designed to record the addition of ireland to the union. it has sometimes been stated that the red cross and white border of st. george indicate the presence of two crosses, the impression, formed by those who, as they admit, were "better acquainted with heraldic definitions than historic expression," being that they give the appearance of a red english cross placed over a white french cross. as reason for this, they point out that king james i. and all his successors until king george iii. had been styled "kings of great britain, france and ireland." the successive union jacks had been created during the existence of this royal title, and, therefore, it is suggested that two crosses had been placed upon this part of the flag, one being the white cross of france, upon the face of which the red cross of st. george had been laid to thus present the ancient and long-past union of the kingdoms of france and england under the one sovereignty. the white cross of france, however, was not a straight-sided cross, such as that of st. george, but one of maltese shape, being wider at the ends than at the centre. an instance of this flag is given in the copy ( ) of the flag shown on the mainmast of a french caravel of the sixteenth century, as drawn in an old manuscript illustration.[ ] [ ] caravelle francaise tirée des "ouvres pilote du havre," mss. du xvi. siecle. [illustration : flag of a french caravel, th century.] it is quite evident that the rectangular white border to the st. george could not be formed by a cross of this shape, and, therefore, this suggestion for the origin of the white border must be taken as erroneous. further, it was not unreasonable, seeing that the royal standard is composed of the personal arms of the sovereign, that the successive kings and queens of england should have continued the _fleur-de-lis_ in one of the quarterings of their royal arms, as a sign of family succession, and as evidence of personal claim by descent to the old sovereignty of france; but the british nations brought into union did not themselves claim any such sovereignty, calais, the last foothold of england in france, won by edward iii. in his claim to the succession of the throne of france, having been lost in under queen mary. there would, therefore, be no corresponding reason for inserting the french cross in the union flag, nor any historical connection which would justify its being so used. in the illustrations given of the two-crossed jack of (pl. iii., fig. , and cut ), the white saltire of st. andrew is represented as of the full size of a wide saltire cross; so also in the jack of queen anne, (pl. v., fig. ), in which the broad white of st. george was first given its full width. this is the proportion of size which is given to it in heraldic drawings, and the way in which it is usually drawn in later representations, the white saltire cross of st. andrew being thus shown broader than the white border to st. george; but the earlier practice in the actual making of flags appears to have been different. in the allotment of the proportions in the new three-crossed jack of , when the cross of st. patrick was added to the flag, it has been pointed out that the white border to st. george was continued in its full width, as in the previous flag of , and was given the same width as each of the two national crosses, which were then first placed side by side, and between which the saltire space was then divided. it will be interesting to show, by reference to early original documents and flags, that this was the same equality as had previously existed between the cross of st. andrew and the border of st. george in the old two-crossed jacks of james i. and of queen anne. in the time of william iii. it appears that objections had been raised in england to the using of the king's two-crossed jack by merchant ships of the american colonies, permission to do this having been granted to the colonial ships by the governors of the colonies. the english lords justices in council at whitehall, on st july, , considered these objections to the using of what their report termed "the king's colours," and thereupon issued an order that the ships of the colonies shall "wear no other jack than that hereafter mentioned, namely, that worne by his majesty's ships, with the distinction of a _white escutcheon_ in the middle thereof, and that the said mark of distinction may extend itself to one-half of the depth of the jack, and one-third part of the fly thereof, according to the _sample hereunto annexed_." the lords commissioners of trade were accordingly instructed to write to the governors of his majesty's plantations, "that they do oblige the commanders of such merchant ships to which they grant commissions to _wear no other jack_ than according to what is proposed." an exact tracing of the "_sample hereunto annexed_," taken from the original manuscript report,[ ] which was sent to the then governor of the colony of massachusetts, is shown in fig. , and in colours in pl. iii., fig. . [ ] archives rooms, massachusetts. vol. , fol. - . boston. this flag is the jack of james i., which is still described in this report of july, , as it had been of old, as the "king's colours." it will be noted that the white cross of st. andrew is a narrow cross, and that the white border to st. george is of the same width as the st. andrew's cross. [illustration: . the colonial jack, .] in the centre of the jack is the "white escutcheon" described in the report, to be used on the colonial flags. this is the first instance of the creation of a special flag for the overseas colonies, and reference to it will be made in a subsequent chapter. similar instructions were sent to the governor of the colony of new york in , and the flag is repeated with an escutcheon in the same form. [illustration: . jack of england, . (from an old dutch sheet of flags.)] a coloured sheet, "schouw-cart aller scheeps vlaggen" (examples of all ships' flags), was published in by p. schenk, at amsterdam, "correcting errors in previous editions." in an old atlas[ ] of maps, which were bound together in "old amsterdam," in , there is included one of these sheets. among the flags represented on it is the "jack of england" ( ), showing the white of st. george of the same width as the st. andrew's cross. [ ] new york colonial society manuscripts, new york. references to many drawings of union jacks, as used on the american side of the atlantic, show similar proportions, of which some examples may be given. fig. is a copy of the jack on the bowsprit of a three-masted ship shown in a large three-sheet engraving, entitled "a prospect of charleston, carolina," published by r. roberts, june th, .[ ] [ ] in emmet collection, lennox library, new york. on page , a view of the port of new york ( ) shows the flag as used in . both on the ship and on the king's fort is the narrow st. andrew. [illustration: . jack in carolina, .] fig. is a portion of an old engraving of the combat between the french frigate, _la surveillante_, and the english frigate, _quebec_, th october, .[ ] this was one of the most gallantly contested actions of the many engagements between single ships during the progress of the war. the two frigates met in the english channel, and flying at one another at sight they battled hand to hand. all their masts had been carried away, both ships were on fire, more than half of the crew on either side had been killed or wounded. all the boats except one on the french ship had been destroyed, when the _quebec_ blew up, and captain farmer, her commander, went down in her with nearly all who were left alive of his crew. the french captain, de coudic, who was himself severely wounded, received the forty-three survivors, with a seaman's gallantry, on board the _surveillante_, saying that "as their ship had perished with her colours flying, they would be treated, not as prisoners, but as brothers rescued from shipwreck." [ ] in collection of chateau de ramezay, montreal. the white flag with the _fleurs-de-lis_ is at the stern of the french ship, and at the stern of the english ship is the red ensign on which the st. andrew cross and the white border of st. george are still shown of equal width. [illustration: . the combat between "la surveillante" and the "quebec," .] in addition to these instances from illustrations, reference to actual flags of these early periods, and which are still in existence, proves that the union flags carried by regiments of the british army were made on these same proportions. the drawing ( ) is reproduced from a photograph of the king's colour of the th royal fusiliers, which is stated to have been obtained at the capture of fort chambly, in , and is now deposited in the chapel of the united states military academy at west point, new york, and shows its present appearance.[ ] [ ] avery: "history of the united states," burrows bros.: cleveland, ohio. a further example is given in the drawing ( ) made from a regimental flag[ ] surrendered by the british forces at the capitulation of yorkton, by lord cornwallis, on th october, . this is the "king's colour" of one of the british regiments. these flags had most probably been given to the regiments at much earlier dates, and had still continued in use. in both the cross of st. andrew and the border to st. george are of the same width. [ ] now in the museum at alexandria, virginia, u.s.a. [illustration: . ensign of th royal fusiliers, .] these instances could not all be incorrect, and their similarity shows that the form and proportions of the union jack of james i., as given in the massachusetts document, were those which were subsequently used in the actual flags officially displayed at sea and on shore. in all these union jacks the white of st. george is of the same width as the cross of st. andrew, and from these evidences of the form of the flag, derived from such varied sources, we may fairly conclude that the allotment to the white border to st. george in the union jack, of a proportion equal to that then given to a national cross, had not only early authority, but also wide usage. [illustration: . "king's colour," .] these were two-crossed jacks. when the time came, in , for the construction of the three-crossed union jack, the designers of the "_draft_" and the committee of selection would have been acquainted with the details of those previous flags. it is, indeed, stated that the various existing flags were submitted for their inspection. when, therefore, they gave the broad white border to st. george the same width as that of each of the crosses of st. andrew and st. patrick, namely, as the instructions stated, one-third of the red cross, they were only continuing the width and proportion allotted to it in the union jacks which had preceded, and with the actual examples to which they were accustomed. the broad white of st. george, as we now see it, was not dependent upon any heraldic description, but is an heirloom of national descent, and was evidently continued by the designers of in its full proportion of the union flag, not only to represent, as previously, the white ground of the english jack, but also for the additional reason that it represents the white ground of the irish jack, which they were then adding to the union flag. by this method the proportionate representation of the jacks of the three kingdoms was intended and justified. another objection raised to the proportions of the present flag, by those on the side of the heraldic interpretation of the "blazon," is that the individual crosses are of less width in proportion to the size of the flag than they should be according to heraldic rules, and that, therefore, the dividing of the flag is incorrect. we need again to be reminded that the flag makers were not simply placing three "crosses" upon a single flag, but were joining three "jacks" into one union jack; yet it may be satisfactory to see that in the doing of this they have really fulfilled the rules of heraldry. according to the received rules of strict heraldry, in emblazoning a shield or a banner, a cross should be given one-third, and a saltire be given one-fifth of the width. on a shield this measurement of width is taken across the top, and on a banner or a flag it is measured perpendicularly along the flagstaff. applying this rule and measurement to our present union jack, and taking, as in fact they are, the red cross of st. george and its two borders as _one cross_, and the two saltire crosses of st. andrew and st. patrick and their two borders as _one saltire_, we shall find that the heraldic rules have been actually complied with by the official "draft" and by the regulations (fig. ), and that the combined cross is _one-third_, and the combined saltire _one-fifth_, of the width of the flag. sizes of the crosses according to the admiralty regulations. one combined cross: red cross of st. george, / of width / upper white border, / of / / lower white border, / of / / ---- / = / (one-third.) one combined saltire: red of st. patrick, / of / / white border of st. patrick, / of / / broad white of st. andrew, / of / / ---- / = / (one-fifth.) it may be convenient to state these proportions as they would be in a union jack, of which the width on the flagstaff is feet: red of st. george, / of feet ft. in. upper white border in. lower white border in. ----------- ft. in. or / of ft. red of st. patrick in. white of st. patrick in. broad white of st. andrew in. ----------- ft. in. or / of ft. it is possible that this form of compliance with the heraldic rules was fully intended; yet, even were it not so, it is at all events a happy coincidence which might be taken as a conformity to these rules, and thus the flag which has been confirmed in its shape by the usage and glory of centuries should be cheerfully accepted by the heraldically inclined as being completely satisfactory. it is not to the point for them to say it might look better if it were made some other way, for that would be merely a matter of opinion; or that if the heralds had had the making of it they would have made it differently, but it was not of their making, that having been settled by the council in the selected draft of which the heralds worded a description, or, as some state, a misdescription; but it cannot fail to be admitted by all, that, as now made, it has been made, in all its parts, in the way ordered by the successive councils, in whom authority was vested for its designing and issue. the proportions of the crosses and of the borders of our union jack are thus not only technically correct, but, of still higher importance, they also preserve in detailed sequence the historical proportions of the three nations and of the three national jacks, which were, in , joined together in completed union. our noble flag, with its centuries of loyal history, might well, therefore, be held sacred and free from any objections on theoretical proportions. chapter xxii. _under the three crosses in canada._ in the "new" three-cross union had entered into the upper corner of the red ensign of british rule. the canadians, both french and english, had been faithful to its two-crossed predecessor, and now again their patriotism was to be put to the test. the parent kingdom of great britain had for nineteen years been engaged in its mighty struggle with the great napoleon for the supremacy of europe, and the time seemed opportune to a section of the people of the united states for gaining an advantage over the nation from which they had separated their allegiance, and also for striking a blow at the neighbouring people who had refused to become absorbed with them, and had so successfully resisted their previous invasion. the quarrel was none of canada's making, nor was it one in which she had any share, yet, although the ostensible reason which had been alleged as the cause of offence was repealed before hostilities had been commenced, war was declared at washington on the th of june, .[ ] [ ] the british orders in council respecting the "right of search," to which the united states made objection, and had been given as their reason for war, had been repealed in england the day before war was declared. the population of the united states at that time amounted to no less than eight millions, while in canada, from end to end, there were but four hundred thousand souls, all told. the canadians did not hesitate, though their country was to be the scene of war, and their homes to be the stake for which the nations were to strive. aid they could not expect from their british friends across the sea, already strained to the utmost in the long conflict with the armies of europe; their reliance must be upon their own stout hearts and strong right arms. but this was enough, for "odds lie not in numbers, but in spirit, too." so they rallied with eagerness beneath their country's and britain's union flag. [illustration: . the war medal, - .] only four thousand five hundred regular trained soldiers were in canada in , and in them are included men of the newfoundland and glengarry regiments, recruited locally in the colonies; and thus the brunt of the defence was to fall upon the stalwart but untrained militia of the countryside. [illustration: . the service medal, canada, - .] the tide of invasion advanced north against canada from the united states. for three years, from to , the contest went on. our french canadians again bravely took up their arms, and this time, under the new three-crossed jack, again drove the united states invaders back, making the names of chateauguay and chrystler's farm ring down through history in token of the victories which they won beneath it in defence of their canadian liberties and homes. so, too, their english-speaking brothers of upper canada won equal victories for this same union jack. at mackinac, captain roberts,[ ] with his indians and canadian voyageurs, raised it above the captured american fort. at the capitulation of fort detroit to brock and tecumseh, the american soldiers laid down their arms before it, and all michigan was surrendered. at queenston heights, under the glorious brock, at stoney creek and beaver dams, niagara and lundy's lane, the american invader was sent in quick retreat from canadian soil, and at the conclusion of the three years' war, after all the varying fluctuations in reverse and success between the contending forces, there was, at its end, not a foot of canada, occupied or sullied by the foot of the foreign foe. [ ] an ancestor of lord roberts of kandahar and pretoria. thus all along their frontier shores, from mackinac to far st. john, the canadians stood shoulder to shoulder in one bold, united line, and held the larger half of north america for the british crown. again, when fenian hordes and restless soldiers, who had been disbanded from the armies of the american civil war, were assembled and drilled under the protection of the united states, and launched in raids against canadian homes, the canadian volunteers mustered around their union jack, and along the niagara frontier, in , and at eccles hill, in the province of quebec, in , again drove the southern invader back, and held their native soil inviolate beneath its three-crossed folds. "since when has a southerner placed his heel on the men of the northern zone? "shall the mothers that bore us bow the head and blush for degenerate sons? are the patriot fires gone out and dead? ho! brothers, stand to the guns! let the flag be nailed to the mast, defying the coming blast! for canada's sons are true as steel, their metal is muscle and bone, the southerner never shall place his heel on the men of the northern zone. "oh, we are the men of the northern zone, where the maples their branches toss; and the great bear rides in his state alone, afar from the southern cross. our people shall aye be free, they never shall bend the knee, for this is the land of the true and leal, where freedom is bred in the bone-- the southerner never shall place his heel on the men of the northern zone."[ ] [ ] kernighan ("the khan"): "the men of the northern zone." such was the british patriotism of which the flag was the union signal, and now another parliamentary union is to be included in the career of the union jack in canada. up to the eastern british provinces in north america had remained under separate local governments, such as had been established in the previous century; but in this year nova scotia, new brunswick and upper and lower canada were all united in the one "dominion" of canada, then extending only as far as lake superior. this "act of confederation" was passed in london, at westminster, by the parliament of great britain, and thus again the union parliament of the union jack was parent to a new union parliament established in united canada. each province continues to have its own "provincial assembly," in which legislation is conducted on matters pertaining to its own local or home rule, but all general powers are centred in the dominion parliament of canada. hitherto the spirit of the flag had been solely that of union with the motherland; thereafter it had an added and local meaning, for it became also the symbol of canadian union, the patriot flag of the new daughter nation which had thus been brought into existence in the outer british american realm. inspired by this union, the older provinces thus combined began to extend their borders, and soon manitoba and the hudson bay territories of the central prairies[ ] were added, in , and british columbia joined in , followed by prince edward island in , to make the enlarged dominion of canada, now stretching across the continent of america from sea to sea. [ ] out of a part of these the provinces of alberta and saskatchewan were created in . [illustration: . the north-west canada medal.] difficulties, of course, were met in this consolidating of the territories, but the sign of union was flying from the flagstaff, and the new-born patriotism surmounted them all. in march, , when the spirit of discontent arose among the metis of the north-west, and a rebellion broke out, the courage of the united canadians was aroused with electric flash, and the volunteer battalions from the maritime atlantic shores, from french-speaking quebec, from the great ontario lakes, and from all parts of the dominion, vied with one another in bearing the privations of forced marches across the frozen lakes, or over the pathless prairies, to reach the scene of action, and join in maintaining the supremacy of their native union. the rebellion was quickly suppressed; but the events at fish creek, batoche and on the banks of the saskatchewan left gaps in the loyal ranks. "not in the quiet churchyard, near those who loved them best, but by the wild saskatchewan we laid them to their rest; a simple soldier's funeral in that lonely spot was theirs, made consecrate and holy by a nation's tears and prayers. their requiem, the music of the river's singing tide; their funeral wreaths, the wild flowers that grew on every side; their monument, undying praise from each canadian heart that hears how, for their country's sake, they nobly bore their part." three medals[ ] have been granted by their sovereign to commemorate the gallantry of the canadians who thus fought beneath the union jack: in - , for union with the motherland ( ); in - , for service in defence of their country during the fenian raids ( ); and in , for union within canada itself ( ). such are some of the events which have given rise to the stirring patriotism evinced by canadians for their national flag, and which have kept aflame the passionate fervour of their loyalty not only at home, but when they joined hands in with their brothers-in-arms from british isles and colonies to fight and die for union in south africa. [ ] see appendix c--"canadian war medals." four times within the century--in , , , and --have canadians raised their union jack in defence of home and native land, and once, in , for maintenance of union within themselves. as canadians see it waving above their school-houses, and on the ships, or over their homes, they read in the crosses the stories that they tell, and remember that the deep red tones in its folds have been freshened and coloured by the heart-blood of canada's sons, poured out for it in ungrudging loyalty on their own loved soil. the sons of the parent nations have carried it in many a far-off strife, but in their own island homes, "compassed by the inviolate sea," they sleep secure, and never have had to fight beneath it in defence of native land. it is in this regard that canadians can cherish this flag even more than they who first carried it, and their sons may now rightly wear it as their very own, for the union jack is so bound up with love of country, defence of home, and all that is glorious in canada's history, that it is the union flag of canada itself. chapter xxiii. _the flag of freedom._ these stories of martial and constitutional advance are not all the story that this union jack tells. there is something more than mere valorous devotion which should be aroused in the expression of loyalty for a flag. such a devotion might be found even under a despot's sway, for racial and reckless valour may, with some, take the place of thoughtful allegiance. the story of an ideal flag should declare a supreme idea, an idea which has been so well expressed as being the "divine right of liberty in man. not lawlessness, not license, but organized institutional liberty--liberty through law, and law for liberty."[ ] [ ] henry ward beecher. when a flag records, by the unmistakable story of its life, how this desired freedom has been not simply alleged, but granted in actual fact to all who have reached the soil of its dominion, and, further, tells how the amplest dream of self-government is realized by those who dwell beneath its sway, then, indeed, is that flag to be cherished with the most passionate devotion, and valued in the most critical estimation. such a flag becomes an inspiration not only to the heart, but to the mind, and men may well be willing to risk their all, and life itself, for the maintenance of its unsullied honour. such a flag is the union jack in canada. this three-crossed jack in canada is not only the national ensign of the british race, but it is more, for canadians have made it the real "flag of freedom in america." it is the proudest ascription of the union jack of the empire that "though it may sink o'er a shot-torn wreck, it never flies over a slave." this fact is true to-day of the jack throughout all the british territories, but it has not always been so, and we may, with much interest, trace the condition of the slave under the flag in great britain, in the colonies, in the united states, and in canada. it has been the happy lot of the motherland, the cradle of the liberties of the earth, that freedom has been enjoyed for many centuries upon her own home soil; but even there legal doubts existed until about the position of persons who, being slaves in other lands, had reached her shores, when the notable decision of lord mansfield declared that, "_when a slave has landed on the soil of the british isles that slave is free_." although this legal definition had been reached, the abolition, by statute, of slavery under the union jack was not enacted by the british parliament until ; and even after that, as this act did not apply outside the british isles, slavery continued in the outer realms to such an extent that in there were no fewer than , slaves under british rule in the island of jamaica alone. at last, in , the glorious _act of emancipation_ was passed by the british parliament, and the same freedom which had existed on the soil of the parent kingdom was extended to all races who lived anywhere under the union jack. the people of the parent isles gave further proof that this was done, not solely in the pursuit of an ideal, but out of real good-will, for they were not content with proclaiming freedom to the slave, but themselves purchased his emancipation by paying one hundred million dollars to his owners in those colonies in which, up to that time, slavery had existed with their consent. in the true spirit of british fair-play they thus scouted the idea of exercising their own compassion and good-will at any other person's expense. number indemnity of slaves. paid. [ ]jamaica , £ , , barbadoes , , , trinidad , , , antigua, etc. , , , guiana , , , mauritius , , , cape of good hope , , , ------- ----------- total , £ , , such has been the story of freedom under the union jack on the other continents. let us see how its history compares with that of other flags on the continent of america. [ ] extract from dictionary of statistics, p. , "abolition of slavery." the stories of the flags of mexico and the republics of south america are so changing and unsettled that they may not be counted in the consideration, and the flag of spain in cuba never became an exponent of freedom. the sole competitor for the title of "the flag of the free" is the stars and stripes of the united states of north america. the thirteen colonies of north america were, at the time of lord mansfield's decision in , colonies of the british crown, and moved, no doubt, by a desire to emulate their brothers in great britain, and following their example, the representatives of the colonies met at philadelphia, on th september, , and in continental congress "declared against the slave-trade, and forbade any further importation of slaves into british america." being supporters of the union jack, and following its ideals, they made, as britons, a first step in the right direction, but no freedom was given to those already in the country. it was, no doubt, under the influence of this spirit of british freedom, and with british hearts, that, when they were separating from their british allegiance, they stated in their declaration of independence ( th july, ): "we hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal; that they are endowed by their creator with certain unalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness." yet at the very time when this claim was made, that all men were born equal, well-nigh a million blacks were held in these same states in bondage,[ ] and this sounding declaration of "liberty" did not bring freedom to a single slave. [ ] in there were , , slaves in the united states, and as late as more than , , . indeed, when, eleven years afterwards, in , the representatives of the thirteen states met[ ] in federal convention, and adopted the "constitution of the united states," the existence of slavery under the stars and stripes was recognized and its continuance guaranteed. [ ] th may, , at philadelphia. the framers of the constitution were evidently conscious of the fact that the statements of their "declaration" were not in actual accordance with their actions, and therefore the provisions in their "constitution" concerning slavery were stated in a veiled and secret form, the words "slave" and "slavery" being carefully excluded. in this way the clauses of the american constitution have a different interpretation from that which their wording would apparently convey, for the existence of one class of their population in slavery was duly recognized, although not specifically mentioned. the leaven of english freedom evinced in had continued to work among some of the states, even after their separation from the crown, and emancipation had been begun in vermont in , in pennsylvania in , and was impending in some of the others, but had by no means been accepted in all.[ ] [ ] emancipation was effected in new jersey in ; new york, . in arranging the proportionate representation of the several states in the union congress it became necessary to apportion the number of members of congress to be elected by each state, and in arranging this representation a concession was made to the slave-owning states whereby their slaves were to be recognized in estimating the number of their population. the article[ ] enacts: "representatives shall be apportioned among the several states which may be included within this union according to their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole number of free persons, including those bound to service for a term of years, and excluding indians not taxed, three-fifths of all other persons." [ ] article i., section , constitution of united states, . by the apparently simple but very pregnant words, "all other persons," of whom three-fifths were to be added, were meant the slaves, who, although they were not themselves accorded any citizenship or right to vote, were thus counted in determining the number of the representatives who were to be accredited to and elected by the state in which they were held in slavery. as slavery was, in , legal in some of the states and illegal in others, it also became necessary, in order to gain the acceptance of the union by the slave-owning states, that provision should be made for the legal return to their owners of any slaves who might escape from a slave-owning to a free state, and a clause guaranteeing the rendition of fugitive slaves was therefore embodied in the constitution. it was enacted: "no person held to service or labour in one state--under the laws thereof--escaping to another shall, in consequence of any law or regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labour, but shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service of labour may be due."[ ] [ ] article iv., section , constitution of united states, . it is stated on the authority of madison,[ ] "the father of the constitution," that the words used in each case in the original drafts of these clauses was "servitude," but it was afterwards changed to "service." [ ] james madison, subsequently twice president of the united states, and . the expulsion of the words, although it might appear better to the eye, did not alter the fact that the whole of the states, which then framed their union, although they did not all practise slavery, yet every one of them then consented to its perpetuation. thus it came that slavery existed legally under the stars and stripes from until , when happily it was terminated[ ] by the proclamation of lincoln and the constitutional amendment. [ ] constitutional amendment abolishing slavery, january st, . such is the story of the slave's "freedom" under the national flag of the united states. we may now turn to the story of his freedom under the union jack in canada. we have seen that slavery, excepting on the soil of great britain, was not abolished in all other parts of the british empire until , and not in the united states until . in , long before either of these dates, self-government had been granted to canada, and, under the two-crossed jack, at the first meetings which were held by the parliament in upper canada, slavery was abolished on july th, .[ ] this was before our present union jack came into existence, so that in canada alone, of all the outer lands over which this flag of has ever been raised, beginning from the very day on which it first was displayed, this three-crossed jack has always, as in the motherland, proclaimed freedom to the slave. [ ] there were a few isolated instances of slaves who continued for a short time in the possession of their previous owners, but after this date any slave who came to the country, and every child born of coloured parents, was free. canadians in this way feel added honour in the flag, and that it is more particularly their own; for on the continent of america, whether he came from the british west indies, from the southern continent, from cuba, or the united states, in all of which he was still the chattel of his owner, so soon as the slave reached the soil of canada, and came under the colours of our union jack, that moment he was free. the deep significance which this early law of canada had given to the flag has often been attested by coloured men before their fellow-citizens and the world, and particularly by frederick douglas, the great coloured orator of the united states. while dilating upon the great advantage which had come to his own people since freedom had at last been granted to them in the united states, he would nevertheless contrast their condition with that existing in the neighbouring canadian land, where the black child sits in the public schools by the side of his little white brother, and travels with him in the same carriage on the trains, and where the law is administered with impartiality for both white and black alike.[ ] [ ] speaking in the exposition hall, at the great columbian exhibition, chicago, on august th, , douglas said of his people: "to-day we number , , (coloured) people in the united states. to-day a desperate effort is being made to blacken the character of the negro and to brand him as a moral monster. in fourteen states of this union wild mobs have taken the place of the law. they hang, shoot and burn men of my race without law and without right." in telling words he would revert to the time "when there was but one flag in america under which the fugitive slave could be secure. when the slave had escaped from the control of his owner, and was making his way through the intervening states to the free land of the north, whether he gained the summit of the highest mountains or hid in the recesses of the deepest valleys, the fugitive could find no safe resting place. if he mingled in the teeming throngs of their busiest cities, he feared detection; if he sought solitude on their widest prairies, beneath the silent stars, he was in dread of being tracked; not until he had sighted the red-crossed jack, and, crossing the northern lakes, had touched the strand of canada's shore, could the slave fall upon his knees and know that at last he was free." thus pure, unsullied in its life-story, this three-crossed union jack of canada is the only flag on the continent of america which has always and ever been the "flag of freedom," a flag under which all men, as their birthright, have been born equal and free. canadians may well, therefore, be proud of their flag, for what truer glory can be claimed for any other flag--than this, which spells out freedom in its every fold? chapter xxxiv. _the flag of liberty._ there is yet the other ideal phase in which the union jack in the outer realms of the empire and in canada reigns supreme--that of "liberty to the people." the inborn hope which buds and blossoms in the hearts of a growing people as their energies evolve and their circumstances advance, finds its fruitage in the possession of mastery over their own homes, and thus a nation's desire for liberty is concentrated in the absorbing dream of self-government. it was this spirit which spoke in the old english colonies in america when they averred, in their address to king george iii., that they were "being degraded from the pre-eminent rank of _english_ freemen." the condition of a citizen in the old homeland was their highest ideal of the liberties of a people, and the only one with which, even in those times, they considered comparison could worthily be made. the history of the union jack in the parent land has been connected, as we have seen, not solely with national allegiance, but yet more with parliamentary government; and its several parts have been combined in union to evidence the advent of union under representative institutions. such, too, has been the history of its expansion among the great groups of colonies of the british empire which dot the outer world, a development of true democratic government which can best be realized by a comparison between the forms of government in canada and that in the united states. the creation of the constitution of england was not confined to a single date, nor was it the product of the men of a single period; its growth has been spread, like that of its flag, over century after century, as each successive phase of the ideal dream has become harmonized with the existing requirements of the day. formed largely upon usage and upon precedent, it reflects the current views of the people, and, therefore, has never been restricted to invariable forms of words. there are milestones such as magna charta, the petition of rights, the habeas corpus act, the act of settlement, and the other landmarks which measure the way towards constitutional liberty; but as with the union jack, so, too, with the liberties of the british form of government, the story of the combinations is not the record of a revolution, but the gradual process of a reasoning evolution. when, at the end of the eighteenth century, our neighbours in the united states framed their new constitution, they based it on the information and usages of that day when responsible government was almost unknown. creating an elective king under the name of president, they endowed him with distinct and executive powers, which, as then, he still exercises, largely of his own private will, or only in consultation with a cabinet which is nominated by and is responsible only to himself, whose members are not members of the house of representatives, nor are they elected by the people. how entirely he acts of his own motion, without the instructions or the initiation of congress, was only too evidently shown in the recent venezuela-guiana incident,[ ] when president cleveland's message was promulgated with all the individual vehemence of an autocrat, and if it had not been for the temperate forbearance of the british cabinet, war would have resulted. [ ] . the president of the united states, having been elected for a definite term of years, represents the opinion which prevailed at the time of his election; and no matter how much the opinion of the nation may change in the interval, or his policy be objected to, he continues to rule until his allotted term of four years shall have expired, even though he and his cabinet be in absolute conflict with the expressed will of the people, as indicated in the elections which are constantly in progress.[ ] [ ] in the united states the members of the senate are elected by the legislatures of the states, one for each state, and sit for six years. the members of the house of representatives are elected by popular vote of the electors, the number for each state being determined by its proportional population, and each sits for a fixed term of two years. it is true there are provisions in the constitution for checking his course, or for his impeachment, but in cases in which this has been attempted to be enforced the trial has lasted longer than his term. his appointment as chief of the nation having been the result of an election contest, the president represents not the whole people, but only the political party which happened to be in the majority at the time of his election. being, then, the elected representative of a definite political party, his acts are expected by those who have elected him to be used towards continuing their party in power, and thus the person from time to time holding the position of president becomes a distinct vehicle for the exercise of party political warfare instead of being an impartial administrator. his veto being thus supreme, all legislation has to be conducted with a view to what will meet, or will not meet, the personal views of the president, as has been most plainly shown in the framing of tariffs for customs and taxation. this written constitution of the united states, admirable though it may have been thought at the time, and an improvement upon the then existing state of things, was born over a century ago, in the times of autocratic government, and though thus out of date, it has remained ever since practically unchanged; in fact, with the exception of the amendment respecting slavery, it is identically the same. during this same hundred years, as civilization has advanced, education enlightened the masses, intelligence expanded among the people, and experience been gained, there has grown up that marvellous form of self-government under which we canadians and our brother colonists live--the british constitutional monarchy. in this british empire, in the colonial parliaments, as in the imperial parliament, the king or sovereign represents all the people, not a party, and is the permanent chairman of the nation. the will of parliament, tempered by his continued counsel, is his will. the ministers of the crown, who, with the premier as their head, form the executive, are elected by the people, and sit in the same house of commons with the other elected representatives. debating with them on the issues of the day, they are responsible to their fellow-members for the measures which they introduce;[ ] and when they fail to carry these measures, and cease to secure the support of the majority of the people's representatives, as then sitting in parliament, the ministry must resign, and is succeeded at the call of the sovereign, or in a self-governed dominion, of the governor-general, by another cabinet, which shall represent that majority; or, should the matter be considered of sufficient importance, the whole parliament is forthwith dissolved by the sovereign, or his representative, as the neutral and unbiased centre of impartial power. all the members return for re-election by their constituencies, and the question at issue is quickly submitted for decision by the ballots of the electors. thus the acts of the premier or chief minister, and of his cabinet, and also of the party of which he is leader, and the whole parliament, are at once subject to the opinion of the people without waiting for the completion of their term.[ ] [ ] no bill for the expenditure of any money or for a change in taxation can be introduced except by a member of the cabinet. [ ] the life of a parliament in canada is limited to five years, and, unless it has been dissolved in the interval, must return for re-election at the end of that term. an entire new parliament can be re-elected any time in about six weeks. further, indeed, than this, if a member of the cabinet should die or resign during the term of any parliament his successor must, upon his appointment, return to his individual constituency and be re-elected, so that the opinion of the people may be taken upon the general policy of the cabinet and upon his own special fitness for his appointment. the governor-general of canada, as also the governors in the other self-governed colonies, does not, as so many of the people of the united states imagine, govern the country, acting with absolute power under the direction of the government of great britain; for in every way, except for the purposes of imperial advice and the declaration of war, canada is practically an independent dominion, as sings the empire poet,[ ] "daughter am i in my mother's home, but mistress in my own." [ ] rudyard kipling. by virtue of his office, a governor-general represents the person of the sovereign of the empire in the local government in his portion of the british realm, and is the connecting link between the mother parliament in great britain and the parliament in the colony. he can influence but does not direct, he can advise but does not determine, for as has been well said of the british monarchy: "le roi regne mais ne gouverne pas"--the king reigns, but does not govern. as in the parent kingdom the sovereign is secured in impartiality by the grace of birth, so in the daughter realm the governor-general is dissociated from all local entanglements or party feelings by virtue of being selected for his particular abilities and appointed from another portion of the empire by the central source of honour and power. the distinctive flag ( ) of the governor-general of canada is the "union jack," having on its centre the arms of canada, surrounded by a wreath of maple leaves, the whole being surmounted by a royal crown. [illustration: . flag of the governor-general of canada.] the flag of the governor or administrator in all other british colonies and dependencies is also the union jack, having upon it the arms or badge of the colony on a white shield, surrounded by a green garland of laurel leaves, surmounted by a crown. in , as a special honour, the imperial sanction was given to canada to place a garland of maple leaves--its national emblem[ ]--instead of the laurel upon the flag of its governor-general. [ ] appendix a.--"the maple leaf emblem." the lieutenant-governors of the provinces of canada also wear the union jack as their distinctive flag, bearing upon it the arms of their respective provinces, surrounded by a similar garland of maple leaves; but as they are appointed by the government of the dominion, and not by the king, the garland is not surmounted by a crown ( ). [illustration: . flag of the lieutenant-governor of quebec.] in this governor-general's flag, with its royal crown, its maple leaves, and canadian coat-of-arms, as also in the lieutenant-governors' flags, backed up by the union jack, is symbolized the existence of british constitutional government in canada. in this the reigning king or queen is the whole canadian people, and the premier and his cabinet are the representatives of the political party for the time being in power.[ ] the cabinet is responsible to parliament for the policy which they introduce, and for which they, as well as all the other members of the parliament, are immediately answerable to the electors, who are the original source of their power. [ ] legal documents issued under legislation in canada are issued in the name of the "king," as representing the whole people, as in the united states the expression is in the name of "the people of the united states." this modern flexible system of responsible government in canada, so closely in touch with the people, in contrast with the irresponsible and rigid system in the united states, was neatly brought out by lord dufferin during his term as governor-general of canada, in a speech he delivered at toronto, in , after his visit to chicago: "more than once," said he, "i was addressed with the playful suggestion that canada should unite her fortunes with those of the great republic. (laughter.) to these invitations i invariably replied by acquainting them that in canada we were essentially a democratic people--great laughter--that nothing would content us unless the popular will could exercise an immediate and complete control over the executive of the country--renewed laughter--that the ministers who conducted the government were but a committee of parliament, which was in itself an emanation from the constituencies--loud applause--and that no canadian would be able to breathe freely if he thought the persons administering the affairs of the country were removed beyond the supervision and contact of our legislative assemblies. (cheers.)" it is, then, easily seen why canadians and our brother britons love their union jack. it is the signal of parliamentary government by british constitutional principles. it represents progress and modern ideas--the rule of the people, for the people, by the people, through their unbiased king; and, therefore, it is the evidence of their affectionate and loyal allegiance to that monarchy and system of government under whose benign sway the colonies have advanced, and canada, above all other countries on the continent of america, is the land of the self-governed and the free. these are the liberties which the union jack signals in all parts of the british empire to all the varied nations, with varied tongues, which have come beneath its sway. it is the consciousness of such liberty and the enjoyment of such equal rights that impelled canada, australia, new zealand and all the colonies of the empire to send their sons to the field of contest in south africa as a free-will offering to defend their fellow-men and to spread the blessings of liberty and freedom to the peoples of that continent. from this has come that most recent acknowledgment of its incomparable liberties that the peoples of south africa, the boers of dutch and french descent, so recently warring with their british neighbours of cape colony and natal, have now[ ] united together and, meeting as brothers, have raised it as the union sign of their united liberty in the fourth[ ] daughter parliament of the britains beyond the seas in our united empire. [ ] confederation act, south africa, . [ ] canada, new zealand, australia, south africa. the world over it is the free-will flag of liberty. chapter xxv. _the union jack as a single flag._ this union jack, so spread abroad, is in its single form a declaration and an evidence of british nationality, and is raised every day from sunrise to sunset over every one of the garrisons of the british peoples which surround the world. it is the flag which is raised and saluted whenever formal possession of any new territory is taken in the name of the sovereign of great britain, and was thus raised at khartoum, bloemfontein, and pretoria, to signify the success of the british arms and the accession of british rule, just as its predecessors had been in newfoundland, on the shores of america, and all other colonies and conquests around the seas when each was first occupied. some considerable discussions have taken place as to whether it should be called the "union jack" or the "union flag." this latter is the name usually given in the official regulations respecting the official use of a three-crossed flag of this description. there is in the navy the rank of "admiral of the fleet," corresponding to the rank of field marshal in the army. the admiralty regulations state that the proper flag of an admiral of the fleet is the "union flag," to be worn at the top masthead, and an admiralty memorandum further states: "a jack is a flag to be flown only on the 'jack' staff, _i.e._, a staff on the bowsprit or forepart of the ship." the difference in name of the same flag when carried on a ship would appear to indicate a difference in size appropriate to the different positions. in the order in council[ ] directing what flags are to be used by diplomatic and consular officers, it is stated: "the flag to be used by her majesty's consular officers ashore to distinguish their residences is the union flag." [ ] order in council, th august, . there is, however, another official name of this flag given in official instructions which must be noticed. the military regulations ( ) order to be displayed afloat, by generals and other military officers commanding stations, as their distinguishing flags, "the union, bearing in the centre as a distinguishing mark the royal initials, surrounded by a garland on a blue shield and surmounted by a crown." for commissioners and consuls-general, "the union, with the royal arms in the centre, on a white shield, surrounded by a green garland." this same name "union" is also given in directions respecting this flag when included as a part of a larger flag. the admiralty instructions directing what ensign is to be worn by all ships of the royal navy in commission state that they shall "bear a white ensign with the red st. george's cross, and the union in the upper canton." the foreign office regulations direct that "consular officers when embarked in boats or other vessels shall use the blue ensign with the royal arms in the centre of the fly of the flag, that is, in the centre of that between the union and the end of the flag." many other instances could be quoted, but these are typical and sufficient. three names are used--the "union," "union flag," and "union jack," all describing the same flag. it is interesting to note the transition of the names. under charles i., in , it was described as "the union flagge"; under charles ii., in , "his majesty's jack, commonly called the union jack." the usage of the name jack had thus early and largely spread, and it is further shown by a letter written by burchett, the secretary of the admiralty, in , regarding the flag carried by the earl of pembroke in the expedition against cadiz, in which he says: "there was some doubt as to whether his lordship should have borne at the maintop masthead the royal standard of england or the union, or, more properly speaking in maritime phrase, the jack flag commonly worn by those who have under the lord high admiral been appointed admirals of the fleet."[ ] [ ] admiral eardley wilmot: "our flags." it is not surprising, therefore, that under queen anne, in , it is again described as "our jack, commonly called the union jack." this name of the flag had, in fact, become so general that it had affectionately passed onward to give its name to the gallant sailors who bore it, as is instanced in nautical ballads: "there's a sweet little cherub that sits up aloft, to keep watch for the life of poor jack."[ ] [ ] dibdin, . used thus for centuries by sailors in song and on shore, although the name given in the proclamation of george iii., , was the "union flagge," the ancient and loving name of union jack has always prevailed among its upholders. in the issue of official instructions there is propriety and, perhaps, necessity for using the different names, but they all contain the dominant name of "_union_," and describe the same flag in its single form--the two-crossed or, in its succession, three-crossed jack of united nationality. there is another and distinctive use of the union jack. surrounded by a white border of one-fifth of its width, it becomes a "pilot jack," and in this form becomes the official signal for a pilot, and is so used on all british ships, merchantmen as well as men-of-war, in all parts of the world. this white-bordered jack is only appropriately to be used for this special signal service. the restrictions given in the early proclamations as to the flying of the union jack at sea, and the official instructions as to its use as a special distinction on shore, particularly for military garrisons and official residences, have given rise to questionings as to the right of its being used by all british private citizens on land. their authority to use it afloat has been clearly defined, but not so clearly that of their right on shore, although such has been the usage and practice of centuries. the proclamation of queen anne declared the flag which conjoyning the crosses of st. george and st. andrew, had been approved to be "used in all flags and ensigns both at sea and land," and then proceeded to state restrictions only as to their particular using as insignia at sea, where as signs of authority and signals on ships such restrictions were unquestionably necessary. no restrictions were placed upon their use on land, and thus all citizens of the united kingdom were given authority to use on land "our jack, commonly called the union jack," the loyal usage which had grown up under its predecessors being confirmed. this right was not in any way changed at the time of the creation of the present union jack, which, in , succeeded it, and so to the first century of loyal and common usage have been further added two centuries of loyal right. in more recent times additional interesting evidence and authority have been given, both as to the name of this flag and its use by private citizens. in reply to an enquiry in by the vicar of folkestone, england, as to the propriety of the display of the royal standard upon his church at the time of the coronation of his majesty edward vii., lord knollys, private secretary to the king, in reply, informed him that the standard should not so be used, but "you can always fly the union jack."[ ] the name and the propriety of the use of the jack by private citizens in the united kingdom was graciously confirmed. [ ] lord knollys, th june, . appendix b. as there had been considerable discussion as to what flags were proper to be used on land in canada, the writer addressed lord knollys, quoting the previous letter, and stating the particular attention given to the flying of flags in this and the outer realms of the empire, and received in reply, that "the union jack, being the national flag, may be flown by british subjects, private or official, on land."[ ] [ ] lord knollys, th december, . appendix b. the colonial secretary of the imperial cabinet, in reply to a question in the house of commons ( ), said that the union jack could be flown by every citizen of the empire, as well as on government offices and public buildings; that the union jack should be regarded as the national flag, and undoubtedly might be hoisted on land by all his majesty's subjects. authority has also been since given by the "home office" in england, stating "that the union jack is to be regarded as the national flag, and may be used generally by british subjects on land".[ ] [ ] letter under-secretary of state, home office, whitehall, june , . the three crosses of the three nations whose successive unions it first typified, have since expanded far beyond the united kingdom of the parent isles. the sons of the kingdoms have in centuries of prowess carried it far afield, and bringing distant continents beneath its realm, have built up the dominions beyond the seas in australia, canada, new zealand, india, south africa, and the myriad islands of the oceans, so that it has become the union jack of the british empire. a british subject, wherever he may be on british soil, may, therefore, always use the union jack. it has already been noted that when flags are to be employed for official purposes it is desirable that definite regulations shall be issued for their use. in canada we raise the union jack on our parliament and legislative buildings, as indicating the presence of government under the british constitution; by parliaments derived from and following the precedents of the original union parliaments, and on our law courts, as sign of the administration of british law. to emphasize and inculcate the world-wide duties that this flag proclaims, the union jack is raised over the public schools, so that the newcomers to our lands from other lands and other nationalities may know that they and their children have come to enjoy with us allegiance to king and country, the securities of british protection of person and property, and the rights and privileges of british citizenship, which loyal allegiance to it conveys. public education in canada is under the charge of each of the provincial governments, and in manitoba, ontario, british columbia and the maritime provinces the single union jack is the flag which has been instructed to be officially raised daily over the public schools. whatever flags may be used for other purposes and on other occasions, it is manifest that to be raised over schools this widely-spread national union jack is the most fitting; telling the children, as it does, the duties and relations they bear to the other members of their empire, and leading them to study, not only the history of the continent in which they live, but to go far back into the centuries and learn the growth of the glorious liberties which this flag has brought them, and the unity which its colours proclaim. the patriotic celebration of "empire bay," which first was originated in the schools in canada,[ ] has extended through the schools of the empire. on this day, as well as on other notable days, appropriate addresses are given, this union jack, the national flag, is reverently raised and saluted, and the national anthem and patriotic songs sung by the scholars. it has been recorded that in the public schools in canada, australasia, new zealand and great britain over , , children united in this celebration in , and it is still fast extending. [ ] initiated by mrs. clementina fessenden, of hamilton, canada, in . it is an inspiration for ourselves to have it thus brought to mind that our union flag floats on every sea, and that on one-fifth of the earth's surface it is hailed as their union emblem by four hundred millions of fellow-patriots, in every clime, of many languages, and all religious faiths, each dearly loving their own native land and devoted to its welfare, but united in loyal brotherhood with their fellow, yet far-distant, britons under one king, one flag, one empire. chapter xxvi. _the jacks in red, white and blue ensigns._ in its single form the union jack has these special duties, which have been noted, but combined in the upper corner of a larger flag it creates a general flag of the nation, and thus environed becomes a union ensign. although usage has sometimes used the name, yet it is a misnomer to call a flag of this larger combined form a union jack, this being the proper name solely for the flag containing only the three island crosses. the distinction in the names arises from the early days when a smaller flag--bearing a national emblem or the crest or coat-of-arms of a liege lord--had been inserted in a larger flag. this larger flag, bearing the emblem or insignia of its wearers, was termed an "ensign." place our smaller union flag in the upper corner of a larger flag, and it there becomes the sign of identity, of allegiance, and of the union of british patriotism with the special story which is told by the colourings and form of the other parts, or fly, of such ensign. [illustration: plate viii. red ensign white ensign blue ensign] the union jack was first quartered in the upper canton of three flags, the red, white and blue ensigns. these flags have arisen from the flags which were used of old to distinguish the ships of the respective squadrons into which british fleets were divided. lord lisle, in the time of henry viii., divided his fleet at shoreham in into three squadrons, the _vanwarde_, _battle_ and _wing_, corresponding in their position to the _van_, _centre_ and _rear_.[ ] these were the germ of the _red_, _white_ and _blue_ squadrons of the seventeenth century. [ ] hakluyt. there were at that time only two distinguishing flags used in the navy, the royal standard and the st. george jack. the admirals hoisted their flags in accordance with their rank upon their flagships, in , in the following order:[ ] squadron. admirals. . battle { royal standard at main. { st. george at fore. . vanwarde { st. george at main. { st. george at fore. . wing st. george at mizzen. the other ships of their respective squadrons displayed: squadron. ships. . battle st. george at main. . vanwarde st. george at fore. . wing st. george at mizzen. [ ] hannay: "short history of the british navy." eighty years afterwards, in the time of charles i., we learn of another change, when in the duke of buckingham divided his fleet into squadrons at the island of rhe, each designated according to the flag it carried: "himself ye admirall and general in chief and admirall particular of the bloody colours," the "vice-admiral of ye fleete bearing a blew flag in his main top and was admiral of the blew colours," and the "rear admiral bearing a white flag in the main top and was admirall of ye squadron of white colours."[ ] the admirals' flags were, in : admiral red flag. vice-admiral blue flag. rear-admiral white flag. [ ] extract from pepys' diary. it was into the upper corner of these red, blue and white flags of the squadrons that the single-cross st. george's english jack was placed, in , when the "commonwealth ensign" (pl. iv., fig. ) was formed and the red, white and blue ensigns of the navy first appeared. difficulties must have been caused by the fact that from the "restoration," in , the english merchantmen were, without authority, using the ensign red at the stern in exactly the same form as the flag of the red squadron, and still more when the general use of the red ensign on all ships had been officially authorized by queen anne in . at first the admirals holding the highest position had carried the red, but afterwards the seniority had been changed. a rank of admiral, vice-admiral and rear-admiral was appointed for each colour. promotion was made from the rank of captain to that of rear-admiral of the blue, which was the lowest, and upward through the red to admiral of the white, which had become the highest rank. there were then nine ranks of admirals carrying the three ensigns: admiral of the white white ensign. vice-admiral of the white white ensign. rear-admiral of the white white ensign. admiral of the red red ensign. vice-admiral of the red red ensign. rear-admiral of the red red ensign. admiral of the blue blue ensign. vice-admiral of the blue blue ensign. rear-admiral of the blue blue ensign. as merchant ships, which were all flying the red ensign, increased in size, it became increasingly difficult for foreigners to distinguish these from the ships of the royal navy--a difficulty which was further intensified for them by the fact that a squadron of the royal navy might be sailing on one coast under the blue ensign, while another squadron was sailing under the red, and yet another under the white, according to the rank of the admirals of their respective squadrons. confusion and possibility of mistakes in identification in action was sometimes caused by the ships of one squadron becoming intermingled with those of another. nelson solved this difficulty by directing that only the white ensign, which was the ensign of his own squadron,[ ] should be used on the ships of all the squadrons at the battle of trafalgar. [ ] he was at the time a vice-admiral of the white and the senior officer present. the three ensigns, with their successive one, two and three-crossed jacks, had continued to be used in these varying ways during more than two hundred years, until , when the positions of the three ensigns were separated and distinctive duties allotted to each.[ ] the number of the rank of admirals was at the same time reduced to three--admiral, vice-admiral and rear-admiral. all of these were to fly, as they still do, the white ensign at the stern, their seniority being indicated by the position of the st. george jack at the mast head.[ ] these ranks are in addition to the rank of admiral of the fleet, which confers the right to wear the union jack instead of the st. george. [ ] order in council, october th, . [ ] in the present day, when ironclads have not more than two, and often only one mast, vice-admirals wear the st. george with one red ball in the upper corner, and rear-admirals with two red balls, to indicate their respective rank. the ensigns were described in the order and directed to be used as follows: _the white ensign_ (pl. viii., fig. ).--a white flag, with a st. george cross through the whole flag and the union jack in the upper canton, to be used at sea only by ships of the royal navy or by yacht clubs to which special license has been given. _the blue ensign_ (pl. viii., fig. ).--a blue flag, with the union jack in the upper canton, to be used only by ships of the royal naval reserve, or by merchantmen which are commanded by officers of the reserve, and have been duly licensed, or by yacht clubs to which special commission has been granted. _the red ensign_ (pl. viii., fig. ).--a red flag, with a union jack in the upper canton, to be used as a national ensign by all british merchantmen. by the admiralty regulations, afterwards issued, instructions are given as to the relative proportions of the parts of these flags. in the red and blue ensigns the union flag in the upper quarter next the staff is to be "in length half the length of the flag, and in width half the width of the flag." in the white ensign the red cross of st. george, which runs through the whole of the white field, is to be " - ths of the width of the flag." the union is to occupy the upper quarter next the staff, leaving the whole cross intact. this was virtually adding the union jack to the original english jack of richard i. by a special act it was afterwards more particularly enacted in : "the red ensign, _usually worn_ by merchant ships without any defacement or modification whatsoever, is hereby _declared to be the proper national colour_ of all ships and boats belonging to any subject of her majesty, except in the case of her majesty's ships, or in the case of any other ships for the time being allowed to wear any other national colours in pursuance of a warrant from her majesty or from the admiralty."[ ] [ ] the merchant shipping (colours) act, . it may be that the red ensign, which was the common flag of all the people ashore and afloat and the admiral's flag of highest rank and worn by the merchant ships, in the time of the dutch wars, was given to the merchantmen in recognition of their great services in winning the supremacy of the sea; that the white ensign was given to the royal navy in recognition and memory of trafalgar; and the blue ensign to the royal naval reserve because they were the rear guard to her majesty's ships; but the union jack was the binding link between them all, and established their rank and designation as "union ensigns." the red ensign, first with its st. george cross under charles ii., afterwards with its two-crossed union jack under queen anne, and then with its three-crossed jack, had thus become the national ensign on all british ships at sea, and not being restricted to any particular services, as are the white and blue ensigns, and in its red form, authorized by queen anne for use on land, it increased in its usage, and has become the ensign of the british people on shore as well as afloat. "where is the briton's land? where'er the blood-red ensign flies, there is the briton's land." whether it be in the "right little, tight little islands" of the old land, or in the greater area of the colonies which stud the globe, the presence of this union ensign proclaims the sovereignty of the united nations and the presence and protection of the british empire. thus the three crosses in the union jack have ceased to have solely their local meanings, for their story has become merged in the larger significance which their presence now imparts to the several dominion union ensigns as being the sign of this greater british union. chapter xxvii. _the union ensigns of the british empire._ a further evolution in the union flag has come step after step, by which the distinguishing emblems of the colonies have become part, first of the union jack, afterwards of the union ensigns, and then through the red ensign to unite home and colony in one imperial union ensign. in the century of the expansion of raleigh's "trade command," the governors of the english colonies, principally of those in america, began giving commissions to their local colonial ships, authorizing them to engage in the various free and ready methods by which that trade was being obtained from foreign sources. some inconvenience seems to have resulted from this practice, as the colonial ships carrying the two-crossed jack were making prizes and taking trade under the flag which the old country merchant ships were directed not to use. objection was made by the ships sailing from the home ports, and under william iii. the matter was taken up. [illustration: plate ix. canadian union ensign australian union ensign new zealand union ensign] the english lords justices in council considered the question and reported: "_at the council chamber, whitehall, the st day of july, ._ "_present_--their excellencies the lords justices in council. "upon reading this day at the board a report from the lords commissioners of the admiralty in the words following, viz.: "their excellencies the lords justices having been pleased to refer to us a report of the lords commissioners of trade, upon a memorial from this board, representing the inconveniences that do attend merchant ships wearing the _king's colours_, in and among the plantations abroad, under colour of the commissions given them by his majesty's governours of the said plantations. we do most humbly report to their excellencies that we do agree with the said lords commissioners for trade that all such ships to whom the aforesaid governours shall, by the authority lodged in them, grant commissions, ought to wear _colours that may distinguish them from private ships_, as is done by those employed by the officers of the navy, ordnance victualling, and others, and therefore do humbly propose that all the said governours may be directed to oblige the commanders of such merchant ships, to which they grant commissions, to wear no other jack than that hereafter mentioned, namely, that worne by his majesty's ships with the distinction of a _white escutcheon_ in the middle thereof, and that said mark of distinction may extend itself to one-half of the depth of the jack, and one-third part of the fly thereof, according to the _sample hereunto annexed_. "pembroke. "haversham. "d. mitchell." directions were accordingly so issued, and of the instructions transmitted to the governors of the colonies in america originals are extant of those sent to massachusetts, in , and new york, in . fig. is from an actual tracing from the drawing of the flag on the margin of the instructions sent to the governor at boston.[ ] it will be noted that the white escutcheon on the jack is perfectly plain and without any special distinctive emblem, such as those worn on the escutcheons on the ordnance and other departmental flags. [ ] massachusetts archives, vol. , p. . the white escutcheon of the home departmental flags was thus extended to the union jacks used in the colonies, and formed the new and first "colonial flag" (pl. iii., fig. ). the governors, high commissioners or administrators of british colonies and dependencies were afterwards authorized to place upon this white escutcheon on the union jack the arms or emblem of the colony in which they served. in this way it has come that the arms of _canada_, the southern cross constellation of _victoria_, the red cross and british lion of _new south wales_, the black swan of _western australia_ ( ), and the other special distinctive emblems in each of the british colonies are now displayed upon the centre of the union jacks which form the _governor's flag_ in each. [illustration: . australian emblems. _victoria._ _new south wales._ _western australia._] in , when colonial navies were first established, the vessels of war maintained by the local governments in australia were authorized to use the blue ensign, with the seal or badge of the colony in the centre of the fly,[ ] and thus the escutcheon being transferred from the centre of the jack to the centre of the "fly," was given another position, and the local stories of the australian colonies, which established these fleets, became embodied in the british blue ensign.[ ] [ ] colonial defences act, victoria, cap. . [ ] warrant of the lords commissioners of the admiralty. a similar privilege, although they are not commissioned as vessels of war, was afterwards extended to the "fishery protection" cruisers of canada, so that these and all other vessels which are owned by the government of the dominion carry the blue ensign with the arms of canada in the centre of the fly. authority was also given to all these vessels owned and commissioned by the colonial governments to fly a blue pennant of the same shape as that of the british navy (fig. , page ), with the white ground and red cross of st. george at the head, but having the fly blue instead of red.[ ] [ ] pennants having this blue fly were worn by the english navy almost two hundred years previously, as shown in a picture, painted by vandervelt, of the action off the coast of holland on august , , between the english, french and dutch, now the property of his majesty the king. by such successive steps the imperial idea became attached to one of the ensigns of the british navy. from the plain white escutcheon in the centre of the colonial union jack, , to the special emblem in the fly of the colonial blue ensign, , was a long way, but other steps were yet to be taken. the vessels owned by the governments of the colonies had thus been given their special british union flags, but provision had not been made for those owned by private citizens. the plain red ensign has, by authority of queen anne, become the national right of all british subjects on all lands as well as on all seas. as the colonies developed in native energy so their merchant shipping increased, and in recognition of this advance, and in order that their ports of origin might be made known, all colonial-owned merchant vessels were accorded, in ,[ ] the right of wearing, _together_ with the red ensign, an _additional_ flag on which might be shown the distinguishing badge or insignia of their colony, similarly as under james i. direction had been given to raise the separate national jack of england or of scotland at the same time as the king's union jack. in order to prevent the possibility of mistakes in identification, it was further directed that any flags of this character were to be made in such a way as not to resemble any of the existing flags of the royal navy. [ ] merchant shipping (colours) act, . in some of the australian colonies local flags of excellent design had been devised, but these _additional_ flags of entirely separate design were not all that could be desired, for while the special local flag might give expression to the local patriotism represented, there might come with it also an idea of separation, and it did not succeed in expressing the dominant and prevailing sentiment of allegiance to "one empire, one flag." it fell to the lot of the statesmen of canada, who do not seem to be behindhand in developing new and imperial ideas, to suggest ( ) another step in the history of the ensign. the merchant shipping of canada stands fifth in rank in merchant shipping among the nations of the world.[ ] [ ] the order is british (home kingdom), united states, german, french, canadian. the government ships were authorized to use the blue ensign with the dominion arms as their distinguishing flag, but as no distinctive flag had been adopted for canada, her merchant marine used the same plain red ensign as worn by the merchant marine of great britain, and canadian merchant ships were unable to be recognized amidst those of the mother country. in , to meet this requirement, the lords commissioners of the admiralty, on the suggestion of the canadian department of marine, issued a warrant permitting the badge of the arms of canada to be inserted in the flag of the red ensign as well as in the blue, and this new combined red ensign was by this empowered to be used on board vessels registered in the dominion of canada.[ ] [ ] admiralty warrant, february , . thus was formed the union ensign of canada. this canadian ensign (pl. ix., fig. ) is the british red ensign, having the union jack in the upper corner and the arms of canada in the fly.[ ] [ ] the arms of the four provinces which first united are the only ones which, up to , have been officially authorized to be inserted, although the arms of the whole nine provinces, now comprising the dominion, are often to be seen. a simple maple leaf on a white escutcheon would be infinitely preferable, for which see appendix a and fig. . this restriction to its being used only afloat has, like the ancient restriction of the union jack, been modified by usage and authorized by permission. yet it is also to be remembered that the right of the red ensign had been conferred by queen anne upon all british citizens whether at sea or on land in all british dominions, and is rightfully to be raised by all canadians. the "dominion ensign" is the red ensign of the empire with the insignia of canada on the broad red of the fly, and, being accorded to canadians as an evidence of the ownership of their ships, has passed onward to be an evidence of their country over their own homes. as they have the right to use the plain red ensign everywhere, so now they may use its daughter, the canadian ensign, and although there was at first a restriction as to its use at sea, this has been merged in the more widely extended and general usage on land. [illustration: . australian federation badge.] the raising of this ensign does not, any more than the raising elsewhere of a red ensign in addition to the single union jack, suggest any idea of separation; on the contrary it was designed by the canadian statesmen to avoid any such idea which, perhaps, might be attached to an entirely different flag. the presence of the union jack in the upper corner declares inviolate fidelity to king and empire, while the canadian emblem on its folds gives a recognition of native home. when an englishman raises his st. george, the scotsman his st. andrew, or the irish the st. patrick or their crown and harp on a blue ground, it is not taken as a sign of separation, but only as a recognition and reminiscence of their old homes and ancestry; so, too, with the canadian in his special ensign, with its canadian emblem. all raise both their native and the union empire flags in united fervour. the federation badge with the stars of the southern constellation, worn during the plebiscite of in australia ( ), suggested that the union of the parliaments of the colonies on that continent might be followed by the creation of a union ensign for the new commonwealth of australia. the union came in , and following on the line of the canadian ensign, the australian ensign was created. this is the british red ensign with the union jack in the upper corner, under this jack a six-pointed star signifying the six provinces or states of the australian union, and in the fly the five stars of the constellation of the southern cross,[ ] the leading constellation of the southern hemisphere. [ ] admiralty order, th september, . by a subsequent enactment another point was added to the star, making a star of seven points,[ ] one for each of the states, new south wales, victoria, queensland, south australia, western australia, tasmania, and one for the territories of papua and norfolk island; but the rest of the ensign remained the same as previously. [ ] admiralty warrant, rd october, . colonial office despatch, th october, . thus was formed the australian ensign (pl. ix., fig. ). the union ensign of the dominion of new zealand contains in the same way the union jack in the upper corner, and a southern constellation of four stars in the middle of the red fly (pl. ix., fig. ). as the separated colonies of south africa are now joining together in a union parliament under the union jack, we may expect another union ensign to be added to the galaxy of these loyal union and native ensigns. like the expansion of the british constitution to patriot governments beyond the seas, so has come the extension, step by step, of the old union flag to the newly-created dominions. as the spirit of that constitution has been adapted to the local circumstances in each, so the red ensign with its union jack, which is the embodiment of the power and glory of the british nation, has been emblazoned with the local fervour of each young and growing people, who, ardently loving their new land, yet stand unconquerably in union with the motherland, and rejoice at seeing their own emblem set upon the mother flag. each such flag tells us its grand story in a way that a national flag ought to do; for the red ensign of the homeland, with the sign of the colony added to its folds in these far-off lands, signals to the beholder that it is an _imperial union ensign of the british empire_. these are the union ensigns of the self-governing dominions of the outer empire, which have been adopted in succession in each, as a union parliament for their dominion has been created, to embrace the several provinces or states of their continent, and endowed with powers from the union parliament of the parent realm. as in the sixteenth century the forces of the percys raised the cross of st. george in their ensign (pl. iii., fig. ), to show that of whatever district they might be they were all _englishmen_, so the younger nations of the britains over the seas raise the union jack in the upper corner of their _dominion union ensigns_ to tell that their bearers are all _britons_, sons and daughters of the family, loyal to the british crown. when the canadian sees the union crosses displayed on his canadian ensign, or the distant brother colonist on that of his colony, it speaks to each, not only as his own native flag, but yet more as his sign of brotherhood in an empire wider than his own home, broader than the continent on which he lives, for it is the visible evidence of his citizenship in the empire of great and greater britain. the fervid eloquence of daniel webster, in , described that empire as "a power dotted over the surface of the whole globe with her possessions and military posts, whose morning drum-beat, following the sun and keeping company with the hours, circles the earth with one continuous and unbroken strain of the martial airs of england."[ ] [ ] speech, may , . if this heart-rousing testimony of the majesty of the empire, of which the dominions and colonies form a part, had been given by one of ourselves, it might have been tinged with the suspicion of self-glorious boasting; but springing from the lips of so distinguished a citizen of the united states, its fervid utterance is the candid acknowledgment of a nation wider than his own, whose grandeur compelled his admiration. if over half a century ago this ascription was true, how much more so is it in these later days when the ideal of the "morning drum-beat" has been transmuted into actual fact in the "continuous and unbroken strain" of the "_diamond anthem_" of the rejoicings at the jubilee of queen victoria,[ ] when, commencing at suva at p.m. on that sunday afternoon, the national anthem was taken up in the assemblies in almost every place in the outer british dominions as the sun came over them in succession around the world, until it had come back again to fiji on the following day. [ ] appendix d.--the "diamond jubilee anthem" of . those "possessions" which fired the statesman's imagination have marvellously increased; that "power" has expanded beyond his utmost dreams. since that time no nation, not even his own, has progressed like has the british nation. canada, then lost to view in a solitude of far-off forests or of pathless plains, has arisen like a young lion, and carrying the union jack in continuous line of government from the atlantic to the pacific, has gripped the american continent from sea to sea. australasia and new zealand have risen beneath the southern star, india in itself has become an empire, and africa, youngest born of all the lion's brood, is welding fast another continent beneath the imperial sway. these are the nations of the union jack, the galaxy of parliaments of free men, which have arisen round the centre isles and the throne of her who, with her statesmen, "knew the seasons when to take occasion by the hand and make the bounds of freedom wider yet." in this nation of nations, brothers join hands with their brothers around the world, and raise aloft the union jack of itself, and in their ensigns as the glad emblem of their united allegiance, a union for which the britains beyond the seas have proved their faith, and ever stand in foremost rank ready and willing to defend. there is something marvellous in the world-wide influence of this three-crossed flag of the parent nation, whose sons have followed its ideals through all the centuries. sometimes they have made mistakes, or blundered into difficulties, but undaunted, masterful and confident, have profited by the hard-won experience, and progressing with the march of time, find at the beginning of this twentieth century that they "have builded better than they knew." thus, when in the opening month of britain stood alone, as said a canadian statesman,[ ] in "_splendid isolation_," there was heard coming, not only from canada, but from every daughter nation around the seas, the same brave refrain which had been sung by a canadian poet in , when the sanctity of the flag had been violated in the stirring times of the "_trent_ affair": "when recent danger threatened near, we nerved our hearts to play our part, not making boast, nor feeling fear; but as the news of insult spread, were none to dally or to lag; for all the grand old island spirit which britain's chivalrous sons inherit was roused, and as one heart, one hand, we rallied round our flag." [ ] hon. g. b. foster, minister of finance of canada, in a speech in the house of commons, ottawa. and yet again in , when brother britons in africa were suffering injustice, when our british colonies were being invaded and the union jack attacked by a mistaken foe, the empire arose, and the bold refrain passed into chivalrous action. in ships that ploughed furrows around the world the sons of the empire came--colonists, yeomen and imperial forces--"in one united armament blent," to give their glad devotion in life or death for queen and union ensign on the south african hills and veldt. such, then, is the story, such is the meaning of our union jack; the emblem of combined constitutional government, the proclaimer of british liberty, the union sign of british rule, the signal of the realm of "_great britain and ireland and of all the britains beyond the seas_."[ ] [ ] his majesty king edward vii. caused himself to be so proclaimed at his coronation, when he added this recognition of the britains over the seas to his title, being the first of our kings to so include them. mindful of its story, happy in their lot, facing the world, its sons and their sons' sons stand up to their union colours and encircle the earth with their glad anthem, "_send him victorious, happy and glorious, long to reign over us_, god save the king." "_qu'il soit victorieux, et que son peuple heureux, le comble de ses v[oe]ux_: vive le roi." appendices. appendix a. _the maple leaf emblem._ the maple leaf emblem of canada, as compared with the rose, shamrock and thistle of the british isles, has but so recently entered into the realm of national emblems that some of the reasons for its adoption may well be given. the maple tree is found in luxuriance in every province of the dominion. varieties of it grow, it is true, in other parts of america, but the tree is in its greatest glory in the northern zones, where throughout canada, extended along her line of similar latitude, it attains to its greatest and most robust development. it flourishes in newfoundland, in the maritime provinces, and in quebec. it is the finest forest tree in ontario. manitoba maples form the foliage of the north-west, and anyone who has seen the giant maple leaves of british columbia will say the maple leaf is the natural emblem of canada. as well as being the natural emblem, it is also the typical emblem. it was held in high esteem by the early settlers of quebec, and was adopted, in , as the french canadian emblem for the festival of st. jean baptiste. it was placed on the coinage of new brunswick early in the century; a whole maple tree was shown on the coinage of prince edward island before the time of confederation, after which event maple leaves have been used on all coinage issued by the dominion. at the creation of the union in confederation it was placed in the arms of quebec and of ontario, and was heraldically recognized as the "emblem of canada." maple leaves form the wreaths on the flag of the governor-general of the dominion and on the flags of the lieutenant-governors of all the provinces. the maple leaf was the emblem placed by his royal highness the prince of wales on the colours of the "royal canadians," the th regiment, raised in canada in , and it is still worn as the regimental badge of their successors, the royal leinster regiment. it has been worn on the breasts of all the representative champions of canada--at the oar, on the yachts, on the athletic fields, in military contests, and at the rifle ranges--as the emblem of their country. it is on the "canada service" and "north-west" medals, and on the uniforms and accoutrements of the canadian militia, of the north-west mounted police and all official services. it was the distinguishing emblem on the uniforms and helmets of the lusty and loyal sons of the canadian contingents who served in south africa in , where the presence of that emblem reminded them of their far-off home and nerved their hearts for deeds of duty and devotion to canada and their queen. the wounded canadian who, lying wounded on the veldt at paardeberg, touched the maple leaf upon his helmet and said to his companion, "_if i die, it may help this to live_," spoke that which burns within the heart of every canadian lad and fires the inborn energy of his race. it has been extolled in poetry and prose; it is the theme of the songs of our children; and the stirring strains of "the maple leaf" form an accompaniment to our british national anthem. everywhere throughout the world the maple leaf has won recognition as the emblem of the canadians, and surely might well be displayed upon their national flag. if, instead of the dominion coat-of-arms, a green maple leaf were placed on the shield in the canadian ensign, the flag would be fairer to see and more easily distinguished. green is the emblem of youth and vigour, or, if the colour used were scarlet, the colour of courage, then in either case the natural and emblematic attributes of the leaf would be represented. it was suggested[ ] that in that year of the diamond jubilee a white diamond of one-third the size of the "union" should be substituted for the present shield and coat-of-arms, making a flag ( ) which would signalize an historic epoch. the single maple leaf on the white diamond in the fly of the red ensign would tell as bravely and more clearly the story of the "coat-of-arms" on the shield, and it would also be a national tribute to that queen under whose commanding influence the colonies have arisen around the empire, and be a record of that diamond jubilee of victoria which was the revelation of their union and the united testimony to their affection and allegiance. [ ] first edition, . if for similarity with the flags of other branches of the empire a white escutcheon or circle should be preferred to the diamond, the maple leaf upon it would be equally well displayed and the sign of canada on the red fly of the ensign be clearly distinguished. [illustration: . suggested canadian union ensign.] flags are signals to be used for conveying information to persons at a distance; their details should, therefore, be simple in form and be displayed in simple colours. the multi-coloured quarterings of the dominion arms, as shown on the shield upon the canadian ensign (pl. ix., fig. ), have not been found entirely efficient, for they fail in being easily recognizable. whatever the colour may be or the shape of the escutcheon, the single maple leaf on a white ground would tell at a glance that the emblem was the emblem of its people, and that the flag was the canadian ensign. appendix b. _letters from the private secretary of his majesty king edward vii._ buckingham palace, june th, . dear sir: in reply to your letter, i am afraid that the royal standard, which is the king's personal flag, can only be hoisted on the coronation. if permission were given in one case, it would be impossible to refuse it in any other. i must remind you that you can always fly the union jack. yours faithfully, f. knollys. the vicar of st. michael's, folkestone. sandringham, norfolk, dec. th, . sir: in reply to your letter of the th inst., i beg to inform you that the "union jack" being the national flag may be flown by british subjects, private or official, on land. yours faithfully, knollys. barlow cumberland, esq. port hope. appendix c. _canadian war medals._ the _war medal_ ( ) was granted in , to be worn by the men of the british forces who had served in the fleets and armies during the wars from to . among these the canadian militia was included. clasps were granted to those men who had been present at the actions of st. sebastian, vittoria, salamanca, talavera and vimiera, in the peninsular campaign; and in the canadian campaign, for the actions at fort detroit, august th, ; chateauguay, october th, ; and chrystler's farm, november th, . the medal from which the drawing is made is engraved, "a. wilcox, canadian militia," and bears the clasp "fort detroit." the _canada general service medal_ ( ) was granted in to the survivors of the canadian militia and imperial troops who had been out in active service in canada in repelling the fenian raids of and , or in the red river expedition under wolseley in . there are three clasps--"fenian raid, ," "fenian raid, ," "red river, ." upon the reverse side is the canadian ensign surrounded by a wreath of maple leaves. the drawing is made from the medal of the writer, as engraved, "f. b. cumberland, ensign, th royal reg't." the _north-west canada medal_ ( ) was granted in to all who had served in the canadian north-west in . the clasp "saskatchewan" was accorded to all who were present at the actions of fish creek, april th; batoche, may th; and frenchman's butte, may th, . the force serving in the operations of was drawn entirely from the canadian militia and the north-west mounted police, with the addition of the imperial officers on the staff. appendix d. _a record of the "diamond anthem."_ th june, . _from sons of england record._ the imaginative description given by daniel webster in of the "_morning drumbeat which, following the sun and keeping company with the hours, circles the earth with one continuous strain of the martial airs of england_" has been for many years the ideal example for estimating the world-spread area of the british empire. it seemed at the time, and was, a poetic fancy, but since that time the domiciles of the british peoples have been more amply developed and more closely spread so that the world is now encircled not simply with isolated military posts, but by a continuous line of happy british homes. the time for the celebration of the th year of the accession of her majesty queen victoria, so aptly named, by his royal highness prince of wales (now edward vii), the _diamond jubilee_, was approaching and many projects were rife to give expression to the loyalty and affection of her majesty's subjects. the official day set for the celebration was tuesday, june nd, , a date which was preceded by sunday, june th, the actual anniversary of her majesty's accession. mr. barlow cumberland was then the president, and mr. jno. w. carter the secretary, of the supreme lodge of the "_sons of england benevolent society_." this is an organization which had been initiated in canada in for the purpose of joining together colonists who had emigrated from england, or their descendants, for patriotic, benevolent and social purposes; to welcome new-comers and be of fraternal assistance to one another. the society had flourished and lodges had been formed in all parts of canada. a branch organization had been established in the colonies of south africa and connections had been opened in australia. a compact and energetic organization therefore was ready to hand in the larger parts of the colonial empire. the members of the society were actively joining in the arrangements for all the local celebrations for the nd, in which they afterwards took fullest share. mr. cumberland made the proposal that they should do something more and should in addition, organize a world-wide incident which their far-spread organization would enable them to do, and which would be the further tribute of the sons of england to their queen and a testimony of the fidelity which they had carried to their new homes beyond the seas. besides being president of this, and of other national societies, mr. cumberland had for many years been actively engaged in steamship and railway operations, so was peculiarly qualified for the requirements for completing such an enterprise. his conception and proposal was the "_diamond jubilee anthem_," to be sung around the world, following the sun, on sunday, june th, the actual anniversary day. his project was that, commencing at the time of the earliest hour in the morning on the th at windsor castle, where her majesty would be in residence, the sons and daughters in the colonies should encircle their queen with the never ceasing upraisal of their loyal acclaim and prayer by taking up the singing of the national anthem _in succession_ at their far distant homes throughout all the hours of that great day of her life. it was to be as though deputation after deputation from the colonies, each carrying the union jack, were presenting themselves minute after minute and singing below the castle walls. on the opposite side of the world from the _heart of the empire_ at windsor castle are the _fiji islands_, the colony situate nearest to longitude °, which is °, or hours, from the centre of time at the royal observatory at greenwich, and is the dividing line of the days of the world's time--where day begins and midnight ends. at these islands, being on the opposite side of the world, it is o'clock in the afternoon at the same moment at which it is o'clock in the morning of _the same day_ in england. the problem was therefore to have the national anthem commenced in fiji at the beginning of her majesty's day, and arranging to have it sung thereafter precisely at p.m., _as the sun arrived_ at that moment in succession over each place in the colonies and passed onward around the world. a form of service was devised, suitable for any sunday afternoon service to be held in any church, open air service or assembly hall, in which the national anthem should be arranged to be sung at the exact moment of o'clock. a time-table of longitudes, prepared by the meteorological department of canada, showing the meridian or _sun time_ at each place, and full descriptive circulars with forms of service and a time-table showing the hour at windsor castle and the corresponding hour at each place, were sent in multitude to friends and correspondents in these colonies and dependencies owning allegiance to the union jack. with the co-operation of the right rev. the bishop of toronto, who was a member of the order, and the heads in canada of all religious bodies, communication was opened up with the colonial bishops and clergy, and their services were enlisted. patriotic societies and the secretaries of the royal colonial institute were asked to assist, and letters were also sent to the captains of every british passenger ship which would be at sea on the th of june, asking them to sing the anthem, fire a gun, and note the position of their ship at p.m. on that day. the brethren of the society in newfoundland and canada took the service up with energy and enthusiasm. the sons of england in south africa answered with alacrity, australia and new zealand joined in heartily, and thus, by prompt and efficient action, the organization was completed and ready for the eventful day. copies of the services and time-table beautifully illuminated, were sent to her majesty, by reference to which it could be seen at any hour how far the anthem had proceeded on its way and in what colony it was at any moment being sung. in acknowledging receipt the colonial secretary, the right hon. joseph chamberlain, said to his excellency lord aberdeen: "i have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of your dispatch of the th april, with its enclosures on the subject of the continuous service around the world which is being arranged by the sons of england in commemoration of the th anniversary of the queen's accession to the throne. i have to inform you that, in accordance with your request, the matter has been brought before the notice of the queen, and that her majesty was graciously pleased to express her sincere appreciation of the loyal feelings that have prompted this interesting method of commemoration." two thousand six hundred personal letters were written, , copies of the service sent out, and after months of work the th of june came and the anthem passed around the world. each one knew that they had done their duty, but had others far away done theirs so that the links might be complete? the idea when first made met with immediate acceptance as a happy conception, but many doubts were expressed as to the possibility of its being actually accomplished, for it seemed to the faint-hearted almost an impossibility to arrange for a connecting line of services, which should take place in succession around the whole circle of the earth for the space of twenty-four hours. yet the president was able to inform the grand lodge that the jubilee service had been carried out in actual fact and in completest detail. of this record it is not possible within the limits of this notice to give more than a sketch. reports and letters kept coming in for month after month from the far distant continents in reply to the request, and giving an account of the proceedings. a few extracts only can be given here as samples of many hundreds of similar character which were received from the continuous line now recorded around the world, telling of how the diamond jubilee anthem was sung at each place as shown in the time-table attached. the service commenced on sunday afternoon, th june, in _levuka_, fiji islands. dr. garner jones, headmaster of the levuka public schools, writes: "owing to geographical position--viz., ° ' e. long.--the inhabitants of levuka, fiji islands, enjoyed the unique honour of initiating 'the wave of song' that hailed the diamond jubilee of her majesty's ascension. the service was an open air one, being held in the government school grounds, rev. w. floyd, of the english church, officiating. the attendance was large and included representatives of various races who claim her majesty as their sovereign. english, scotch, irish, australian and new zealand colonials, chinese, germans, swedes, and among them the characteristic bushy hair of the fijian and other south sea islanders was prominent, there found themselves shoulder to shoulder in the antipodes of the british empire earnestly rolling forth our grand old national anthem, thus giving the keynote of thanksgiving to the entire world. the masons and oddfellows appeared in regalia and the levuka brass band was in attendance. surrounding the main body of the assembly were the levuka school boys, drawn up with their wooden rifles. punctually at five minutes to o'clock the procession of choristers left their temporary vestry and slowly approached their stand. at o'clock precisely, meridian time, the british ensign was hoisted, which was the prearranged signal, the band immediately struck up, and every throat commenced 'god save the queen,' while the public school guard stood at the 'present.' undoubtedly the occasion was unique, and levuka never forgot for a moment that her geographical position was unique also, in so far as she enjoyed the proud distinction of being allowed to start the wave of song which in its course would pass over in rotation all the british possessions on the face of the globe." at this same moment at which it was _ p.m. sunday_ in the fiji islands, and _ a.m. sunday_ at windsor castle, where her majesty was in residence, the executive of the sons of england met at shaftesbury hall, toronto, it being then precisely _ . p.m. on saturday, june th_, and sang the national anthem, commenced that same minute in levuka on sunday afternoon, and which for the next seventeen and a quarter hours was to be coming steadily nearer with the sun as it passed in succession over each of the loyal gatherings in other lands until it was over toronto at o'clock ( . standard time) on sunday afternoon, when the sons of england and britons in toronto again joined in the loyal strain as it passed by them onward toward the west. three minutes after levuka had commenced, _suva_, the fiji capital, took up the strain. mr. hamilton hunter says: "i am glad to report that the special jubilee service was a great success in this colony. it was not merely confined to the english church, but was heartily taken up by the roman catholic, presbyterian and wesleyan churches. the national anthem was sung on the stroke of four. i have to thank you for having enabled us to set 'the wave of song' in motion by your timely warning." seventeen minutes later, or before the services in the fijis had closed, the anthem was taken up in _napier, new zealand_. the report says: "the jubilee services at the cathedral yesterday will be remembered by the napier people for many a long year, and it is questionable whether a more imposing ecclesiastical spectacle was ever witnessed in new zealand. the cathedral was crowded to excess, all the friendly societies of napier being present." the dean writes: "as dean of the easternmost cathedral in the british empire, the cathedral upon which the rays of the rising sun first fall, i have to report that, in accordance with your wishes, we joined in the great circle of anthem singing, as arranged for by the sons of england, at o'clock on the afternoon of sunday last. the service was a very magnificent and enthusiastic one. i convey my most hearty good wishes to you and to the members of the great organization you represent." the wave swept across australia. at _melbourne, victoria_, b. cowderoy, esq., secretary r.c.i., reports: "both cathedrals (anglican and roman catholic) were crushingly full. in the exhibition building several thousands, after addresses by leading wesleyans, took up the national anthem at our standard time. in the town hall the anthem was sung with fervour at p.m. by , with most impressive effect. i am an octogenarian, but in this matter i am as young as my eight grandsons, and thank you, mr. cumberland, for your happy suggestion which has given added interest to all that is being done." _adelaide, south australia_, reports: "the bishops of the diocese entered heartily into the scheme. the governor and his staff were present. the national anthem was sung with intense fervour and most thrilling effect." so it passed through the other cities and over the continent of australia. across the indian ocean.--s.s. _empress of india_ marked the latitude ° ' n.; long. ° ' e.: "rockets fired and national anthem sung at p.m. off alligator rock." it first touched africa and was hailed by the lodge of the sons of england at _durban, natal_, and then in continuing line across south africa, in all the principal cities, and at _cape town_ the record was maintained. on the atlantic ocean it was taken up on many british ships at sea, among which a few only may be mentioned. r.m.s. _tantallon castle_, lat. ° ' n.: long. ° ' w., off west coast of africa: "guns fired and anthem sung at p.m." s.s. _greek_, lat. ° ' n.; long. ° ' w.: "fired rocket and sang national anthem." s.s. _numidian_: "'god save the queen' sung precisely at p.m." ship's position, lat. ° ' n.; long. ° ' w. s.s. _catalonia_: "at p.m. i had two explosive gun signals fired on my ship in lat. ° ' n.; long. ° ' w. it was blowing a south-west gale with high seas, and it was a great disappointment to me that we could not hold the service i had intended, but all classes of passengers were so seasick." by the equivalent time of . o'clock in the evening at windsor castle the anthem had crossed the atlantic, and first touched the shores of america at _st. john's, newfoundland_, when it was met by lodge dudley s.o.e. assembled, together with the governor-general and all the friendly societies in the cathedral. "the service was impressive in the extreme." from here westward through _canada_ the records of the reports in the time-table appended show how that as the sun crossed the continent the line through the villages, towns and cities of canada was so complete that the singing of the anthem in one place had not ceased before it was taken up in the next. brief extracts from the reports of a few only can be given. _charlottetown, p.e.i._: "the first methodist church was crowded to the doors with members of the orangemen, good templars, oddfellows, masons and the mayor and city officials. at the proper moment the church rang with the grand old strains of the national anthem." _halifax, n.s._: "st. paul's church was filled to its utmost. among those present were countess aberdeen, general montgomery moore and admiral erskine with their staffs. at . o'clock the anthem was sung right loyally." _montreal, que._ "services were held in four churches and all well attended. at christ church cathedral a large military church parade was held and as in the others the anthem sung at the appointed time." ottawa: "all the local societies joined in a church parade to christ church cathedral. at . o'clock the guards band struck up the national anthem, which was heartily joined in by all." _pembroke_: "the form of union service was held in the town hall, all societies joining. in order to join in the anthem at the right moment the mayor cut down his remarks." _brockville_: "every corner of the church was occupied. as the town clock struck four the entire congregation rose and sang. an indefinable emotion passed over the people as they joined in the continuous hymn of loyalty as it circled with the sun around the world. surely in the history of the world no monarch ever received such a glorious tribute of hearty affection and respect from her subjects." _orillia_: "as the familiar words were sung with lusty fervour by nearly a thousand voices, until the volume almost raised the roof, the sun passed the hour of four. in imagination the congregation could hear the strains as they rolled up from the east and died away into the west." at _toronto_: " , people were packed into the cathedral. after completion of the prayers there remained four minutes before it was our turn to take our place in the circle of song. by direction of his lordship the bishop the congregation knelt in silent prayer for her majesty and the welfare of the empire. an immense throng of , to , people filled the churchyard and the adjacent streets outside, and a regimental band had been stationed outside on the cathedral steps to lead their singing. at the first stroke of the cathedral bell, which had been arranged to strike at . p.m., being the real meridian time for p.m. at toronto, the congregation rose to their feet and at the second joined with those outside in uplifting with heart and voice their loyal prayer, '_god save our gracious queen_.' those were moments of a life-time while we waited in silence for the coming of the anthem." _hamilton_: "the biggest hall in hamilton is the armory, but it wasn't big enough to hold every one who wished to take part, although , did manage to pack inside. precisely at . o'clock the opening strains of 'god save the queen' came from the band and the immense gathering rose and sang the anthem with a vigour and earnestness never before heard. it was a time for everyone's heart to swell with pride that he or she was a britisher, although thousands of miles distant from the mother land." _collingwood_: "when at . the united choir and congregation joined in singing the national anthem every heart responded to the noble thought that a link was being formed in the chain of prayer for the queen that passed round the world that day from sunrise to sunset." _owen sound_: "it was a happy thought that suggested the gathering of the fraternal societies in the queen's park. every face in the great throng beamed with pleasure as the grand chorus swelled upon the air from many throats." _london_: "the service was a memorable one, in every feature it was remarkable. the singing of the national anthem which took place exactly at the appointed hour, . p.m., will not readily be forgotten by those present." _winnipeg, man._: "the sunday service surpassed anything ever known here before." _chilliwack, b.c._: "the great company joined enthusiastically in singing the national anthem, which took place at o'clock, astronomical time." the utmost enthusiasm was everywhere displayed, the churches were crowded, and the details of the service faithfully carried out, immense interest being taken in singing the anthem exactly at the correct moment. thus actually minute after minute the anthem strain followed the hours across this continent to the shores of the pacific at _victoria, british columbia_, where an open-air service was held in the public park at the equivalent of . midnight at windsor castle. "among those present at beacon hill park were the lieutenant-governor, the mayor, the admiral and crews of the ships in harbour. at o'clock the bugles rang out, the royal standard was run up to the masthead, and the national anthem was sung with full force by an assemblage of , people." from here, leaving the land, the anthem wafted its way back to the place of beginning, being joined as it passed by the r.m.s. _aorangi_, in lat. ° ' n., long. ° ' w., and by the r.m.s. _empress of china_, lat. ° ' n., long. ° ' w. until at length it came to the little island which is as far on one side of long. °, the central degree of longitude, as levuka, from where it had started, is on the other. here the west met the east. as it is so typical, and as the closing report, it may be well to give in full the letter received from the lighthouse keeper on the island: "wailangilala lighthouse, fiji, " ° south, ° ' west long., " th september, . "_to barlow cumberland, esq., toronto._ "my dear sir,--as you expressed a wish in your circular to hear how the anniversary of the day on which her majesty began her happy reign was observed in each locality, and also on board passenger ships at sea, i hope you will be pleased to hear that all your instructions were carried out here, as fully as circumstances permitted, my situation here being unique. as this is the connecting link between the western and eastern hemispheres it may happen that you will find by overlooking the places where the ceremony was observed, that my endeavours were successful in commencing or finishing the general celebration of the world. being only minutes west of the meridian, all ships passing either way ought to change the name of the day on their reckoning while within sight of this island. i obtained the correct astronomical time from the captain and officers of the steamer that calls here every three months. a doubt being expressed about the proper day, and as a good action could not be performed too often, i observed both the th and st june in the same way. i also had a bonfire lit on both nights, so that ships passing either eastward or westward could see that the anniversary was being kept to suit either contingency. i would have written you earlier but there has been no means of communication between this island since the th of june last until to-day. "alfred french, _lighthouse-keeper_." here the circle of the world was completed and the anthem had come back to the place of beginning. thus were the fellow-colonists, hand in hand and voice to voice, linked in one continuous line around the world, and the historic but ideal "drumbeat" of the "martial airs of england" changed into the absolute fact of the "_diamond anthem_" with which they encircled the earth and accompanied the hours throughout the diamond jubilee accession day of their beloved queen. one of the great records of her majesty's reign was the marvellous increase of her colonial kingdom. it was largely through her own personal influence that during those sixty years it had been extended and cared for. gladly has this tribute of affection been given by her grateful colonists to their queen by thus joining "_hands all round_" in their rejoicings, in a way which was impossible at the beginning of her reign, but which, by her broad-minded advance, she had herself made practicable, and which therefore marks a record of her great life-work. thus was completed in every particular the _diamond anthem_ of the sons of england. a "service" which was so universally and ardently adopted, is absolutely unique in history, and one which is capable of being carried out only by our british nation, upon whose sovereign's dominions the sun never sets. a diamond star was added to mr. cumberland's past president's jewel as a token of appreciation, and every commendation must be given to the officers of the lodges and kindred associations, to the clergy and municipal, and to the naval and military authorities who so earnestly co-operated in carrying out the celebrations which will long last in the thoughts of those who had the happiness of sharing in them. it was a memorable event. diamond jubilee of her majesty queen victoria, sunday, june th, . [illustration] directions for the sons of england jubilee service around the world. . members of societies will meet at their lodge rooms, or some convenient place, and, clad in their regalia, march in procession, _carrying the union jack at their head_, to the church selected. . where there are two or more lodges in the locality they will attend one combined service, which shall be held in a church or place selected by the joint committee. . the president shall, on arrival, deliver the union jack to the minister, to be draped upon the pulpit or upon the reading desk. . the service shall commence at . p.m. . the opening hymn shall be the "old hundredth"--"all people that on earth do dwell." . at p.m. precisely, according to astronomical time, being the time at which the sun passes over each locality, the congregation will stand and sing the three verses of the national anthem, "god save the queen," to be immediately followed by ( ) the collect of thanksgiving for her majesty's accession to the throne; ( ) the prayer for the queen and royal family, as formerly used in the thanksgiving service on th june. . the rest of the service to be a usual sunday afternoon service, but with an interval to permit of the national anthem being sung as above, at the proper time, according to the time-table herewith. . the collection shall be given, as has been desired by her majesty, to some charitable purpose. . the closing hymn shall be, "the day thou gavest, lord, is ended." no. , a. & m. . the lodges will invite the colonial and municipal authorities and all sister societies to attend the service. by request, barlow cumberland, _president sons of england in canada_. time-table compiled from the reports received of the diamond jubilee services which were held at the following places in succession at p.m. on sunday, june , . the national anthem was sung at p.m., local time, or, in australia and canada, where "standard time" is used, at the equivalent local minute as shown, being the time at which the sun passed over each place at p.m., "sun time." the day commenced at longitude °. the second column gives the equivalent time at windsor castle throughout the twenty-four hours. =================================================== | |time at place. |local time.|windsor | |castle. -------------------------------+-----------+------- | p.m. | a.m. fiji islands: | th. | th. levuka (long. ° ' e.) | . | . suva | . | . | | new zealand: | | napier | . | . auckland | . | . | | australia: | | brisbane | . | . sydney | . | . hobart | . | . melbourne | . | . adelaide | . | . perth | . | . | | | longitude | _empress of india_ | ° ' e.| . | | south africa: | p.m. | p.m. durban (port natal) | . | . addington | . | . east london | . | . king william's town | . | . graham's town | . | . port elizabeth | . | . cape town | . | . | | atlantic ocean: | | ships at sea-- | longitude | _teutonic_ | ° ' w.| . _state of nebraska_ | ° ' w.| . _tantallon castle_ | ° ' w.| . _greek_ | ° ' w.| . _lake huron_ | ° w.| . _numidian_ | ° ' w.| . _pavonia_ | ° ' w.| . _catalonia_ | ° ' w.| . _mohawk_ | ° ' w.| . _magdalena_ | ° ' w.| . _st. paul_ (u.s.m.) | ° ' w.| . _konigen luise_ | ° ' w.| . _berlin_ (u.s.m.) | ° ' w.| . | | newfoundland: | p.m. | st. john's | . | . | | canada: | | cape breton-- | | sydney | . | . | | prince edward island-- | | charlotte town | . | . | | nova scotia-- | | new glasgow | . | . truro | . | . halifax | . | . springhill | . | . stellarton | . | . windsor | . | . digby | . | . yarmouth | . | . | | new brunswick-- | | moncton | . | . st. john | . | . fredericton | . | . woodstock | . | . | | quebec-- | | sherbrooke | . | . lennoxville | . | . richmond | . | . quebec | . | . st. lambert's | . | . montreal | . | . | | ontario-- | | cornwall | . | . ottawa | . | . brockville | . | . carleton place | . | . smith's falls | . | . almonte | . | . arnprior | . | . kingston | . | . pembroke | . | . deseronto | . | . belleville | . | . campbellford | . | . peterborough | . | . port hope | . | . bowmanville | . | . burke's falls | . | . lindsay | . | . oshawa | . | . cannington | . | . whitby | . | . huntsville | . | . bracebridge | . | . orillia | . | . aurora | . | . toronto | . | . st. catharines | . | . welland | . | . niagara falls | . | . barrie and allandale | . | . grimsby | . | . hamilton | . | . orangeville | . | . collingwood | . | . guelph | . | . galt | . | . brantford | . | . simcoe | . | . paris | . | . woodstock | . | . sudbury | . | . stratford | . | . ingersoll | . | . owen sound | . | . st. thomas | . | . london | . | . goderich | . | . petrolea | . | . chatham | . | . sarnia | . | . windsor | . | . port arthur | . | . fort william | . | . rat portage | . | . | | manitoba and northwest | | territories-- | | winnipeg | . | . carman | . | . brandon | . | . russell | . | . regina | . | . medicine hat | . | . calgary | . | . | | british columbia-- | | donald | . | . revelstoke | . | . chilliwack | . | . | | | | a.m. | | st. vancouver | . | . victoria | . | . | | pacific ocean: | | | | ships at sea-- | longitude | _aorangi_ | ° ´ w.| . _empress of china_ | ° ´ w.| . | | wailangilala island | ° ´ w. | . index. a achaius adopts st. andrew cross, . acre, richard i. at siege of, . admirals, titles under commonwealth, ; three ranks, ; nine ranks, ; reduced to three, . admiral of narrow seas, , . admiral of fleet, rank and flag, . admirals' flags under henry viii., ; commonwealth, ; charles ii., ; subsequent centuries, ; present day, , , , ; on ironclads, . admiralty badge on epaulettes, . admiralty regulations, penalty for infraction, ; proportions in union jack, . alfred the great collects first navy, ; sea maxim, . allan line house flag, . ambassador's flag, russian, ; british, . armada defeated under cross of st. george, , , . arms, savoy, ; earl of elgin, ; washington, ; fitzgeralds, ; ancient of ireland, ; henry v. to elizabeth, ; james i., ; anne, ; george ii., ; george iii., first, ; altered, ; victoria, . assyrian emblems, . athelstane, first merchant navy, . australian emblems, ; ensign, . austria, eagle, , ; white cross, . aztecs, eagle emblem, . b banner, feudal period, ; percy, ; english sovereigns, ; commonwealth, ; joan of arc, ; st. martin, ; st. denis, ; st. george, ; st. andrew, , ; robert bruce, ; st. patrick, ; personal of sovereign, , . barbarossa, emperor, standard, . barton, sir andrew, . bavaria, national colours, . beyrut, grotto of st. george, . blake carries whip-lash, . blazon, heraldic, a description, ; union jack, george iii., ; controversies, , , ; design preceded, ; jack made as ordered, . blue ensign, who entitled to use, ; on colonial ships, . border to st. george, narrow under james i., ; enlarged, ; represents white ground, ; justified, . broad white st. george, in , ; in , ; same size st. andrew, , . broad white st. andrew, , . bourbon standard, , . brian boru, legend, ; harp, . british constitution, expansion told by jack, ; in canada, , ; government under, ; other colonies, . broom carried by tromp, . bruce, robert, banner, . bunker hill, flag raised at, . c cabot, , , . cambridge, grand union, . canada comes under british flag, , ; reconciliation, ; invaded, ; evolution of inhabitants, ; wars, , , , . canadian ensign, created, ; full meaning, . cantons, quarters of flag, . cape of good hope, dutch, ; british, . cappadocia, birthplace st. george, . champlain, , . chapleau, sir adolphe, . chateauguay, battle of, , . charles i., proclamation, . charles ii., proclamation, ; flags changed, ; fresco, . cockade, origin tricolour, . college of arms, draft queen anne, ; draft george iii., . colonial contingents, havana, ; south africa, . colonial flags, union jack, ; first authorized, ; white escutcheon on, ; blue ensign, ; broader significance, . colours, british regiments, ; french, ; new england companies, . commonwealth ensign, , ; salute claimed, ; in america, . constantine the great, , . constantius chlorus, harp on labarum, . constitution of united states, adopted, ; government under, . consuls' flags, . cornette blanche, joan of arc, . counterchanged scottish and irish crosses, ; controversy, . cromwell's jack, ; in america, . cross, red, st. george, , , ; red, france, ; white, france, ; white, austria, ; white, greece, , ; white, st. john, , ; yellow italy, ; black, germany, ; yellow, sweden, ; green, flanders, ; blue, norway, ; white saltire, st. andrew, ; blue saltire, russia, ; red saltire, st. patrick, . crosses, objections to use in flag, , ; requirements for entry in union jack, ; proportions in, , , ; wrongly made, ; how correctly made, . crusaders' crosses, ; of nations engaged, . d declaration of independence, united states, , . de salaberry, . designers' union jack of , ; of , . diamond jubilee anthem, accompanying the sun, ; places sung at, . dominion ensigns, additional, ; canadian, ; australian, ; new zealand, ; added meanings, . douglas, fredk., contrasts liberty, . dragon, legend st. george, , , . drumbeat following the hours, ; ideal changed to fact, . dufferin, lord, , . dutch, sea rivalry, , , . dutch flag, ; in america, . e eagle emblems, , . east india company flag, . edgar, lord of ocean, . edward i. adopts st. george emblem, ; sea titles, , . edward ii., lord of the seas, . edward iii., sea maxim, ; fleur-de-lis in arms, . egyptian standards, . elizabeth, shipping extended, ; alfred maxim maintained, ; harp and crown, . emancipation slaves in england, ; british colonies, ; united states, ; canada, . emblems, instinct for, ; evidences of patriotism, ; israelites, ; christians, , ; assyrians, ; romans, ; peruvians, ; indians, , ; english, ; scottish, ; irish, , , ; colonies, ; australian, ; canada, . empire day, union jack raised, . endicott, john, defaces flag, . england, dominant partner, ; meteor flag, . english cross, white changed, . english jack, heraldic description, ; groundwork union jack, ; glory roll, ; established claims in america, ; armada defeated, ; rivalries with scotch, ; joined in additional jack, ; taken from navy, ; restored by commonwealth, ; succeeded by his majesty's jack, ; admiral's flag, ; succeeds james i. jack in america, ; inserted in commonwealth ensign, ; red ensign, , , ; prowess recognized, ; term in ensign closed, ; white ground restored, . ensigns, percy, ; first english national, , ; ensign, red, ; first british union, land and sea, , ; union of colonies, ; united states, ; colonial, ; imperial union, ; red, , , , , , ; white, , ; blue, , . ensign staff, reason for name, . errors in painting flags, , . escutcheon in commonwealth flags, ; union jack, ; colonial flags, ; transferred to fly, . f facings, british uniforms, . field, portion of flag, . fimbriation, heraldic description, ; in union jack controversies, ; rules satisfied, . flags (_symbolical_), study of educational value, ; tell history, , , , , ; valued when meanings known, ; voices in, ; not haphazard, ; followed for conscience' sake, , ; sought by puritans, ; religious objections to cross, ; meanings of colours in union jack, ; ideals expressed, ; speak in colours, ; freedom to slave, ; liberty to people, ; raised as sign of taking possession, , , , , . flags (_actual_), technical divisions, ; measurements, jacks, ; ensigns, ; meanings of movements on flag staff, ; how use arose on land, ; importance at sea, ; penalty for infraction, ; effect of omission on shore, ; ships confiscated if not shown, ; wars caused by, , , . flag salute, john, ; edward i., ; mary, ; james i., ; charles i., ; commonwealth, ; george iii., ; accorded by dutch, , , . flag-ships, why so called, . fleur-de-lis, emblem of ancient france, ; canada colonized under, ; frontenac defends, ; succeeded by union jack, , ; introduced by edward iii., ; on arms henry v., ; george ii., ; removed, ; why in royal arms, , ; on seal, ; on arms quebec, . fly, portion of flag, . forecastle, derivation of name, . fort detroit taken by british, . france, fleur-de-lis in america, , , ; tri-colour, ; in canada, ; white cross, . franklin, benjamin, drumbeat, . french canadians never raised tri-colour, ; national flag, ; descendants of normans, ; evolution of government, ; accept changed rule, ; defend union jack, , , ; british in patriotism, . french language in english parliament, ; in canadian, . frontenac, , . g generals at sea, title of admirals, . george iii., three parliaments united, ; three-crossed union jack, . germany, standard of, . glory roll, english jack, ; jack james i., ; second union jack, ; third union jack, . governors' flags, , , , . governors of colonies, position, . grand union ensign, colonies, ; carried after independence, . great seal, elizabeth, ; upper canada, . great union, cromwell, . greek national ensign, ; church reverences st. george, . greek cross, ; carried by eight nations, . guiana exchanged for new york, ; retaken, . h harold loses control of seas, . harp in royal arms, , ; on shillings, ; in flags, , ; taken out of flags, ; usage by sovereigns, ; change under victoria, . havana, colonials at capture, . hawaii, national ensign, . _henri grace à dieu_, parent ship of navy, . heralds devised jack of james, ; committee queen anne, ; george iii., ; objections to union jack, , , ; requirements met, . heraldry, rules for fimbriations, ; for crosses, . hibernian harp in labarum, ; changed to cross, ; in royal arms, ; changed to irish harp, . hoist, part of flag, . i ireland not sea-going nation, ; becomes kingdom, , . irish harp, brian boru, . irish jack, heraldic description, ; not joined with st. george, , ; when joined, , ; white ground recognized, . israelites, standard, . italy, national ensign, . j jacks, erroneous explanation name, ; origin of name, , ; why two used under james i., ; regulations james i., ; charles i., ; commonwealth, ; charles ii., ; anne, ; present day, . jack at bow, , , , , , . jack of james i., created by rivalries, , ; an "additional" jack, , ; proclamation, ; scots object, ; used on all ships, ; restricted to king's ships, ; abolished, ; restored, ; not a national jack, , ; not a union jack, , , ; never placed in ensign, , ; glory roll, ; carried on _mayflower_, ; abolished in new england, . jack staff, reason for name, . jacques, surcoats, ; by whom worn, , . james i. changes royal standard, ; creates jack, ; urges union, ; consents to repatriation of puritans, . joan of arc, banner, . k king of seas, edward iii., . king's colours, , . knights, jacques worn, . l labarum, roman emperors, . lake george, name changed, . le moine, sir james, . lion of scotland in royal arms, . lord high admiral, flag of, . lord of oceans, title, ; of seas, . louisbourg medal, jack on, . m mackinac, fort taken, . maltese cross, . mansfield, decision slavery, . maple leaf in governors' flags, ; emblem of canada, . massachusetts ensign, ; jack authorized, , . _mayflower_, flags carried by pilgrims, . medals, , , . merchant navy, first developed, ; distant voyages, , ; uses king's jack, ; wins trade, ; accorded red ensign, , , . monson, sir william, , , . n nantucket, gosnold at, . napoleon i., flag, , . _naseby_, , , . national flags, origins, ; signal changes, ; germany, ; italy, ; greece, ; france, , ; hawaii, ; russia, ; thirteen colonies, ; united states, , ; evolution british, , , , , ; colonies, ; dominions, . navigation act, commonwealth, . navy, english, first collected, ; constructed, ; weakened, ; defeated, ; wins command, ; scottish, always small, ; defies english, . nelson, ; signal, ; white ensign, . new england, controversies respecting cross, ; ensign, ; at quebec, ; lake george, ; bunker hill, . new south wales, emblem, . new york taken, ; exchanged, ; retaken, . nineveh, emblems found, . normans, ancestors canadians, . o orders of knighthood, , , , , . oriflamme, st. denis, . p parliaments, not united, ; separate flags, , ; irish, ; union jack tells union of scottish, ; of irish, ; precedence of union acknowledged, ; colonial, , . patron saints, england, ; scotland, ; ireland, . pennants, command flags, ; henry viii., ; royal navy, ; colonial navy, . paardeberg, canadian at, . pennsylvania ensign, . percy ensign, . peruvians' emblem, . philip ii. salutes union jack, . pilgrim fathers migrate to holland, ; land in america, ; loyal subjects king james, ; flags carried, . pilot jack, flag, . pine tree flag, , . poland, white eagle, . president united states, position, . prussian, black eagle, . puritans, flag carried by, ; object to crosses, , . q quarters, flags, ; union jack, . quebec, defended under fleur-de-lis, , ; wolfe and montcalm, ; under union jack, , , . quebec act, effect of, , . queen anne creates union jack, ; authority of parliament, ; designers, ; authorized by privy council, ; draft c, ; promulgated in colonies, ; restricted to navy, ; border st. george enlarged, ; establishes red ensign, ; to be used on land and sea, , . queen victoria uses irish harp, ; diamond jubilee, . queenston heights, . r raleigh, sea maxim, , . red ensign, see ensign. red fighting flag of navy, . regulations for making union jack, . responsible government contrasted, , , . _revenge_, glorious contest, . richard i. adopts st. george, ; star and crescent badge, . rivalries create jack of james, , , . roman eagle, ; labarum, . royal arms standard, ; removed from ships, ; fleur-de-lis, , ; harp inserted, ; origin irish blue, , see arms. royal standard, flag of sovereign, , , ; present regulations, . royal standard at main, , . royal standard at stern, , , ; replaced by ensigns, ; meanings of change, . royal yacht squadron flag, . russian eagle, ; flags, , . s saints, reverenced, not canonized, . shackleton, union jack, . st. andrew, banner and legend, ; why adopted by scotland, ; russia, . st. andrew cross, white of scotland, ; blue of russia, ; united in james jack, ; objections to position, ; in great union, ; in union jack, ; same size st. george, , ; same size st. patrick, ; counterchanged with, ; why higher position, ; same size border st. george, , ; examples narrow form, . st. denis, red banner, . st. george banner and legend, ; adopted by england, ; christian attributes, ; knightly attributes, . st. george cross in crusades, ; in greek ensign, ; in nobles' standards, ; in white ensign, ; in great union, ; receives homage of dutch, ; united in james jack, ; in union jack, ; surmounts other crosses, ; why surmounts, ; carried on _mayflower_, ; controversies in new england, ; left out of colonist colours, , ; restored, ; taken at quebec, . st. george jack, see english jack. st. george and dragon, early instances, , . st. george's day, origin, ; in england, . st. john, knights of, , . st. martin, blue banner, . st. patrick, banner and legends, ; adopted by irish, ; emblems of, , , . st. patrick cross, red of ireland, ; origin, ; first used as banner, ; not sign of fealty, ; when placed in union jack, ; same size as st. andrew, ; why counterchanged, . saltire cross, shape, ; origin, ; errors in union jack, . sardinia royal arms, . scottish jack, heraldic description, ; flag of bruce, ; forays, ; national flag, ; united in james jack, ; in union jacks, , . sea maxims, alfred, ; edward iii., ; raleigh, . sewall, samuel, troubles over cross, . shamrock emblem, . slavery under various flags, . sluys, naval victory, , . south africa deeds, ; contingents, . sovereign of britain, position of, . spanish flag, , , . stars, washington, ; orion, ; in united states ensign, . stars and stripes, united states, ; form in successive periods, ; stripes, ; origin, ; heritage, . stern, place of honour, , ; marks constitutional change, . supremacy of seas, , , , . surcoats, , , . switzerland, white cross, . t thane, reward of merchants, . thirteen american colonies, flags raised, ; troubles, ; fight under union jack, ; union flag, ; grand union, ; heritage in u. s. ensign, , . trafalgar, white ensign, , . tri-colour, origin, ; english introduce to canada, ; why displayed, ; carries no allegiance, . tromp, admiral, . u union jack, first, ; glory roll, ; second, ; glory roll, ; present day, ; glory roll, . union jack (_form_), tells history of nations, ; origin of name, ; combinations, , , , ; designers, , ; designs precede blazon, ; regulations for making, ; fimbriations, , ; errors, ; how to make correctly, ; proportions, ; reasons for proportions, ; heraldic requirements met, . union jack (_significance_), displaces national jacks, ; requirements entry of cross, , , ; more than union of thrones, ; emblem of parliamentary union, , , ; lessons taught, ; democratic expansion, ; freedom, ; liberty, ; equal rights, ; on schools, ; in dominion ensigns, . union jack (_progress design_), two crosses, james i. heralds, ; two crosses, anne, committee, ; draft c approved, ; white border enlarged, , ; three crosses, george iii., committee, ; draft approved, ; white border maintained, ; crosses counterchanged, ; blazon, , ; regulations issued, ; change declined, ; made as ordered, . union jack (_variations use_), james, , on all ships, ; charles i., restricted to navy, ; abolished by commonwealth, ; charles ii. restored restricted to navy, ; william iii. restricts, ; anne, , on land, all subjects, , ; at sea, navy, ; george iii., , all subjects, ; edward vii., all subjects, land or sea, ; successive names, . union jack (_in other flags_), king's colours, ; hawaii, ; thirteen colonies ensign, ; raised by washington, ; pennsylvania ensign, ; red, white and blue ensigns, ; dominion ensigns, . united empire loyalists, , . united states ensign, , . v venezuela, . victoria colony emblem, . virginia defends english jack, . w war of , , . washington, ancestry, ; stars, ; ensign, . webster, daniel, . western australia emblem, . white ensign, see ensign. whip-lash flag, . y yard-arm, origin of name, .